Highlights of the History of the Blue Hill Observatory and the Early Days of the American Meteorological Society

1. Introduction

The Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory will celebrate its 100th Anniversary on 1 February 1985.2 The present article highlights historical events, with em- phasis on the Observatory's role in the development of the American Meteorological Society while it was headquar- tered at Blue Hill.3

2. Abbott Lawrence Rotch—founder

The Observatory was conceived and constructed by Abbott Lawrence Rotch when he was 25 years old. This fascinating man, born in 1861, was the seventh child of a prominent Bos- ton family which had acquired its wealth in the whaling and FIG. 1. Blue Hill Observatory, circa 1885. A weather flag flies from shipping industries. As a youth, Rotch traveled extensively in the highest mast. A survey marker stands to the right of the tower. Europe with his family and was enrolled in schools in Paris, Berlin, and Florence where he learned to speak French and German fluently. He quickly consulted on the matter with Professor Upton, Rotch's first interest in weather is not known but a small who taught mathematics, meteorology, and astronomy at diary of the weather, which he began in 1878 at "Rear of 3 Brown University, and Reverend Teele, a local minister and Commonwealth Avenue, Boston, Massachusetts," reveals surveyor. Both men thought the idea worthwhile and offered that he was a proficient observer. He graduated from the suggestions. He purchased land, improved a mile-long road Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) as a mechani- up the hill, and constructed a small stone observatory (Fig. 1) cal engineer in 1884, but he had already decided not to pursue at a cost of $3,500. the field of engineering. His family owned a summer home in At midnight on 31 January 1885, fireworks were set off, suburban Milton, adjacent to the Blue Hills. From there he and Rotch commenced a weather observational program often walked in these wooded hills, which formed a west- that has continued uninterrupted. southwest/east-northeast ridge about 16 km south of Boston center city. They also inspired him, according to his diary on 5 August 1884, to erect an Observatory on the highest hill, Great Blue Hill, which is 194 m above sea level. There, he 3. Work under Director Rotch reasoned, he could obtain weather observations free of the disturbing influences found around his Boston home and a. The first year even around the official observing station of the Signal Serv- In addition to the routine weather observations Rotch un- ice in Boston. successfully attempted to have performed by Signal Service personnel, he stated that initial studies would be of changes in precipitation and wind with height. He was encouraged to record the weather elements on open-scale charts, which was 1 15 Nobel Rd., Dedham, MA 02026. not the practice of the Signal Service at the time. Annual trips 2 A comprehensive history of the Observatory is in preparation by to Europe soon provided the best complement of recording the author for future publication. It includes a bibliography of over instruments in the western hemisphere. 1100 books, pamphlets, papers, and climatic summaries prepared by The first year of the operation was fraught with endless dif- staff members. ficulties ranging from leaks in the walls, freezing indoor 3 A similar summary article exclusive of the AMS activities is temperatures, and frequent instrument failures due to the se- scheduled to appear in the December 1984 issue of Weatherwise. vere weather on the barren, windswept hilltop. All of these © 1985 American Meteorological Society events, as well as the weather of each day, were meticulously

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Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/10/21 09:53 PM UTC Bulletin American Meteorological Society 31 recorded in the hand of Willard P. Gerrish, observer for the first year. Rotch soon became world-renowned in the field of meteorology as he met with European and American meteorologists and embarked on the systematic acquisition of meteorological books and data. The Observatory was informally associated with the Harvard Astronomical Observatory from the beginning and by 1889, under a financial agreement, Har- vard took over publication of the research papers and observations beginning in 1887. b. Early cloud statistics Henry Helm Clayton, age 24, arrived from the University of Michigan in 1886 to replace Gerrish. Clayton was already interested in clouds and soon started recording their amount and type each hour. He was also interested in forecasting and modifying the Signal Service forecasts that Rotch arranged to receive by telephone and broadcast by means of "weather flags" from the tower. A year later Clayton brought Sterling P. Fergusson, age 19, to the hill. Fergusson was a mechanical genius and soon had the instrumental problems under con- trol. Clayton and Fergusson, under the guidance of Rotch, FIG. 2a. Composite model of cloud types around a cyclone cen- tered at ©; C, CS, AS, AK, N, and SK indicate cirrus, cirrostratus, made an excellent team. Rotch circulated internationally, altostratus, altocumulus, nimbus, and stratocumulus, respectively. was current in research, and supplied the administration and funds. Clayton also came forth with new ideas and performed most of the analysis while Fergusson developed and maintained the necessary instrumentation in the Observa- tory shop. By 1890, the first detailed cloud statistics in America were being accumulated to show cloud types and amounts, and their diurnal and seasonal variations. c. The measurement of cloud heights and their velocity FIG. 2b. Southwest-northeast cross section through the cloud Cloud observations were emphasized in the belief that model. The cirrus was placed at 9 km. further understanding would improve the forecasts. In 1890, two Mohn cloud theodolites were set up and connected by telephone to triangulate on clouds. Similar work was already in progress at Uppsala, Sweden. Fergusson made a pair of small-scale theodolites from which observed lines of sight to a cloud were duplicated by threads. This model eliminated laborious calculations in finding the point where the two lines of sight came nearest to each other since, due to errors, they seldom intersected. Successive sightings on the same cloud were used to determine direction and speed of move- ment. These observations provided the first basic climatol- ogy of cloud types, height and velocities in the western hemisphere. From these data Clayton showed that wind speeds on Blue Hill and Mt. Washington were higher than those in the free air at the same level. Clayton also derived composite wind patterns at all levels up through the cirrus above cy- clones and anticyclones and compared the models with those developed in Europe. In 1896, composite models of cloud forms around a cyclone, Fig. 2a, and along a cross section through a cyclone, Fig. 2b, were published. It is interesting to compare the Blue Hill models with the famous Bjerknes model, Fig. 3, of some 20 years later. Cloud tops near the cyclone center in Clayton's model were based on a few free balloon flights in Europe. These no doubt were made in weather less severe than average; hence, somewhat low but not unlike FIG. 3. The famous Norwegian cloud model around a cylcone, the Bjerknes model. drawn by Jacob Bjerknes.

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curred, which required a search for the kites and meteorograph, and retrieval of long lengths of the restraining wire. Sample plots of soundings are shown in Fig. 5. Wind direc- tions were obtained by sightings on the uppermost kite, and speeds were measured from a small cup anemometer, which was a part of the meteorograph. Details obtained from these soundings were comparable to those obtained today using the best techniques.

e. Atmospheric exploration using balloonsondes Rotch was well aware of European experiments in which recording instruments were lifted to heights exceeding 10 km by hydrogen-filled balloons, but he could not duplicate these flights at Blue Hill because the instruments would most likely fall in the sea to the east. However, in 1904, he seized upon the opportunity to make similar flights from St. Louis at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition. His good friend de Bort supplied instruments at cost. On 15 September 1904, Fergus- son released the first balloon and meteorograph, which in one hour and 26 minutes ascended to 17 045 m and returned to the ground. A perfect record of temperature and pressure was obtained. Other soundings followed, some from Pitts- field, Mass., and the general characteristics of the tropo- sphere and lower stratosphere were determined and compared with those over Europe.

f Death of Professor Rotch

Rotch died suddenly on 7 April 1912 after an undiagnosed ruptured appendix. Letters of condolence poured in from Europe and America. According to his wishes, the Observa- tory was bequeathed to Harvard with $50,000 to be set up in FIG. 4. First kite-meteorograph with basket radiation shield an endowment fund to operate the facility. The transfer did removed. not take place until 1913. Meanwhile, the financial burden was assumed by Mrs. Rotch. Rotch, who had been made the d. The use of kites for atmospheric exploration first professor of meteorology at Harvard in 1906, was uni- On 4 August 1894, for the first time a series of five kites, made versally recognized for establishing and maintaining the now by William A. Eddy, lifted a specially constructed thermo- famous Observatory. It had developed a unique climatologi- graph off the ground at Blue Hill. This instrument, Fig. 4, cal record and the most complete meteorological library out- weighed 1.1 kg and when sent aloft it was screened from radi- side Washington, D.C. He had improved the Observatory ation by a basket. The sounding reached 427 m above the structure three times. In 1889, the east wing was added to summit as determined by triangulation. This marked the be- make a library and fireproof vault upstairs, with a shop and ginning of worldwide soundings of pressure, temperature, bedroom below. In 1902, the west wing and bedrooms were humidity, and sometimes wind speed. Thereafter the work added. This housed the "new" library upstairs and storage advanced rapidly, reaching a peak of activity in 1896, when for kites downstairs. In 1908, the two-story stone tower was 86 soundings were made. A maximum height of 4815 m torn down and replaced by the present three-story concrete above sea level was reached in 1900. Later flights were less tower. Rotch participated in all international meetings; he frequent, being confined to special occasions and "interna- lectured and taught meteorology at Harvard. In his later tional days." Soundings were also made from a steamer years, his main interest was in aviation, for which he pub- crossing the Atlantic and Clayton, in cooperation with Teis- lished maps showing winds and preferred flying routes across serence de Bort, sounded the atmosphere over the tropical the Atlantic Ocean. Along with his scientific work, he man- north Atlantic. All the techniques of building and flying the aged his financial affairs and still found time for his family, to kites and instrumentation were developed at Blue Hill, whom he was very devoted. He authored about 183 papers, mostly due to the ingenuity of Fergusson, and these methods reviews, and books, and at the time of his death belonged to were copied throughout the meterological world. 27 organizations at home and abroad. Clayton published climatological data extending to 3 km above sea level. Some flights were made by alternately reeling in and out to sound vertically for periods of 24 and 36 hours, 4. Directorship under Alexander McAdie thus sampling changes with time. Other flights were made through thunderstorms, rain, and snowstorms. The work Professor McAdie was not new to the Observatory, having was extremely arduous, especially when breakaways oc- made atmospheric electricity measurements there in the

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FIG. 5. Plots of kite soundings on 23 and 24 September 1898. Solid line ascending, dashed line descending. The near sea level data were taken from the valley station recordings.

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1800s; at the time, he was assigned to the Boston Signal Serv- to take leave and come to Blue Hill to restore the instruments. ice Office and was studying at Harvard. He advanced He then expanded the observational program and intro- through the Service, then the Weather Bureau, and became duced new record forms. chief forecaster at San Francisco before returning to Blue Hill. McAdie had a penchant for writing. Some of his work was a. The Observatory and the American Meteorological Society purely philosophical. His scientific work was liberally sprin- kled with anecdotes, sometimes at the expense of inconsis- When Brooks came to Blue Hill, he brought with him the tencies and incorrect assumptions. He frequently interjected headquarters of the American Meteorological Society. Es- Greek words and loved to introduce new words, such as sentially, it was a one-man operation having a membership "nephelolater," meaning "one who watches clouds." Some of about 770. Largely through the personal energy and en- important reasoning in regard to cloud physics appeared thusiasm of Brooks, the Society was founded in 1919. He was from time to time, but serendipity was lacking. In a descrip- made secretary at its first meeting and shortly thereafter took tion of a thunderstorm (1895), he wrote: on the job of editing the BULLETIN. He arranged the few meetings that were held each year, took care of membership, The thunder cloud is noteworthy in another respect; and edited and arranged publication of the BULLETIN, some- namely, that the water in it may be cooled below the times referred to as the "blue book" after the color of its cover. freezing point and yet not frozen. A snowflake or ice In 1934, Robert G. Stone, a former student of Brooks at crystal falling into it may suffice to start a sudden con- Clark University and observer on Mt. Washington, came to gelation, just as we may see ice needles dart in all direc- Blue Hill. He soon began to assist Brooks in editing the BUL- tions when the chilled surface of a still pond is dis- LETIN and other Observatory publications. Stone also be- turbed. We liken this monstrous cloud to a huge gun came interested in the library and started restoration by cat- loaded and quiet, but with a trigger so delicately set aloging, arranging exchanges, and binding serials that had that a falling snowflake would discharge it. accumulated while McAdie was director. Jerome Namais McAdie's wife, Mary (1949), quoted Charles F. Brooks, who wrote for Blue Hill, and he became a frequent contributor to commented, "Here is a clear statement of the fundamental the BULLETIN. Eventually his articles and those of others basis of the Bergeron-Findessen theory of rain, propounded were edited and published by the AMS as "Air-mass analysis forty years later, and of the artificial production of precipita- and isentropic analysis." Stone included a 50-page bibli- tion by 'seeding' overgrown cumulus with dry ice, to produce ography for synoptic meteorologists. The issue went through ice crystals, ten years later still." five editions, and over 50000 copies were sold. During World War I, McAdie instructed Naval officers in By 1937, membership exceeded 1200 and Stone, now li- meteorology at Blue Hill, among them the late Francis W. brarian, was preparing monthly lists of new meteorological Reichelderfer, the long-time chief of the U.S. Weather Bu- literature gleaned from journals that arrived at Blue Hill reau. McAdie invented the word "aerology," and at the re- from the world over. These lists were then published in the quest of the Navy he launched a whole new branch for han- BULLETIN. Their publication gradually generated interest, dling its aerological needs. and a loan service of Observatory books and pamphlets was set up for AMS members. As time went on, the service was Adoption of cgs units in meteorology was a pet subject. He open to everyone, and the number of loans averaged over 100 fought a losing battle, correct as it was, for the use of "kil- per month. At this time, Ralph Burhoe joined the Observa- obar" in place of "millibar" a unit of pressure adopted by the tory staff. He assisted Brooks as a secretary and soon became International Meteorological Organization. involved in helping to run the Society. In 1938, Stone ad- McAdie also dabbled in new instrumentation. An interest- vanced from assistant editor to editor of the BULLETIN. ing instrument was a dewpoint temperature recorder, which relied on temperature and human hair humidity sensors. At the spring meeting in 1941, Burhoe made special note of Throughout McAdie's tenure, he was plagued by a short- the rapid increase of meteorological literature. He proposed age of funds, no doubt a factor in the lack of the development that the meeting "make a resolution to the effect that it rec- of a single important project at the Observatory. The obser- ommends to the various meteorological institutions and vational program, which was handled entirely by Wells, was scholars of America, that they cooperate toward the estab- allowed to deteriorate in that the recording instruments were lishment of an adequate bibliographic service for this science not kept in good repair, although the published data are reli- in this country." A resolution to this effect was adopted by able. An outstanding service to the Observatory was the rais- the AMS and AGU. This was another step toward the even- ing of $170,000 for endowment. McAdie retired in 1931. tual publication of the Society's Meteorological Abstracts and Bibliography. Two years later, Burhoe organized the publication in Spanish, of a Latin-American section of the BULLETIN. During the war years, membership expanded rapidly and 5. Directorship under Dr. Charles F. Brooks, with it the associated office work. Burhoe became treasurer, Professor of Meteorology at Harvard and Mrs. Burhoe assisted. Due to the lack of space at the Ob- servatory, most of the work took place at the Burhoe resi- Brooks was also familiar with the Observatory, having come dence, where a three or four member clerical staff was em- to the Hill as a student at Harvard in 1908. In 1911 and 1912 ployed. Also during the period a move, headed largely by he studied under Rotch. Professor C. G. Rossby, developed to publish a new journal Brooks' first job was to persuade Mr. Fergusson, who was that would contain articles more scientific than those gener- employed by the instrument division of the Weather Bureau, ally found in the BULLETIN. Kenneth Spengler was ap-

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FIG. 6. Radio-meteorograph type F without housing. Pressure bellows, bimetal temperature and hair humidity sensors are shown. pointed executive secretary in April 1946. Office work was weight, high-frequency transmitter capable of sending the consolidated in new headquarters at 5 Joy Street, Boston, timed signals. Directional finding was attempted, but the res- and the job of organizing what became the Journal of Meteor- olution was so poor it was abandoned. The first successful ology was undertaken. While the AMS headquarters were lo- flight was made in the spring of 1936. On 30 November 1936, cated at the Observatory, membership had grown from 770 the first nighttime radiosonde in the United States was made. to 2850. Mr. and Mrs. Burhoe resigned in 1947, but Brooks This accompanied the East Boston APOB (airplane observa- continued as secretary until 1954. tion) for comparison of the data. Most airplane soundings Over the period of Brooks' directorship, meteorological terminated near a height of 4 km, and required one to two and climatological publications were also collected under the hours for evaluation after the measurement, while the new name of the Society but were deposited in the Observatory radiosondes often reached 15 km to give measurements in a library; however, in 1954, the Society relinquished all claim few minutes. After modifications and many periods of test- to the material. The library continued to cooperate with the ing, the instrument was turned over to a manufacturer, who Society in sending accession lists to the editor of Meteorolog- sold them to the United States and other governments for ical Abstracts and Bibliography. Throughout the period, about $15.00 each. This development paralleled that of the Brooks donated his time to the Society, and many other costs National Bureau of Standards, whose instrument was elec- were absorbed by the Observatory. tronic except for the baroswitch. Ultimately this instrument proved more successful than the clock-driven Harvard b. Development of the Harvard radiosonde model, largely because of clock stoppage problems at low temperatures. Other radio-meteorographs were also under Karl O. Lange, an instrument specialist who had been development abroad at the time. brought from Germany to MIT by Rossby to supervise his airplane meteorograph sounding program, headed the Blue c. The Mount Washington Observatory Hill project. The work began in 1935, and soon an instrument was developed that operated on the Olland principle; In 1932, Brooks supplied instrumentation and observer that is, the elements of pressure, temperature, and relative training for the new Mt. Washington Observatory, which humidity were measured in terms of time intervals. This was marked the start of a long-time close association with Blue achieved by the mechanism shown in Fig. 6. A clock turned Hill. Originally the station was expected to be in operation an insulated cylinder and embedded metal helix at 2 rpm. only for the International Polar Year, but Brooks and others Silver styli attached to each sensor moved up and down the succeeded in keeping it open year after year. cylinder, thus causing contacts at a different time in reference Radio transmission experiments at ultrashort wavelengths to a contact made by a fixed stylus. Meanwhile, Arthur Bent, followed and soon regular communication by radio was and later Charles P. Pear, Jr., of the staff, developed a light- open between the Observatories. Brooks directed the work of

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the Observatory for many years, much of it by radio. He became its first president and participated in its affairs until his retirement. For numerous years, the Mt. Washington synoptic reports were transmitted to Blue Hill, then relayed to East Boston for placement on the weather circuits. d. Other activities, 1931-47 Although the radiosonde development in the 1935-41 period was the primary work, many other studies were carried out over this period. During World War II, Brooks consulted for the military and various committees. Teaching programs were developed and instruction was given to the Weather Bu- reau, the military, and Harvard students. After the war, Brooks served on international committees mainly concerned with cloud observing and instrument ex- posure. New instruments were designed and constructed; the Foxboro dewcel was made suitable for weather station use, and the Friez Aerovane went through its first environmental tests on the Hill. In 1941, the Weather Bureau's solar radiation and super- vising station, headed by I. F. Hand, was opened at the Ob- servatory. Facilities for instrument comparisons were made in the backyard and on the tower. The projects were interesting, but in the face of rising costs, Harvard decided in 1947 to no longer support the varied work. In spite of continual support by loyal donors, it would be necessary to carry on with endowment income and new outside financial help. e. Government contracts FIG. 7. Charles F. Brooks at his cloud rangefinder, circa 1957. Air Force tower and radar is shown in the background. Brooks lost no time in securing a contract with the Weather Bureau to further explore the use of data from Mt. Washing- ton for use in forecasting snowstorms at Boston. This work 6. Change in directors was of much interest to Brooks and the subject of several ear- lier studies. The contract also paid for certain cloud reports, Brooks retired in 1957. The library had continued to grow, mainly of sudden lowerings in the ceiling and the motions of and by now it was well-organized. It contained an estimated cirrus clouds, which were phoned to the Boston forecast of- 25 000 volumes, 14000 pamphlets, 95 000 weather maps, fice. These contracts continued, with some minor instrument 1500 cloud photographs, and other assorted films, as well as testing, until 1959, with expansion into quantitative precipi- the Blue Hill and Mt. Washington records. tation studies, the preparation of World Weather Records Through frugal management, Brooks succeeded in com- 1941-50, and climatological studies. pleting many studies while continuing the observational pro- In 1954, the first of a series of contracts was obtained with gram. Brooks, pictured in Fig. 7 in the course of making a the Air Force for the study of clouds and precipitation using cloud observation with his rangefinder, was a kind and toler- weather radar. The Weather Radar Branch of the Air Force's ant man. He was basically a teacher whose enthusiasm in- Geophysical Research Directorate moved to Blue Hill and spired many young people to go into science or whatever erected a tower and CPS-9 radar on the center of the hilltop. their interests might be. He became known as "Mr. AMS" as A Jamesway hut first housed the console in the Observa- he regularly attended meetings seated in the front row be- tory's backyard. After the educational station WGBH-FM cause of a hearing problem, and participated in presentations moved its transmitters from the sub-library room to a new and other AMS affairs. He died suddenly in January 1958. building housing WGBH-TV, the space was occupied by John H. Conover served as acting director until Richard GRD researchers. Additional radars followed, and a closely Goody became director in July 1958. The work at the Obser- knit research group composed of Observatory and GRD per- vatory was to change to studies of the high atmosphere, so sonnel formed. the intervening period was used to wind down all activities as Other Air Force studies dealing with air motions near the personnel gradually took positions elsewhere. The library jet stream as derived from photography, and a presatellite was dismantled, with sections going to the Gordon McKay study on the utilization of satellite data after it became avail- Library at Harvard, the Weather Bureau headquarters, and able, were made. Another temporary building for this work the American Meteorological Society; the remainder was was erected in the backyard. This represented the most active sold. The Blue Hill observation books remain at the Obser- period in the history of the Observatory. vatory and the autographic records reside at the Federal Ar-

Unauthenticated | Downloaded 10/10/21 09:53 PM UTC Bulletin American Meteorological Society 37 chives in Waltham, Mass. The Mt. Washington Observatory stration reverse its decision and continue the climatological books and autographic records are now archived in the record. This was accomplished, and an agreement to lease White Mountains Collection, Dartmouth College Library, space from the MDC was drawn up. Hanover, N.H. The climatological record is one of the most homogeneous The Blue Hill observational program was taken over, on a on the continent in spite of urban sprawl in the valley and diminished scale, by the Weather Bureau on 1 June 1959 and growth of vegetation on the hilltop. The surrounding park the office was moved from the first to the second floor of the lends assurance of little change in the future. In 1980, the Ob- tower. The Air Force radars and personnel left by November servatory was placed on the National Register of Historic 1961. Places. The station is now an International Bench Mark Station. The Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory Weather Club, of which William E. Minsinger, M.D., is president, was 7. Directorship under Professor Goody formed in 1981. This club includes a few "alumni" and many interested amateurs with an aim to refurbish the structure Richard Goody became director and professor of meteorol- and develop a small weather museum showing past activities ogy at Harvard in July 1958. Teaching was immediately in- at the Observatory. In case a reader knows of any of the his- creased in Cambridge. The Observatory was remodeled and torical instruments that were hastily sold or given away in a new machine shop set up. In 1962, a tower for collecting the 1958 or 1959, the Observatory seeks to repossess them for the solar beam and reflecting it to an optical bench inside the Ob- future museum. This museum would operate in conjunction servatory was erected. John Noxon became assistant director with the Trailside Museum, a nature museum, at the base of in the 1963-64 period. Studies, partially or wholly sponsored the hill. Membership now exceeds 700 nationwide. Substan- by government contracts, concentrated on the measurement tial gifts have been received, most of which were used to of the airglow, light scattered by upper atmospheric dust, waterproof the tower and its roof. New instrumentation, twilight, and the minor gaseous constituents of the atmos- aside from the standard Weather Service equipment, has also phere. been donated. Dues provide interesting lectures, which are Radio frequency interference from WGBH-FM and TV held monthly, except during the summer. and other hilltop transmitters caused many problems in mak- As the climatological record extends into the second cen- ing the delicate celestial measurements. The television sta- tury, research at the Observatory probably will never match tion moved in 1966, but the problem remained; finally, the former achievements. However, the structure has been re- Observatory was given up, and in 1971 it was taken over by stored and is currently occupied by a caretaking couple. It the Metropolitan District Commission, a state agency re- will withstand new gales, cold, heat, rain, and snow to remain sponsible for the parkland in which the Observatory is as a monument to the developing science of meteorology in located. America.

8. 1971 to present References

Initially the climatological station was scheduled to close in McAdie, A., 1895: Natural rainmakers. Pop. Sci. Mon., 47, 642-648. 1971, but fortunately scientists the world over rallied to peti- McAdie, M. R. B., 1949: Alexander McAdie, Scientist and Writer. tion that the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Admini- Murray Print Co., Wakefield, Mass., 419 pp. •

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