SPORTS AND SOCIETY

GENDER EQUALITY IN OLYMPIC SPORT A brief story of women’s setbacks and successes at the Summer

– Written by Jennifer Hargreaves, UK

INTRODUCTION: 2012 - FEMALE OLYMPIANS • Oman sent 4 athletes, 3 men and 1 different sports in the future and for more FROM THE ARAB STATES woman (25%). of them to become elite athletes and even The 2012 Summer Olympic • sent 11 athletes, 7 men and 4 Olympians. But Arab sportswomen are at Games were historically significant for women (36.36%). an early stage in their Olympic endeavours, female athletes. It was the first time that, • sent 18 athletes, 16 men whereas Western sportswomen have come with two exceptions (Republic of Nauru, St and 2 women (11%). a long way towards equality with men Kitts and Nevis), that there were women • United Arab Emirates sent 30 athletes, throughout the whole of the history of the in the teams of all the competing nations. 28 men and 2 women (7%). Olympic Games. There was a higher percentage of female In total there were 66 male and 19 Olympians than at any previous Summer female competitors from the GCC countries 1894: THE OLYMPIC MOVEMENT Olympics and for the first time there at London 2012. Women comprised The modern Olympic Movement were women competitors in every sport. approximately 28% of all GCC competitors1 originated in the West as an all-male Significantly, also for the very first time, compared with 44.3% overall2. Although event, so women who lived in western each of the member countries of the Gulf (except in the case of Bahrain) there were countries faced some challenges to be Cooperation Council (GCC) had at least one still more men than women, the inclusion allowed to compete in the Olympic Games. woman in its Olympic team: of women in all the Gulf teams reflects a Its founder and leading ideologue, Baron • Bahrain sent 12 athletes, 4 men and 8 notable shift in attitudes to female sport in Pierre de Coubertin, established the women (67%). their countries. It signals the likelihood that International Olympic Committee (IOC) in • Kuwait sent 10 athletes, 8 men and 2 there will be greater possibilities for girls 1894. Until his death in 1937, De Coubertin women (20%). and women from the region to take part in remained vociferously opposed to women’s

80 Image: Qatari Bahya Mansour al-Hamad competes during 10m air rifle women’s qualification at theL ondon 2012 Olympic Games. participation in Olympic competition, remained dominant. As time went on, most by running the route of the in 5 asserting that, “The Olympic Games must forms of physical exercise for girls and hours and 30 minutes. Because it is a long, be reserved for men” for the “solemn and women were gender-specific. They played gruelling race (42.195 km as of 1908), there periodic exaltation of male athleticism” organised sports in separate spheres from was huge resistance to the introduction of with “female applause as reward”3. boys and men – in schools, universities, a female marathon event for years to come, De Coubertin reflected the dominant clubs and competitions and with different symbolising the exclusiveness and power ideology of the 19th century that women rules and regulations. The period covering of the all-male members of the IOC. It was were unsuited to take part in vigorous the first Olympic Games coincided with the not until the 1984 Summer Olympics in Los physical exercise. Ideas about distinctions formative years of women’s sports when Angeles, USA, that the women’s marathon between male and female physiologies national and international organisations was finally accepted as an Olympic event. and natures were applied systematically to were formed and there was a steady social situations and specifically to defend growth of competitions in a widening inequalities between men and women in variety of sports. In increasing numbers, sport. Medical professionals in Western sportswomen were enjoying fast, vigorous, Ideas about Europe and North America were proponents powerful and skilful forms of movement of the theory of constitutional overstrain without harmful results, negating the distinctions arguing that the female body is governed increasingly residual arguments that the by a fixed degree of energy for all physical, female gender was essentially weaker and between male mental and social actions and that once girls less well-suited to sports than the male and female reach puberty they should conserve energy gender. for their procreative futures as wives and physiologies and mothers4. Even during the first two decades DEVELOPMENTS AND SETBACKS: of the 20th century, ideas that women were INCLUSION OR SEPARATISM? natures were best suited to gentle, therapeutic exercise Women were barred from competing at applied for health and that vigorous and powerful the first Olympic Games in 1896, but a Greek forms of movement should be avoided woman, Stamata Revithi, staged a protest

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Image: The London 2012 Olympic Games women’s bronze medal basketball game between the USA and France.

1924 Olympics. The FSFI reacted by holding the Women’s World Games for a second time in 1926 in Sweden (10 countries competed); then in 1930 in Czechoslovakia (17 countries) and for the last time in 1934 in England (19 countries). Throughout the history of the Olympic Games, there have been many key moments in women’s struggles to gain greater equality with men. Initially, it was predominantly western women from privileged backgrounds who took up the challenge for Olympic participation – they had time to negotiate and to train for the Games and had money to travel to them. Gradually, Olympic sportswomen came from more varied backgrounds and from countries outside the West. However, women still lacked the political power to affect decisions about their inclusion in Olympic sport. The decision to includefemale athletics in the 1928 Games was the result of years of struggle, fraught negotiations and highly controversial decisions. Women were only allocated five events, a reduction from eleven at the Women’s World Games. In protest, British women athletes, supported by male colleagues, staged a boycott. Wanting to continue with The race was won by Joan Benoit (USA) from France, led a challenge to demand their own Games, other women adopted a with a time of 2 hours 24 minutes and 52 that the IOC allow women’s strong separatist position. Concurrently, an seconds. It is somewhat ironic that women athletics into the programme of the 1920 American contingent (women working in are now considered physiologically more Olympics. The IOC remained unanimously education) opposed all forms of elite sport suited to marathon running than men. opposed to the demand, but a group of in preference for healthier, playful and less In the first two decades of the 20th women from Europe and America were aggressive forms of exercise for everyone. century, sports for western women were defiant. In 1921 they founded the Fédération When some women collapsed at the end of growing in popularity and increasing Sportive Féminine Internationale (FSFI) the final, opponents of women’s numbers of competitions were organised, and organised a women’s international sport again used ‘medical’ and ‘biological’ often with the support of men. Although athletics competition with a range of track justifications for dropping this event from the IOC had ultimate power to make and field events. A year later, in 1922, the future Olympics. It was not re-instated until decisions, they handed over control to the FSFI held the Women’s World Games in 1960, greatly slowing the development of organising committees of the host cities Paris (changed from Women’s Olympics women’s distance running. of Paris, St. Louis and London for the 1900, because the IOC claimed copyright of the 1904 and 1908 Olympic Games respectively. term ‘Olympic’). These two events attracted OLYMPIC RECOGNITION: TOWARDS The hosts allowed women to take part in large crowds, proving the success of GENDER EQUALITY a few ‘feminine-appropriate’, although women’s athletics and leading the all-male Regardless of setbacks, by the 1930s ‘unofficial’, events5. Women’s competitions International Amateur Athletic Federation women’s organised sport had spread were not given equal status with men’s (IAAF) to take control of women’s affairs and to countries in all five continents. With competitions until 1924, when medals to push for Olympic recognition. In spite improved international travel and media were awarded to both genders. But women of growing controversy, the IOC declined coverage some female Olympic champions wanted more and in 1917 Alice Milliatt, again to include women’s athletics in the became household names. They were

82 With improved international travel and media coverage some female Olympic champions became household names

generally privileged white western women. a rapid expansion of numbers when the boost national morale and international The first time African-American women Soviet Union and other Eastern European prestige. Nevertheless, gender stereotyping participated was at the 1932 Los Angeles countries – notably the German Democratic remained an integral feature of Olympic Olympics. The supreme athleticism of Republic – focused on their female athletes sport and there was continuing opposition female sportswomen, such as Fanny in order to secure more medals. When the to events still claimed as unsuitable for the Blankers-Koen (Netherlands), Babe German Democratic Republic entered the female physique, such as field events and Didrikson (USA) and Sonya Henie (Norway) Olympics for the first time as a separate distance running. The IOC again declined were displacing the myth of female frailty nation state in 1968, its women dominated to include women in the 3,000 metres at and establishing that outstanding sporting athletics and swimming and in 1976 the 1980 Olympics, but eventually agreed ability was not incompatible with popular women from Eastern European countries to this in 1984, the time also of the first images of femininity or motherhood. won 73% of all medals. This continued women’s Olympic marathon. Memorably, at Gradually more female athletes came throughout the Cold War (approximately those Olympics, Nawal El Moutawakel was from developing countries in Africa, 1945 to 1980). Their increasing numbers the first Arab woman to win Olympic gold Asia and South America and there was were a rich source of potential medals to (400 metres hurdles). Gradually, over time,

Images: Cover pages of the “La femme chic” magazine from the years 1923 and 1933.

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events have been added to the women’s teachers and lecturers in schools and The Brighton Declaration generated Olympic programme and more women colleges in the West. Over years it produced unexpected support from national, regional, from more countries and with varied a network of women across the world who international government and non- backgrounds take part in Olympic sport, advocated exercise for girls and women government agencies and all levels of sport but only after constant lobbying, conflict, to aid health and well-being. There were organisations. It was highly significant that negotiation and even legal challenges. also national and regional organisations the IOC adopted the Declaration in 1995 for women in sport in Europe and North and encouraged by women’s groups went THE WOMEN’S INTERNATIONAL SPORTS America which, together with IAPESGW, on to set up its own Women and Sport MOVEMENT set the scene for a well-organised, vigorous Commission and has sponsored five IOC Throughout the early history of the and determined international collective of World Conferences on Women and Sport – Olympic Games, female participation was women that became established during the the latest in February 2012. The IOC also set resisted. However, in more recent years 1990s. targets for female membership of National there has been a radical shift in its position The key year was 1994 when: Olympic Committees and International of the IOC concerning gender equality – in • Anita White envisioned, secured Federations (10% by 2000 and 20% by part because social norms in many countries sponsorship for and organised the 2006). The IOC itself has 106 members, 20 of the world have changed to improve the first World Conference on Women and of whom are female – still slightly fewer opportunities for women in all areas of life Sport, held in Brighton, UK, with 280 than its original target – and the National and culture, including sport. Sportswomen delegates from 82 countries (including Olympic Committees and International have also been better organised and more GCC countries). Federations of Sport remain heavily male demanding, with greater expectations in • The Brighton Declaration on Women dominated. both national and international contexts. and Sport was compiled7 – a statement The Brighton Declaration provided Also, women have sat on the the IOC since of principles aiming for equality for confidence for Arab women in sport. They 1981 (when they were co-opted members)6. women in sport across the world. set up national and regional organisations In 1949, the International Association • The International Working Group on representing their specific and different of Physical Education and Sport for Girls Women and Sport (IWG) was set up, histories and cultural influences. However, and Women (IAPESGW) was formed. Its • Women Sport International (WSI) was although there is no doubt that between members were mostly physical education founded. 1994 and 2012 women made notable

Image: Serbian Ana Ivanovic during her Women’s Singles Tennis match against Christina Mchale of the United States, London 2012 Olympic Games.

84 Talent derives from a society in which sport and exercise are part of the everyday culture Image: Norway’s Heidi Loke shoots to score against Croatia during their Women’s World Handball Championship quaterfinals in Sao Paolo, Brazil 2011.

gains towards gender equality in Olympic international competition is essential. sports organisations at all levels’8. The GCC sport, those from countries where there Talent, in turn, derives from a society in Women’s Sport Committees collaborate to are cultural, economic, political or religious which sport and exercise are part of the improve opportunities for girls and women factors restricting or preventing female everyday culture of girls and young women. in sport. participation in sport have still some way to Looking ahead, the Qatari government In January 2012 a landmark conference go towards complete equality. has commendably made radical plans for on Women and Sport was sponsored by sports infrastructure which takes account the Qatar Museum of Olympic Sports, the THE ARRIVAL OF ARAB SPORTSWOMEN ON of ‘factors inhibiting the participation of Qatar Women’s Sport Committee and the THE OLYMPIC SCENE women’, the ‘special needs of women’ and Qatar Olympic Committee. It attracted Before the year 2000 no GCC country had ‘a female-specific model to develop and delegates from other GCC countries and a woman in its team. At the Sydney 2000 encourage athletic involvement for women expert international speakers and guests. Olympic Games, Bahrain sent its first GCC at all levels’7 (Sports Sector Strategy Report A workshop specifically about women and female athlete. At Athens in 2004, Kuwait 2011-2016). Qatar also has the magnificent sport in the GCC region addressed ‘tensions sent 1 woman, in in 2008 Oman and Aspire Academy of Sports Excellence, built between globalisation and the dominance United Arab Emirates both sent 1 woman in 2004 to ‘identify promising student- of western-rooted sport models, epitomised and in London 2012 Saudi Arabia sent 2 athletes and develop them into Olympic by the Olympic Games and retention of women and Qatar sent 4 women athletes. champions’ where it hosted the 2006 Asian those aspects of cultural distinctiveness Altogether, there have been 31 female Games and will host the 2022 FIFA World that make the region and each country Olympians from the GCC states competing Cup. unique’9. These tensions are at the heart in the last four Olympic Games and one Most of the initiatives for putting of negotiating a way forward. There is medal winner - Maryam Yusuf Jamal from women’s sport ‘on the map’ in GCC a general pattern of low participation Bahrain, who won the bronze medal in the countries have come from women rates in sport and exercise causing health in 2012. Most GCC competitors themselves. Delegates at the firstproblems for women at all stages of life, as competed under a ‘universality’ clause international conference on Women and well as slowing progress towards Olympic allowing athletes to participate without Sport (Alexandria 1995) unanimously participation. Segregated facilities that reaching Olympic qualifying standards for endorsed the Brighton Declaration, as did ensure that girls and young women can ‘reasons of equality’. Understandably, their the Council of Arab Ministers of Youth and respect their modesty and faith make results were below world-class standard. Sport the following year. The foundation participation relatively straightforward and GCC women have come late into Olympic of the Sport Association of Arab women regional competitions, such as the inaugural sport from countries with no established followed directly, aiming ‘to enhance Arab Women’s Sports Tournament (UAE, sporting infrastructure. For Olympic women’s participation in sport, prepare February 2012), the 3rd GCC Sports success there needs to be a pool of talented women for roles in sport leadership and Championships (Bahrain, March 2012) and young athletes to draw from and regular ensure Arab women are represented in all the GCC Volleyball Championship (Qatar,

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2012) pose few cultural problems. But covering. Shaherkani lost the bout quickly become significant agents of change. But organised sport outside the region requires and decisively, but was warmly applauded. whereas Western sportswomen have great sensitivity and compromise in order Sarah Attar, also from Saudi Arabia, ran the forged greater Olympic opportunities for for Arab women to be included. 800 metres fully covered in a long-sleeved themselves over many years and are closer green jacket, long black running trousers to equality with men than ever before, Arab 2012 – THE YEAR OF THE ARAB WOMAN and a white hood. Although she came last women are at an earlier stage in their quest ATHLETE in the first heat by more than half a minute, for recognition. There is a need for Arab girls There is greater sensitivity than spectators stood to give her a standing and young women to take part in sport and ever before to the needs of Arab female ovation. “This is such a huge honour and an exercise as a normal part of life and culture, Olympians who want the right to wear amazing experience, just to be representing firstly for their general health and well- sportswear that is modest and does not the women,” Attar said. “I know that this being, but also to build a new generation reveal the body. Manufacturers have can make a huge difference.” of young talented sporting females some designed special clothing that covers arms, of whom will have Olympic potential. But legs and head and international federations CONCLUSION in order to succeed on the world stage, are relaxing previously-enforced brief In 2012, after more than a century of they will need access to a modern sports body-covering. In London 2012, there were struggle, the achievements of women in infrastructure with facilities, coaching and lengthy dress-code discussions between the Olympic sport have been remarkable and competition opportunities that compare IOC, the International Judo Federation and for Arab women from the GCC countries in favourably with countries that have a long representatives from the Kingdom of Saudi particular, it has been a year that signals an history of Olympic competition. Arabia regarding the participation of judoka exciting future. Wojdan Ali Seraj Abdulrahim Shaherkani. Olympic sport has been integral to Acknowledgement: Nour El Houda, Kelly The matter was resolved by an agreement modernisation processes in the GCC Knez and Anita White (assistance sourcing allowing her to wear modified head countries and Arab women in sport have material).

References 1. All the preceding figures have been 8. IWG (International Working Group). 6. Irish Times. IOC not facing gender calculated from information in From Brighton to Windhoek – Progress imbalances. From http://www.irishtimes. the following website: http://www. Report of the International Women and com Accessed 5 July 2012. london2012.com/athletes/ and the Sport Movement – 1994-1998. UK Sports 7. White A. The growth of the international London organising committee for the Council 1998. women and sport movement. In: Olympic Games (LOCOG) website. The 9. Benn T. Report of the 1st Conference on the Proceedings of the Second Scientific percentages are approximate to the History of Women in Sport from Past to International Conference for Women nearest whole number. Future. , Qatar 2012. and Sport. Alexandria University 1997; p. 2. Donnelly P, Donnelly M. The London 2012 3-11. Olympics: a gender equality audit, Draft 8. Official London 2012 website: http://www. Report. Centre for Sport Policy Studies london2012.com Research Reports, University of Toronto, Further reading Canada 2012. 9. Official website of the Olympic 1. Benn T, Pfister G, Jawad H, eds. Muslim Movement: http://www.olympic.org 3. Gerber E, ed. The American Woman in Women and Sport. Routledge. London 10. 2012 Olympic Games Data: http://www. Sport. Addison Wesley, New York 1974. 2010. guardian.co.uk/sport/series/london- 4. Dyhouse C. Social Darwinist Ideas and 2. Hargreaves J, Anderson E, eds. Handbook 2012-olympics-data the Development of Women’s Education of Sport, Gender and Sexuality. London, 11. Qatar Women’s Sports Committee: http:// in England 1880-1920. In: History of UK: Routledge (forthcoming). Education 1976. www.qwsc.org.qa 3. Hargreaves J. Sporting Females: Critical 5. Mitchell S. Women’s participation in the Issues in the History and Sociology of Olympic Games, 1900-1926. Journal of Women’s Sports. Routledge, London 1994. Sport History 1977; 4:208-228. Jennifer Hargreaves Ph.D., M.A., Ac.Dip., 4. Hargreaves J. Heroines of Sport: The Cert.Ed. 6. Miragaya A. The Process of Inclusion politics of difference and identity. Freelance writer/consultant of Women in the Olympic Games Routledge, London 2000. (unpublished doctoral dissertation). Former visiting Professor, University of Universidade Gama Filho, Rio de Janeiro 5. Hargreaves J. Power, Privilege and Brighton and 2006. Sportswomen on the Margins: A Research Research Consultant, University of Story. In: Hobbs R, Wright R, eds. The Sage Southampton, United Kingdom. 7. The Brighton Declaration on Women and Handbook of Fieldwork. London, UK: Contact: [email protected] Sport. UK Sports Council, London 1994. Sage Publications 2006.

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