Modelización: De La Justificación Matemática De Sencillos Juegos Mecánicos a Las Aplicaciones Industriales1

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Modelización: De La Justificación Matemática De Sencillos Juegos Mecánicos a Las Aplicaciones Industriales1 Rev.R.Acad.Cienc.Exact.Fís.Nat. (Esp) Vol. 108, Nº. 1-2, pp 113-126, 2015 XVII Programa de Promoción de la Cultura Científica y Tecnológica Modelización: de la justificación matemática de sencillos juegos mecánicos a las aplicaciones industriales1 J. I. DÍAZ DÍAZ2 Instituto de Matemática Interdisciplinar y Departamento de Matemática Aplicada. Facultad de Matemáticas. Universidad Complutense de Madrid Real Academia de Ciencias 1. INTRODUCCIÓN ta grandes dosis creativas y ha marcado importantes avances de la ciencia. Es el arte de hallar el lenguaje La primera etapa a la hora de abordar matemáti- matemático subyacente en el universo que nos preco- camente un problema «real» trata de su modelización. nizaba Galileo. El modelo matemático se introduce Un modelo no es más que un conjunto de relaciones como «prototipo», bajo unas simplificaciones nece- utilizado para representar y estudiar de forma sencilla y sarias. Según la naturaleza de las simplificaciones comprensible un objeto o fenómeno de la realidad. La supuestas se puede obtener una familia de modelos experiencia muestra que obtener un modelo «correcto» susceptibles de ser ordenados jerárquicamente según no es siempre una tarea fácil y de hecho puede equi- su distinta complejidad. valer a haber resuelto ya gran parte del problema. Su carácter constructivo involucra inevitablemente otras componentes ligadas a la experiencia, intuición y sen- tido estético. Éstas son quizás las razones por la que numerosos autores se refieren a ese proceso cómo «el arte de modelizar». No confundir con el «modelado» típico del proceso artístico3. La modelización debe completarse con el proceso de la experimentación. La aparición de los ordena- dores cambió drásticamente el panorama. El proceso de modelización es de naturaleza interdisciplinar, re- quiere un conocimiento del objeto en estudio y una cierta experiencia en las técnicas matemáticas que Figura 1. Etapas de la «Trilogía Universal» en la modeliza- hacen coherente un modelo. La modelización necesi- ción matemática según J.-L. Lions4. 1 Conferencia impartida en la RAC, el 5 de junio de 2014, en el X Ciclo de conferencias de divulgación científica: Ciencia para todos. 2 Investigaciones parcialmente financiadas por el proyecto Ref. MTM2014-57113-P de la DGISPI y el Grupo de Investigación MOMAT (Ref. 910480) de la Universidad Complutense de Madrid. 3 Esta es la razón por la que este conferenciante propuso, en junio de 2002, a la Real Academia Española, acuñar la palabra «Modeliza- ción» (por increíble que pueda parecer, inexistente hasta entonces en el castellano oficialmente reconocido) y que tal y como le comunicó su entonces Vicepresidente (y Presidente de la de Ciencias), A. Martín Municio, fue aprobada en tan sólo unos meses al admitir el verbo «modelizar» y todas sus palabras derivadas. 4 Imagen del autor. 09-Modelización de la justificación matemática.indd 113 03/03/17 13:28 114. J I. Díaz Díaz Rev.R.Acad.Cienc.Exact.Fís.Nat. (Esp), 2016; 108 En este trabajo se analizará la modelización de tres sencillos juegos mecánicos que suelen llamar la atención a quienes los observan: la «peonza invertible» (también denominada Tippe Top5), «la piedra celta» (conocida también como rattleback, en inglés, o anagyre, en fran- ces)6 y «el disco de Euler»7. Analizaremos los grandes rasgos de su modelización matemática (sin entrar total- mente en detalles del completo rigor matemático) y sus insospechados comportamientos comunes. Incluso en cursos académicamente reglados, de Mecánica Clásica, habitualmente no son tenidos en cuenta. Como ya se- ñalaba certeramente Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) la Mecánica es el paraíso de las ciencias matemáticas pues por medio de ella surgen los frutos de la matemática8. Figura 3. Wolfgang Pauli (1900-1958: PN 1945) y Niels Bohr (1885-1962: PN 1922) y la Tippe Top10. Muchos de esos juegos son una sencilla y directa visualización de procesos bastante más complejos que aparecen también en la esfera de las aplicaciones indus- triales. Esas peonzas, esos simples juegos mecánicos conectan con importantes valores eternos y universales: la curiosidad y el afán de comprender. Esos valores los podemos apreciar en todo tipo de personas: de niños en su más cándida infancia a galar- donados con el Premio Nobel (véanse las figuras 2 y 3). Más tradicional, pero menos vistosa, la curiosa ro- tación de un huevo duro y objetos similares ha atraí- Figura 2. Jean Siméon Chardin (Paris, 1699-1779) L’enfant do permanentemente la atención de muy destacados au toton9. científicos11. 5 Patentada por W. Ostberg en 1950 (https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toupie_tippe-top). 6 Arqueólogos del siglo XIX que investigaban yacimientos egipcios y celtas encontraron algunas piedras que giraban de una manera peculiar mostrando un sentido de giro preferente: si se les hace girar en ese sentido sigue girando hasta que se para, pero si se les hace girar en sentido contrario, al cabo de unas pocas vueltas, se paran y empiezan a girar al revés, en su sentido preferido. Las primeras descripciones científicas de las piedras celtas se publicaron en 1890 a cargo de Sir Gilbert Thomas Walker. 7 Diseñado por J. Bendik en la década de los años 1980, fue comercializado inicialmente por la Tangent Toy Company. En la actualidad es comercializado por Damert Company, Auburn, Alabama, Estados Unidos. 8 Notebooks, v. 1, ch. 20 (1489-1508). 9 Obra de 1708, actualmente en el Louvre. 10 Foto tomada en la University of Lund el 31 de mayo de 1951. Credit: Photograph by Erik Gustafson, courtesy AIP Emilio Segre Visual Archives, Margrethe Bohr Collection (www.aip.org/history/esva). 11 Como precedentes, ya en el siglo XIX, Sir William Thomson (Lord Kelvin, 1824-1907) y su amigo Bailie Hugh Blackburn (1823-1909) analizaron los giros de «piedras con forma de huevo» que encontraban en playas. Una referencia más moderna sobre el estudio matemático de giros de huevos duros es el artículo N. Bou-Rabee, J. E. Marsden and L. A. Romero, A geometrical treatment of Jellett’s egg, Z. Angew. Math. Mech. 85 (2005), 618-642. 09-Modelización de la justificación matemática.indd 114 03/03/17 13:28 J. I. Díaz Díaz Rev.R.Acad.Cienc.Exact.Fís.Nat. (Esp), 2016; 108 115 Figura 4. Rotación de un huevo en estado natural y rotación de un huevo cocido12. Figura 5. La «peonza invertible» o Tippe Top13. Sobre la historia de la «peonza invertible» se posee en febrero de 2007, mi curiosidad por intentar desve- una amplia información14. Cuando el objeto se coloca lar tan caprichoso comportamiento no ha hecho más sobre una mesa, el centro de masa apunta hacia abajo, que crecer. El objeto, aparentemente simétrico15, gira hacia la mesa. Tras un cierto tiempo de giro, su centro de perfectamente en uno de los sentidos (que es preferen- masa se levanta (al igual que en la rotación de un huevo te) pero se opone a girar en sentido contrario tras un duro). En 1952 comienza el estudio matemático sobre la reducido número de vueltas. De nuevo uno se puede Tippe Top con un artículo debido a C. M. Braams (Rijks preguntar ¿de dónde saca la energía para cambiar el University, Utrecht). Algunas de las preguntas que sugiere sentido de giro cuando se le hace rotar en la «mala su observación son: ¿de dónde saca la energía para girar dirección»? invertida? ¿por qué cambia el sentido de giro una vez que se invierte? El tercero de los ejemplos que analizaremos es el denominado «disco de Euler» que no es más que Desde que encontré, por primera vez, la llamada un disco especialmente pesado que gira apoyándose «piedra celta», en el Museo de la Ciencia de Cardiff, sobre una superficie muy pulida y ligeramente con- 12 Foto del autor. 13 Foto del autor. 14 En el libro del ayudante de Lord Kelvin, John Perry (1850-1920), Spinning Tops and Gyroscopic Motions, 1890, se describe un pequeño objeto esférico cuyo centro de masa no coincide con el centro de la esfera. En 1950 la peonza invertible fue re-patentada por el ingeniero danés Werner Ostberg, quien la denominó Tippe Top. Tuvo la idea durante una visita a América del Sur, donde había visto a la gente jugando con una fruta pequeña y redonda. Cuando giraban por el tallo como una peonza giraba por un segundo y luego se invertía y giraba sobre el tallo. Produjo en masa la Tippe Top y ganó gran popularidad en todo el mundo: en Canadá se vendía en farmacias y a partir de 1953 se obsequiaba en el interior de las cajas de cereales de varias marcas. 15 La imagen de abajo corresponde a un ejemplar de gran tamaño (60 cm de diámetro) elaborado por el ebanista francés, residente en Quebec, Canadá, Emmanuel Péluchon, comprada por este autor. 09-Modelización de la justificación matemática.indd 115 03/03/17 13:28 116. J I. Díaz Díaz Rev.R.Acad.Cienc.Exact.Fís.Nat. (Esp), 2016; 108 poco antes de pararse?, ¿por qué ese ruido tan con- centrado cuando se detiene? Finalizaremos el trabajo señalando como algunos problemas de «origen industrial» tienen ciertos puntos Figura 6. Piedra celta16. comunes con los sencillos juegos mecánicos mencio- nados19. 2. BREVÍSIMOS COMENTARIOS SOBRE EL MODELO, Y SU ANÁLISIS MATEMÁTICO: EL SÓLIDO RÍGIDO Los principios fundamentales que se han de apli- car en el movimiento de un sólido rígido no son más que20 la segunda Ley de Newton (para la variación del momento lineal)21 y la ecuación vectorial sobre la variación del momento angular22, respecto de un punto cualquiera. A diferencia del caso de un número finito de partículas, esta otra ecuación no se deduce Disco de Euler17. Figura 7. de la segunda ley. Esta fue una de las correcciones que Leonhard Euler (1707-1783) realizó sobre la teoría vexa y que emplea un tiempo más largo de lo normal de Newton.
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