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Reproducing Imperial Visions of Bolivia? the Personal, The Reproducing Imperial Visions of Bolivia? The personal, the cultural, and the economic in the British and Bolivian press Stacey Dunlea A thesis submitted to the University of Sheffield in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Department of Hispanic Studies March 2015 Contents Acknowledgements i List of abbreviations iii List of tables v Abstract vii Introduction 1 Background to the Bolivian press 6 Methodology 14 Chapter One: Representations of Latin America in Britain: A historical 22 perspective Chapter Two: Elections 54 Chapter Three: Coca 118 Chapter Four: Energy 174 Conclusions 232 Appendix 236 Bibliography 266 Acknowledgements I would like to thank a number of people for their support over the past few years, especially my supervisors, Dr Peter Watt and Prof David Wood, since without their guidance this thesis would never have been finished. My thanks extend to the rest of the staff in the Department of Hispanic Studies at the University of Sheffield, as well as the support staff in the School of Languages and Cultures. In particular, I thank Claire Leavitt, the Postgraduate Research Officer, and Caroline Wordley, the Postgraduate Coordinator, for their unfailing hard work, as well as Blair Bayliss and Sandra Henry for keeping me gainfully – and flexibly – employed over the past year. I must also thank the other SLC PGRs whose friendship, encouragement, and tea- making skills have been invaluable, particularly over the past few months. I would also like to thank all the staff at the Archivo y Biblioteca Nacionales de Bolivia, Sucre, particularly Leonor Ferrufino, Consuelo Vedia, and María Alcobes for their assistance whilst I worked at the ABNB. Thanks must also go to Jenny Cartagena, Editora Nacional, Los Tiempos; Carlos A. Camacho Azurduy, Universidad Católica Boliviana San Pablo; Carlos Corz P., Editor Nacional, La Razón; Raúl Peñaranda Undurraga, ex-Editor, Página Siete; and Erick Torrico Villanueva, Coordinador Nacional, Observatorio Nacional de Medios for their valuable time. I must thank the staff at Fenix Language School for welcoming me to Sucre, and for putting me in touch with Magí Guzmán Yucra, who welcomed me into her home and family during my three-month stay. I also thank the Arts and Humanities Research Council for the financial support that made this thesis possible. I thank my many friends and family for their support, especially my sister Zoë and my parents for always encouraging me. Last but not least I thank my partner David for his love and support and for keeping me sane during this whole process. i ii List of abbreviations ABNB Archivo y Biblioteca Nacionales de Bolivia ADN Acción Democrática Nacionalista APB Autonomía para Bolivia ASP Asamblea de la Soberanía de los Pueblos BTU British thermal units CNE Corte Nacional Electoral COB Central Obrera Boliviana COMIBOL Corporación Minera de Bolivia CPE Constitución Política del Estado CSUTCB Confederación Sindical Unica de Trabajadores Campesinos de Bolivia DPA Deutsche Presse-Agentur FCT Federación de Cocaleros del Trópico FDI Foreign direct investment FECLN Fuerza Especial de Lucha Contra el Narcotráfico FEJUVE Federación de Juntas Vecinales de El Alto ITC International Tin Council IU Izquierda Unida Ley INRA Ley del Instituto Nacional de Reforma Agraria LME London Metal Exchange MAS Movimiento al Socialismo (fully MAS-IPSP Instrumento Político por la Soberanía de los Pueblos) MAS-U Movimiento al Socialismo-Unzaguista MIP Movimiento Indígena Pachakuti MIR Movimiento de Izquierda Revolucionaria MNR Movimiento Nacionalista Revolucionario NFR Nueva Fuerza Republicana NPE Nueva Política Económica ONADEM Observatorio Nacional de Medios PND Plan Nacional de Desarrollo PODEMOS Poder Democrático y Social PP Partido Popular PPB–CN Plan Progreso para Bolivia – Convergencia Nacional TCF Trillion cubic feet UCS Unidad Cívica Solidaridad UDAPE Unidad de Análisis de Políticas Económicas UDP Unidad Democrática Popular UNODC United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime YPFB Yacimientos Petrolíferos Fiscales Bolivianos iii iv List of tables Background to the Bolivian press Table 1.1: Geographic structure and ownership of the Bolivian press 7 Table 1.2: Literacy rates in Bolivia 8 Table 1.3: Popular sources of political information in Bolivia 9 Table 1.4: Media consumption patterns in Bolivia 9 Table 1.5: Press freedom in Bolivia and other Latin American countries 12 Chapter Two: Elections Table 2.1a: Descriptions of Evo Morales in British press articles relating to the 2002 67 election Table 2.2a: Discourse representation in British press articles relating to the 2002 election 72 Table 2.3a: Descriptions of Evo Morales in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2002 78 election Table 2.4a: Discourse representation in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2002 81 election Table 2.5a: Descriptions of Evo Morales in British press articles relating to the 2005 84 election Table 2.6a: Discourse representation in British press articles relating to the 2005 election 94 Table 2.7a: Descriptions of Evo Morales in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2005 100 election Table 2.8a Discourse representation in Bolivian 2005 election related articles 106 Table 2.9a Descriptions of Evo Morales in British 2009 election related articles 109 Table 2.10a: Discourse representation in British press articles relating to the 2009 111 election Table 2.11a: Descriptions of Evo Morales in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2009 113 election Table 2.12a: Discourse representation in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2009 114 election Chapter Three: Coca Table 3.1: References to traditional use of coca in the British press 134 Table 3.2: References to traditional use of coca in the British press without de-legitimizing 140 traditional use Table 3.3a: Discourse representation in British coca-cocaine related articles 2000-2005 142 Table 3.4a: Discourse representation in British coca-cocaine related articles 2005-2010 143 Table 3.5: Framing of coca-cocaine in Bolivian press 2000-2005 157 Table 3.6: Framing of coca-cocaine in Bolivian press 2005-2010 160 Table 3.7a: Discourse representation in Bolivian coca-cocaine related articles 2000-2005 161 Table 3.8a: Discourse representation in Bolivian coca-cocaine related articles 2005-2010 163 Table 3.9: References to violence in coca-cocaine related articles 2000-2005 166 Table 3.10: Denials and accusations relating to cocalero involvement with cocaine trade 167 2000-2005 Table 3.11: References to violence in coca-cocaine related articles 2005-2010 169 Table 3.12: Denials and accusations relating to cocalero involvement with cocaine trade 169 2005-2010 Chapter Four: Energy Table 4.1: UK press articles on Bolivia by subject matter (ten most frequent categories 196 only) Table 4.2: Energy-related articles in the UK press by newspaper and year 197 Table 4.3: References to nationalization in UK energy-related articles by newspaper and 198 year Table 4.4a: Discourse representation in British energy related articles 209 Table 4.5: Energy-related articles in the Bolivian press by newspaper and year 217 v Table 4.6: References to nationalisation in Bolivian energy-related articles by newspaper, 218 year, and discourse type Table 4.7a: Discourse representation in Bolivian energy related articles 222 Table 4.8: Framing of energy matters in the Bolivian press 222 Appendix Table 2.1b: Descriptions of Evo Morales in British press articles relating to the 2002 236 election by newspaper Table 2.2b: Discourse representation in British press articles relating to the 2002 election 238 by newspaper Table 2.3b: Descriptions of Evo Morales in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2002 239 election by newspaper Table 2.4b: Discourse representation in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2002 242 election by newspaper Table 2.5b: Descriptions of Evo Morales in British press articles relating to the 2005 243 election by newspaper Table 2.6b: Discourse representation in British press articles relating to the 2005 election 249 by newspaper Table 2.7b: Descriptions of Evo Morales in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2005 250 election by newspaper Table 2.8b: Discourse representation in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2005 253 election by newspaper Table 2.9b: Descriptions of Evo Morales in British 2009 election related articles by 255 newspaper Table 2.10b: Discourse representation in British press articles relating to the 2009 256 election by newspaper Table 2.11b: Descriptions of Evo Morales in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2009 257 election by newspaper Table 2.12b: Discourse representation in Bolivian press articles relating to the 2009 258 election by newspaper Table 3.3b: Discourse representation in British coca-cocaine related articles 2000-2005 259 by newspaper Table 3.4b: Discourse representation in British coca-cocaine related articles 2005-2010 260 by newspaper Table 3.7b: Discourse representation in Bolivian coca-cocaine related articles 2000-2005 261 by newspaper Table 3.8b: Discourse representation in Bolivian coca-cocaine related articles 2005-2010 262 by newspaper Table 4.4b: Discourse representation in British energy related articles by newspaper 263 Table 4.7b: Discourse representation in Bolivian energy related articles by newspaper 264 vi Abstract This thesis examines historical patterns of representation of Bolivia in Britain, along with the ways in which those representations have been internalized by local elites. It analyses the extent to which historical representations are reproduced by contemporary British and Bolivian press coverage of Bolivian political matters, focusing on three key areas: the personal, the cultural, and the economic. The personal is examined with respect to elections involving Evo Morales, the current Bolivian president. The UK press, the Bolivian press, and Morales himself have all sought to portray him as a radical leftist who represents a break from Bolivia’s traditional power base. However, Morales’s presidency has been less radical than suggested. The study shows that while contemporary British press coverage reproduces some of the problematic aspects of early representations, the contemporary Bolivian press appears more resistant to them.
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