Jun Ray

Causes of 1876 Opening

Cause #1: Korea’s inexperienced foreign policy, seclusion and resistance to West (long-term)

1860s Catholic Korean Massacres Kyung: Longstanding hostile relationship with the ● Killed 8000 Catholic koreans + French West influenced Korea’s foreign relation decisions missionaries ● Incited 1866 French Mission Daewongun’s isolationist foreign policy of 1860s ○ 7 ships expelled by Korean forces 1. Short-sighted, did not establish foreign relations 1866 First American Mission ● Hermit kingdom to the West ● US General Sherman attempted to open ● Resistance to opening trade in fear of: Korea to trade ○ Dilution of Korean culture ● Ended in bloodshed ○ Threat to traditional ruling class ● Long-term: isolation and seclusion resulted ​ 1871 American mission in no backing when Japan used gunboat ● 5 American ships, 85 guns, manned by 1230 diplomacy against them. ● Conflict with Koreans - Americans destroyed 3 Korean forts * Lack of intervention by the West knocked the nail ​ ○ Choji, Tokchin and Kwangsong in Korea’s coffin. No Western economic interests in Korea (unlike China), thus no vested interest to 1868 Daewongun rejected Japan’s request to revise protect Korea from Japan’s imperialism in infant ​ Korean-Japanese relations stages of Meiji Modernisation

2. Myopic, Over-reliant on China ● 1867: Zongli Yamen advised Koreans to seek accommodation with the West to counter Japan, but Korea refused. ● Naively believed China would be the unchallenged overlord. Failed to recognise the weakening of China. ○ China allowed Korea to sign 1876 treaty

Cause #2: Internal political instability

1. Inept leadership Weakness of Korean leaders detrimental to national Daewongun’s regency (1864-73) sovereignty. ● Daewongun reforms failed to modernise ● Blinded by selfish political rivalry to gain ​ ​ Korea and strengthen central administration power. ● Min’s rise to power resulted in her focusing 2. Rise of Queen Min and leadership restructuring energies on securing loyalty in court, ● Queen Min Chief Advisor to Gojong detracted attention from external threats. ● Lack of direction in leadership.

Jun Ray ○ Gojong took back power from Short-term catalyst: 1873 ousting Daewongun from ​ Daewongun in 1873 under her power influence 1. Exacerbated political instability (coup) ○ Ended Daewongun’s regency ● Min formed a secret faction of Court 2. Incoherent foreign policy under Gojong officials and members of the Min clan. (puppeted by Daewongun and Min) ○ Min acquired total control over ● Remained tributary state of China Korean Court - Min clan held high ● BUT signed 1875 trade treaty with Japan court offices ○ Eliminated any opposition by ⇒ Crippling inexperience of Korean leaders: failed ​ ​ installing spies and Min clan in to recognise ascension of industrially and militarily power modernised Japan.

Rivalry between Daewongun VS Gojong + Queen Opportunistic Japan - took advantage of political ​ Min instability to open up Korea before European ● Daewongun, exiled from Korean court, power. plotted a coup ● July 1873 - Daewongun and Southerner LT impact - Paved the way to eventual loss of ​ faction attacked palace + Japanese legation complete sovereignty as subjected themselves to ○ Returned Daewongun back to both Chinese and Japanese influence. power

Cause #3: Japanese imperialism galvanised by Meiji Restoration and provocation by Korea (trigger cause)

Military strengthening Japan’s ambition: fukoku-kyohei ● Modernisation of military (German model) ● Wanted parity with the West - removal of ○ 33% of budget unequal treaties ● Naval construction 17 warships (1872) ○ 1876 treaty modelled off 1854 ○ 285% increase in naval spending Treaty of Kanagawa ● 1873 Conscription Law ● Territorial gains and amassing an empire ○ wartime force 200,000 part of process ○ peacetime force 73,000 ● Gunboat diplomacy launching pad for ● Military sophistication (German model) Japan’s geopolitical ascendance ○ Officer training school 1875 ● INTENTION: Explicit in military expenditure ​

Cumings: Korea’s fate was more driven by external 1. Symbolic: assert their dominance in Asia; ​ forces rather than internal politics Korea leading tributary of China ● Yes: Japan’s bolstered naval strength from ​ ​ the rapid modernisation fuelled aggression 2. Strategic: ​ ​ ​ ○ Dispatched Unyo gunboat into ● “dagger to Japan’s heart” - repeated Korean Ganghwa bay in 1875 Western attempts to open ● raw materials iron ore, coal and timber BUT undermined by Korea’s provocation of Japan (Kyung - inexperienced korean FP) 3. Long-term: Economic imperialism - first step to ​ ​ ​ forwarding political + territorial Jun Ray → Souring of relations with Japan (ST, immediate) 1873 Korea rebuffed Japan ● Meiji Japan demanded tribute from Korea, Myopic - Gojong failed to recognise elevated status ​ Gojong refused and superior naval strength from rapid ● Gojong deported emissaries, offending modernisation Japan ● Manifestation of leadership issues - lack of ​ ​ coherent policy. 1875 Gunboat Expedition ○ Daewongun and Gojong invited ● Japan Unyo Gunship entered Korean Japan to increase their influence. waters, fired upon by Korean coastal ● Inevitability of opening ​ defences ● Japan used as pretext to send 6 naval vessels to Korea

Consequences of Opening

Effects #1: Japan’s first challenge of geopolitical balance of power, fuelled Sino-Japanese rivalry that would break out in war (REGIONAL)

Symbolic 1. Signalled rise of Japan as dominant power in ● Japan ended tributary status of Korea Asia-Pacific after undergoing Meiji ● Treaty granted Japanese many rights in Restoration, forced unequal treaty on Korea that Westerners forced upon Japan in another sovereign state. 1850s ○ Secured favoured trading status 2. Damaged Chinese prestige in region - Korea ○ Extraterritoriality leading tributary state ○ Opened up ports to trade a. Reactionary: intensified presence in Korea

LT effects on Japanese imperialism 1. Sowed the seeds for the Sino-Japanese War ​ decades later in 1894 ● Chinese attempt to reassert authority and regain control of Korea would explode into war

2. Spiralled into complete annexation ● First step towards Korea’s eventual submission to Japanese rule

Intensified Sino-Japanese rivalry Pendulum swinging between Chinese and Japanese ● 1882 Imo Incident dominance over Korean internal affairs ○ China deported Daewongun to Beijing for treason Jun Ray ● 1884 Gapsin Coup → Korea was a victim of regional power grab by ​ ​ ○ Pro-Japanese Kim Ok-kyun launched larger powers (aligns with Cumings) ​ failed coup ○ Yuan Shikai led 4500 troops to quell Pivot: Donghak Rebellion boiled over tensions ○ Yuan made Imperial Resident of ● Excuse for Japan to deploy her superior Seoul, dominated Joseon court military forces ● 1894 Donghak Rebellion ○ 3 decades of Meiji modernisation ○ China sent in 1500 troops following ○ Initiated July 1894 Battle of Pungdo Gojong’s plea = ignited tensions into war ○ By June 1894: 8000 Japanese troops stationed in Korea ⇒ Korea’s 1876 opening amplified Sino-Japanese ​ ​ hostilities, accelerated Japan’s challenge China’s ​ ​ overlord status

Effects #2: Opening up of diplomatic policy provided opportunity for modernisation (KOREA-Specific)

Encouraged by Li Hongzhang to adopt Unprecedented shift in Korean foreign policy ​ self-strengthening program – national prosperity ● End of isolationism shifted crux of FP and military strength ○ Commitment to genuine reform by emulating foreign institutions Reforms ● Top-down, deeply penetrate range of ​ ​ 1881 January - launched administrative reforms institutions to exact structural change under 12 agencies Evaluate: Friendly America significant could balance ​ ● Tongdo Sogi = Eastern ways and Western imperialistic interests of other powers ​ machines ● 40 students and artisans sent to Tianjin Cumings: Motives for Korea’s modernisation were China to study modern weapons primarily driven by China rather than Gojong and manufacturing advisors ● Chinese technicians invited to Seoul ● 1876-1880 Technical mission Critical analysis: Intention. Chinese and Japanese ​ ○ Scholars Kim Ki-su and Kim Hong-jip prioritised own economic interests sent to learn Japan’s modernisation techniques 1, Trade compromised on Korean sovereignty ● 1881 modern elite military unit formed with ● Opening of ports led to influx of Chinese Japanese soldiers (Special Skills Force) and Japanese merchants ○ Elite 80-100 men force ○ Busan, Incheon and Wonsan ports ○ Received better training than old ● 1882 China-Korea treaty gave Chinese Korean Army merchants right to conduct business freely ● Enlighten Party of the Joseon founded after ● Cotton textile imports from West 1882 Imo Incident - progressive party committed to reform ⇒ Toll on economy - 1894 Tonghak Rebellion

Improved international relations 2, Modernisation still failed to remove Korea’s ● 1880 Gojong established ties with America semi-colonial status :(( → Foreign encroachment Jun Ray ● 1881 Tongni Kimu Amun modelled after compounded, rapidly crumbling sovereignty ​ Zongli Yamen ● 1882 Treaty of Amity and Commerce with America ● November 1883 ties with Britain ● July 1884 ties with Russia

Effects #3: Exacerbated domestic instability - political and economic unrest (KOREA-Specific)

Consequence: Chinese and Japanese advisors in Degeneration of governance: Once Gojong began ​ Joseon court personal rule in 1882, Min’s power grew. ● Polarised politics into pro-Japanese (Kim Ok-kyun and Daewongun) vs anti-Japanese Victim of political imperialism: Korean internal ​ ● Fuelled political rivalry between affairs became grounds for proxy war between ​ ​ Daewongun and Min China and Japan ● 1884 Gapsin Coup - Japanese supported Queen Min increased her involvement in opposing ● Yuan Shikai leading 4500 troops against Japanese influence coup ● Allied with Yuan Shikai to counter rising Japanese influence → Opportunistic Daewongun. Supported the old ○ Following 1884 Gapsin Coup, Yuan guard of soldiers who felt threatened by Min’s appointed Imperial Resident of reforms, allied with Japanese to eradicate Min. Seoul ● Min met with Russian emissaries, invited Oct 1895 Assassination of Min was a strong political Russian students and engineers to Seoul. statement as a threat to her allies (domestic and ○ Allied with Russians external) ● Min brought in Chinese and German officers to modernise the army

Reactionary Daewongun opposed Min’s meddling ● July 1882 Imo Incident ○ Daewongun supported soldiers and took power after coup ousted Min from royal palace ● Daewongun collaborated with Japanese agents and officials to assassinate Min in October 1895

Social unrest Opening failed to revolutionise Korean mindsets 1. Agricultural competition from trade ● Anti-imperialism embedded in psyche ​ ​ ● Influx of Chinese and Japanese merchants ● Tradition as Hermit Kingdom placed pressure on domestic agricultural sector Amplified by inept leadership ​ ​ ​ ​ ○ Cotton textile imports from West ● Failure of Korean government to safeguard economic and political sovereignty Jun Ray ● Cho Pyong-gap proposed tax changes in permeated down to grassroots level social ​ Kobu County unrest

2. Tonghak Rebellion ⇒ Tonghak movement amplified Korean ● Nationalistic wave for regeneration vulnerability by providing pretext for Chinese and ● Anti-Japanese and anti-Western movement Japanese military intervention ● 100,000 members by 1892, protests in = Steered Korea into the SJW Southern provinces in 1894

Effects #4: Encroachment on sovereignty (KOREA-Specific)

Trigger: Once Korea signed its first unequal treaty ​ Wider encroachment on sovereignty with Japan, Korea became an easy target for other powers. Once Korea was opened, the number of unequal Rapidly triggered crumbling of sovereignty treaties increased (most-favoured nation trade ​ status + extraterritoriality) LT impact - Korea would gradually lose her ​ - 1882 Treaty with America sovereignty over the course of the early 20th century. Began with economic imperialism, would escalate - November 1883 Treaty with Britain. ​ ​ to territorial and political with annexation in 1910. ​ ​ - July 1884 Treaty with Russia

Britain occupied the Geomun island in 1885 and Port Hamilton

Meddling of China and Japan in Korea’s internal Direct intervention of Japan in Korean affairs affairs destabilised their politics, supported opposing forces. ● Japanese advisers in Joseon Court.

● Supported Kim Ok-kyun Korea becoming a joint protectorate of China and Direct intervention of China in Korean affairs Japan:

● Chinese sent Daewongun into exile 1. Complete loss of sovereignty, pawn in power following 1882 Imo Incident LOL struggle of China and Japan ○ Deported Daewongun to Beijing for Time frame: Worsened dramatically post failed treason ​ ● King Gojong required Chinese approval to 1884 Gapsin coup as Chinese regained more control appoint diplomats over Korea at Japan’s expense. ● Turning point - reactionary climate made ● Yuan Shikai trained the New Korea military ​ formation Japan more antagonistic ● Chinese provided 1000 rifles, 2 cannons and 10,000 rounds of ammunition 2. Poor management and advising on China’s part ● 1882 China-Korea Treaty Seth: China obstructed Korea’s development of ○ Gojong strong-armed into signing foreign policy, limiting its capacity to modernise Jun Ray ○ Stipulated Korea was dependent on ● Made Korea apologise to Japan post-Gapsin China coup in 1885 Japan-Korea Treaty ○ Gave Chinese privileges over ● Paid an indemnity of 100,000 Yen for Japanese and Westerners damages to legation ● 1884 Gapsin Coup ● Allowed Japanese troops at embassy ○ YSK led 4500 troops to suppress Kim Ok-kyun’s pro-Japanese coup ⇒ 1885 Tianjin Convention - China and Japan ● 1894 Tonghak: sent in 1500 troops negotiated over Korea. Shows complete lack of sovereignty Reactionary escalation of Japanese military presence Built up to 1894 Sino-Japanese War (regional consequences) ● 1882 Imo Incident: sent in 4 warships and ● Conflicting Chinese and Japanese activities battalion to Seoul in Korea fuelled rising tensions ● 1884 Gapsin Coup: 2 battalions and 7 ● July 1894: Japan occupied Seoul, captured warships Gojong and established new pro-Japanese ● 1894 Tonghak Rebellion - excuse to send government 8000 troops ○ Terminated Sino-Korean treaties ○ Expelled Beiyang Army from Korea → War broke out 2 days later