Adolescent boys’ music beliefs, values, and identity work in a single-sex independent school

Jason John Colin Goopy Master of Music (Aural Pedagogy) Bachelor of Music (First Class Honours) Bachelor of Education Associate Diploma of Music

A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy at The University of Queensland in 2020 School of Music Abstract Music has the potential to shape and support who we are and who we will become. Recent research has highlighted the significance of musical identities in adolescent identity work. The term “identity work” acknowledges that the construction of identities is continuously ongoing and evolving. Adolescents’ musical identities can be examined by their uses of music (music in identities) and the musical roles they adopt (identities in music). Psychological perspectives also seek to explain musical behaviours by investigating inner states such as music beliefs and values. Musical identities can be shaped and supported by music learning and development, highlighting the potential contributions and responsibilities of school music education. Little research has specifically examined the role of secondary school class music (also known as classroom music or general music) education in boys’ identity work.

This study investigated adolescent boys’ music beliefs, values, and identity work in a single-sex independent school, interrogating the following questions: 1. What are the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys in a single-sex independent school? 2. How do these adolescent boys use music to shape and support their identity work? 3. What aspects of class music in this context shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music? Qualitative research was conducted within a constructivist paradigm, adopting a relativist ontology and subjectivist epistemology. Narrative inquiry and naturalistic case study methodology were used. The research setting was my place of employment at the time; an Australian independent P–12 boys’ school. Consequently, the study methodology was underpinned by continuous teacher–researcher reflexivity. Data were generated and triangulated using one-on-one semi-structured interviews incorporating a “draw and tell” artefact elicitation technique with ten Year 12 students and their parents. Students had continuously studied class music with me over a period of 2.5 to 5 years. Narrative analysis and analysis of narratives approaches were employed in the interpretation of data. This resulted in the co- construction of six unique student stories. The collective analysis of narratives informed the discussion and included the remaining four student interview transcripts, providing a means to corroborate and/or challenge the findings presented in the six student stories.

Findings indicate that the music beliefs and values of adolescent boys in this study are mental states which are inseparable from their behaviours and actions, overlapping and fusing together. Their beliefs, values, and uses of music are interconnected, individualised, diverse, and evolving. They use music as a means of making and managing the self; establishing, developing, and maintaining relationships with others; and, developing proficiency in the discipline of music. Adolescent boys in this study use music in personalised and evolving ways as an ongoing resource to shape and support

ii their musical identities and possible selves. They have multiple and circumstantial musical identities and the extent of their engagement with music, and music’s influence, varies between individuals. Participants are self-aware and able to identify these differences. They use music as a resource for self-to-self and self-to-others in the construction of their musical identities. Adolescent boys use prior musical experiences in music learning and development in order to inform their present and projected future use of music. The music family script and the conflict between boys’ passion for music and their perceived future financial security are also found to influence their identity work.

Despite mixed perspectives in the literature, students in this study articulate the view that school class music has a significant and positive role in shaping and supporting their identity work. My professional relationship with the students was a significant factor in their identity development, with students describing me as a credible model and expert; able to ignite and share passion; and, express genuine care towards their learning and well-being. Student flourishing is at the core of my philosophy and pedagogy, occurring through the explicit development of musical understanding; nurturing learner agency; creating a community of ethical music learners; and, entangling students’ musical worlds. My curriculum values diverse music literature; sequentially layers music domains; and, provides a range of authentic music learning experiences. This research study contributes new knowledge to the fields of music, music psychology, and music education.

Further research is justified to examine the interplay between past, present, and projected uses of music and its role in identity work. This study demonstrates school music education can and should seek to positively shape and support student musical identities, and future investigations of participants’ perspectives from diverse settings are warranted. It is recommended that government policy and practices are established in order to ensure that all Australian children in early childhood, primary, and lower secondary school have access to class music education, with consideration given to initial specialist music teacher education. The entanglement of school music teachers and learning experiences and their combined role in student identity work warrants further investigation. Continued research concerning the influence of the family script is needed, and students and families would benefit from specialised music pathway and career education programs in order to assist in the construction of possible selves. Future research investigating the contribution of music identity work to broader identity theory is justified. The use of “draw and tell” artefact elicitation techniques produced rich participant responses and its use in future research with adolescents and adults is worthy of further consideration.

iii Declaration by author This thesis is composed of my original work, and contains no material previously published or written by another person except where due reference has been made in the text. I have clearly stated the contribution by others to jointly-authored works that I have included in my thesis.

I have clearly stated the contribution of others to my thesis as a whole, including statistical assistance, survey design, data analysis, significant technical procedures, professional editorial advice, financial support, and any other original research work used or reported in my thesis. The content of my thesis is the result of work I have carried out since the commencement of my higher degree by research candidature and does not include a substantial part of work that has been submitted to qualify for the award of any other degree or diploma in any university or other tertiary institution. I have clearly stated which parts of my thesis, if any, have been submitted to qualify for another award.

I acknowledge that an electronic copy of my thesis must be lodged with the University Library and, subject to the policy and procedures of The University of Queensland, the thesis be made available for research and study in accordance with the Copyright Act 1968 unless a period of embargo has been approved by the Dean of the Graduate School.

I acknowledge that copyright of all material contained in my thesis resides with the copyright holder(s) of that material. Where appropriate I have obtained copyright permission from the copyright holder to reproduce material in this thesis and have sought permission from co-authors for any jointly authored works included in the thesis.

iv Publications included in this thesis No publications included.

Submitted manuscripts included in this thesis No manuscripts submitted for publication.

Other publications during candidature Peer-reviewed papers Goopy, J. (2013). ‘Extra-musical effects’ and benefits of programs founded on the Kodály philosophy. Australian Journal of Music Education (2), 71–78.

Peer-reviewed conference paper abstracts Goopy, J. (2019, October). Observations of daily classroom music lessons by primary school teachers. Paper presented at the Australian Society for Music Education Conference, University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia. Goopy, J. (2019, August). Shaping and supporting young boys’ identity work in and through daily class music. Paper presented at the International Kodály Symposium, Kuching, Sarawak, Malaysia. Goopy, J. (2019, April). Adolescent boys’ beliefs, values and uses of music and how music shapes and supports their identity work. Paper presented at the International Research in Music Education (RIME) Conference, Bath Spa University, England. Goopy, J. (2018, October). Aspects of class music that support and shape adolescent boys’ identity work. Paper presented at the Australian and New Zealand Association for Research in Music Education Conference, Gold Coast, Australia. Goopy, J. (2017, August). Beliefs, values and uses of music by an adolescent boy, and school class music practices that support his identity work. Paper presented at the International Kodály Symposium, University of Alberta, Canada. Goopy, J. (2017, July). A narrative of an adolescent boy’s beliefs, values, and uses of music, and school class music practices that shape and support his identity work. Paper presented at the Australian Society for Music Education Conference, RMIT, Melbourne, Australia. Goopy, J. (2016, July). Supporting and shaping adolescent boys’ identity work through school class music education. Paper presented at the International Society for Music Education Conference, Glasgow, Scotland.

v Goopy, J. (2016, July). Daily class music and boys’ identity work at the beginning of formal schooling. Paper presented at the International Society for Music Education Conference, Glasgow, Scotland. Goopy, J. (2014, July). The Music Every Day Program: A case study of student, parent and teacher observations and perceptions of daily music classes. Paper presented at the International Society for Music Education Conference, Porto Alegre, Brazil. Goopy, J. (2013, December). Tailoring secondary classroom music for the needs, interests and learning styles of adolescent boys. Paper presented at the Australian Association for Research in Education Annual International Conference, Adelaide, Australia.

Contributions by others to the thesis No contributions by others.

Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree No works submitted towards another degree have been included in this thesis.

Research involving human or animal subjects Ethical approval for this research was granted by the School of Music Ethical Review Panel (Project number: SoMAETH14A03/JG).

vi Acknowledgements To my advisors Thank you to my advisors for your inspiration and guidance. Thank you, Professor Margaret Barrett, for your rigorous critique and broadening my perspectives. Thank you, Associate Professor Julie Ballantyne, for challenging my views and providing me with opportunities.

To my reader Thank you, Professor Graham Welch, for reading and providing critical feedback on thesis drafts.

To my editor Thank you, Dr Tammy Jones, editor at Inkdrop editing, for providing me with copy-editing services.

To my participants Thank you to the adolescent boys—now young men—and their parents for the privilege of teaching you and researching your stories over the course of a decade. You have taught me so much about myself and others as musicians and people.

To all my students and graduates Thank you to all my students and graduates who inspire me in and through music every day.

To my teachers I stand on the shoulders of giants before me. Thank you to all my music teachers for your tutelage and encouragement. I especially thank my primary and secondary class music teachers, Jill Brooks and Dr Anthony Young, for teaching me how to be a musical person, and inspiring me to make a difference to others in and through music. Thank you to my family piano and theory teacher, Yvette Ordynski, for opportunities to explore and grow in and through music. I thank Geoffrey Ashenden, for lessons in singing and developing my voice. Thank you also to my undergraduate and Masters university lecturers, Dr James Cuskelly OAM, Réka Csernyik, and Maree Hennessy, for a world- class music teacher tertiary education.

vii To my friends and colleagues Thank you to all my friends and colleagues around the world for your support. I especially wish to acknowledge Jason Boron, Ann Carroll, and Cassandra White.

To my family Thank you to my parents, Debbie and Shayne, brother Aaron, and family for instilling in me a love of music, providing music education opportunities, and a lifetime of encouragement.

Thank you, James Torcetti, for your unconditional love, patience, and support.

viii Financial support This research was supported by: 2019 International Kodály Symposium Scholarship, Kodály Music Education Institute of Australia Queensland Branch 2018 Library Excellence Award in Research, UQ Library, University of Queensland 2017 RHD Student School Scholarship, School of Music, University of Queensland 2017 International Kodály Symposium Scholarship, Kodály Music Education Institute of Australia Queensland Branch 2016 R. D. Kitchen Scholarship, School of Music, University of Queensland 2015 Graduate School International Travel Award (GSITA), University of Queensland 2013 International Kodály Seminar Scholarship, Foundation for the Kecskemét Kodály Institute

ix Keywords musical identities, identity work, uses of music, music education, adolescence, boys, narrative inquiry.

Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) ANZSRC code: 190499, Performing Arts and Creative Writing not elsewhere classified, 60% ANZSRC code: 170199, Psychology not elsewhere classified, 20% ANZSRC code: 130201, Creative Arts, Media and Communication Curriculum and Pedagogy, 20%

Fields of Research (FoR) Classification FoR code: 1904, Performing Arts and Creative Writing, 60% FoR code: 1701, Psychology, 20% FoR code: 1302, Curriculum and Pedagogy, 20%

x

This thesis is dedicated to young people who find themselves in and through music.

xi Table of Contents

Abstract ...... ii Declaration by author ...... iv Publications included in this thesis ...... v Submitted manuscripts included in this thesis ...... v Other publications during candidature ...... v Contributions by others to the thesis...... vi Statement of parts of the thesis submitted to qualify for the award of another degree ...... vi Research involving human or animal subjects ...... vi Acknowledgements...... vii Financial support ...... ix Keywords ...... x Australian and New Zealand Standard Research Classifications (ANZSRC) ...... x Fields of Research (FoR) Classification ...... x Table of Contents ...... xii List of Figures ...... xix List of Tables ...... xx List of Abbreviations used in the thesis ...... xxi Prelude ...... xxii 1 Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Introduction to the research ...... 1 1.2 Research motivation ...... 1 1.3 Research questions ...... 2 1.4 Significance of the research ...... 2 1.5 The position of the researcher ...... 3 1.6 Outline of the research study ...... 4 2 Review of Literature ...... 6 2.1 Introduction ...... 6 2.2 The importance of music and music education ...... 6 2.3 Music beliefs, values, and uses ...... 7 2.3.1 Beliefs and values ...... 7 2.3.2 Music beliefs and values ...... 8 2.3.3 Music learning and development beliefs and values ...... 8 2.3.4 Uses of music ...... 12

xii 2.4 Music and identity ...... 15 2.4.1 Identity work ...... 15 2.4.2 Music and identity work ...... 16 2.4.3 Musical identities ...... 17 2.4.4 Possible selves...... 20 2.5 Music education and identity ...... 22 2.5.1 School music education and identity ...... 22 2.5.2 Class music and identity ...... 24 2.5.3 Music teacher identity ...... 25 2.6 Music education in schools ...... 26 2.6.1 The role of school music education ...... 26 2.6.2 Australian school music education ...... 27 2.6.3 Australian class music ...... 28 2.7 Boys and music education ...... 38 2.7.1 Boys and education ...... 38 2.7.2 Boys and class music ...... 39 2.7.3 Boys and singing ...... 40 2.8 Chapter summary ...... 40 3 Methodology ...... 43 3.1 Introduction ...... 43 3.2 Qualitative research ...... 44 3.3 Axiology ...... 44 3.4 Social constructivism ...... 45 3.4.1 Relativist ontology ...... 45 3.4.2 Subjectivist epistemology ...... 46 3.4.3 Naturalistic methodology ...... 46 3.5 Narrative inquiry ...... 47 3.6 Case study...... 48 3.7 Research setting and context ...... 49 3.8 Participant information ...... 50 3.8.1 Ethical clearance ...... 50 3.8.2 Participant recruitment ...... 51 3.8.3 Research participants ...... 51 3.8.4 Researcher and participant relationships ...... 52 3.8.5 Child protection and duty of care ...... 53 3.9 Methods and techniques ...... 53

xiii 3.9.1 Interviews ...... 54 3.9.2 Artefact elicitation ...... 55 3.9.3 Combined research design ...... 55 3.9.4 Data management ...... 57 3.9.5 Interview analysis ...... 57 3.10 Data interpretation ...... 57 3.10.1 Narrative analysis and analysis of narratives ...... 57 3.10.2 Reflexivity ...... 60 3.11 Evaluation criteria ...... 61 3.11.1 Credibility ...... 61 3.11.2 Transferability ...... 62 3.11.3 Dependability ...... 62 3.11.4 Confirmability ...... 63 3.11.5 Limitations ...... 63 3.12 Summary ...... 63 4 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” ...... 64 4.1 Introduction ...... 64 4.1.1 Introducing Aaron ...... 64 4.1.2 Introducing Hannah (Aaron’s mother) ...... 64 4.2 Aaron’s music beliefs, values, and uses ...... 65 4.2.1 “Tinkering”: “teaching themselves, learning from each other” ...... 65 4.2.2 Multiple uses of music through diverse listening ...... 66 4.3 Aaron’s use of music to shape and support his identity work ...... 67 4.3.1 An agent of change in identity work ...... 67 4.3.2 A pathway to navigate secondary school ...... 68 4.3.3 A resource for self-expression ...... 69 4.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Aaron’s identity work ...... 73 4.4.1 An opportunity to engage in music ...... 73 4.4.2 A resource to “express myself” ...... 74 4.4.3 Teacher philosophy and pedagogy ...... 76 4.4.4 Combined music theory and making ...... 77 4.5 Summary ...... 79 5 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” ...... 81 5.1 Introduction ...... 81 5.1.1 Introducing Blake ...... 81 5.1.2 Introducing Julia (Blake’s mother) ...... 82

xiv 5.2 Blake’s music beliefs, values, and uses ...... 82 5.2.1 Individualised resource to manage the self ...... 82 5.2.2 Emotion and mood management ...... 82 5.2.3 Relationships with others ...... 82 5.3 Blake’s use of music to shape and support his identity work ...... 84 5.3.1 Musical identity...... 84 5.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Blake’s identity work ...... 90 5.4.1 Identity disruption ...... 90 5.5 Summary ...... 94 6 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” ...... 96 6.1 Introduction ...... 96 6.1.1 Introducing Conor ...... 96 6.1.2 Introducing Anna (Conor’s mother) ...... 96 6.2 Conor’s music beliefs, values, and uses ...... 97 6.2.1 “Freedom” ...... 97 6.2.2 Diverse music expertise and excellence ...... 99 6.3 Conor’s use of music to shape and support his identity work ...... 101 6.3.1 “Ingrained into who I am” ...... 101 6.3.2 Musical future ...... 101 6.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Conor’s identity work ...... 105 6.4.1 Thinking in sound and applying music understanding ...... 106 6.4.2 Music collaboration...... 108 6.4.3 Teacher encouragement and challenge ...... 109 6.5 Summary ...... 111 7 Elijah: “Musical men” ...... 113 7.1 Introduction ...... 113 7.1.1 Introducing Elijah ...... 113 7.1.2 Introducing Ella (Elijah’s mother) ...... 113 7.2 Elijah’s music beliefs, values, and uses ...... 113 7.2.1 Music learning and achievement ...... 113 7.2.2 Diverse and new music experiments ...... 117 7.3 Elijah’s use of music to shape and support his identity work ...... 121 7.3.1 The mother script ...... 121 7.3.2 “Music is everything” to “Music is a hobby” ...... 122 7.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Elijah’s identity work ...... 123 7.4.1 “Broadens my musical knowledge” ...... 123

xv 7.4.2 Belonging through composition ...... 126 7.4.3 “Life lessons” ...... 127 7.5 Summary ...... 130 8 Michael: “Hearing the little things” ...... 132 8.1 Introduction ...... 132 8.1.1 Introducing Michael ...... 132 8.1.2 Introducing May (Michael’s mother) ...... 132 8.2 Michael’s music beliefs, values, and uses ...... 132 8.2.1 The family script: “We missed out” ...... 132 8.2.2 Music expertise ...... 136 8.2.3 Relationships through music ...... 137 8.2.4 Autotelic experience ...... 139 8.2.5 Mood and emotion management ...... 140 8.3 Michael’s use of music to shape and support his identity work ...... 141 8.3.1 “I think music is potentially so much more for me” ...... 141 8.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Michael’s identity work ...... 143 8.4.1 “Solfa did help me” ...... 143 8.4.2 Developing music knowledge and understanding of diverse repertoire ...... 144 8.4.3 Learning with and from others ...... 145 8.4.4 The teacher ...... 146 8.5 Summary ...... 147 9 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other”...... 149 9.1 Introduction ...... 149 9.1.1 Introducing Tyler ...... 149 9.1.2 Introducing Laurence (Tyler’s father) ...... 149 9.2 Tyler’s music beliefs, values, and uses ...... 149 9.2.1 The family script ...... 149 9.2.2 Flow in and through performance ...... 153 9.2.3 Transferable extra-musical benefits ...... 154 9.3 Tyler’s use of music to shape and support his identity work ...... 155 9.3.1 Father-son relationship ...... 155 9.3.2 Individualised use of music...... 156 9.3.3 Possible self...... 156 9.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Tyler’s identity work ...... 159 9.4.1 “My hobby” ...... 159 9.4.2 Diverse repertoire and ideas ...... 160

xvi 9.4.3 In-tune singing ...... 161 9.4.4 Learning from each other ...... 162 9.4.5 The teacher ...... 162 9.5 Summary ...... 163 10 Analysis, Discussion and Findings ...... 165 10.1 Introduction ...... 165 10.2 Research Question 1: What are the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys in a single-sex independent school? ...... 165 10.2.1 Individual ...... 166 10.2.2 Relationships with others ...... 170 10.2.3 Proficiency in the discipline of music ...... 172 10.3 Research Question 2: How do these adolescent boys use music to shape and support their identity work? ...... 175 10.3.1 Personalised ...... 175 10.3.2 Evolving ...... 176 10.3.3 A resource for musical identities ...... 177 10.3.4 A resource for possible selves ...... 185 10.4 Research Question 3: What aspects of class music in this context shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music? ...... 189 10.4.1 Teacher–student relationship ...... 190 10.4.2 Teacher philosophy and pedagogy ...... 193 10.4.3 Class music curriculum ...... 208 10.5 Other significant findings ...... 215 10.5.1 The music family script shaped and supported adolescent boys’ identity work ...... 215 10.5.2 Adolescent boys’ identity work is shaped by the conflict between their passion for music and perceived future financial security ...... 216 10.6 Summary of findings ...... 217 10.6.1 Research Question 1: What are the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys in a single-sex independent school? ...... 218 10.6.2 Research Question 2: How do these adolescent boys use music to shape and support their identity work? ...... 218 10.6.3 Research Question 3: What aspects of class music in this context shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music? ...... 218 10.6.4 Other significant findings...... 219 11 Recommendations and Conclusion ...... 220 11.1 Introduction ...... 220 11.2 Recommendations for Practice ...... 220 11.2.1 Practice Recommendation 1 ...... 220

xvii 11.2.2 Practice Recommendation 2 ...... 220 11.2.3 Practice Recommendation 3 ...... 221 11.2.4 Practice Recommendation 4 ...... 221 11.2.5 Practice Recommendation 5 ...... 221 11.3 Recommendations for Policy ...... 222 11.3.1 Policy Recommendation 1 ...... 222 11.3.2 Policy Recommendation 2 ...... 223 11.3.3 Policy Recommendation 3 ...... 223 11.4 Recommendations for Research ...... 223 11.4.1 Research Recommendation 1 ...... 224 11.4.2 Research Recommendation 2 ...... 224 11.4.3 Research Recommendation 3 ...... 224 11.4.4 Research Recommendation 4 ...... 225 11.4.5 Research Recommendation 5 ...... 225 11.4.6 Research Recommendation 6 ...... 225 11.4.7 Research Recommendation 7 ...... 225 11.5 Conclusion ...... 226 Epilogue...... 227 References ...... 233 Appendices ...... 254 Appendix A: Human ethical clearance application approval ...... 254 Appendix B: Gatekeeper information sheet and approval form ...... 255 Appendix C: Year 12 student recruitment information script ...... 258 Appendix D: Student and parent information sheet and consent form ...... 259 Appendix E: Year 12 student interview guide ...... 262 Appendix F: Parent interview guide ...... 264 Appendix G: Blank artefact elicitation templates ...... 266

xviii List of Figures Figure 3.1. Methodology overview ...... 44 Figure 3.2. Artefact templates used during interviews ...... 56 Figure 4.1. Aaron’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 70 Figure 4.2. Aaron’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” ...... 72 Figure 4.3. Aaron’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” ...... 77 Figure 5.1. Blake’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 83 Figure 5.2. Blake’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” ...... 89 Figure 5.3. Blake’s drawing for the question, “What do you about class music?” ...... 90 Figure 6.1. Conor’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 97 Figure 6.2. Anna’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 99 Figure 6.3. Conor’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” ..... 102 Figure 6.4. Conor’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” ...... 105 Figure 7.1. Ella’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 114 Figure 7.2. Elijah’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 118 Figure 7.3. Elijah’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” ...... 124 Figure 7.4. Elijah’s “Thank You” card message to me at the end of Year 12...... 128 Figure 8.1. May’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” ...... 133 Figure 8.2. May’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” ...... 135 Figure 8.3. Michael’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 138 Figure 8.4. Michael’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” .. 141 Figure 8.5. Michael’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” ...... 144 Figure 9.1. Laurence’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” 152 Figure 9.2. Tyler’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 153 Figure 9.3. Tyler’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” ...... 157 Figure 9.4. Tyler’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” ...... 160 Figure 10.1. A passion for music performance and the freedom it provides. Daniels’s response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 167 Figure 10.2. Composing on a laptop. Part of Colton’s response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 168 Figure 10.3. Being valued by others. Part of Colton’s response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 171 Figure 10.4. New Music. Part of Austin’s response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”...... 174

xix Figure 10.5. “The community of music.” Part of Colton’s response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” ...... 182 Figure 10.6. Austin’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” .. 186 Figure 10.7. William’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” 187 Figure 10.8. Colton’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” .. 187 Figure 10.9. Daniel’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” .. 188 Figure 10.10. The interconnecting aspects of class music that shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in this study ...... 190 Figure 10.11. An epiphany moment. Part of Austin’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” ...... 195 Figure 10.12. Analysis of music. Part of Colton’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” ...... 196 Figure 10.13. Conversations about music. Part of Austin’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” ...... 205 Figure 10.14. Performance collaborations with friends. Part of Daniel’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”...... 206 Figure 10.15. Development of musical understanding in and through diverse music styles and genres through the layering of performance, analysis and composition learning experiences ...... 210

List of Tables Table 3.1. Student and parent participants ...... 52

xx List of Abbreviations used in the thesis AMEB Australian Music Examinations Board AMusA Associate in Music, Australia diploma ATAR Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank GPA Grade Point Average ICSEA Index of Community Socio-Education Advantage IIM Identities in music MII Music in identities QBS Queensland Boys’ School (pseudonym) QYO Queensland Youth Orchestras OP Overall position RSL Returned and Services League SHEP State Honours Ensemble Program hosted by Griffith University UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UMAT Undergraduate Medicine and Health Sciences Admission Test UQ University of Queensland

xxi Prelude Prelude When entering the Prep1 classroom, I was always greeted by boys with smiles, curiosity, wonder, and a hunger to learn about the world and themselves. In and through daily music learning, we sang songs, played games, exchanged stories, and, most importantly, had fun. I often thought of these little people as sponges—soaking everything up—and I witnessed young musicians forming before me. For these boys at the beginning of their schooling, I approached their lessons with the serious belief that school music education could and would change their lives.

It was not uncommon for me to have to run (literally) from the Prep room across the school to my Year 12 class. These 17- and 18-year-old boys shared qualities of their young counterparts; they still presented with smiles, curiosity, wonder, and a hunger to learn (most of the time). A striking difference, apart from their size, however, was that they had experienced up to 12 years more music learning and development. They all had their own music expertise, interests, and passions formed over this period. Their individualised music beliefs, values, and uses shaped who they were and who they were going to become. I saw my challenge as supporting a diverse class of boys in becoming the musical men they wanted to be.

~

My personal narrative is not unlike those shared in this thesis. My music life history is an example of influences that continue to shape and support my own identity. Music skills were valued in my family and I was surrounded by performance and listening models at home. I would hear stories of my great grandmother and her sisters who were professional travelling musicians in Scotland. One grandmother learned piano accordion when she was young and the other played organ. My grandfather taught himself to sing and play guitar and featured during Christmas family get- togethers. My aunty would also join in singing and playing guitar. My mother would often tinker at the piano, which she learned as a child, and she taught me the basics of a couple of pieces she remembered. One of these was Puff the Magic Dragon which became a favourite storybook of mine when teaching Prep. On most Saturday mornings, I would wake up to my father blaring his loud music through a large sound system he built himself. There would be sing-alongs on family road trips, and I used to fall asleep listening to pop songs from the 1950s and ’60s on compilation cassette tapes each night.

1 The Preparatory Year of formal schooling before Year 1 is known as Prep in Queensland, Australia.

xxii Prelude

The impact of school music education on my personal identity is profound. My earliest memories of school are of class music at a Queensland state primary school. I did not know it at the time, but the program clearly used a Kodály-inspired approach. From as early as Year 1, I can recall singing songs and making their associated actions, playing music games, music learning processes, and I can still visualise worksheets and the layout of the room. I joined the school choir in Year 3 and became surrounded by others with like-minded interests. For my eighth birthday, my parents presented me with a Yamaha keyboard, which included a self-teach songbook and built-in backing tracks. This gift opened a musical door for me, and I embraced teaching myself songs on the keyboard.

Music at home and school began to intertwine, and I became friends with others at school who were learning piano. There was healthy competition and I wanted to be able to play piano like my mates, especially my best friend, so I started to teach myself songs they could play and from choir. We began learning the recorder in Year 4 in class music, and I became obsessed with practising and thriving. I used to practise at after-school-care with my friends and taught myself how to play the teacher parts of songs from class. At the end of the year, my success on recorder led me to being invited to join the school instrumental program. I remember taking my keyboard into school to perform for class, and the lollipop lady2 saw me and passed the details of a piano teacher onto my mum. At this point, the old family piano at home with ivory keys and wonky tuning was replaced with a brand-new Kawaii student piano. I can still remember the smell and the touch of the new keys and the excitement of possibilities that lay before me. From Year 5, I participated in free group saxophone lessons at school, and paid one-on-one piano and theory lessons outside school. My mum also passed down all of her old piano music to me, and some of this became repertoire that I learned. My brother and cousins followed a similar journey, and we would perform carols together at Christmas.

At an inner-city Christian Brothers’ boys’ high school, music was a routine part of my week. I continued piano lessons and began one-on-one saxophone tuition. By Year 12, I would often arrive at school by 7:00 a.m. and not leave until after 4:30 p.m. having attended before- and after-school rehearsals. During the week, I attended two concert band rehearsals, two big band rehearsals, two choir rehearsals, choir sectionals, and a theory class. Other seasonal projects emerged, such as worship band, marching band, and musical pit orchestras and choruses. I studied class music throughout high school and achieved the highest grades in the class from Year 9 onwards and the

2 School crossing attendant.

xxiii Prelude Brisbane Central District in Year 12. In my final year of schooling, I also studied and topped Music Extension and was Music Captain. I thrived at music participation and achievement.

I was always singing, though this does not mean I was always good at it. At the beginning of high school as an alto, and coinciding with my voice change, I was constantly told I sang flat. Rather than being turned away, however, the choir director, who was also my class music teacher, continued to work with me. The choral and classroom programs complemented each other. The classroom program was inspired by the Kodály philosophy (again not known to me at the time) and emphasised developing the musician through vocal development, in-tune singing, and the ability to think in sound. In a senior class of 22 boys, I remember our lessons filled with music-making, intellectual rigour, camaraderie, and joy. I am most grateful for my high school class music program and my teacher, who granted me the skills and confidence to make meaning of sound and to sing in-tune. It was these skills that really made me feel like I was a musician. I graduated high school with confidence in my own skills and understanding, enabling me to pursue my own interests in music; I am confident this view was shared by others in my cohort. My class music teacher remains a role model to this day, continuing to inspire me with his music education expertise, dedication, care, and generosity. My positive experience in school class music has greatly informed my own teaching.

Given my musical journey, one might expect that music and music education were clear trajectories for me after school. This, however, was not the case; music was never presented to me as a conceivable pathway. It was made clear to me as a young boy that the family sacrifices that enabled a private school education paved the way for a university degree leading towards a “professional” career such as medicine or law. I have a clear memory of being home alone in the September school holidays in Year 12 on the due day of the uni preferences. In addition to music, I also worked hard at school and to my surprise was projected to receive a high OP.3 I would be the first in my family to attend university. I remember flicking through the university course guide, knowing I had to select something but having little idea of what that something should be. Previously in the year, the Director of Music at school asked me if I was going to audition for the Queensland Conservatorium. I simply laughed and shrugged off the question. The truth was, however, I knew very little about studying music at university, though was at least confident it would not lead to the professional career that was expected of me. I settled for music as my “hobby,” and that was that. All I was certain of was that I wanted to attend the University of Queensland. I settled on a dual degree in Law and IT, which

3 Overall Position: The tertiary entrance score used at the time in Queensland.

xxiv Prelude I thought would lead to a career in intellectual property law. I thought that would be an appropriate choice in terms of what was expected of me.

I began uni and my family were very proud of me. There were hundreds of people in my courses and I only knew one or two. I had gone from hours of music per day to one community choir rehearsal per week on campus, which my high school music teacher co-directed with the university lecturer in music education. I can remember at one point towards the end of first semester sitting in a computer lab coding Java and I could hear only the humming of the desktop computer fans. No one was talking to anyone and there was no interaction. The previous joy and enthusiasm I had for learning at school was a distant memory. As a 17-year-old boy, I broke down crying at home. I hated uni. I wanted, and needed, to change degrees. This time I sat with my parents going through lists of possible careers and degrees, none of which resonated with me. At some point, my mum suggested, “What about music teaching?” and in a moment, everything clarified. I had loved school and all that it offered me. The idea of giving back and providing a positive education for others suddenly provided me with a great sense of purpose and motivation.

I quickly transitioned to music education over the coming semesters. I decided if I was going to do this, I would do it “properly.” Within two years I had gained entry and credit into the Bachelor of Music and Bachelor of Education program. My pre-service music teacher education complemented my prior schooling, seamlessly building on my primary and secondary class music experiences. In contrast to what is often reported in the literature, I felt my undergraduate pre-service teacher education successfully prepared me for full-time primary and secondary school music teaching. It would be more accurate to describe my music education lecturers as “teachers-of-teachers.” They were excellent school teachers in their own right and incredibly inspiring in the same way as my previous school class music teachers. My teachers-of-teachers shared a common vision for music education that reinforced my own high school experience, with emphasis placed on audiation (Gordon, 1999), praxial music education (Elliott, 1995) and Kodály-inspired practices (Choksy, 1999a, 1999b). At the core of these values and beliefs, was that the person is the musician, and instruments are means for further artistry. Our skills as Western classical musicians were honed and our music teacher education was rigorous. My own teachers showed me that one teacher can make a difference and change a school’s music culture. I felt confident in my own ideas and wanted to make the same school wide impact. I was eager and ready to start.

~

xxv Prelude My first class music teaching position was at a Catholic boys’ school (Years 5–12) in regional Queensland. After three terms, I moved to a position at Queensland Boys’ School (QBS; a pseudonym), a high socioeconomic inner-city independent boys’ school, teaching class music (Years P–12). The following year I also began the Master of Music degree at the University of Queensland, which continued to refine and strengthen all of my previous Kodály-inspired work in aural studies, classroom pedagogy, and choral conducting.

I was granted curriculum freedom at QBS and began implementing a sequential and developmental program from Years P–12. My belief in the importance of early childhood music education led me to establish a daily class music program for all students in Years P–3, with students in these classes demonstrating music knowledge, skills, and understanding well beyond others of their age. I redesigned the middle years’ class music program from four unrelated units on theory, keyboard, guitar, and drum kit to a holistic program which sequentially developed students’ music knowledge, skills, and understanding. The success of the middle school program resulted in the transformation of a senior class music program with a dwindling culture into a thriving hub of the music department. Senior music transformed from a “bludge” subject of low enrolments to one of academic rigour attracting an increasing number and calibre of students. I was particularly interested in ensuring my practice was meaningful for students and equipped them for lifelong music participation and engagement. In an environment where students are encouraged to pursue their own musical interests and become the musicians they wish to be, multiple musical identities were promoted.

Every day I could see the difference I was making to the lives of my students. I was also consciously thinking about how I could be a better teacher for them. In advocating to sustain current initiatives, and begin potential innovations, I found myself having to constantly justify funding and resources for music education. I presented passionately to school leadership but did not feel my arguments were entirely convincing or articulate; I certainly did not have any evidence. I hesitated to use sweeping phrases like, “Music makes you smarter,” but I knew music was significant in my own life and was increasingly aware of the potential it presented for my students. I felt my previous coursework education was excellent in preparing me as a practitioner, but now was eager to have a deeper evidenced-based insight into music, music education, my students, and my teaching. To become a better teacher and advocate for my students, I decided I also needed to become a researcher.

This thesis represents the next chapter in my journey.

xxvi Introduction 1 Introduction 1.1 Introduction to the research Music has the potential to shape and support who we are and will become. Our past, present, and projected future musical behaviours and actions can influence our broader identity work. Our musical identities embed and embody our music beliefs, values, and uses, and can contribute positively to our sense of self and our connections with others. In recent years, there has been great interest in the field of “musical identities” beginning with the publication of Musical Identities (MacDonald, Hargreaves, & Miell, 2002) and more recently in the extended Oxford Handbook of Musical Identities (MacDonald, Hargreaves, & Miell, 2017).

Music learning and development nurture musical identities (Hargreaves, MacDonald, & Miell, 2018), and the potential of effective school music education programs is significant. Schools offer diverse music learning opportunities for students ranging from class music, ensembles (instrumental and voice), one-on-one and group studio teaching, and projects such as musicals. They can also facilitate informal learning experiences and encourage students to bring in their music from home and with their peers. Class music can serve as a common and uniting music learning experience for students’ multiple musical identities and presents an opportunity to positively shape and support their identity work. While there is some research that investigates class music in primary and at the beginning of secondary school, there is still much to understand about the impact of class music on adolescents at the end of their formal schooling.

This research study identifies and makes meaning of the music beliefs, values, and identity work of adolescent boys in a single-sex independent school. Aspects of the class music program are analysed in order to examine how music learning and development can contribute to boys’ broader sense of self and connections with others.

1.2 Research motivation My motivation to embark on this study was a desire to become a better music teacher through research. In order to do this, I wanted to understand more deeply the role of music in the lives of students and investigate the impact that school class music could have on who they are and could become. I wished to strengthen those aspects of my practice that shaped and supported multiple musical identities and investigate how I could further improve my teaching. I was ready to disrupt my own personal and professional identity and challenge my music and music education values, beliefs, and practices. This research would grant me the skills necessary to confidently articulate

1 Introduction views on music, music education, and my teaching, substantiated by recognised and credible evidence.

1.3 Research questions This study was guided by the following three research questions:

1. What are the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys in a single-sex independent school? 2. How do these adolescent boys use music to shape and support their identity work? 3. What aspects of class music in this context shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music?

In order to interrogate these questions a social constructivist approach was adopted and a case study was conducted at an Australian independent boys’ school enrolling students from Years P–12. Data were generated using one-on-one semi-structured interviews incorporating a “draw and tell” artefact elicitation technique with ten Year 12 students and their parents. Parent interviews and teacher reflexivity were used to triangulate student views and offer further insight. Data were interpreted through the lens of narrative analysis giving voice to adolescent boys through six unique stories. The subsequent analysis of the narratives and remaining interview transcripts informed the discussion and overall findings of the project.

1.4 Significance of the research This study is significant for a number of reasons within music, music education, and music psychology. The field of “musical identities” has emerged within the past two decades, initially with the publication of Musical Identities (MacDonald et al., 2002). It has subsequently attracted international investigations (e.g., MacDonald et al., 2017) and is an area considered to require further research. Music education can shape and support musical identities (Hargreaves, MacDonald, & Miell, 2018) and presents enormous potential and responsibility for school music educators. This study contributes new knowledge to the field of “musical identities” from a psychological perspective by investigating the music beliefs, values, and identity work of adolescent boys’ in a single-sex independent school.

New knowledge is also contributed to music education in Australia and internationally through this thesis. Recent significant Australian studies in music education have typically focused on early childhood (e.g., Barrett, Flynn, & Welch, 2018), instrumental performance (e.g., McPherson,

2 Introduction Davidson, & Faulkner, 2012), and initial teacher education (e.g., Ballantyne, 2007; Ballantyne, Kerchner, & Aróstegui, 2012). Australian school class music has been broadly investigated in response to state and federal parliamentary inquiries into music education (e.g., Government of South Australia, 2018; Parliament of Victoria, 2013; Pascoe et al., 2005). A review of other Australian class music studies reveals a focus on primary and lower secondary school settings, mostly through doctoral studies (e.g., Bonar, 2017; Hartwig, 2003; Lowe, 2008; Mackay, 2007; McEwan, 2006; Young, 2017). In contrast, this single case study investigates the music beliefs, values, and identity work of students who have demonstrated a dedicated interest in music learning and have elected to continue studying class music in their final year of schooling. This investigation is timely, with the recent implementation of a new senior secondary education system in Queensland allowing students to achieve an Australian Tertiary Admissions Rank (ATAR). The design and implementation of new music syllabi presents opportunities for renewal of teacher philosophy, pedagogy, and curriculum.

The methodology of this study is also significant. Gender is not the investigated phenomenon of this study, though research in this area is addressed. Much of the literature in boys’ music education is concerned with masculinities and singing (e.g., Hall, 2011; Harrison, 2009; Harrison, Welch, & Adler, 2012), whereas this investigation addresses broader music engagement and identity work of adolescent students enrolled in class music at a boys’ school. Willow-Peterson (2016) examined identity development of middle school adolescent males enrolled in general music in the United States, while this study investigates students in the final year of school in Australia. Research concerning musical identities in Australian school music education is only emerging (e.g., Colville Fletcher, 2015). Data were collected using semi-structured interviews incorporating “draw and tell” artefact elicitation; a method that has been used previously in early childhood music education studies (e.g., Barrett & Smigiel, 2007), but is not common in studies involving adolescents and adults. A teacher–researcher approach provides an insider’s perspective on the phenomenon, co-constructing perspectives of students and their parents through rich narrative accounts.

1.5 The position of the researcher Creswell (2013) reminded us that all research is value-laden and qualitative researchers should declare their biases to “position themselves” within the study. For this reason, the opening Prelude offers my personal narrative, incorporating my own music education perspectives and explains how I came to be conducting this research.

In this study, I adopted a teacher-as-researcher approach generating data from students I was teaching at the time, their parents, and continued personal reflexivity. This approach of researcher

3 Introduction and participants working together in the co-construction of subjective reality and new knowledge is essential in constructivist investigations. Hatch (2002) explained that “it is impossible and undesirable for researchers to be distant and objective” (p. 15). In this study, my role was blurred and everchanging, and at different times was that of the teacher, the researcher, or both.

Numerous efforts were made to minimise bias. Participants were recruited by a third party, participation was voluntary, and interviews were conducted after significant school assessment was marked. Students’ views and accounts were triangulated with parents’ interview transcripts and teacher reflexivity. As the participants were known to each other, they also often spoke about one another, inadvertently corroborating each other’s accounts. Boys—and generally their parents—were freely forthcoming with their stories, placing a great sense of trust in the teacher–researcher.

The stories voiced in this thesis through narrative analysis and analysis of narratives also represent my interpretation and presentation (Creswell, 2013). My views are based on longstanding professional relationships with the students and their families, and over a decade’s experience teaching music in schools.

1.6 Outline of the research study The Prelude presents my own detailed narrative, including my music education influences and perspectives, and the initial curiosities of this research.

Chapter 1 introduces the research study and my underpinning research motivations. The research questions are presented, and the significance of the research outlined. My position as teacher- as-researcher is declared, including the nature of the relationship between the researcher and participants.

Chapter 2 presents a critical review of the literature pertaining to this research, identifies gaps in the literature, and draws several conclusions. The importance of music and music education is examined, and contemporary music beliefs, values, and uses are investigated from the viewpoints of students, parents, and schools. Literature on music and identity is studied from a psychological perspective, including musical identities and how they shape and support adolescent identity work. School music education research, specifically class music, is reviewed for its role in identity construction.

4 Introduction Chapter 3 provides a detailed examination of the methodology, methods, data analysis, and interpretation used in this study, including reflexivity. The study is situated within a constructivist research paradigm, and the research design and setting are discussed. Methods and techniques employed in this study are detailed, along with ethical considerations. Participant details are reported, and my approach to narrative inquiry is described. Evaluation criteria are reviewed, and limitations of the study acknowledged.

Chapters 4 through 9 present six unique narratives of adolescent boys at the end of their secondary schooling experience. Each chapter introduces an adolescent boy and stories his music beliefs, values, and uses, and how music and class music shape and support his identity work. Elicited drawings and narrative analysis addressing the research questions are embedded throughout each story. Parent interview transcripts and teacher reflexivity provide triangulation of student views.

Chapter 10 provides a thorough analysis, discussion, and findings of this research study. A thematic analysis of the previous six narratives is further supported by transcript quotes from the remaining other four Year 12 students. The chapter is structured to directly answer the research questions, and findings are interrogated with reference to the literature. Other significant findings are also presented.

Chapter 11 outlines the recommendations for practice, policy, and research based on the findings. A conclusion offers final thoughts on the study.

An Epilogue reconnects the reader to the adolescent boys of this study who are now young men. A brief snapshot of music in their lives four years on and a personal reflection from the researcher are provided.

5 Review of Literature 2 Review of Literature 2.1 Introduction This study sought to investigate the music beliefs, values, and identity work of adolescent boys, their perspectives, and those aspects of class music that shape and support their identity work. This chapter will review literature relevant to this study with a focus on contemporary research from the past two decades. There is significant evidence within the literature to suggest music and music education experiences can significantly shape and support identities and future music engagement. The significance of music beliefs and values, particularly those of adolescents, and the various uses of music will be discussed. Peoples’ behaviours and uses of music inform their identity work and lead to the development of musical identities. It is argued that every individual has the capacity for music learning and development, and musical identities can affect such development. The current views on the purpose of school class music education are explored, including pre-service teacher and teacher values and identity, parent values, and student perspectives as these insights influence practice. The Australian context is described, and philosophies and pedagogies underpinning my practice are examined. The context of the investigation requires the consideration of issues prevalent in boys’ education and boys’ music education, including singing. The chapter concludes by highlighting gaps in the research relevant to this study.

2.2 The importance of music and music education Music and music education are important to individuals and communities. Music is enjoyable, and both shapes and reveals our cultural values and identities. The multifaceted nature of music experiences across cultures means that people engage with music for a variety of purposes and through various ways to enrich their lives (Pitts, 2005). Not only does music offer a lens into historical and contemporary social issues, but also acts as a medium to challenge these ideas and generate change. Humans are incomplete without music in their lives (Kodály, 1974) and one has a birthright “to be musical and to be able to communicate and interact musically with others” (Welch & McPherson, 2018, p. 4). To be human, is to be musical.

In Australia, music is a significant part of everyday lives. The National Arts Participation Survey (Australia Council for the Arts, 2017) provided insight into how a representative sample of 7,537 Australians over the age of 15 years engaged in and with music during 2016. The study found 97% of the participants listened to recorded music, and further identified that 90% listened to music on the radio or television, 87% owned music including digital copies, and 76% used streaming services such as Spotify and YouTube. Fifty-four percent of Australians attended live music events, “including opera, classical music, musical theatre, art music, and contemporary popular music” (p.

6 Review of Literature 16). Twenty-seven percent of Australians attended music festivals, the most popular of arts festivals, with males and younger Australians aged 15–24 more likely to attend. The study reported a 5% decrease in Australians who created music in 2016 (15%) compared to 2013 (20%), and a decline in the number of Australians singing or playing an instrument.

Research has demonstrated that music knowledge, skills, and understanding can be developed (Hargreaves, MacDonald, & Miell, 2018) and there is a clear and consistent relationship between school music education and later adult engagement with music (Elpus, 2017). Music education allows us to reach our musical potential (McPherson & Welch, 2018), transform lives, and provide numerous extra-musical benefits (Hallam, 2015). The National Review of School Music Education (Pascoe et al., 2005) found “music education is valuable and essential for all Australian school students” (p. v). Welch and McPherson (2018) have reminded us that musical development is most meaningful and effective when it is deeply valued by students.

2.3 Music beliefs, values, and uses 2.3.1 Beliefs and values Evans (2016) reported that psychological perspectives explain a considerable proportion of human behaviour by examining inner states such as beliefs and values. Carlisle and Simon (2012) defined belief as “subjective commitments to truths” (p. 222). They argued “these truths are not necessarily articulated as propositions agreed to by an individual, and may not even be consciously recognised as beliefs” (p. 223). Weber and Rolle (2019) proposed:

The term beliefs is used to designate affective, normative, and value-laden, individual mental constructs, that are held to be true. They can be held implicitly and explicitly. Implicit beliefs can become explicit by reflection. Beliefs are relatively stable and can be changed by experiences. They influence a person’s actions and their interpretation of the actions. (slide 9)

For the purposes of this thesis, beliefs were defined as ideas that one holds to be true, and it was accepted that a person’s beliefs inform their values. Beliefs and values are often examined together.

Schwartz (2015) explained values as “broad, motivational constructs that express what is important to people” (p. 64). People view different acts, objects, others, and events as more or less important based on their values, and an individual’s values are central to their identity. The Schwartz theory defined values as “desirable, trans-situational goals, varying in importance, that serve as

7 Review of Literature guiding principles in people’s lives” (p. 64). Schwartz revealed values are structured similarly across diverse cultural groups, though there is a substantial difference between what different individuals and groups hold to be important. O’Neill (2018) argued that values “contribute to the way that knowledge is constructed, used, and exchanged in the present and the future” (pp. 174–175) and relationships between individuals can cause values to thrive or not develop. For this study, values were defined as what one thinks is important, and these principles guide decision making.

2.3.2 Music beliefs and values Elliott and Silverman (2014) report that “music has numerous values, depending on the ways in which it is conceived, used, and taught by people who engage in specific musical styles” (p. 58). Pitts (2005) reported on the values underpinning music participation. Four empirical projects were conducted at UK music institutions and events between 2000 and 2003. Musical participation was valued as “a potential source of confirmation and confidence;” “an opportunity to demonstrate or acquire skills;” “a way of promoting and preserving repertoire;” “an opportunity to perform with others;” “a forum for social interaction and friendship;” “a way of enhancing everyday life;” “a way of escaping from everyday life;” and “a source of spiritual fulfilment and pleasure” (p. 10). It was also consistently observed that a relationship exists between skill, knowledge, and enjoyment.

Results from the 2016 National Arts Participation Survey (Australia Council for the Arts, 2017) indicated that 17 million Australians aged 15 years and over recognised the significant positive role of the arts in their lives. Two thirds of participants believed the arts to “have a ‘big’ or ‘very big’ impact on stimulating their minds,” “their ability to express themselves,” “child development,” “their understanding of other people and cultures,” and “their sense of wellbeing and happiness” (p. 29). More than half of Australians surveyed indicated the “arts had a ‘big’ or ‘very big’ impact on helping them deal with stress, anxiety or depression,” and “shaping and expressing Australian identity” (p. 29).

2.3.3 Music learning and development beliefs and values The literature has documented a range of beliefs and values relating to and stemming from music learning and development. McPherson, Davidson, and Faulkner (2012) reported music learning and development is overshadowed by a pervading belief that musical “talents” or “gifts” are innate, particularly in regard to performing and composing. In contrast, the capacity to listen and consume music is unquestioned. In a study by Davis (1994), 75% of the interviewed educational psychologists, school teachers, and members of the public believed that playing instruments, singing, and composing music were dependent on a natural talent or special innate gift. McPherson et al. (2012) reported that

8 Review of Literature the presumed presence of a child’s music gift or talent emerges in early child descriptions and family discussions. This dramatically impacted parents’ and children’s commitment to learning music and the arrangements made for teaching it.

The notion that musical excellence is rare, and predicated on particular unusual early musical attributes, is a widespread misconception (Sloboda & Davidson, 1996). Hargreaves, MacDonald, and Miell (2018) clarified this misconception and asserted that “every human being has a biological and social guarantee of musicianship” (p. 129). Trevarthen (2002) noted that musical development begins with the first communications and sound play between parent and child. While children develop at different speeds both psychologically and musically, “all children have the potential to express themselves through music” (Hargreaves et al., 2018, p. 128). In short, “we are all musical” (p. 128).

Sloboda and Davidson (1996) revealed that musical expertise can be developed. They found that the biographies of young high achieving musicians have particular features that distinguish them from other young people. These features provide useful indications of at least some of the determinants of musical expertise. They include:

(1) high levels of support and encouragement from parents who tend not to be musicians themselves; (2) perception of teachers by the young learner as being both good instructors and friendly people and by the older learners as people demonstrating high professional qualities; (3) an increasing self-motivation over the learning period; (4) moderate levels of informal practice, and very high levels of formal practice. (Sloboda & Davidson, 1996, p. 186)

Scripp, Ulibarri, and Flax (2013) argued that “the principal predictors of musical expertise are best understood as aligned with the motivation and mindset of students who see that their artistry comes through extensive and mindful practice” (p. 95). Such a view aligns with that of Dweck (2006) who argued that advanced expertise in any domain requires a growth mindset. Hallam and Papageorgi (2016) investigated musical understanding in a qualitative study involving 463 participants with a range of prior music experiences and education. They found participants believed music understanding “to be acquired through love and enjoyment of music, physical responses, emotional engagement, analytic processes, active engagement with music, education or guidance in formal or informal contexts, exposure to music, and listening” (p. 133).

Misconceptions concerning musical development can arguably influence the purpose and aims of school music curriculums and programs. There is a risk that children who show music interest

9 Review of Literature and ability are privileged, while those viewed as “unmusical” are neglected (Sloboda, 2005). If we all have the potential to be musical, music education should allow all students to harness their potential. For many people, a basic level of music competence may be fit for everyday purpose and there may be no incentive to develop higher levels of skills or to engage in further experimentation. However, Sloboda (1991) argued that repeated experience, exposure, and education reveal there is so much more expression to music than a short physical response.

The values that students develop through music education guide their future music learning, participation, and engagement (O’Neill, 2018). Music learning and development have the potential to shape and support an individual’s music and broader personal values. Elliott and Silverman (2015) in their praxial view argued that music making and listening from beginner to expert level are major sources of the values self-growth, self-knowledge, and enjoyment or flow. They proposed that when a person’s level of musical understanding was matched with an appropriate level of musical challenge, the result was self-growth and enjoyment. The authors maintained that many of the values of music are not met by setting and meeting trivial goals, but rather by students being appropriately challenged, which aligns with Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of flow (1990).

The many values of musicing and listening, including ethical values and all other dimensions of human flourishing, result from the continuous investment of musical understanding in musical problem solving that spirals “upward” in complexity in relation to recognised traditions of musical praxes. (Elliott & Silverman, 2015, p. 386)

The value of music and participation in early childhood education was investigated by Barrett, Flynn, and Welch (2018). They examined a “boutique” family-owned early childhood centre in Brisbane, Australia in a study that involved 134 children aged 15 months to 5 years. One 30-minute Kodály-inspired music lesson per week was offered to all children. Despite the lack of guidance in early childhood education policy (DEEWR), the centre placed a high value on music education for all as “a valuable tool that promotes learning and engagement in others areas, addresses individual needs, modifies behaviour, supports pro-social skills and focused attention, and supports emotional engagement” (p. 232). Staff emphasised the importance of the lessons as informal professional development, leading to music being integrated into the daily practices of early childhood educators. As a result of the high value placed on music learning by centre educators and families, the centre was able to offer families additional fee-based services in music education. The authors argued that valuing music is crucial to providing children with quality music education.

10 Review of Literature Music values and beliefs have been found to change as expertise develops. Hallam et al. (2016) investigated 3,325 young musicians (aged 6–19) ranging from beginner to tertiary-level education students who played a wide range of instruments. The study found increases in motivation corresponding to musical development in “social life and the value of playing an instrument; enjoyment of performing; self-belief in musical ability; and enjoyment of instrumental musical activities” (p. 529).

Campbell, Connell, and Beegle (2007) studied the significance of music and music education in adolescents’ lives. 1,155 American middle and high school students enrolled and not enrolled in school music programs ranging from 13 to 18 years submitted written responses to the topic, “Ban the Elimination of Music in Schools.” The authors reported five principal themes as emerging from the data: “(a) identity formation in and through music, (b) emotional benefits, (c) music’s life benefits, including character-building and life skills, (d) social benefits, and (e) positive and negative impressions of school music programs and their teachers” (p. 220). It was reported that music was viewed as “necessary to succeed in life” (p. 229) with support for music education in secondary schools.

McPherson and O’Neill (2010) examined the motivation of over 24,000 school students aged 9–21 years from eight countries (Brazil, China, Finland, Hong Kong, Israel, Korea, Mexico, and USA) to study music compared to other subjects. Except for visual art, the investigation found that music was perceived as the least valued and least difficult subject. However, it was found that those students who did study music believed they were more competent and capable in other subjects compared to non-music students. The study suggested that learning to play an instrument or voice increases students’ motivation in their studies, and more students may elect to study music at school with advocacy aiming to increase students’ values towards the subject.

The development of musical understanding in children depends on family and social support (McPherson et al., 2012; Sloboda, 1996). However, Yun Dai and Schader (2002) suggested that parents may change their beliefs and values relating to music education in response to the changing demands of musical development. The authors found developing music appreciation or good habits may be more important than musical development for young children beginning music education programs. As children developed as “intermediate” and “proficient” players, parents’ value of musical development and achievement became more crucial. As students approached the end of their schooling, both parents and children gave serious thought to what post schooling pathways may be more desirable and rewarding, both personally and financially, and further impacted music beliefs

11 Review of Literature and values. Borthwick and Davidson (2002) suggested that a perceived lack of job security results in parents withdrawing support of encouraging career choices in music. In a study by Pitts (2012) exploring the impact of music education through life histories, many participants lamented that school guidance on the long-term possibilities for musical engagement was absent or even discouraged.

Various music and music education beliefs and values from the literature have been reported demonstrating the influence on future music participation. In general, beliefs and values concerning music education been found to evolve throughout the different stages of schooling and as music expertise develops. Beliefs and values towards music learning and development are also influenced by family and other life priorities. The music education beliefs and values of senior secondary school parents and students who have demonstrated interest in music learning by electing to study class music and have developed high levels of music expertise require further study.

2.3.4 Uses of music The nature of music have been theorised by numerous music philosophers and researchers. Small (1998) argued that “music is not a thing at all but an activity; something that people do” (p. 2). Elliott and Silverman (2015) described music as a “social praxis,” a “distinctive and widely diverse form of creative and ethical human doing, making, and valuing that combines and depends on the integration of a complex web of people, processes, products and contexts” (p. 51). Clayton (2016) defined music as “an aspect of human behaviour; the creation of organised sound is an important part of that behaviour, whether conceived as an aim itself or as a means to another end; and this behaviour is distinguishable from everyday speech communication” (p. 50). Cross (2016) reminded us that “music is often an integral part of a wider range of everyday social activities” and argued that music is “a participatory rather than a presentational medium” (p. 6).

In ethnomusicology, a comprehensive summary of the “uses and functions of music” was published by Merriam (1964). He clarified that “‘use’ … refers to the situation in which music is employed in human action” and “‘function’ concerns the reasons for its employment and particularly the broader purpose which it serves” (p. 210). My study focuses broadly on the uses of music, which includes its functions.

Literature over the years has reported various sets of music uses in different fields of research. Merriam (1964) listed 10 functions of music: “emotional expression; aesthetic enjoyment; entertainment; communication; symbolic representation; physical response; enforcing conformity to social norms; validation of social institutions and religious rituals; contribution to the continuity and

12 Review of Literature stability of culture; contribution to the integration of society” (pp. 219–227). Clayton (2016) then proposed that music tends to perform one or more of the following functions: “regulation of an individual’s emotional, cognitive or physiological state; mediation between self and other; symbolic representation; and, coordination of action” (pp. 54–55).

Campbell (1998) investigated the musical play in the daily lives of pre-school and primary school children in the United States. Stories emerged of children “musicking” at school in and out of the classroom, during transit, and other places outside home. Through “musical utterances, and their musical lore and repertoire” children were found be to “singing, ‘rhythmicking’ by way of their periodic, patterned sounds and movements, chanting and dancing” (p. 94) sometimes consciously, more often unaware of the sounds they produced. Based on this study, Campbell (2002) organised children’s uses of music according to the functions outlined by Merriam (1964). Building on this work, Barrett (2011) further proposed “self-regulation” and “identity work” as children’s uses of music.

Barrett (2017b) provided another set of uses in a narrative case study used to advocate for children to be consulted in the construction of child-centred curriculum. Data generated from an artefact elicited interview with Sophie, an 11-year-old Australian girl, provided insight into the ability of children to articulate their perspectives on the role of the arts in their lives. Sophie used music for “personal fulfilment, growth and well-being,” being valued and making a valuable contribution, and providing “a means to make sense of [her] experiences” (p. 189).

In 2000, Tia DeNora provided a qualitative analysis on the consumption of music. Based on in-depth interviews with 52 women in four different settings in England and the United States, DeNora’s study found how music is used by both individuals and groups of people. DeNora determined that music is more than just a cultural product; rather, people consume music as they reflexively construct emotional states and social identities, and music is used to frame and give meaning to many types of social interactions. DeNora’s study demonstrated that “music is not about life but is rather implicated in the formulation of life; it is something that gets into action, something that is a formative, albeit often unrecognized, resource of social agency” (pp. 152–153).

The everyday music listening by “non-musicians” was investigated by Sloboda, O’Neill, and Ivaldi (2001), whose findings were consistent with those of the studies described above. Participants did not play musical instruments and were believed to “represent the vast majority of the population in Western societies” (p. 14). The study consisted of eight participants aged 16–21 and 31–40 years,

13 Review of Literature with two males and two females from each age groups. It found that almost no activities recorded had music as the primary focus. Findings indicated that most music listening occurred while participants were travelling or in public places, followed by time spent listening at home, and less often occurred in other locations. Music tended to accompany active recreational activities, domestic duties, and activities undertaken by choice rather than obligation. The functions of music varied, though music was predominantly used as a regulator of mood.

Music can also be used by individuals for autotelic experiences. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) described an autotelic experience in his “flow” theory as “a self-contained activity, one that is done not with the expectation of some future benefit, but simply because the doing itself is the reward” (p. 67). He noted that most things we do are neither purely autotelic or “exotelic” (i.e., extrinsic) and it is possible that activities initially undertaken for extrinsic reasons can become intrinsically rewarding.

O’Neill (2017) proposed that “young people navigate and negotiate their musical lives in ways that initiate and sustain a sense of connectedness” which encompasses “an overarching focus on the psychological state of belonging” (p. 86). A sense of belonging occurs when “individual youth perceive that they and others are cared for, acknowledged, trusted, and empowered within a given context” (Guerra & Bradshaw, 2008, p. 12). Connectedness and belonging are linked to values that are relational: “young people need to feel valued and cared for and they need to care about their own social environment and feel that they make a valuable contribution” (O’Neill, 2017, p. 86).

Itō et al. (2010) documented the everyday social and recreational use of new media by youth in varied settings using an ethnographic approach. Their report analysed numerous case studies of a diverse population of United States children, most of whom were in secondary school and aged between 12 and 18 years. The investigation examined media practices that were considered “new” at that moment and facilitated youth culture and voice, including “engagement with social network sites, media fandom, and gaming” (p. 11). While the study focussed on broader media practices, music was included individually, as well as in conjunction with other practices. The researchers presented an ecological frame based on three genres of participation: “hanging out,” “messing around,” and “geeking out.” These genres represent an increase in intensity of commitment or engagement in new media and are similar to the genres of interest-driven practices and friendship-driven participation. The framework described the different ways youth “engage with new media and how their engagement relates to social participation and identity” (p. 76).

14 Review of Literature The literature demonstrates that children, young people, and adults are able to articulate perspectives offering insight on their various uses of music. Music is an activity that people have a role in, even as listeners and consumers. While different researchers and studies have proposed varying sets of uses of music, a common theme is that music is used for the purposes of the individual, and with others. The uses of music by adolescent boys with a dedicated interest in music is yet to be investigated.

2.4 Music and identity 2.4.1 Identity work This study investigated the role of music in adolsecent boys’ “identity work”. This term reflects the nature of identity as reported in the literature. McInnes and Corlett (2012) argued that “identity is something that must be strived for, justified and defended on an on-going basis in everyday interaction” rather than being “fixed” (p. 27). Johnson, Morgeson, Ilgen, Meyer, and Lloyd (2006) reminded us that individuals hold multiple identities that are employed in various ways in different settings. Roberts and Creary (2012) reported that identity construction is interpersonal in nature and “the self emerges from the dynamism of interaction with one’s social world” (p. 11). DeNora (1999) further explained that identity is a product of social work, and individuals formulate “accounts of self to self and others” through a range of “identity ‘work’ to construct, reinforce and repair the ‘thread’ of self-identity” in everyday living (p. 45).

The term “identity work” is often credited as originating from the work of Snow and Anderson (1987) who defined it as “the range of activities individuals engage in to create, present, and sustain personal identities that are congruent with and supportive of the self-concept” (p. 1348). Identity work was defined by Sveningsson and Alvesson (2003) as “people being engaged in forming, repairing, maintaining, strengthening or revising the constructions that are productive of a sense of coherence and distinctiveness” (p. 1165). Watson (2016) defined identity work as “efforts which human beings make ‘internally’ through self-reflection and ‘externally’ in the way they present themselves to others to maintain a relatively coherent notion of personal self-identity” (p. 136). Precedence for the use of this term in music education is evident in the work of Barrett (2011), Baker (2014), and Colville Fletcher (2015). For the purposes of this study, the use of the term “identity work” acknowledged that an individual’s identity is continuously evolving, contains multiple components, and is an ongoing construction and development through self-reflection and interactions with others.

15 Review of Literature

2.4.2 Music and identity work Music can be used to shape and support identity work. Clayton (2016) explained that the uses and functions of music (see Section 2.3.4) are “largely concerned with relations between the personal and the social” (p. 56). Furthermore, “music is a flexible tool for managing relationships between self and other;” “a tool for the discovery, manipulation, and projection of an individual’s identity” (p. 56). DeNora argued that “music is an available technology of the self” (1999, p. 53) and “is appropriated by individuals as a resource for the ongoing constitution of themselves and their social psychological, physiological and emotional states” (2000, p. 47).

Hargreaves, North, and Tarrant (2016) argued that musical behaviours, including musical performance, preference, and listening habits during adolescence, inform a developing sense of self that is defined through psychological connection to other people. From a social identity perspective, Hargreaves, North, et al. argued that music is an integral part of what it means to belong to a group during adolescence, and contributes to the values and behaviours of the group and its members. North and Hargreaves (1999) found that “musical preference acts as a ‘badge of identity’ during adolescence” (p. 75) and communicates values, attitudes and opinions. They reported that older (aged 18–19 years) and younger (aged 13–14 years) adolescents favoured others who liked the same style of music but did not respond negatively to those who did not. People who liked musical styles highly valued by adolescents were also regarded as having more socially desirable characteristics. The authors were mindful to point out that music has different “badge” functions for different time periods and cultural groups.

Rentfrow and Gosling (2006) found that “individuals use their music preferences to communicate information about their personalities to observers, and observers can use such information to form impressions of others” (p. 236). They reported on two studies and, in Study 1, music was found to be the most common topic of conversation between strangers when becoming acquainted. Study 2 demonstrated that people were able to accurately imagine a stranger’s personality based on the stranger’s music preferences, and these impressions were unique compared to information obtained in similar contexts by different means.

In their summary of empirical studies of age differences in musical preferences, Hargreaves, North, et al. (2016) concluded that “open-earedness” declines at the beginning of adolescence and returns as the listener transitions to young adulthood. Open-earedness refers to “less acculturation to normative standards of ‘good taste’” (Hargreaves, 1982, p. 51). The authors note that evidence suggests that age and musical education are associated with preference for more “serious” music, but

16 Review of Literature further research is needed in this area. These findings have implications for the potential for forming musical preferences and identities in senior secondary school music education.

Barrett (2011) presented a narrative account of 2-year-old Beatrice, examining the role of invented song-making and music engagement in the child’s identity work over a 12-month period. Music was observed being “embedded in the emotional landscapes, routines and structures” (p. 419) of the participant’s life for a range of purposes. It was found that Beatrice constructed multiple musical identities, with Barrett suggesting “invented song and music-making provide narrative forms and structures through which children perform and enact ways of being in their developing identity work” (p. 420). In another study, Barrett (2016) examined the role of interactive play, thought, and music in young children’s world-making as music makers and as users of music. She argued that music is “foundational in their identity work” and “provides a means for them to trial different ways of being in the world” (p. 41). The narrative of a 2-year-old, Cara, uncovered her uses of singing and music making as: “a means to reflect on activity; an accompaniment to activity; a commentary on and elaboration of activity (through song choice); a mark of affiliation with others; and, a means of establishing a dialogue of shared concerns with others” (p. 51). Barrett (2017a) proposed that young children narrate their identity work through music and music is a resource for the beginnings of identity construction.

Emerging from the literature of music and identity work, is the role of musical identities, including identities in music (IIM) and music in identities (MII).

2.4.3 Musical identities Musical engagement can form a statement of values and attitudes, a distinctive viewpoint, and express individual identities (MacDonald, Hargreaves, & Miell, 2002). Music often plays important roles in the process of adolescents constructing and representing self as they become increasingly concerned with setting themselves apart from their parents and others (Laiho, 2004). Finnegan (1997) was a pioneer in the recognition of the extent and variety of musical participation, and noted the potential for research with musical societies as “arenas in which people develop their sense of identity” (p. 137). Identity is a contested term amongst sociologists and psychologists (McLean & Syed, 2014), and this review focuses specifically on musical identities from a psychological perspective. There are three main issues in a psychological approach to musical identities (Hargreaves, MacDonald, & Miell, 2017): definition (pp. 4–5), development (pp. 5–6), and individual differences (pp. 6–7).

17 Review of Literature

2.4.3.1 Definition In the first book dedicated to Musical Identities, Hargreaves, Miell, and MacDonald (2002) proposed that musical identities can be examined in two parts: “identities in music” and “music in identities” (p. 2). Fifteen years on, Hargreaves, MacDonald, and Miell (2017) considered that “the definition of musical identity has developed and widened” (p. 4).

Identities in music (IIM) was defined “in terms of the ways in which people view themselves in relation to the social and cultural roles existing within music” (Hargreaves & Marshall, 2003, p. 264). These included broad roles such as “musician,” “performer,” “composer,” “musicologist,” and “music teacher.” Identities may be further refined in terms of specific music specialisations, such as “concert pianist,” “film composer,” “musical theatre actor,” and “singer” (Hargreaves & Marshall, 2003). Hargreaves, MacDonald, and Miell (2016) explained that an IIM is formed through the “nuanced interplay between social, psychological and musical factors” (p. 760), rather than an individual’s musical expertise alone. IIM are likely to change over the life span as expertise develops and levels of musical engagement evolve, both personally and professionally.

Music in identities (MII), “refers to the ways in which music may form a part of other aspects of the individual’s self-image, such as those relating to gender, age, national identity, and disability and identity” (Hargreaves & Marshall, 2003, p. 264). The importance of music in the self-perceptions of individuals varies considerably depending on context, motivation, and/or education (Hargreaves & Marshall, 2003). Importantly, Hallam (2017) reminded us that not using the term “musician” to describe oneself does not diminish a person’s musical identity. MII is “pervasive in that everybody has musical tastes that influence and are influenced by wider aspects of our identity processes” (Hargreaves, MacDonald, et al., 2016, p. 760).

A third dimension of the definition of musical identities was outlined by Elliott and Silverman (2017), who argued that “musical identities are performative and social—they represent something that we do, rather than something that we have, namely, the ways in which we jointly engage with music in everyday life” (p. 5). Hargreaves et al. (2018) acknowledged that musical identities are multifaceted, in that “we all have several musical identities that manifest in different ways” and are “constantly evolving” and “contextually dependent” (p. 133). Hallam (2017) wrote that “individuals can develop many musical identities and hold them simultaneously” (p. 477). Elliott and Silverman (2017) supported the circumstantial nature of identities in music and wrote: “This does not mean a person is being untrue to herself. It only means that her identity shifts depending on her engagements with her worlds” (Elliott & Silverman, 2017, p. 33).

18 Review of Literature

For the purposes of this study, I defined musical identities as the multifaceted roles of our identity in music (IIM) and music in our identity (MII). Individuals have multiple musical identities that are performative, evolving, and contextual.

2.4.3.2 Development The development of musical identities is consistent with the nature of identity work. An individual’s musical identity begins with “biological predispositions towards musicality” that are then “shaped by the individual groups and social institutions that they encounter in their everyday lives” (MacDonald et al., 2002, p. 7). This sociocultural approach is based on Vygotsky’s (1966) view that “we become ourselves through others” (p. 43). Hallam (2017) argued that musical identities are not static and develop through the life span in response to changing circumstances. She further explained that there are a range of influences on the way musical identities are developed, including through: “love of music, opportunity, self-belief, musical preferences, friends, family, the educational environment including teachers, and the cultural environment” (p. 488).

Borthwick and Davidson (2002) examined the many influencing factors within families and their lives that shape and support musical identities. They found music beliefs and experiences of family members, particularly parents, can shape the music values and experiences of subsequent generations. They argued a child’s musical identity is shaped primarily by the values and behaviours inherited by the “family script.” Furthermore, a “parenting script” is passed from generation to generation and is either “amended” or “replicated” depending on the level of musical satisfaction experienced by parents during their own childhoods. Cleaver (2004, 2009) provided an example of documenting the impact of the family script through narrative case study.

Hargreaves et al. (2018) explained that there is a “reciprocal relationship” between musical identities and musical development. Musical identities not only affect musical development, but the development of music knowledge, skills and understanding can also shape musical identities. The concept of musical identity can also provide insight into “how individuals’ views of themselves can actually determine their motivation and subsequent performance in music” (North & Hargreaves, 2008, p. 338). Such a view enables the examination of musical development “from the inside” (p. 338).

While musical development has been reported as occurring in age-related phases (Hargreaves, 1996) and as dependent on variables, such as hours of practice and the support provided (Scripp et

19 Review of Literature al., 2013), music development is also affected by musical identities (Costa-Giomi, 2012). From their summary of current research, Elliott and Silverman (2017) identified “four main points across the life span that represent distinct transition points for musical identity” (p. 6): infancy, early childhood, adolescence, and old age. Evans and McPherson (2017) argued that music is an integral part of identity formation for all adolescents. Even for those people where active music-making may not play a core part of their eventual adult identity, these individuals will still hold values and beliefs about music. The authors proposed that positive musical identities require the “basic psychological needs of competence, relatedness, and autonomy” (p. 229) to be fulfilled. Positive musical identities and engagement in music practices leads to the development of specific music skills (Hargreaves et al., 2018).

2.4.3.3 Individual differences Numerous studies have attempted to investigate whether it is possible to identify and assess variation in individual and group music identities. However, Dys, Schellenberg, and McLean (2017) argued that the process adolescents and emerging adults undertake in order to negotiate an identity and understand who they are remains unclear. In their study, the researchers examined the relationship between music preferences and music identities. They found a complex relationship between individual differences (e.g., personality and processing styles) and group cultural factors (e.g., ethnicity and geographical location), and confirm that these should be studied jointly so as to uncover the function of musical identity.

2.4.4 Possible selves Future musical participation is dependent on a positive possible musical self. Markus and Nurius (1986) defined possible selves as a:

type of self-knowledge [that] pertains to how individuals think about their potential and about their future. Possible selves are the ideal selves that we would very much like to become. They are also the selves we could become, and the selves we are afraid of becoming. (Markus and Nurius, 1986, p. 954)

The authors argued that “an individual’s repertoire of possible selves can be viewed as the cognitive manifestation of enduring goals, aspiration, motives, fears and threats” (p. 954). How an individual views music in their future influences their current music motivation.

20 Review of Literature In their qualitative study, Schnare, MacIntyre, and Doucette (2012) explored the motivation of the possible musical self in people aged between 18 and 69 years who played at least one instrument. They found the musical self in their data consisted of “positive hopes counterbalanced by negative fears” (p. 108). Four main themes emerged from the “hoped for” selves: “improvement, social connection, success and enjoyment” (p. 100). Five main themes were revealed from the “feared” selves: “being a poor musician, injury/illness, financial difficulty, lack of knowledge and lack of social connection/recognition” (p. 103). The additional theme of negative expectations surfaced from “expected” selves. The authors reported that both motivation and performance are affected by the constant tension between hopes and fears.

School music programs contribute significantly to the construction of possible selves. Important pathway decisions regarding careers and tertiary education made at the end of schooling can affect students’ musical identities (Hargreaves et al., 2017). Campbell (2009), in her doctoral dissertation, examined the relationships between possible selves and music participation. 199 eighth grade general music students in the United States were surveyed on their current music participation and projected perceptions of music. The study found “students who had a strong music possible self were more likely to envision positive musical futures than students who had lower possible self- perceptions” (p. iii). Girls were found to have much stronger music possible selves when compared to boys. The researcher proposed “encouraging youth to see themselves as musicians in the future may impact their continued participation in musical organizations during adolescence” (p. iii).

Freer (2010) reviewed two decades of choral music research on possible selves and “missing males.” He suggested that possible selves are highly motivating when “well-elaborated” (p. 24) and encouraged a view of singing involving specialist technique that can be developed over time. Furthermore, Freer proposed that adolescent boys require information and skills to navigate their changing voices. He suggested that teachers need to engage with students as “co-musicians” where “making music is the focus and learning about music supports that focus” (p. 24). Freer also recommended that older males are promoted as peer role models, based on the idea that “people take specific steps toward the realization of positive possible selves, but only when those possible selves can be realistically imagined” (p. 24).

Varvarigou, Creech, and Hallam (2014) evaluated a London Symphony Orchestra partnership project with students and staff of 10 East London Music Services and the Guildhall School of Music & Drama. The investigators considered the influence of student participation on the construction of possible musical selves. Findings revealed participants reported the projects to considerably impact

21 Review of Literature “the development of musical skills, listening, confidence, motivation, inspiration and encouragement to persevere with music” (p. 94).

In their study entitled, “‘I am unmusical!’: The verdict of self-judgement,” Ruddock and Leong (2005) examined the impact of negative musical experiences on active musical participation. The four “non-musicians” investigated each revealed their self-judgement was caused by a formal music education experience in their past. While their reasons for negative judgements of music making abilities varied, an outcome of each case was the withdrawal of active musical involvement. These findings have significant implications for music education in schools and demonstrate its positive and negative potential. The construct of possible selves requires consideration when investigating the music beliefs, values, and identity work of adolescent boys.

2.5 Music education and identity Bowman (2018) proposed that “music’s most promising educational contribution ... is who we become (both personally and collectively) through musical engagements” (p. 28). Elliott and Silverman (2014) suggested that music education humanises, and “educative and ethical music teaching and music making balances the care, growth, and positive transformation of students as persons” (p. 58).

Music learning can occur in our daily lives through many different opportunities and does not need to have been designed as intentionally “educational” (Welch & McPherson, 2018). Saunders and Welch (2012) cautioned that not all music education experiences are positive and suggest that adolescent engagement with music is context-bound. McPherson and Welch (2018) described four categories of music education: “formal (schools, music studios), non-formal (structural community settings), informal (music making with friends and family) or incidental to another activity (travelling in a car)” (p. xxiii). This literature review will primarily focus on school class music education literature as it is the most relevant to the research setting.

2.5.1 School music education and identity Schools and educational institutions are influential in developing and guiding the musical identities of young people. Significant UK research has investigated formal school music education and students’ musical identities with mixed findings. Tarrant, North, and Hargreaves (2002) reported that adult supervised and organised formal music education provides a context for adolescents to explore important identity issues, however it is the unsupervised informal music activities that enable a more complete exploration of identity issues. Alexandra Lamont (2002) found that children who

22 Review of Literature engaged in more extra-curricular musical activities and liked their teacher showed more positive attitudes towards school music and demonstrated a positive musical identity.

Saunders and Welch (2012) investigated the conceptualisation, structure, and delivery of music education by three providers working in Youth Music Action Zones in England. The program aimed to “bridge the gap” (p. 14) between local formal and non-formal music education providers. The researchers found some young people had negative views towards music in schools because it conflicted with their personal sense of identity in and through music. Most of the adolescents did not describe themselves as “musicians,” though the authors suggested that young people who have positive musical experiences in multiple settings may be able to cultivate a broader sense of music in their identity than “musician” and “non-musician.” Positive relationships between school music teachers and students were found to occur when the teacher was “respectful of, and interested in, the young person’s musical opinions and preferences,” and “accommodates the student as a musical ‘significant other’ who is able to mediate musical encounters in social contexts beyond the immediate setting of the practitioner” (p. 99).

Recent research of school music and identity in Australia is generally positive. Cleaver (2009) presented a narrative case study of the musical lifeworld of a “musically dedicated” Year 11 school student, Jan Peterson. The paper was drawn from the researcher’s doctoral studies (viz., Cleaver, 2004), which aimed “to illuminate the complexity, depth and uniqueness of individual music meaning” (p. 35) and “develop insight into the meaning structures created through personal encounters with different types of music learning experiences” (p. 37). The author reported that, for Jan, music permeated beyond learning experiences and infused into her life. Cleaver (2009) reported that Jan found “the ‘me’ in music” (p. 45), drawing on the work of DeNora (2000) where “music is a ‘mirror’ that allows one to ‘see one’s self’” (p. 70). Cleaver argued that music teachers should look beyond the curriculum and consider the broader implications of music education on musical identities.

Adolescents in three Australian Catholic schools (one all-girls, one all-boys, and one co- educational) were investigated by Colville Fletcher (2015), who examined the ways in which student engagement with religious music shaped and supported their identity work. Through the lens of narrative inquiry, the study found religious music supported participants’ by nurturing a sense of collective identity with positive life values. Religious music shaped students’ identity work by helping them “engage, reflect, draw meanings, and relate to various aspects of their lives beyond school” (p. iii). Religious music impacted participants’ religious and spiritual identity work.

23 Review of Literature

Sutherland (2015) investigated Australian secondary school music education issues and events of five previous students that fostered a “passion” in music leading to tertiary music study. Through phenomenological qualitative research, the author proposed that the formation of “personal, musical identity and social musical identity is critical in the process of students seeing themselves as lifelong, active participants in music” (p. 162). The study recommended that secondary school students be provided with opportunities for a variety of collaborations with external ensembles to support positive identity development. The study’s primary focus was music learning beyond the school curriculum, and did not specifically address class music.

Literature demonstrates that school music education can shape and support music identities. Investigating students with existing positive musical identities provides hope of uncovering which specific aspects of school music education shape and support students’ identity work.

2.5.2 Class music and identity While all students in this study were engaged in various forms of music learning and development, they all studied Year 12 class music, and most had been continuously enrolled for all of their secondary schooling. The research setting provided an opportunity to investigate the aspects of class music that shaped and supported their identity work.

Little research was found to have specifically examined the role of class music on students’ identity work. Saunders (2009, 2010) investigated the role of Year 9 compulsory class music experiences on students’ musical identities in response to low enrolments in senior secondary music in English schools. It was found that engagement in the music classroom was linked to both music competency and students’ motivation for a personal relationship with music. This relationship required students to take risks and needed the explicit support of their peers and teachers. Without such an environment, students turned to music opportunities beyond the music classroom.

Willow-Peterson (2016) investigated the role of compulsory general music in middle school adolescent boys’ (aged 11 to 14 years) identity development, and particularly the connections between formal and informal settings. Findings indicated there were four factors that led to the engagement of participants’ musical identities in class music: “freedom in decision-making, belonging to the classroom community, distinction among peers, and exposure to the other” (p. 186). Connections to informal contexts were nurtured through freedom of musical choice and exposure to other students’ identity work.

24 Review of Literature

No previous studies are known to examine the identity work of adolescents studying class music in senior secondary school.

2.5.3 Music teacher identity Hargreaves and Lamont (2017) suggested effective music education involves interaction between the musical identities of students and their teachers. Teachers’ musical identities inevitably affect lesson design and practices, and so there is an interdependent relationship between the teachers’ and students’ musical identities. The musical identities of teachers and students are intertwined and develop together (Hargreaves, Purves, Welch, & Marshall, 2007).

The Teacher Identities in Music Education (TIME) project examined pre-service teachers’ musical identities (Hargreaves & Marshall, 2003). It was found that music teachers in initial teacher education programs increasingly emphasised the development of interpersonal skills, rather than musical skills. Pre-service teachers in English schools were found to likely have a strong background in Western classical music and little knowledge and understanding of other genres. Researchers (Hargreaves et al., 2007; Hargreaves, Welch, Purves, & Marshall, 2003; Welch, Purves, Hargreaves, & Marshall, 2010) have suggested such a background is limited and does not prepare future music teachers to support and shape the musical identities of their future students. Ballantyne, Kerchner, and Aróstegui (2012) suggested that pre-service music teacher identity issues are similar around the world.

There is also a substantial body of research on in-service music teachers’ professional identities. Music teachers have been found to have multiple musical identities (Hargreaves, Purves, Welch, & Marshall, 2007). Ballantyne (2005) reported that a teacher’s professional identity as either “musician” or “music teacher” is likely influenced by their musical self-efficacy (their perception of their own musical abilities). Hallam (2006) advocated that understanding music teacher professional identity further may improve music teacher pedagogy. Confidence in music teaching has been found to correlate to the amount of time dedicated to specialist music education in initial teacher education degree programs (Hallam et al., 2009). Dwyer (2012) investigated the values and beliefs of Queensland music teachers, and found that music teachers are shaped by a variety of influences, including their own music education experiences, the context and culture of their workplace, and broader societal attitudes towards music. Cleaver and Ballantyne (2014) recommended professional development for teachers include the consideration of teacher identity, and their values and beliefs.

25 Review of Literature The influences of my professional identity as a music teacher are outlined in the Prelude of this thesis.

2.6 Music education in schools 2.6.1 The role of school music education Considerable energy and debate have been devoted to justifying the role of music in the school curriculum (Pascoe et al., 2005). Recent advocacy has argued for lifelong music participation (Pitts, 2012), the extra-musical benefits (Hallam, 2015), and “human flourishing” (Elliott & Silverman, 2015).

One aim of school music education—dominant in recent literature (Dillon, 2007; Pitts, 2012)—is to equip students for a lifetime of engaging and meaningful musical participation. Pitts (2005), for example, proposed that “all students should leave school knowing enough about music to be able to pursue it further through independent learning and involvement in adult life” (p. 134). Other authors have agreed that this aim is dependent on catering for the diverse interests of students and the inclusion of a wide variety of musical genres and activities in the curriculum. Elliott and Silverman (2015) emphasised that school music should include “all forms of music making and listening” (p. 43). Beneficial musical programs:

need to be highly interactive and enjoyable with opportunities for developing new skills and performing; acquiring cultural capital; developing interpersonal bonds and solidarity in pursuing shared goals; on-going intensity and frequency of contact; developing mutual respect; and recognition and rewards for excellence. (Hallam, 2015, p. 19)

It is recommended that school music education acknowledges the music of students beyond the classroom (Pitts, 2012). McPherson et al. (2012) argued that individual musical discovery and development is most effective when opportunities occur in multiple locations and are reinforced by compatible attitudes and opportunities in the home, school, and elsewhere.

Recent research has continued to explore the extra-musical benefits of music education with advocacy promoting neuroscience findings being contentious (Odendaal, Levänen, & Westerlund, 2019). In a review of literature investigating the extra-musical benefits of Kodály-inspired music education, Goopy (2013) proposed that different music education practices yield different musical and extra-musical benefits. Hallam (2015) presented a comprehensive review examining evidence from neuroscience and suggested the significance of extra-musical benefits are impacted by music

26 Review of Literature teaching quality, early engagement (before the age of 7 years), time devoted to engagement and commitment, type of instruction, and the instrument learned. Elliott and Silverman (2015) advised caution and criticised music advocacy campaigns claiming improvements in academic achievement as “premature at best and invalid and unreliable at worst” (p. 38). Rauscher (2009) argued that “music education should not have to prove its value by showing that it has non-musical outcomes” (p. 251).

Contemporary leading music education philosophers have recently advocated for a broader and more ethical view of music education (Elliott, 2012). Bowman (2018), for example, proposed that we should teach “in” (“training”) and “through” (“educating”) music. Elliott and Silverman (2014) proposed that we should “educate people in music, about music, for music, and through music” (p. 68). They described such an approach as leading to human flourishing:

when music education is ethically guided - when we teach people not only in and about music, but also through music—we achieve what Aristotle and many other philosophers consider the highest human value—eudaimonia—which is a multidimensional term that means full human flourishing: a “good life” of significant, enjoyable, and meaningful work and leisure; personal and community health and well-being; virtue; and fellowship, self-worth, and happiness for the benefit of oneself and others. (Elliott & Silverman, 2014, p. 59)

The literature demonstrates school music education has a variety of roles, influenced by efforts to advocate for the place of music in the curriculum. By teaching “in,” “about,” and “for” music, it is hoped that students earn musical independence, foster positive attitudes for lifelong participation in music, and are advantaged by extra-musical benefits. By teaching “through” music, it is intended that students will be ethical citizens capable of human flourishing.

2.6.2 Australian school music education The status of school music education was reported as deteriorating internationally at the dawn of the twenty-first century (Harland et al., 2000). UK researchers in particular challenged the purpose of the national music curriculum (cf. Carlin, 1997; Gammon, 1996; Pitts, 2001; Ross, 1995), leading to a decade of curriculum review and reform (Stunell, 2006). In Australia, a study commissioned by the Music Council of Australia (Stevens, 2003) investigating school music education laid the foundations for a national review (Pascoe et al., 2005).

The National Review of School Music Education (Pascoe et al., 2005) reported inconsistency in the quality and provision of formal music learning opportunities available to Australian school

27 Review of Literature students. The second “key message” of the review was that “many Australian students miss out on effective music education because of the lack of equity of access; lack of quality of provision; and, the poor status of music in many schools” (p. v). A diverse range of programs and teaching were described within the review, ranging from excellent to fragmented to no formal offerings. Excellent programs offered a broad range of music learning opportunities, ranging from class music, ensembles (instrumental and voice), one-on-one, and group studio teaching, and projects such as musicals, themed productions, and music tours. They also facilitated informal learning experiences and encouraged students to bring in their music from home and with their peers.

These same issues were evident nearly a decade later in a review by an “inquiry into the extent, benefits, and potential of music education in Victorian schools” (Parliament of Victoria, 2013). An investigation by Petrova (2012) found that 62.74% of primary and 33.78% of secondary schools in Australia do not offer class music. The gradual implementation of a national Arts curriculum (Australian Curriculum, 2016) aims to provide all Australian children in primary and lower secondary year levels access to a school music education.

Crooke and McFerran (2015) investigated the “barriers” and “enablers” for implementing music in Australian schools from the perspective of four school principals. Eight barriers were found: “burden on schools, staff challenges, program relevance, convincing the school community, lack of appropriate resources, unsupportive leadership, sustaining a program, and competing models of education” (p. 27). Eleven enablers were found: “existing level of arts, existing resources, school leadership, a tailored approach, external support, embedding music, staff support, involving students, convincing the school community, community partnerships, and working towards sustainability” (p. 27).

The research setting of my study offered students an excellent array of music education opportunities (described in Section 3.7). As a class music teacher, I was interested in the role class music had in the lives and identities of students.

2.6.3 Australian class music Music education in Australia is managed by each state and territory government. As a result, class music in Australia takes numerous forms and structures depending on state and territory policies and curriculum documents. The range of these forms and structures includes arts immersion in the general classroom, multi-arts lessons, and specialist music lessons (Pascoe et al., 2005). It has become expected in some arts educational paradigms that class music be used to teach other subjects in

28 Review of Literature primary education, such as English, History, and Science (Barrett, McCoy, & Veblen, 1997). The Australian Curriculum (Australian Curriculum, 2016) structure promotes a multi-arts approach in primary and lower secondary year levels—with music grouped as one of the five Arts—though allows for specialist class music lessons.

Secondary schooling in Australia begins in Year 7,4 offering a diverse range of class music education forms and structures. Multi-arts lessons, discipline “taster” courses, and general discipline specific courses are usually compulsory in Years 7 and 8, and are offered as discipline specific electives from Year 9. Some schools offer elective extension class music from as early as Year 7. In Years 11 and 12, each state offers a form of general class music, and music extension (with specialisation) that can contribute towards students’ senior education certificate and tertiary entrance score. “These courses may comprise some form of performing, listening, creating, analysing in the context of different genres and styles, and may utilise different types of technology and media” (Pascoe et al., 2005, p. 19).

2.6.3.1 Music education philosophy and pedagogy Australian class music education arguably “reflects a number of philosophical and methodological influences emanating from Europe, the UK and USA” (Pascoe et al., 2005, p. 15). The National Review of School Music Education (Pascoe et al., 2005) provided the most recent and comprehensive account of Australian school class music. It reported practices in Australian schools are both “eclectic” and often “blended.” These include but are not limited to Dalcroze Eurhythmics (Bachmann, 1991), the Kodály Concept (Choksy, 1999a, 1999b; Houlahan & Tacka, 2008; Kodály, 1974), Orff Schulwerk (Frazee, 1987, 2006; Orff, 1978), Comprehensive Musicianship (Thomson, 1974), aesthetic education (Reimer, 1970, 1989, 2003), Music Learning Theory (Gordon, 2003), constructivist learning (Wiggins, 2001, 2015), Praxial Music Education (Elliott, 1995; Elliott & Silverman, 2015), Musical Futures (Jeanneret, 2010), and the inclusion of music technology.

My personal philosophy and pedagogy of music education has been influenced by and blends general education theories, constructivism, praxial music education, and Kodály-inspired practices, and are reviewed in this section. Cuskelly (2006) noted the complementary nature of praxial music education and Kodály-inspired practice. Scott (2011) argued that “constructivist perspectives for teaching and learning can work in tandem with traditional teacher-directed methods of instruction to

4 Prior to 2015, Year 8 was the beginning of secondary school in the state of Queensland.

29 Review of Literature help students acquire musical skills and knowledge and apply these proficiencies as independent musicians” (p. 193).

2.6.3.1.1 General education Research on the quality and effectiveness of teaching has been a significant influence in Australian school education and has influenced my personal philosophy and pedagogy. William (2011) proposed that the greatest impact on student learning is “how teachers teach [rather] than what they teach” (p. 19). He proclaims that “pedagogy trumps curriculum” as “a bad curriculum taught well is invariably a better experience for students than a good curriculum badly taught” (p. 13). In his meta-study of more than 50,000 studies, Hattie (2009) compared the impact of influence on students’ achievement using its statistical effect size. In Visible Learning, he argued it is “most important that teaching is visible to the student, and that the learning is visible to the teacher” (p. 23). Hattie found that:

visible teaching and learning occurs when: • learning is the explicit goal, • it is appropriately challenging, • the teacher and the student both (in their various ways) seek to ascertain whether and to what degree the challenging goal is attained, • there is deliberate practice aimed at attaining mastery of the goal, • there is feedback given and sought, and when • there are active, passionate, and engaging people (teacher, student, peers, and so on) participating in the act of learning. (Hattie, 2009, p. 22)

Psychology has, perhaps naturally, also influenced Australian school education. Dweck (2006) argued that “the view you adopt for yourself profoundly affects the way you lead your life” (p. 6). Instead of a “fixed mindset,” Dweck advocated for a “growth mindset,” “based on the beliefs that your basic qualities are things you can cultivate through your efforts” (p. 6). Duckworth, Peterson, Matthews, and Kelly (2007) proposed that the reason some “individuals accomplish more than others of equal intelligence” is because of “grit,” defined as “perseverance and passion for long- term goals” (p. 1087). Skill and sustained effort result in student achievement (Duckworth, 2016).

In my study, the research setting—Queensland Boys’ School—adopted the Dimensions of Learning Framework (Marzano, Pickering, & Arredondo, 2011) as a school wide approach. This framework outlines five dimensions of thinking for effective learning: “Attitudes and Perceptions,”

30 Review of Literature “Acquire and Integrate Knowledge,” “Extend and Refine Knowledge,” “Use Knowledge Meaningfully,” and “Habits of Mind” (pp. 4–6). The focus of this approach is teaching students how to think, rather than what to think, and has been influential in shaping my educational philosophy and pedagogy.

2.6.3.1.2 Constructivism Vygotksy (1978) first proposed the theory of social constructivism believing all human learning takes place between people in a social context. In music education, Wiggins (2016) builds on the work of Vygotsky and argued that “people learn by constructing their own understanding of experience” (p. 49). A constructivist vision of teaching music aims to provide these natural ways of learning. In this view, learning occurs formally and informally in social contexts, where learners interact with others, the ideas of others, or with processes they have previously learned from others. Wiggins (2016) explained that while constructivist approaches vary, there are common qualities that reflect how humans learn. These learning characteristics are: “scaffolding,” “a holistic process,” “experiential (not necessarily sequential),” “learner agency and teacher power” (Wiggins, 2015, pp. 16–23). Cleaver and Ballantyne (2014) reminded us there will be as many versions of constructivism as there are subscribers, as each individual constructs their own notion of reality.

Rather than specific strategies or practices, teaching from a constructivist perspective is more interested in the roles of teachers and learners in the learning process (Wiggins, 2016). Wiggins (2015) said that “the primary role of a teacher is to provide scaffolding for learners, enabling them to operate within their zones of proximal development, resulting in their achieving a higher level of understanding and competence in music, gaining musical independence” (p. 42). Bruner (1966) developed the concept of “scaffolding” as a metaphor for the teaching support that learners receive. The characteristics of scaffolding learners in a constructivist approach are: “establishing a supportive learning environment;” “finding out what learners know;” “encouraging expression of musical ideas;” “focusing learner energy;” “monitoring learner understanding and progress;” and, “providing a model of musicianship” (Wiggins, 2015, pp. 41–49).

Blair (2009) encouraged constructivist teachers to “step aside” and find ways to “allow” students to be composers, listeners, and performers, rather than being the centre of music learning. An alternative view was put forward by Kirschner, Sweller, and Clark (2006), who cautioned against unguided learning—often associated with constructivism—and argued that such an approach has proven to be less effective than approaches that place strong emphasis on guiding the student learning process. They suggested that students should first have high prior knowledge before the removal of

31 Review of Literature scaffolding. Cleaver and Ballantyne (2014) proposed that constructivist teachers “must pay attention to assisting student agency in ‘constructing an identity in music’ rather than simply focusing on ‘training’ students to become a particular kind of musician with particular skills” (p. 238).

The role of the social constructivist learner is to be an active member of the music learning community (Wiggins, 2015). Effective teachers in a constructivist approach design learning experiences and environments that allow for social interaction between the learners and teacher, and amongst learners. Learners have the capacity to contribute to their peers’ learning and benefit from the multiplicity of individual perspectives (Wiggins, 2016). Blair (2009) advocated that being an active member of the learning community engaging with music and solving musical problems enables learners to inform their own musical understanding. It is these collaborative interactions that led to transformative personal musical experiences and allowed students to become more confident in their developing their musicianship.

2.6.3.1.3 Praxial music education Elliott’s (1995) Music Matters was the textbook for my final year undergraduate studies and was significant in shaping my personal music education philosophy and pedagogy. Elliott and Silverman (2015) described a praxial philosophy of music education, which went beyond the understanding of the “elements” and “concepts” of music, to emphasise “active reflection and critically reflective action dedicated to supporting and advancing human flourishing and well-being, the ethical care of others, and the positive transformation of people’s everyday lives” (p. 52). They argued that “music should be conceived, taught, and learned as a social praxis” (p. 52). More broadly, the authors advocated that when “artists lead a productive, meaningful, ethical, and community- oriented way of life that benefits themselves and others, they are engaging in artistic citizenship” (p. 88). Elliott and Silverman (2017) later argued that their praxial philosophy of music education facilitates personal, social, and musical identities.

In practice, praxial music education seeks “to teach and empower students to learn all forms of music making and listening” (Elliott & Silverman, 2015, p. 43). This aim involves developing the musicianship and listenership of all students. Welcoming students into unfamiliar musical praxes connects the primary value of music to the broader goals of humanistic education and asks students to confront their prejudices (personal and musical) (Elliott & Silverman, 2015). Praxial music education has been previously deeply considered in Australian music education by Cuskelly (2006). This study provides elaborations of this philosophy in practice in Australian senior secondary class music.

32 Review of Literature

2.6.3.1.4 Kodály-inspired music education Kodaly-inspired music education is reported as the most adopted approach to class music education in Australia (Pascoe et al., 2005). Deanna Hoermann, at the time a Sydney-based secondary school music teacher, initially became interested in Hungarian music education in search of a way to improve her students’ aural skills (Hoermann, 1985). Her experiences in Hungary and support from leading Hungarian music educators led Hoermann to establish the Kodály-inspired Developmental Music Program in the state of New South Wales (Bridges, 1980; Hoermann & Herbert, 1979). Carroll (1985) noted that while state government funding for the program was eventually withdrawn, the Queensland Department of Education soon supported school programs derived from this initial project, including providing large numbers of consultants and regular professional development of classroom teachers throughout that state. Pascoe et al. (2005) reported that all Queensland schools offered class music, often with a music specialist, and that primary curriculum resources had a “strong Kodály focus” (p. 43). Being a resident of Queensland all my life, I experienced Kodály-inspired music education at all levels: primary and secondary school, and university undergraduate and master’s study. My teaching is subsequently shaped by the Kodály-inspired music education.

Zoltán Kodály (1882–1967)—ethnomusicologist, composer, and educator—led the development of a new approach to music education during the mid-twentieth century to preserve and revitalise Hungarian musical culture (Nemes, 2017). He believed folk songs (some 1,500 years old) were “the mirror of the soul of all Hungarians” (Kodály, 2019, p. 11) and envisaged music education as a vehicle for rebirth of Hungarian musical culture. Kodály advocated for children and youth to become “stewards of their musical and cultural heritage” (Houlahan & Tacka, 2015, p. 21) primarily through singing and choral music education (Nemes, 2017). Kodály (1974) wrote, “If one were to attempt to express the essence of this education in one word, it could only be—singing” (p. 206). He considered singing, the most human and accessible instrument, as “the nurturing soil of a general music culture which reaches the masses” (Kodály, 2019, p. 41). Kodály (2019) contended that such an approach was inclusive of all people and one through which “Music belongs to everybody” (p. 38).

Kodály was revered in Hungary and music education was soon guided by his principles or “set of ideas” (Meehan, 1996, p. 1). He argued that schools had a “duty” to ensure children, especially in Kindergarten, received quality music education (Kodály, 1974) delivered by excellent musicians and “artist-teachers” (Houlahan & Tacka, 2015). He declared that the characteristics of a “good musician” could be summarised as: “a well-trained ear, a well-trained intelligence, a well-trained

33 Review of Literature heart,” and “a well-trained hand (technique)” (Kodály, 1974, p. 197). In collaboration with his former students, Kodály composed and edited numerous song books, collections, and a method book (Ádám, 1971) tailored specifically for teaching school children (Ittzés, 2006). In 2016, UNESCO acknowledged the unique contribution of the Kodály Concept to the safeguarding of cultural folk song heritage and the concept was added to the Intangible Heritage Register of Good Safeguarding Practices (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) 2016).

Kodály conceived his concept of music education to be flexible and adaptive towards new and improved thought. He and his students added and subtracted strategies for music learning and teaching as his work unfolded (Wade, 1996):

It was in the schools and in the hands of the teachers that the Method truly evolved and is still evolving, for the Kodály Method is a living method, not a static one. As better ways are found, they are incorporated. (Choksy, 1999a, p. 4)

O'Leary (1986) reminded us that Kodály’s writings and intention were not to specify one particular method, but rather to evoke a broader philosophy and flexible set of pedagogical ideas that could be applied to many learning contexts.

In Kodály-inspired music education, learning occurs through active music making with singing and choral music providing an accessible basis for all students (Nemes, 2017). Teaching is sequential and developmental using a spiral curriculum (Wade, 1996). Kodály (1974) argued that only the highest quality repertoire was good enough for children. Students’ musical culture and heritage are initially studied through simple folk songs and as musical expertise develops so does the complexity and scope of repertoire. Music notation literacy is a key component of this sound-to- symbol approach. In addition, movement is considered a critical aspect of music learning and explored through singing games, folk dancing and other activities (Houlahan & Tacka, 2015). The methods associated with Kodály-inspired music education are a fusion of education philosophies and music practices, including those of Rousseau, Pestalozzi, Curwen and Glover (moveable solfege), Kestenberg and Chevé (rhythm syllables) (Choksy, Abramson, Gillespie, Woods, & York, 2001).

Hungarian music education has been adapted and implemented across the globe. Contextual adaptations have emerged, including differences to the sequence of musical elements and concepts, and folk repertoire (Pascoe et al., 2005). First Steps in Music and Conversational Solfege by John Feierabend are examples of internationally recognised Kodály-inspired curriculum programs adapted

34 Review of Literature for the United States (Feierabend & Strong, 2018). I propose that Australian Kodály-inspired music education presents a distinctive adaptation, particularly in secondary schools, as general music education is taught across all year levels of schooling in Australia unlike in other countries. Queensland schools, specifically, present a unique adaptation of Kodály-inspired music teaching and learning due to historical state education support, and Goopy (2008) serves as an example of local pedagogical and curriculum design in secondary school.

There is a lack of research investigating Australian Kodály-inspired secondary music education. Hartwig and Barton (2004) interviewed eight Queensland secondary music teachers concerning the implementation of a newly released state Arts Syllabus (Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2002) and participants took a strong view that the “Kodály language and focus of the syllabus was not appropriate for most secondary school contexts” (p. 67). In contrast, however, Cuskelly (2006) investigated issues of meaning in music and music education based on his success with Kodály-inspired teaching in Queensland schools. Young (2017) presented a doctoral research study investigating an effective Kodály influenced class music program at the beginning of secondary school. My study is the first to investigate Australian Kodály-inspired music education in senior secondary schooling.

2.6.3.2 Perspectives on class music 2.6.3.2.1 Student perspectives The literature reports mixed student perspectives on class music and music participation. Some international comparisons exist (McPherson & O’Neill, 2010), with considerable recent investigations devoted to this topic in the United Kingdom (Hargreaves & Marshall, 2003; Harland et al., 2000; Lamont, Hargreaves, Marshall, & Tarrant, 2003; O’Neill, Sloboda, Boulton, & Ryan, 2002; Pitts, 2005, 2007, 2012; Saunders & Welch, 2012; Sloboda, 2001).

UK studies from the 1970s to the 1990s consistently ranked music as one of the least-preferred subjects in schools (Ross, 1995). A large-scale survey of arts education carried out in 2000 concluded that music was chosen by a very small proportion of students, that “pupil enjoyment, relevance, skill development, creativity and expressive dimensions were often absent,” and that music was “the most problematic and vulnerable art form” in senior secondary school (Harland et al., 2000, p. 568). Sloboda (2001) even suggested that “classroom music, as currently conceptualised and organised, is an inappropriate vehicle for mass music education in 21st century Britain” (p. 252). Hargreaves and Marshall (2003) argued that student engagement and motivation are dependent on students’

35 Review of Literature “ownership of their music making: on their autonomy within it, and the extent to which they can exert control” (p. 11).

Student value and participation in music has been reported as declining with age, particularly as students transition from primary to secondary school (Harland et al., 2000; Sloboda, 2001). McPherson and O’Neill (2010) investigated students’ motivations to study music as compared to other school subjects in eight countries and found “music as a school subject was valued less and received lower task difficulty ratings than other school subjects with the exception of art” (p. 101).

Pitts (2012) retold life history accounts and reported retrospective perspectives on formative music education. Participants reported the benefits of effective music education were: “engagement in school, a growth in confidence and identity, a sense of achievement, and the sheer pleasure of musical involvement” (p, 162). One experienced band member commended that encouraging young peoples’ involvement in music makes them not only “better musicians”, but also “better people” (p. 162). Participants reported the strongest lasting impressions of music education were of their teachers sharing “a passion and enjoyment of music” and “a lifelong awareness of how to develop musically” (p. 174). Perspectives on class music lessons were often “muted, with respondents across the generations reporting limited benefits from lessons that were sometimes at odds with their passion for music outside the curriculum” (p. 186). It was found that while class music was enjoyable for the majority of students, “its appeal was self-limiting, perceived to require substantial investment of learning outside school”, and, consequently, was considered “a risk to students with limited instrumental skills, and an impossibility to those without” (p. 165).

In contrast, research conducted by Lamont et al. (2003) presented a more positive view of class music. Teachers and students “valued the role of music in the curriculum for both its musical and extra musical effects” (p. 238). Despite challenges associated with differentiation in the curriculum, both teachers and students pursued accessibility and inclusivity. Students in their last year of primary school, perceived secondary school as an opportunity try new activities, including music. Year 9 boys were also more positive about school music than previously reported.

A national study of four Australian music youth arts sites examining children’s perspectives of the meaning and value of music in their lives (Barrett & Smigiel, 2003) described five overarching themes. These were “love of performance; unity of purpose; challenge and professionalism; relationships and community; and, personal fulfilment, growth and well-being” (Barrett & Smigiel, 2007, p. 42). School music appeared negatively in comparison to music experiences in youth arts

36 Review of Literature settings. In particular, “school educational critics” suggested that “‘challenge’ is a crucial component of [students’] educational experience that is balanced by the development of skills that allow for further growth and development” (p. 47). Furthermore, these children wished to “integrate music experiences into their lives, their relationships, and their sense of purpose” (p. 47).

Australian researchers have also investigated student perspectives of class music education during postgraduate studies. Hartwig (2003) investigated the implementation of a new syllabus (Queensland School Curriculum Council, 2002) in Queensland with reference to Year 8 students, and McEwan (2006) examined the motivations of New South Wales students when choosing to elect Music in Year 9. Ballantyne (2000) analysed the responses from 46 Queensland Year 10 students determining their reasons for electing to study class music as a senior subject. The study found four main factors affecting student choice: “career aspiration, intrinsic interest, students’ expectations, and views of the teacher” (p. 39). In contrast, those students who were not electing to study senior class music perceived the subject “would not be useful in their jobs or careers, that other subjects were more important, and that music was not useful for getting into university” (p. 39). Students also did not tend to like their past music teachers or find the subject’s content interesting.

The literature demonstrates both positive and negative student views towards school class music education. Perspectives of Australian students studying class music in senior secondary school are yet to be investigated.

2.6.3.2.2 Parent perspectives The consideration of parents is important, as a child’s musical development and interest has been found to be directly influenced by their home environment and parent values (McPherson, 2009). Parents can pass on their music beliefs and values in specific music interests and shape their child’s musical identities (Borthwick & Davidson, 2002). It is a commonly held view by families that elective class music does not benefit future education and career prospects (McEwan, 2013). McEwan (2013) found that this view influenced students’ decisions to select class music as an elective in Year 9. In some parts of Australia and other places around the world, current education policies and practices require some families to decide themselves whether their children will receive a rigorous music education (Scripp et al., 2013). In a longitudinal Australian study, McPherson et al. (2012) found that while most parents see the value of providing their children with the opportunity to sample instrumental music opportunities, parents’ responses indicated music’s value remains as recreational activity; its purpose is enjoyment (McPherson et al., 2012).

37 Review of Literature

2.7 Boys and music education 2.7.1 Boys and education Alongside the deteriorating status of school music education at the turn of the twenty-first century, governments and popular media fixated on “failing boys” and how best to solve this crisis (Martino, 2011). Boys: Getting it right (House of Representatives Standing Committee on Education and Training, 2002) was an Australian federal government Parliamentary Inquiry into boys’ education in response to the “growing community concerns about the education of boys” (p. 15). While the report attempted to voice “efforts to raise the educational achievement of boys without threatening the gains made by girls in recent decades” (p. 15), Mills, Martino, and Lingard (2007) critically disagreed, stating that the report “is shown to be an exemplary instance of recuperative masculinity politics” (p. 5). They argued the report reinforced popular narratives (Gurian & Stevens, 2004, 2005; Sax, 2005, 2007; Sommers, 2013) of the differences between boys and girls. Several of the report’s recommendations were criticised, including the call to reform gender policy; create “boy-friendly” curriculum, practices, and assessment; and, the employment of more male teachers. The report was also criticised for drawing on limited academic research and for giving voice to populist boys’ lobby literature. Mills et al. (2007) argued the report was limited in value as “the significance of the construction of masculinities to boys’ attachment to and performances in school [was] totally neglected” (p. 5).

Mead (2006) argued the issue of “failing boys” had been brought into the spotlight because girls were doing better rather than boys who were performing more poorly. Eliot (2009) dismissed “the argument that boys and girls need different educational experiences because their brains are different” (p. 305). While differences exist, the cognitive abilities of boys and girls are far more alike than not (Rivers & Barnett, 2011) and sweeping generalisations about gender are inappropriate and poorly justified. Perspectives on the differences between sexes prevent teachers from deepening their understanding of students at risk (Martino, 2011). It is possible that effective practices for boys (cf. the study by Reichert & Hawley, 2009) would be just as effective for girls, and vice versa. Researchers (Martino, 2011; Martino, Kehler, & Weaver-Hightower, 2009; Mills et al., 2007) have made a case for future evidence-based research that is not analysed exclusively in terms of gender. “Class, race, and other factors such as sexuality, geographical location, and disability intersect with gender in significant and meaningful ways” (Martino, 2011 para. 1).

This dissertation does not seek to valorise gendered identity over constituencies, rather to understand the constituency of my workplace and research setting.

38 Review of Literature

2.7.2 Boys and class music Much literature has examined the “missing males” (Koza, 1993) in music education (Adler, 2003; Adler & Harrison, 2004; Freer, 2006, 2007, 2009a, 2009b, 2010; Hall, 2005; Harrison, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010; Harrison, Welch, & Adler, 2012). Comber, Hargreaves, and Colley (1993) suggested the construction of music as a feminised subject is another reason for decreased enrolments in elective music as students progress through secondary school. They reported that some music teachers have attempted to engage boys by changing their teaching practices to suit what they perceive to be boys’ interests and learning styles. This has led to a music “curriculum for boys which accommodate[s], reinforce[s] and reproduce[s] hegemonic constructions of masculinity to increase student enrolment” (McGregor & Mills, 2006, p. 225).

Gender issues were deliberated by Lamb, Dolloff, and Howe (2002), who urged music educators not to reinforce gendered stereotypes: “there is evidence that in appealing to boys through the use of music they like (heavy metal) and the use of competitive sport analogies, … teachers may legitimise the … attitudes that they seek to avoid” (p. 665). Adler and Harrison (2004) and Harrison (2007) took a post-feminist perspective that acknowledged that both males and females are disadvantaged by the present day gender order and argued for equitable and just experiences of music for both sexes. Ashley (2010) agreed and argued for boys and girls to develop mutual respect for each other in class music. McGregor and Mills (2006) concluded that the nature of music provides an opportunity to explore masculinity, femininity, and gender relationships that can benefit students.

Bennetts (2013) presented a positive perspective on middle school boys’ participation in Australian school music beyond gender stereotypes. Her study highlighted an “extreme difference” between single-sex and co-education settings (p. 226). In an investigation of a Melbourne secondary boys’ school, several themes emerged: “the recognition of music as a component of a broad, rounded education; the importance of teachers actively promoting music; the adoption of a teacher-centred versus student-centred approach to teaching music; the adoption of certain pedagogies combined with teacher characteristics; the influence of class, the influence of ethnicity; and the impact of the single- sex environment” (p. 218). While it was observed that class music exclusively focussed on Western classical music, participants indicated a preference for classes to also include contemporary music.

Young (2017) investigated adolescent boys’ perspectives of a Queensland Kodály-inspired compulsory class music program in the first year of secondary school with the view to improving practice and popularity of the course. Discourse analysis of the interview transcripts uncovered that students enjoyed learning music through making music and the intellectual challenge of rigorous

39 Review of Literature music education. Students advocated for more opportunities to work in pairs and small groups to learn about each other and construct their identities. The study recommended that teachers develop site specific pedagogy that matches student needs.

2.7.3 Boys and singing Singing underpins Kodály-inspired practice and boys sing in most of my lessons. Boys’ singing and its lack of participants has been investigated thoroughly in boys’ music education literature. Several factors have been found to contribute to the disproportion between the number of boys and girls who participate in singing, particularly choral ensembles. Green (1997) argued the central issue to this phenomenon is the perception of singing as a feminine or non-masculine activity. Hall (2011, 2018) examined singing as a feminised or “unmasculine” practice and explored gender, class, and music education from the perspectives of Australian choirboys. The reinforcement of hegemonic masculinity through homophobia has also been found by authors to be significant in boys’ disengagement from vocal music (Adler & Harrison, 2004). In an international study, Freer (2015) reported that boys’ attitudes and continued participation in choral experiences are influenced by individual teachers’ values, beliefs, and practices; high levels of musicianship modelled and experienced; and a supportive social environment.

Boys’ music identity work is related to voice change (Freer, 2015). Studies (e.g., Ashley, 2008, 2009; Freer, 2009c) have found that boys do not understand the physiological process of voice change, and boys who stop singing during adolescence are unlikely to resume singing when they are older (Ashley, 2008). Researchers in adolescent boys’ singing (Cooksey & Welch, 1998; Young, 2011, 2012) have advocated for teachers to consider boys’ physiological, emotional, intellectual, and musical development when selecting repertoire in the early years of secondary school. For such considerations to occur, it is recommended that teachers (Cooksey & Welch, 1998) and students (Ashley, 2011) receive more guidance and teaching on the development of adolescent male singing. Harrison and Young (2017) argued that “young men who become able, skilled and confident as choral singers” through the voice change become “influential agents” in the construction of broadened and healthy concepts of masculinity (pp. 162–163).

2.8 Chapter summary This chapter examined a range of contemporary literature, including music and music education beliefs, values, and uses; music and identity; music education and identity; music education in Australian schools; and boys’ music education. The investigation context presented an opportunity to interrogate the gaps and silences in existing research.

40 Review of Literature

Literature from a psychological perspective reports that human musical behaviours can be explained by examining the inner states of beliefs and values (Evans, 2016). For this study, beliefs are defined as ideas that one holds to be true, and it is understood that a person’s beliefs inform their values. Values are what one thinks are important, and guide decision making. Studies discussed in this review examined numerous music (Australia Council for the Arts, 2017; Pitts, 2005) and music education (Barrett et al., 2018; Campbell et al., 2007; Hallam et al., 2016; McPherson & O’Neill, 2010; Pitts, 2012) beliefs and values, including the misconception of music as a “gift” or “talent” (Hargreaves et al., 2018; McPherson et al., 2012). Music is regarded as an activity in which people have a role (Clayton, 2016; Small, 1998), and several sets of uses—including functions of music— have been reported (Barrett, 2011, 2017b; Campbell, 2002; Merriam, 1964). Little is known internationally or in Australia about the music beliefs, values, and uses of dedicated music students studying class music in senior secondary school.

Beliefs, values, and uses of music shape and support identities (Clayton, 2016; DeNora, 1999). Identity has been reported in the literature as a self-construct that is continuously performed as “identity work” (Snow & Anderson, 1987; Sveningsson & Alvesson, 2003; Watson, 2016). Individuals’ identity work is continuously evolving, consists of multiple identities, and is developed through self-reflection and interactions with others (Johnson et al., 2006; McInnes & Corlett, 2012; Roberts & Creary, 2012). Musical identities can have a significant role in identity work (DeNora, 1999, 2000) and are constructed via the multifaceted roles of music in our identity (MII) and our identity in music (IIM) (Hargreaves et al., 2017; Hargreaves et al., 2002). These musical identities are individualised, performative, evolving, and contextual and we all have multiple musical identities (Hallam, 2017; Hargreaves et al., 2018). Future music participation is dependent on a positive outlook on music in our projected possible self (Campbell, 2009; Freer, 2010; Schnare et al., 2012), and music learning and development have been found to shape and support musical identities (Hargreaves et al., 2018). No previous studies are known to have examined the role of music in the identity work of senior secondary students at the end of their schooling as they begin a transition to adulthood.

Music learning occurs in various aspects of our daily lives (McPherson & Welch, 2018), and schools are significantly influential in shaping and supporting the musical identities of children (Saunders, 2009, 2010; Willow-Peterson, 2016). The Australian Curriculum (Australian Curriculum, 2016) entitles primary and lower secondary school students to a music education in the form of class music (also known as classroom or general music). While literature has examined the role of broader

41 Review of Literature music education and broader school music learning opportunities in identity development, little research has specifically examined the role of class music.

The research setting of a single-sex school warranted the review of literature in the field of boys’ music education. Much research in this area has been dedicated to gender studies seeking answers to the question of why boys are “failing” (Martino, 2011) in school and “missing” (Koza, 1993) in the music classroom. The issues of masculinity and singing, particularly during adolescence, dominates literature in this field (Adler, 2003; Adler & Harrison, 2004; Freer, 2007, 2009a, 2009b, 2009c, 2010; Harrison, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2010; Harrison et al., 2012). The research setting for this investigation involved adolescent boys who had invested in music and were engaged in Kodály- inspired class music practices (Houlahan & Tacka, 2015; Kodály, 2019) where boys’ singing is normalised (Young, 2017). Rather than a focus on boys’ education, this study sought to understand the individual students I was teaching and their perspectives on the role of music and class music in their identity work.

In response to the issues identified in the literature, three overarching questions guided the investigation.

1. What are the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys in a single-sex independent school? 2. How do these adolescent boys use music to shape and support their identity work? 3. What aspects of class music in this context shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music?

In the next chapter I detail the methodology used in this study.

42 Methodology 3 Methodology 3.1 Introduction The purpose of this study was to investigate the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys in a single-sex independent school class music program, and sought to understand how these phenomena shape adolescent boys’ identity work. The investigation aimed to answer the following questions:

1. What are the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys’ in a single-sex independent school? 2. How do these adolescent boys use music to shape and support their identity work? 3. What aspects of class music in this context shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music?

This qualitative study was situated within a social constructivist research paradigm, adopted a relativist ontology (there are multiple realities), a subjectivist epistemology (knower and respondent co-create understandings), and a naturalistic methodology (in the natural world) (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). Narrative inquiry (Barrett & Stauffer, 2009; Barrett & Stauffer, 2012) and case study methodology using single-case holistic design (Yin, 2014) was used for intrinsic and instrumental purposes (Stake, 1995, 2005). The research setting was my place of employment at the time, an Australian independent P–12 boys’ school. Data were generated and triangulated through semi- structured interviews (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009) incorporating artefact elicitation with Year 12 class music students and their parents. Narrative analysis and analysis of narratives (Polkinghorne, 1995) provided the lens for interpreting the data. At all times, the study methodology was underpinned by the researcher’s continuous reflexivity. The research was validated against the qualitative criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985) by using strategies including saturation, prolonged engagement, third party participant recruitment, triangulation of data sources and types, and member checking (Creswell, 2013). Figure 3.1 provides a visual representation of the study methodology.

43 Methodology

Qualitative Methodology Methods Data interpretation research

• axiology • narrative inquiry • semi-structured • narrative • constructivist • case study interviews analysis paradigm • single-case incorporating • thematic • relativist holistic design artefact • analysis of eliciation ontology • blended narratives • subjectivist intrinsic and • triangulation • thematic epistemology instrumental of data types and sources • naturalistic purposes methodology

Reflexivity

Figure 3.1. Methodology overview

3.2 Qualitative research This study is a qualitative research study. Qualitative research “involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011, p. 3) and seeks “to understand the world from the perspectives of those living in it” (Hatch, 2002, p. 7). Qualitative researchers study phenomena in their natural settings and interpret the meanings individuals construct (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011). The perspectives or voices of participants are prominent in qualitative reports and the principal data are gathered directly by the researcher (Hatch, 2002). Researchers need to spend significant time engaged with the participants in their natural context in order to understand the phenomena under investigation and the participants’ experiences of the phenomena. The qualitative researcher has been described as a “bricoleur”, “quilt maker” or “jazz improviser” who “stitches, edits, and puts slices of reality together” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011, p. 5).

In this study, I have—as a class music teacher at an independent Australian boys’ school— investigated adolescent students’ values, beliefs, and uses of music that shape and support their identity work at the end of their formal secondary school education. Being their class music teacher for a continuous period ranging from 2.5 to 5 years places me as a co-participant in the setting, able to draw on long-term knowledge of the participants as students of music.

3.3 Axiology All research is interpretive (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011) and researchers acknowledge that objectivity can never be attained (Creswell, 2013; Denzin & Lincoln, 2011; Hatch, 2002). Values and biases, or axiology (“the branch of philosophy dealing with ethics, aesthetics, and religion”), form the basic philosophical foundations of a researcher’s paradigm (Lincoln, Lynham, & Guba, 2011, p.

44 Methodology 116) and should be made known (Creswell, 2013). I acknowledge that my research was “an interactive process shaped by” my own “personal history, biography, gender, social class, race, and ethnicity, and those of the people in the setting” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011, p. 5). In the Prelude and Chapter 1 of this thesis, I acknowledged my values and beliefs underpinning this study, and research setting is described in Section 3.7. In Section 3.10.2 of this chapter, I discuss how reflexivity is used in this study to manage researcher bias.

3.4 Social constructivism This study adopted a social constructivist paradigm or interpretative framework. Social constructivists “seek understanding of the world in which they live and work” (Creswell, 2013, p. 13). They look beyond a single idea or a few categories to develop varied and multiple subjective meanings of experiences, leading to complex views. These subjective meanings are formed through interaction with others. Research in this paradigm relies “as much as possible on the participants’ views of the situation” (Creswell, 2013, p. 24–25). A social constructivist paradigm “assumes a relativist ontology (there are multiple realities), a subjectivist epistemology (knower and respondent co-create understandings), and a naturalistic (in the natural world) methodology” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011, p. 13). In this study, complex views on adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music and music education were co-constructed by the teacher–researcher and participating students and their parents. The interpretation and presentation of data through six rich narratives gives voice to the views of adolescent boys’ and multiple realities. A deep insight into the role of music and music education in boys’ identity work is presented.

3.4.1 Relativist ontology Ontology is the philosophical study of “the nature of reality and its characteristics” (Creswell, 2013, p. 20). A principal question of ontology is “what is the nature of reality?” (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011, p. 12). Hatch (2002) reports constructivists interrogate “individual perspectives or constructions of reality” and “assume absolute realities are unknowable” (p. 15). They support the idea that “multiple realities exist that are inherently unique because they are constructed by individuals who experience the world from their own vantage points” (p. 15). While findings are dependent on the observations made, a relativist ontology assumes multiple realities have multiple meanings and these multiple meanings will provide deeper insight to a topic of study (Yin, 2014). Lincoln et al. (2011) argued that we construct knowledge through our lived experiences and interactions with society, and, as such, relativist researchers must participant in the research process with their participants to ensure knowledge is reflective of their reality. In this study I have assumed that multiple realities exist as individual students live their own reality having multiple meanings. I

45 Methodology participated in the research process by both teaching and researching with the participants, aiming to achieve authentic and deep perspectives of adolescent boys’ musical lifeworlds.

3.4.2 Subjectivist epistemology Epistemology is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge. A principal question of epistemology is “what can be known, and what is the relationship of the knower to what is to be known?” (Hatch, 2002, p. 11). Constructivist researchers assume “individual constructions of reality compose the knowledge of interest” and “it is through mutual engagement that researchers and participants construct the subjective reality that is under investigation” (Hatch, 2002, p. 15). From this perspective, it is desirable for the researcher to minimise the “distance” or “objective separateness” between themselves and the participants (Guba & Lincoln, 1988, p. 94). This is achieved in this study by my dual role of teacher–researcher.

Adopting the dual role of teacher–researcher is not uncommon in music education narrative research (e.g., Adler, 2012; Langston, 2005; Walker, 2009) and music education doctoral research studies (e.g., Bonar, 2017; Willow-Peterson, 2016; Young, 2017), where music educators have sought to investigate and better understand their work settings and students. My prior established teacher relationship with participants allowed me—as researcher—to draw upon several years of knowledge and experiences from interactions with students and parents. This allowed for a deeper insight into participants’ realities than may have been possible without these pre-existing relationships. It is acknowledged that my dual role of teacher–researcher risks bias and interpretations that are not critical, however, I carefully aimed to minimise bias and provide critical interpretation using a variety of methods. These considerations and research design choices are discussed in detail throughout this methodology chapter.

3.4.3 Naturalistic methodology Methodology is the systematic process through which we seek new knowledge (Lincoln et al., 2011). A fundamental question of methodology is “how is knowledge gained?” (Hatch, 2002, p. 12). Constructivists use naturalistic qualitative research methods and analysis tools. Hatch (2002) explained that constructivist “researchers spend extended periods of time interviewing participants and observing them in their natural settings in an effort to reconstruct the constructions participants use to make sense of their worlds” (p. 15). Hermeneutics and comparing contrasting dialectics guide interpretive co-constructions of participant perspectives (Lincoln et al., 2011). The dual role of the researcher as teacher in this study placed me, daily, in the centre of adolescent boys’ worlds. Their perspectives were generated through interviews incorporating artefact elicitation and teacher

46 Methodology reflexivity. Narrative inquiry provided a natural approach to the co-construction of participants’ perspectives.

3.5 Narrative inquiry Knowledge generated within the constructivist paradigm lends itself to being presented as rich narratives (Hatch, 2002). Clandinin and Connelly (2000) defined narrative inquiry simply as “stories lived and told” (p. 20). Narrative inquiry assumes that “humans make sense of their lives through story,” and “narrative studies seek to capture storied knowledge” (Hatch, 2002, p. 12). Barrett and Stauffer (2009) argued we are drawn to and find connection with others in and through stories. The description presented by these authors aligns well with the interpretive framework of this study.

Story is a means of sense making, a way in and through which we represent, interrogate, and interpret experience and come to know ourselves and others. Story is also a means by which we might trouble certainty, and raise questions concerning the ‘taken-for-granted.’ (Barrett & Stauffer, 2012, p. 1)

Narrative inquiry “troubles certainty” (Barrett & Stauffer, 2009; Barrett & Stauffer, 2012) and aims to “prick the consciences of readers by inviting a re-examination of the values and interests undergirding certain discourses, practices, and institutional arrangements” (Barone, 2000, p. 193). Barrett and Stauffer (2009) argued narrative is appropriate in music education research as it is both “artful and artfull” and “seeks communication beyond the immediate or surface meanings, and reverberation past the present moment” (p. 20). Narrative presents “respectful, responsible, rigorous, and resilient” stories that “resonate” rather than generalise (p. 20). Riessman (2003) explained “the approach does not assume objectivity; rather, it privileges positionality and subjectivity” (p. 332).

Narrative inquiry research constructs narratives as data, as method, and as report (Barrett & Stauffer, 2009; Barrett & Stauffer, 2012). Researchers and their participants collaborate with each other to co-construct (Hatch, 2002) and “understand the ways in which individuals and communities story a life and live their stories” (Barrett & Stauffer, 2009, p. 2). Cleaver (2009) explained “as narrative inquiry is a collaborative conjoining of lifeworld experience, researchers and their participants live in each other’s storied accounts and data is generated through an intersection and interweaving of researcher and participant experience” (p. 36). Accounts include detailed contextualisation and voices of the participants to encapsulate complex meanings so that “readers can experience these happenings vicariously and draw their own conclusions” (Stake, 2005, p. 450). Barrett and Stauffer (2009) explained that it is through narratives “that we have understood and

47 Methodology communicated our knowledge and interpretations of our past and our present worlds and are able to speculate about our future” (p. 7). In this study, the past, present and future stories of adolescent boys were co-constructed through the intersecting worlds of the participants and my role as teacher– researcher.

3.6 Case study The narrative inquiry of this study may be viewed as case study. A naturalistic case study “provides a unique example of real people in real situations” (Cohen, Manion, & Morrison, 2011, p. 289). Stake (2005) argued that case study is an investigation within a bounded system, bounded by time and place, whereas others (Creswell, 2013; Yin, 2014) presented it as a strategy of inquiry and comprehensive research strategy. For the purposes of this study, I have adopted Yin’s (2014) “twofolded” definition of case study.

1. A case study is an empirical inquiry that • investigates a contemporary phenomenon (the “case”) in depth and within its real- world context, especially when • the boundaries between phenomenon and context may not be clearly evident. 2. A case study inquiry • copes with the technically distinctive situation in which there will be many more variables of interest than data points, and as one result • relies on multiple sources of evidence, with data needing to converge in a triangulating fashion, and as another result • benefits from the prior development of theoretical propositions to guide data collection and analysis. (Yin, 2014, pp. 16–17)

Furthermore, this study used what Yin (2014) would describe as a single-case (holistic) design as the research focuses on a single research setting. In this study, the case was Year 12 students at an independent boys’ school who had elected to study class music. Bennetts (2013) reminded us that each site is different; this context was worthy of investigation as a positive model for others. The research setting and context is described in the next section.

Stake (1995, 2005) described three purposes of case studies: (a) intrinsic case study investigates a particular case as the case itself is of interest, (b) instrumental case studies examine a particular case mainly to provide insight into an external issue or to draw generalisation, and (c) an instrumental study extended to several cases is called a multiple or collective case study. This present

48 Methodology study rests in a “zone of combined purpose” (Stake, 2005, p. 445) between intrinsic and instrumental case study. The research setting presented a context of interest itself, however, the case study is arguably transferable to other similar educational contexts in Australia and internationally.

3.7 Research setting and context This investigation took place at the Queensland Boys’ School (QBS),5 a single-sex independent P–12 day and boarding school. At the time of the study, QBS consisted of approximately 1,500 students typically from families of a high socioeconomic status. The 2014 Index of Community Socio-Education Advantage (ICSEA)6 of QBS was above average (Australian Curriculum, 2015) with 75% of students in the “top” socioeconomic advantage quarter. The school had long-standing traditions and had celebrated its centenary. Christian values lay at the heart of the school’s mission statement. Students were encouraged to embrace a holistic education consisting of academic, spiritual, sporting, and cultural involvement. The Dimensions of Learning (DOL) framework (Marzano, Pickering, & Arredondo, 2011) underpinned learning in the academic program. The basis of the education philosophy at the school was that a successful education teaches students how to think, rather than what to think. At the time of data generation in Queensland, Year 8 was the beginning of secondary school. Typically, approximately half of the cohort were new enrolments in Year 8.

QBS hosted a diverse and inclusive Music Department with thriving curriculum and co- curricular programs led by approximately 30 full-time, part-time, and casual specialist staff. Class music was compulsory for all students from P–8. Classes from Prep to Year 3 received daily 30- minute specialist music lessons, consisting of four class music lessons and one choral lesson per week. Students from Years 4 to 8 received one 45-minute music lesson per week. In Year 9, it was compulsory for students to study one Arts subject, which could have been class music. From Year 10, students could elect to study class music. At the time of the investigation, the school P–10 music curriculum was transiting from state curriculum documents (The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority), 2007a, 2007b, 2007c) to a national arts curriculum (Australian Curriculum, 2016). Teaching and learning in Years 11 and 12 adhered to the Senior Music syllabus (The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority), 2004) and Music Extension (The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority), 2008) was offered to Year 12 students. At QBS, it was mandatory

5 A pseudonym. 6 ICSEA is a scale developed by the Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority (ACARA) to compare schools considering geographical location, proportion of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students, parents’ education, and parents’ occupations.

49 Methodology for students in Years 4 to 6 to learn a string or band instrument in group lessons during school time. The Co-curricular Music7 program included string, band, vocal, guitar, keyboard, choral, and pipe band tuition, and ensembles delivered by qualified specialists.

Teaching and learning in the class music program were sequential and developmental from P–12. The four class music staff shared a music teaching philosophy and pedagogical practices informed by social constructivism (Wiggins, 2015), praxial music education (Elliott, 1995, 2009; Elliott & Silverman, 2015), and inspired by the lifework and philosophy of Zoltán Kodály (Houlahan & Tacka, 2015). Students experienced music of various styles and genres by learning to make music in various ways (e.g., listening, moving, performing, reading, writing, improvising, and composing). An aim of the class music program was to encourage a lifelong connection and engagement with music through active participation. Repertoire formed the foundation for all learning, and age- appropriate music was chosen that was developmentally accessible, challenging, and thematically engaging. The voice provided an accessible foundation for music learning, and instruments provided extension and specialised avenues for artistic expression. As approximately half of the cohort were new enrolments in Year 8, what was described as an “older beginner program” or “sequence” was used. This was where simple elements of music were taught through folk song but in sophisticated and intellectually stimulating ways, including part work. Folk songs lay pathways to music of more complexity in various Western styles and genres. As learning in music is sequential, each lesson, week, term, and year built on prior learning. In the past, class music students in Year 12 have graduated with skills ranging along a continuum: from informed audience members to professional musicians. I acknowledge that my values and biases have shaped the class music program of the school, and the Prelude to this thesis provides greater insight into these influences. During the year of this investigation, I taught daily music to Foundation to Year 3 students, and Years 9 and 12 elective class music students.

3.8 Participant information 3.8.1 Ethical clearance The University of Queensland School of Music Ethical Review Committee granted ethical approval for human research in relation to this project in February 2014 (see Appendix A). Gatekeeper approval to recruit QBS students and parents was sought and obtained from the school’s Principal (see Appendix B for the gatekeeper information sheet and approval form).

7 Co-curricular Music refers to music learning opportunities provided outside the curriculum. It is also known as Extra-Curricular Music.

50 Methodology

3.8.2 Participant recruitment Particular attention was given to participant recruitment and obtaining informed consent in order to minimise any potential influence on students and eliminate any perception of coercion to participate in the study. All student participants were recruited by the Head of Music. The Head of Music was briefed about the particulars of the project and was asked to act as a third-party recruiter. In mid Term 3 of 2014, I provided a short recruitment information script (see Appendix C) to the Head of Music to read to the class of Year 12 students. The script briefly summarised the participation information sheet. The Head of Music spoke to the students during class time for 5 minutes when I was absent from the room. He clearly advised students that participation in the study was voluntary and that if they chose to participate that they would be able to withdraw at any time, for any reason, and without penalty or prejudice. It was made clear that participation would not advantage or disadvantage their schoolwork, study, or assessment. The number of participants was not restricted, and interested students collected an information sheet and consent form to be taken home and discussed with their parents. For all students, written permission and participation from their parents was sought (see Appendix D). Potential participants were given the opportunity to read, review, and seek further information about the project, if necessary, before signing consent to participate. At all times, potential participants were able to discuss questions and concerns about the project with myself, the school’s Head of Music, and/or the University of Queensland School of Music Ethics Officer. Verbal and written confirmation of consent was sought from all participants. The possibility for participants to withdraw at any time, for any reason, without penalty or prejudice was stated in the information letter. Upon return of the signed consent form, interview times were organised with parents and students for Term 4, their final term of formal schooling. Out of 17 students in the class, 10 students and their parents decided to participant. The high uptake indicates participant interest in the study. Interviews took place before school, during student study periods, and after school. In most cases, students were interviewed first directly after school, followed by an interview with their parent.

3.8.3 Research participants Data for this study were generated from 21 participants. Participants were 10 students in the Year 12 music class and their parent(s). By electing to continue studying music throughout secondary school, these students demonstrated continued dedication and interest in music learning and development. Students had studied music with me ranging from 2.5 to 5 continuous years. Due to the context of the study, all student participants were males aged between 17 and 18 years. Parents were a mix of male and female. Table 3.1 provides an overview of the participants.

51 Methodology

Student’s Day or Student Age at Continuous Parent’s Parent name boarding leadership time of years taught name relationship (pseudonym) student role(s) interview by the (pseudonym) researcher Aaron Boarding 18 3 Hannah Mother Austin Day 17 3 Natalie Mother Blake Boarding 17 3 Julia Mother Colton Day Prefect, 18 3 Chloe and Mother and Music Jacob Father Captain Conor Day House 17 3 Anna Mother Vice- Captain Daniel Day Prefect 17 3 Elizabeth Mother Elijah Day 17 4 Ella Mother Michael Day School 17 4 May Mother Captain Tyler Day 17 5 Laurence Father William Day Prefect, 17 2.5 Caden Father, Old Music Vice- Boy Captain Table 3.1. Student and parent participants

3.8.4 Researcher and participant relationships Eder and Fingerson (2003) reminded us that it is essential for researchers to examine the power dynamics and be sensitive to power imbalance between adults and youth when interviewing. In general, children in Western societies are viewed as subordinate to adults (Eder & Fingerson, 2003). All participants of this study had pre-existing relationships with the researcher, who was of unequal status. The types of relationships included teacher–student, teacher–parent, and collegial.

Interviews were held in a familiar setting in the Music Department with student participants wearing school uniform. The timing of interviews—in Term 4, after all major assessments for their schooling were completed—alleviated any suggestion of coercion or compulsion to participate through current assessment relationships and obligations.

52 Methodology Before beginning the interview, I advised students that I was interested in their honest thoughts and opinions. This openness to student feedback was a continuation from the classroom and would not have been possible without a pre-existing relationship. I hoped that through this research process my practice would benefit from “approaches and practices to music making and teaching beyond [my] own perspective” (Campbell, 2008, p. 61). The position of the researcher has been further discussed in the Prelude and Chapter 1 of this thesis.

It was observed that while some participants were anxious about how they could contribute to the project, the pre-existing relationships had resulted in participants having a level of trust in me as the investigator. As a result, the students were very forthcoming with their participation and conversation. The students felt comfortable expressing their own opinion, and, building on my prior knowledge of the students, I believed their responses to be genuine; I did not have the impression they were just trying to please me. The pre-existing relationship and prior knowledge of the students enabled me to ask follow-up questions directly relevant to the participants that otherwise may not have been known or possible to another researcher.

3.8.5 Child protection and duty of care The research setting and the involvement of student participants also raised issues relating to child protection and duty of care. Throughout this study, I was a registered teacher with Queensland College of Teachers and subject to relevant child protection requirements and criminal checks. Interviews took place in various rooms (dependent on availability) with glass windows in the school’s Music Department, with other staff and students nearby. Every effort was made to respect and protect the privacy of the school and its participants. Pseudonyms have been used throughout this dissertation. The interview questions were not sensitive or invasive and participants were advised they could refuse to answer any question without penalty. Research was conducted using methods that were familiar in everyday living (i.e., conversation, interview questions, drawing, and recording using audio and video devices) and from their experiences in class music. Participants were clearly informed about the intended storage and use of collected data (see Appendix D).

3.9 Methods and techniques This study used the combined research methods of interviews and artefact elicitation to generate data.

53 Methodology

3.9.1 Interviews Case and narrative researchers “rely on subjective data, such as the testimony of participants” through interviews (Stake, 2005, p. 454). Yin (2014) argued that interviews are “one of the most important sources of case study evidence” (p. 110). Researchers talk with participants to learn how they describe their experiences or articulate their reason for action.

The qualitative research interview attempts to understand the world from the subjects’ point of view, to unfold the meaning of their experiences, to uncover their lived world prior to scientific explanations. (Kvale & Brinkmann, 2009, p. 3)

Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) described the research interview as a professional conversation based on daily life. They went further and described a research interview as an inter-view, “an inter- change of views between two persons conversing about a theme of mutual interest” (p. 4). Hatch (2002) classified interviews into three basic types: informal, formal, and standardised. Formal interviews are also called structured, semi-structured, or in-depth interviews. Semi-structured interviews are structured in the sense that they are conducted with guiding questions, though interviewers are open to pursuing leads and generating further questions (Hatch, 2002). Yin (2014) compared this fluid process to guided conversations rather than structured queries. They are in-depth and go deeply into the understandings of the participants (Hatch, 2002).

As an aim of this case study was to investigate the identity work of adolescent boys, I chose to conduct individual semi-structured interviews with students and their parents. Eder and Fingerson (2003) recommended interviewing young people “to give voice to their own interpretations and thoughts rather than rely solely on adult interpretations of their lives” (p. 33). Such interviews may investigate topics that do not occur in regular conversations or interactions. The parent interviews provided a home perspective on their sons and another layer for analysis, including influences from the home environment. Precedents of seeking parental views lie in the work of Sloboda and Davidson (1996) and McPherson et al. (2012). It was through the interviews that students and their parents gave voice to a living phenomenon. Brinkmann and Kvale (2015) explained that narrative interviewers encourage participants to share stories and assist them in clarifying their ideas. The guiding and underpinning principle is that others external to the context are able to learn from those involved in the immediate discourse.

54 Methodology

3.9.2 Artefact elicitation While Hatch (2002) proposed that interviews can be the only source in data generation, I chose to incorporate artefact elicitation to serve as a stimulus for conversation, to enrich interview responses, and provide data triangulation. My method of design was inspired by the study conducted by Barrett, Everett, and Smigiel (2012) who incorporated a “Draw and Tell” method with young children in arts settings. Participants in my study also had the option of bringing in an object of personal meaning to them (e.g., instrument, sheet music, photo of a person, or a device), or provide a small performance or composition if they preferred (Barrett, 2017a; Barrett & Smigiel, 2007). All participants in this study decided to draw.

Artefact elicitation also served as a precautionary scaffolding measure in generating data. Some literature documents difficulties generating data from men, particularly young men were hesitant to share their perspectives (Monaghan & Goodman, 2007; Simpson & Lewis, 2007). Bahn and Barratt-Pugh (2013), in their literature review, concluded that research interviews involving the elicitation of artefacts has mostly been with children, adults with disabilities, and women—not young men. In their study, those researchers experienced success using images as a form of artefact elicitation to generate data from young male apprentices about construction site safety.

3.9.3 Combined research design Having acknowledged my research paradigm, selected a qualitative narrative case study approach, and chosen my methods of data generation, I proceeded to design the interviews and artefact elicitation techniques in order to investigate the research questions. Upon consultation with my supervisors and researching other example models, I created an interview guide for student participants (see Appendix E) that I anticipated would take between 45 and 60 minutes.

I structured the interview seeking perspectives from participants in four areas: personal background and music life history; perceptions of music; perceptions of class music; and projections of music in their future. Initially, I aimed to establish an informal conversational style, so interviews began by identifying the participant, seeking verbal permission to conduct the interview (in addition to having previously obtained written consent), and general questions. Considerable thought was given to using age appropriate and familiar language that would enable the participants to provide their views in a way in which they would feel comfortable while still answering the study research questions. Three artefact elicitation questions were constructed to initially stimulate and guide participants’ perspectives on music, class music, and music in their future. These questions were:

55 Methodology 1. What do you enjoy about music? 2. What do you enjoy about class music? 3. What will you do with music in your future?

I decided to keep these three artefact elicitation questions exactly the same for students and parents, as I wished to compare the parent responses to those of their sons. Parents were asked about themselves, and then their observations and perspectives of their sons. This provided various levels of interpretation and triangulation. See Appendix F for the parent interview guide. These three driving questions were presented to participants when scheduling their interviews so as to allow time for developing considered responses. This approach also assisted in demystifying the interview content and alleviating some of the uncertainty around participating in a research study.

During the interview, after discussing participants’ backgrounds and music life history, they were presented with the first artefact elicitation question, “What do you enjoy about music?” Participants were asked to draw or share the object they had brought to the interview. Participants were advised about drawing or bringing an object of meaning on the study information sheet (Appendix D). All participants in this study elected to draw their response and they were supplied with the three question templates on A4 paper (see Figure 3.2; see also Appendix G for full size templates) and colour pencils, felt pens, and twist-up crayons.

Figure 3.2. Artefact templates used during interviews

Participants were given a couple of minutes to draw their responses with related follow-up questions. Some participants chose to speak while drawing, while others opted to finish their drawing before speaking. They were then asked specific questions that had been designed so as to discover the deeper meanings within their drawings. Artefact elicitation presented participants with another avenue through which to express their ideas. At times, perspectives were revealed from participant drawings that were not necessarily obvious from initial verbal explanations. Some parents did not draw in response to all three questions, as sometimes they felt more comfortable providing a detailed

56 Methodology verbal response. Broader related questions followed to continue to probe interviewees for answers. This same process was completed for the second and third artefact elicitation questions.

Interviews concluded with me thanking the participants for their time. Usually after the interviews, an informal discussion took place covering various topics. In some instances, the recording devices were turned back on with a participant’s permission to capture further insight.

3.9.4 Data management Generated data and documents were stored in locked filing cabinets at the researcher’s home and secured digitally using password protection. Gatekeeper and participant consent forms were scanned and saved in digital form resulting in easier accessibility and management. Original consent forms were also filed. Interviews were recorded using a digital video camera focused on the participant, and a Smartpen was used as a digital audio backup. Transcriptions were stored digitally as Microsoft Word documents. Participant drawings were scanned in colour and the original drawings were filed with the participant consent forms. Multiple password protection backups were generated at different time frequencies.

3.9.5 Interview analysis Interviews were transcribed as soon as possible from audio extracted from the video camera files. This transcription was performed by a professional transcription company. I then proofread the transcripts before emailing them to participants for member checking (outlined in Section 3.11.1.2). Section 3.10.1 discusses the process of how the interviews were analysed for this study.

3.10 Data interpretation 3.10.1 Narrative analysis and analysis of narratives I chose to interpret data and present findings using the two approaches of narrative inquiry analysis presented by Polkinghorne (1995): narrative analysis and analysis of narratives. “Narrative analysis moves from elements to stories”, and the “analysis of narratives moves from stories to common elements” (p. 12). This approach has been used in music settings before by Cleaver (2004) studying the musical lifeworlds of secondary school students, Langston (2005) in his case study investigating the manifestation of social capital in a community choir, and in music education by Dwyer (2012) examining music teachers’ values and beliefs.

The narratives of six adolescent boys are presented following this chapter (Chapters 4 to 9). Each narrative analyses the story of a student plotted against the study research questions. While all

57 Methodology ten student stories were worthy of a narrative feature, this was not possible due to the scope of the study and word count limitations of the thesis. The six boys whose data featured as narratives were carefully selected considering the richness of individual student stories and to represent the diverse realities of the participants. Quotes from the interview transcripts of the four remaining students have been included in the analysis of narratives (Chapter 10) to provide further examples of findings and to ensure no student was excluded from the study. A precedent for such an approach is set by Langston (2005), who interviewed 27 members of a community choir and presented a narrative analysis of “The Quartet” followed by an analysis of the narratives of “The Tutti.”

3.10.1.1 Narrative analysis In narrative analysis, “researchers collect descriptions of events and happenings and synthesize or configure them by means of a plot into a story or stories” (Polkinghorne, 1995, p. 12). This process of reorganising the stories into a general framework is also known as “restorying” and ideas in the plot are connected by links provided by the researcher (Creswell, 2013, p. 74). I have framed stories by the study’s three research questions and the voice of participants is italicised.

Riessman (2008) referred to four types of narrative analysis: thematic, structural, dialogic/performance, and visual. I have chosen to use thematic analysis where the content of “‘what’ is spoken” during interviews is the exclusive focus (Riessman, 2008, p. 19). For each research question, several emerging themes were identified and analysed. The development of the stories involved a long and iterative reworking process between data and the emerging thematic plots (Polkinghorne, 1995). Polkinghorne (1995) reminded us that data not pertinent to the telling of stories and the development of the narrative does not need to be part of the research account.

3.10.1.2 Analysis of narratives The analysis of narratives follows the six narrative chapters. Polkinghorne (1995) explained that “the paradigmatic analysis of narrative seeks to locate common themes or conceptual manifestations among the stories collected as data” (p. 13). Relationships among themes are also discovered and described. In this study, the analysed stories are the previously constructed six narratives of adolescent boys. Common themes among the stories were arrived at in two ways:

1. concepts are derived from previous theory or logical possibilities and are applied to the data to determine whether instances of these concepts are to be found 2. concepts are inductively derived from the data. (Polkinghorne, 1995, p. 13)

58 Methodology Both types of analysis were used in this study, however, emphasis was given to deriving themes from within the data and allowed subsequent discussion and findings to build on existing literature. A precedent for such an approach was a study in music education by Cleaver (2004, 2009). In this project, the analysis of narratives identified and examined themes from the six adolescent boys’ stories, and further insight was provided with quotes from the four remaining student interview transcripts. The findings of the study, as they relate to the research questions, are examined through reference to literature, and interpretation supported through quotes from the data (see Chapter 10).

3.10.1.3 Stages of analysis In this study, the process of analysis was completed over five stages.

3.10.1.3.1 Stage 1 Interview data were transcribed by professionals from the audio of the video recordings and the transcriptions were proofread by me. The participants were contacted and asked to member check their individual interview transcript and drawings, and provided with opportunities to amend their collected data. There were some small amendments to transcripts and no amendments to drawings as a result of the member checking process. The amended transcripts and original drawings were used for interpretation.

3.10.1.3.2 Stage 2 The member checked transcripts were imported into the data analysis software, NVivo. The software was used to digitally manage the manual coding process only. Each student transcript was first read through the software, with reference to the relevant drawings, and then manually encoded for emerging themes. Immediately thereafter, the related parent transcript was read through the software, together with reference to the parent drawings, and manually encoded for emerging themes in order to triangulate student perspectives. Each parent transcript generally provided further personal insight into the adolescent son’s behaviours and views, including background information on family history and early childhood musical beginnings. In some instances, a family discourse was uncovered that produced conflicting points of view between parent and son. This process was completed for each adolescent boy and his parent(s), and provided the researcher with an initial broad overview of themes (called Nodes in NVivo) to assist in framing the analysis and findings of the project. It was realised at this point that the collected data provided rich narratives worthy of presentation. The stories of six boys (Aaron, Blake, Conor, Elijah, Michael, and Tyler) were chosen to become narratives representing the diverse perspectives of participants.

59 Methodology 3.10.1.3.3 Stage 3 The selected six narratives of adolescent boys were individually crafted. While the thematic encoding of individual student transcripts through NVivo initially assisted as a guide, narratives of the participants’ stories were analysed and “reconstructed” according to the research questions (Brinkmann & Kvale, 2015, p. 322). The views of the parent participants were interwoven to support student perspectives and provide further insight. Three to four significant emerging themes were analysed in detail for each research question. This process required continuous reflexivity (see Section 3.10.2) and reworking of the narratives, revisiting sections, and reanalysing. Presentations of some narratives at national and international conferences provided another opportunity for refinement, reflection, and the incorporation of expert audience feedback.

3.10.1.3.4 Stage 4 The identified key findings emerging from the six narratives were summarised in a table according to the research questions. This table was used to help draft and map initial findings. Findings from the individual narratives were synthesised to provide an analysis and discussion of the narratives. Once again, this process incorporated continuous reflection, review, and revision. Quotes from the four remaining students (Austin, Colton, Daniel, and William) were included to support the findings. These findings were examined against the literature in order to critique and contribute further to the field.

3.10.1.3.5 Stage 5 At this stage, I returned to original interview transcripts to check findings were consistent with the original collected data and that nothing significant was overlooked.

3.10.2 Reflexivity Hatch (2002) reminded us it is not possible for researchers to be entirely objective. Inquiry is shaped both consciously and unconsciously by the theories, conceptual frames, and life histories researchers bring (Barrett & Mills, 2009). Smith (2009) explained that even the way narrative researchers structure their interviews will affect the narratives they tell. In this study, in order to minimise researcher bias and influences, reflexivity underpinned all aspects of the research.

Lincoln et al. (2011) defined reflexivity as “the process of reflecting critically on the self as researcher” (p. 124). Nightingale and Cromby (1999) argued reflexive researchers have “an awareness of their contribution to the construction of meanings throughout the research process” (p. 228). According to Barrett and Mills (2009), reflexive researchers also acknowledge how “prior

60 Methodology experience of the research phenomenon, context, and participants” (p. 418) shape the inquiry and interpretation of data.

Reflexivity occurred continuously throughout this research project. Initial aims of this project were to broaden my own perspectives and to see what I initially could not. I read broadly throughout the research process, and the depth and breadth of my theoretical understanding grew tremendously. Several data validation techniques were used to maximise the credibility of the collected data (detailed in Section 3.11.1). While this study focused on 10 students from a specific cohort, at the time of concluding this project I am also able to draw upon 12 years’ experience of teaching music full-time in schools with students from Prep to Year 12. Continued full-time engagement in the field through this project facilitated opportunities for daily reflexivity, both through practice in the classroom and conversations with teacher colleagues. This occurred at two places of employment; firstly at QBS, and later at a nearby boys’ school. This thesis underwent a writing process spanning 6 years, incorporating rigorous drafting, feedback, revision, and editing. Not only did I gain feedback from my doctoral supervisors, but also expert audience members at national and international presentations. This thesis begins (in the Prelude) by acknowledging the biases and assumptions I bring to the study. Section 3.7 discusses the research setting in detail. The Epilogue offers a personal reflection, which concludes the study.

3.11 Evaluation criteria There are many perspectives regarding the validation of qualitative research (Creswell, 2013). Lincoln and Guba (1985) argued that within a constructivist naturalistic axiom, efforts are necessary to ensure credibility, transferability, confirmability, and dependability. These four evaluation criteria will now be discussed, and the limitations of the study acknowledged.

3.11.1 Credibility Interviews were the main source of data generation for this study and I was the main research tool. The constructivist paradigm and underlying philosophical assumptions outlined at the beginning of this chapter support the teacher-as-researcher approach. Pitts (2012) reported that education researchers often investigate their own localities. Examples of recent Australian doctoral studies where the music teacher was the researcher include McEwan (2006), Hall (2011), Bonar (2017), and Young (2017). The issue of pre-existing relationships and power imbalance have been discussed earlier in this chapter.

61 Methodology Kvale and Brinkmann (2009) reminded us that “in interviewing, the importance of the researcher’s integrity is magnified because the interviewer is the main instrument for obtaining knowledge” (p. 97). For this reason, validation strategies (Creswell, 2013) were employed to achieve data credibility. For this study, these included prolonged engagement, clarification of researcher bias, third party participant recruitment, triangulation of data types and sources, data saturation, member checking, and rich, thick narratives. Triangulation and member checking are discussed in detail below.

3.11.1.1 Triangulation Stake (1995) explained that “triangulation has been generally considered a process of using multiple perceptions to clarify meaning, verifying the repeatability of an observation or interpretation” (p. 454). Yin (2014) argued “the most important advantage presented by using multiple sources of evidence is the development of converging lines of inquiry” (p. 120). Patton (2015) described four types of triangulation: the evaluation of data sources (“data triangulation”), among different evaluators (“investigator triangulation”), of perspectives to the same data set (“theory triangulations”), and of methods (“methodological triangulation”) (p. 316). This study employed a blend of data generation methods (interviews and artefact elicitation) and sources (students, their parents, and teacher reflexivity).

3.11.1.2 Member checking After the interviews were transcribed, participants were contacted via email and asked to check their individual interview transcripts and were given the option to make amendments. Five students (Aaron, Colton, Conor, Michael, and Tyler) and two parents (Chloe and Jacob) elected to make minor amendments to their transcripts. The amended data were used for interpretation.

3.11.2 Transferability The use of a combined intrinsic and instrumental case study design presents a unique singular case, but one that also allows for transferability. This transferability of the results to other settings and participants is assisted through detailed contextualisation of this research setting and participants. The thick and rich narratives presented allow the reader deep insight into participants’ experiences.

3.11.3 Dependability Dependability refers to the accuracy of data. This criterion is related to credibility and the strategies for validation overlap, including member checking where the participants confirm their data.

62 Methodology

3.11.4 Confirmability The findings presented in this study build on literature previously reported. Interview transcripts were professionally transcribed and member checking took place. As previously discussed, hard copy and digital copies of data were stored and regularly consulted. The findings of the narratives were shared, further discussed, and confirmed with participants during the process of crafting the Epilogues (see Chapter 12). My supervisors checked drafts of my findings throughout this study, and I was subject to the doctoral milestone requirements of the university.

3.11.5 Limitations While this case study provided a focused lens of investigation, it also presented research limitations. Just as my values and biases have impacted this study, so have those of the participants. Participants of different sexes, genders, geographical location, socioeconomic status, school sector, and school culture may yield different findings. It is also common for teachers to discuss how different cohorts yield different results, and the cohort in this investigation may or may not be typical. In future investigations it would be also useful to investigate students who decided not to continue studying elective class music.

3.12 Summary In this chapter, I have outlined the paradigmatic framework and philosophical assumptions that underpin this study. Social constructivism was adopted and its relativist ontology, subjectivist epistemology, and naturalistic methodology were discussed. I introduced the investigation as a narrative case study and described the research setting in detail. Participants’ details and ethical considerations were described along with the design of interviews incorporating artefact elicitation. My selected approach to narrative interpretation and the continuous reflexivity underpinning the research were explained. The study was justified according to the evaluation criteria of credibility, transferability, dependability, and confirmability, and the limitations of the study were described.

The following six chapters will present the case study narratives, beginning with that of Aaron.

63 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” 4 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Introducing Aaron Aaron says there “isn’t much” music in his hometown. “I come from Inglewood8 in New South Wales (NSW); it’s a 10,000-people country town. My parents owned a farm until we moved into town after my brothers were born. There’s not much music-wise in Inglewood. There’s no orchestras or anything like that.” The youngest of three boys, Aaron began attending Queensland Boys’ School (QBS) in Year 8 as a boarder. “I came to boarding five years ago where I have been living ever since.”

I had taught Aaron in class music since Year 10. He had two different music teachers in Years 8 and 9. In his senior year Aaron studies English, Mathematics B, Mathematics C, Physics, Christian Education, Music, and Music Extension. He is involved in a range of co-curricular activities and participates in rugby and rowing. Despite his hometown lacking in music, as he describes it, at QBS he is Drum Major in the school Pipe Band and occasionally sings in the senior choirs. Aaron also elects to have individual singing and production lessons. At the time of the interview, Aaron is 18 years of age.

4.1.2 Introducing Hannah (Aaron’s mother) Hannah describes herself as “just a mother, a working mother.” She also grew up in Inglewood and attended a local boarding high school as a boarder. Her favourite things to do are “camping, lead lighting, reading novels, and investigating family history.”

Hannah describes herself as “not musical” and details the absence of music in her family script. “Well, I don’t go and pick up a guitar and try and make sense of it… I could probably just say that it’s not me, but I haven’t been conditioned that way, to pick up a guitar. My mum and dad didn’t have any musical instruments in their childhood I don’t think.”

Hannah and her husband John decided to send their children to a city boarding school in order to provide them with opportunities not available in their regional NSW town. “The main thing was to give them choice in what they could experience and we thought a city would be the best place for that… I think Aaron has benefitted in lots of ways. I think he’s followed different paths that he would not have been able to do if he’d gone to a rural high school, which has very limited subjects and

8 A pseudonym.

64 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” limited quality teachers for sure. He certainly wouldn’t have been a rower and I’m sure he wouldn’t have had access to the wonderful musical things that he’s done here. He always talks about what’s he going to do when he leaves QBS and he won’t have a baby grand piano to play on.” Aaron’s parents place value on education and the opportunities it could provide their sons.

4.2 Aaron’s music beliefs, values, and uses 4.2.1 “Tinkering”: “teaching themselves, learning from each other” Aaron’s entrepreneurial music beliefs and values stem from his initial playful musical engagement at home as a young child. Hannah reflects on Aaron’s musical beginnings where informal music opportunities around the house allowed Aaron to “tinker” and lay foundations for music making. “We have an old piano at home and he used to tinker on that from when he first crawled up and sat on the seat.” The piano was part of the music family script and “belonged to my husband’s mother… [who] was a piano teacher…. She used to play piano for the Inglewood Musical and Dramatic Society for all those productions that they used to put on.”

Aaron did not receive any formal music education during his primary school years at Inglewood State School (K–10), not even any curriculum class music lessons. He says, “I don’t even remember having music class in those six or seven years…. I remember art, but I don’t remember any music class.” Music did not appear in the curriculum until the start of secondary school in Year 7 when “you actually took a music class and we had a music teacher. In that class I started playing guitar and that’s basically where my interest in guitar started. I was even in a band and played one song once. That was when music was introduced to me and how to perform.”

Hannah recalls Aaron practising his guitar around the house with a friend. “A boy used to bring his guitar over and they would sit and they used to just tinker around and sit in the lounge room together. Aaron wasn’t very good then. It was the first little guitar he had. These two little boys tinkering with guitar music and stuff like that. Teaching themselves, learning from each other.” Aaron’s habit of “tinkering” remains, and he continues to teach himself instruments. “I’ve self-taught myself guitar for about five years now, piano for about two…. From guitar, I’ve picked up how to play bass a little bit, and a little bit of drums.”

Aaron’s story is representative of the potential for playful engagement in music at home in the early years to lay foundations for future formal music learning, and the potential for school music education to switch students on to developing further music expertise. His lack of access to music education through primary school is similar to two thirds of Australian children (Petrova, 2012).

65 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” Aaron’s experiences have led him to create his own opportunities for music making and developing expertise through self-teaching. His beliefs and values in relation to making music are entrepreneurial—to “tinker” and “do it yourself.”

4.2.2 Multiple uses of music through diverse listening Listening to diverse music has a significant role in Aaron’s life and serves multiple purposes. He listens to a diverse range of styles and genres, and says, “My tastes vary quite a bit. It’s obviously quite dependant on my mood and how I’m feeling, but I listen to stuff like Mozart and classical all the way to heavy metal and new age music….” He further adds that his choices are dependent on whether he considers the music “to be good music.”

Aaron believes music to have multiple purposes and that all people use music to manage their mood and emotions. “Everyone uses music quite similarly for emotional relief, for stress, just to focus even. Listening to music in your room or in your car, everyone uses music for that.” He believes that music is significant in playing a role in social settings to “break ice” and to recollect memories of shared experiences. “Music for me is not only just composing and listening to on my own, it’s going out to an event with friends and relating to this song altogether and having memories to the specific song.”

Aaron also believes music serves an additional purpose for him compared to others and actively searches for new music to listen to. “Music, for me, really affects me because it’s just such a part of my life these days. I spend hours listening to new music and bands that people have never heard of.” Aaron goes beyond listening, deconstructing and analysing music as he listens in search of developing his own “creativity.” “When I listen to a song I don’t just listen to a song and go this is good, I break it down in my head. I go they’ve done this here and they’ve done this there. That gives me ideas and I go, ‘That’s really interesting, I wonder how they’ve done that?’ I come back the next day and I go, ‘How have they done this?’ and I think about what possibilities I could really put together, and what different things I could try. Listening to music does that for me, it makes me creative.” Aaron’s listening habits provide musical development and idea generation. He values how his creative music making is developed. “This affects me because this is what I want to do, and this is what I want to study. Where I end up in life is doing something production-wise with music.”

Several factors led to Aaron valuing diverse listening. John, Aaron’s father, provided an inspiring listening and performing model at home. Hannah says her husband was a keen rugby player and that, before having children, he used to be in the local drama society productions. “He was in all

66 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” of those type of musical productions on stage and dressed up singing solos…. That was when we were single and before we had a family…. He did enjoy all that sort of stuff and he was always in rugby reviews as well. There were always skits of different sorts. A bit of acting and a bit of singing and mucking around.” Aaron says, “my dad has been very strong in how he likes his music and he has his tapes and CDs from the 1970s and onwards that he’s kept…. My dad’s iPod is filled with 5,000 songs that he just loves…. I feel like that has influenced me, a lot of the music he listened to.”

Class music at school also modelled diverse listening and exposed Aaron to unfamiliar genres. “A lot of classical music I’ve been exposed to here at QBS, … definitely here in class music.” Popular culture and media have, similarly, exposed him to “new age music” and the “electronic feel.” As I delve deeper, I discover that Aaron’s beliefs, values, and uses of music are currently inseparable from his identity work.

4.3 Aaron’s use of music to shape and support his identity work 4.3.1 An agent of change in identity work Music has acted as an agent of change in Aaron’s identity work. He has recently and significantly changed how he identifies; from a “jock” to a “musician.” “Two years ago, I would have said I’m a sporty person; I’m a rower and I go to the gym. Though I still may do those sports, I’m definitely more swayed to music these days…. I’d say I’m a musician really. I’m an aspiring producer. I would definitely not describe myself as sporty of late, because I literally haven’t done anything for a while…. I base my life right now around music and it’s basically how I live a lot of the day. Even in school now, I spend over two hours doing music a day out of the six hours of school, which is a lot, then more out of school…. I do like to practise, especially the guitar at the moment, but I love composing, it’s one of my favourite things. It does go hand-in-hand with recording and producing people and myself.” Aaron’s description of his identity demonstrates the performative role of identity work and identity being informed by interests and behaviours.

The class music program at QBS in the senior years values a broad range of avenues for music making, assists students in identifying their strengths, and actively encourages students to pursue their own interests. Given Aaron’s prior musical experiences, and limited instrumental technique and notation skills, he was led towards the co-curricular music production program where these traditional music skills are not a mandatory prerequisite to experience success in music. “I just found a passion in specifically the studio as well in producing and recording music, and I just found that’s really what I want to do…. I do still enjoy sport and I still do enjoy being fit, but, for me, music is so much more

67 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” about expression than sport is, and I guess that’s why I’ve eventually been swayed to produce music.” Aaron used music and studio production as a resource for self-expression.

This activity has not only allowed Aaron to successfully make his own music, but also empowered him to help others. In this context, he became a recognised expert, a “musician,” a role not available to him in the classical and jazz realm of the other co-curricular music ensembles. “We also manage bands and I’ve been working with a few of the younger bands lately and helping them compose and perform. Then obviously managing gigs here at the school and even not at the school.”

Hannah also now describes Aaron as “musical.” “I haven’t had too much experience with a lot of musical people. I don’t consider my other sons musical… but I do consider Aaron musical… because he’s always tinkering with musical instruments or he’s interested in it. That’s all he ever wanted for a Christmas present was a new guitar or he’d go online and have a look at music and things to learn…. The other boys listen to music, but they don’t play any instruments.” There is a reoccurring view from Hannah that someone is musical if they demonstrate musical expertise through playing instruments.

I ask Hannah how she thinks QBS has influenced Aaron’s musical future. “I’d say it’s had a major influence on pointing him in that direction. The fact that he’s been able to use the equipment here and he’s probably had guidance from yourself…. I think it’s only quite a recent thing that he’s chosen that path because I’ve asked him many a time, ‘What are you going to do? Are you going to go to uni or are you going to be a plumber?’… I think he was just a bit too young and he didn’t really have any idea. Obviously at some point he has realised that he really likes it or that he’s good at something to do with music and that there might be a career there somewhere…. We are really pleased that he’s been able to find this little niche that he’s happy in working with something that he’s good at.” Related to Aaron’s enjoyment in music are his sense of curiosity to learn and sense of achievement. Student agency in the discipline of music has shaped and supported Aaron’s personal identity work. Aaron’s story demonstrates the impact of individualised music education opportunities and positive engagement at school and beyond the classroom. His story also raises issues around equitable access to music education for all Australian children in regional and rural areas.

4.3.2 A pathway to navigate secondary school Boarding school and living away from family has been difficult for Aaron. Music has provided him with a pathway to navigate the complexity of his secondary school boarding experience. “At the moment, currently, if I didn’t have music I probably wouldn’t be coming to school. For me, that’s just

68 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” how it is, and I can’t really say that if I did another subject that I would make it through school or not, but I feel like music has definitely helped me stay, because without it I definitely wouldn’t be coming.”

Concerns for Aaron not finishing school have also been on the minds of his parents. “I can tell you really from the bottom of my heart… I didn’t think Aaron would finish Year 12. And when we sent him to QBS, we asked him if he wanted to go away at a boarding school and it was a choice for him. He didn’t have to, his brothers had gone and he was always different to the other boys and he didn’t want to go. And we said, ‘That’s fine, well you stay in Inglewood.’ And then at the end of Year 7 in Inglewood, six weeks to go before the start of Year 8, he said ‘I want to go to QBS.’ So, he gave us literally no time to get organised. He was booked in, but we kept deferring it. I’d already deferred it for Year 9. I rang and said, ‘No, he wants to come, is that all right?’ We had uniforms and everything because the other two boys had been through. So, he made that mind up and honestly John and I said to ourselves, ‘QBS will make him or QBS will break him. He’ll be home within a year, or it will be the making of him.’ And here we go, five years down the track he has followed different paths and enjoyed different things that he would not have got the chance to do in Inglewood…. We’re very, very pleased.”

The music opportunities and education afforded to Aaron at QBS create a space for him to belong, have meaning as a “musician,” and provide a sense of ongoing purpose as he works towards his future as an “aspiring producer.” Flourishing in and through music has implications for student well-being.

4.3.3 A resource for self-expression Aaron enjoys music as a resource to understand himself and relate to others. His personal enjoyment inspires his own aspirations in music and he expresses his identity through the music he creates himself. He believes music allows his voice to be heard and “impact” others. In the drawing shown in Figure 4.1, Aaron responds to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

69 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do”

Figure 4.1. Aaron’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

“I feel as if what I enjoy most about music at the moment is how music affects people, how it can really have an emotional impact and how people can enjoy it and be happy through music. It can also represent how [the listener is] feeling and convey not only what the producers and the composer wants, but give them the freedom to think about it themselves…. To me… if you’re making music for other people to listen to, which is probably the main goal these days, you want people to be able to feel things from it. Not just, ‘this is a good song,’ but ‘this relates to me. These emotions that I feel are coming from this song.’ To me, it’s not only what I enjoy about music, but it’s a goal of mine to be able to convey that through song and through compositions.”

Aaron uses music as a resource to navigate the ongoing conflicts in his identity work. “My latest piece I feel as if it was designed to convey an emotion, or two emotions that were really conflicting. For me, that was a struggle. I’m not very good at displaying emotions, generally, so putting it into a song was quite difficult…. Really this song conveyed desperation. It was actually the title of this song, but it’s a desperate plea to stay and feeling inclined to be something.”

Aaron says that he has learned to produce his own music and create an effective song “from my years at school here.” It was a combination of skills and understanding learnt through class music, one-on-one production lessons and self-teaching that developed his songwriting expertise. “It’s really

70 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” just experimentation and slowly learning my skills…. At first, I was using Sibelius9 and, really, it was quite random…. I would often just play on the piano or the guitar and see where that took me. Obviously that’s limited in where it can take you if you just keep playing ideas, you’re just going to end up with a piece that’s just a mess and you’ve got so many musical ideas that don’t really go together, which some of my compositions ended up like that. But eventually I worked out that you get a musical idea and you work with that and you build it and you bring it down and you go around it, not necessarily go to another one. So that was my way of creating ideas, it was actually on the piano…. Then I would notate it, and then I would listen to it until I could find out where I wanted to go with the piece really. I’d go, ‘Okay, so I’ve got this melody line, do I want the piece to be dark or light?’ If it’s dark then I would go, ‘minor chords here, what goes with this?,’ and I’d work off the notes and it would just be all around them.” The synergy created through the entanglement of Aaron’s music learning worlds allowed him to develop skills and confidence to create music.

Building on his use of composition to communicate and express himself, Aaron believes his intended meaning is most authentic when he performs his compositions himself. “For people to be really interested in music, I feel as if they have to be able to express themselves. While for an extent you can do that through composition, but if you really want to show your emotions, you can play it. Obviously, a composer is going to play his piece much differently to anyone that’s just picked it up and started playing. Unless the composer has actually told them how to play the piece, it’s just going to be not the same. So, for me, I feel like performing is the way to internalise and emotionalise music.”

Aaron wishes to build on his current use of music into the future. At the time of the interview, he had completed the audition process and portfolio submissions for several tertiary music institutions for courses in contemporary music and music technology. In response to the drawing question, “What will you do with music in your future?” (see Figure 4.2), Aaron exclaims, “I’ll have to fill the whole page!”

9 Music notation software.

71 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do”

Figure 4.2. Aaron’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”

Making music with others for self and others is important in Aaron’s identity work. He begins his explanation by indicating to the left side of his drawing (see Figure 4.2). “I’d just like to be part of a band at uni and perform live in front of people. Maybe not a huge crowd but go out gigging and that’s a goal for me and how I’m going to use music in the future [left side of drawing]…. The other one here [right side of drawing] is obviously a little studio, which is really what I want to do. I want to build a studio and invest my money into that and not only work on my own music but other people’s as well…. For me it’s just what I enjoy, it’s my passion… and if I ended up working in that industry as a job, I wouldn’t wake up and go, ‘Oh, I’ve got to go to work’ and be sad about it. I’d go, ‘I’m going to go and make some music today and I’m going to make it sound awesome.’ So, it’s my passion to create and invent new ideas and explore ways of recording things like that…. It gives me the ability to help other people and express myself.”

I ask how class music has influenced Aaron’s musical future. He says, “Without classroom music I wouldn’t even be able to imagine these things. I wouldn’t imagine myself in front of people singing or playing an instrument or even playing in a band. I would just still be on basic skills and ‘Smoke on the water’10 on guitar or something like that. I guess classroom music has not just affected me, it’s shown me how and what I can do with these skills.” Class music has provided a significant

10 (Deep Purple, 1972).

72 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” avenue in positively shaping and supporting Aaron’s identity work by developing musical skills and understanding, and inspiring multiple possible selves.

Aaron’s use of music is clearly something quite personal and enables him to communicate when he is unable to do so using words. This recently emerged “musical” identity is quite a contrast to his prior life living in Inglewood before boarding school. Being a boarder, his family have not had the opportunity to see this significant change in Aaron’s identity on a day-to-day basis. While Hannah is aware Aaron enjoys music and has experienced success, the specific details are unknown. She says music “allows him to be good at something that he likes. He’s creative with it, I think. He sort of just tries a lot of different things and we basically leave him to his own devices with the music and stuff that he likes. He’s always just usually strumming away on a guitar, making up stuff and fiddling from what I’ve noticed, but he hasn’t been home very much in the last five years.” I follow with, “How do you think music makes him feel?” She says, “I don’t know, I’m not sure what he gets out of music. I have no idea. I have never asked him.” I mention that sometimes Aaron is shy at sharing his musical ideas and compositions. Hannah interjects saying, “I didn’t know he composed anything…. He hasn’t really said too much…. I don’t know if there’s a studio here or… whether he’s had too much time in there or a lot of use of that. I don’t know, but he seems to love that sort of thing. I’m assuming that’s played a bit of a part.” I respond saying Aaron has spent a lot of time in the recording studio. “Has he?,” Hannah questions. At the end of the interview, I take Hannah to the recording studio where Aaron has spent significant time, nearly every day, and introduce Hannah to her son’s music. We stand in silence listening to his musical creations. As Hannah heard from her son through his music for the first time, I could not help but be overwhelmed by the significance of this moment. Tears ran down my face.

This highlights a difference in Aaron’s story compared to other boys who participated in the study. All of the other participants’ parents were a continuing source of active music support and encouragement for their sons. In contrast, Aaron’s parents allowed him freedom to tinker and entrusted the school and the school’s boarding house to take on the role of family support and guidance. Music at school has been a critical support mechanism for helping Aaron start to discover who he wants to become.

4.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Aaron’s identity work 4.4.1 An opportunity to engage in music Aaron’s journey to music has spanned the 5 years of his secondary education. His attitudes towards formal music education have evolved over that time. These attitudes have been shaped by

73 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” school curriculum structures as QBS students are required to choose an arts subject (class music, drama, or visual art) in Year 9. “I actually remember why I picked Music and it was because I hate Art and I hate Drama…. I didn’t hate Music. I hated Drama because it was all about acting and I never had that gift, or Art I could never do anything but draw. So, for me it was well I play guitar a little bit I’ll go do some music. In Year 9, I picked music thinking I’ll work my way out of this, and then in Year 10 I just came back to music and that’s where I am.” At this point, however, Aaron had not yet become invested in music learning.

During Years 10 and 11, Aaron became dedicated to the school’s rowing program, which required intensive before- and after-school lessons. He came to classes physically exhausted, which hindered his ability to tackle the increasingly difficult musical problems in class. “I did find it difficult in Year 10 and 11…. Some lessons it would be not so fun and I’d just be tired…. But then eventually I came forth and thought, ‘This is what I want to do and I want to do music.’ The lessons just picked up and it was much better. I just started paying attention. So, for me, it was difficult because I wasn’t sure what I wanted to do. I was studying Maths a lot and I didn’t do Music much outside of class …. Maths was fun and it still quite is, but Music has taken preference right now and it’s just I found it more interesting.”

Aaron’s account demonstrates the evolving nature of student passions and the ability for these interests to shape students’ intrinsic motivations to engage in learning. Arguably, without the opportunity for Aaron to engage in music, supported by a compulsory Arts curriculum structure in Year 9, Aaron may have never unlocked his musical potential. Class music in this instance has served as an opportunity to switch Aaron on to formal music learning and develop musical understanding that has become significant in his life.

4.4.2 A resource to “express myself” Class music has directly shaped and supported Aaron’s identity work. Explicit development of composing and performing skills has empowered Aaron with a musical tool kit with which he is able to express himself. “Class music has taught me much, not only the ability to read and form music, but to express myself. I really was a jock, a sporty guy, and I rarely ever expressed my emotions.... I’m not really bottled up anymore, I just talk about things, which doesn’t bother me anymore, which years ago it might have. Class music has not only taught me essential music skills, it’s had an emotional impact on me.”

74 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” Aaron continues to mention the words “express myself” and I ask him to elaborate on this. “If you’re not able to express yourself, you’re kind of living behind a wall in a cage where no one really knows how you feel, what you’re like, you’re just kind of fake. It’s really helped me to express myself and other people can express themselves as well, and I feel like it’s just radical. For me it was different, and I guess that’s why I liked it.”

I ask Aaron to explain how music does this for him. “I think because music, itself, is an emotional state, it’s an emotional way of life. Just learning how to do those skills it has taught me how to express myself through that and just not really worry about image anymore, … the way I’m perceived. So, it might feel like it’s back in the eighties or somewhere kids would be shunned for playing a horn or something like that, but these days it’s quite the opposite. People embrace the musical talent that everyone has, and I guess that’s why I’ve just been able to emotionally open up and that’s what music has taught me.” Class music has provided a supportive environment for Aaron to “open up” about his emotions and express his musical inclinations. He speaks of an environment where all musics are valued and respected, and acknowledgement of boys being at different stages of development.

Previously, Aaron felt pressure to be someone other than himself and that feeling had caused him discomfort. “I feel as if I was very inclined to be my brothers. I remember Year 8, the first week I was here doing PE and one of the teachers said to me, ‘Your brothers did great things here’ and ‘they were in the First XV11 and the First Cricket team.’ I do remember that week, and I just remember being so confused in my head about if I wanted to be my brothers, and that really held over me for 2 years or so. I really never had the devotion to become a First XV player or a First VIII rower, and I guess I could have if I’d tried, but for me, I just never felt inclined to go about doing that, and I guess I found another interest in music.”

At the end of his schooling Aaron says, “I feel like I’ve grown. I’ve definitely changed. I was probably not the best guy years ago, and I probably was all about sport and I probably would have shunned kids for doing music and singing and dancing and doing musical theatre, but now I implore them to do it and I encourage it. A lot of my friends now can express themselves and people I actually call my friends go out and do musical theatre and they sing, and I enjoy having them as my friends

11 In Australian boys’ school sport, each elite team is known as the “Firsts” followed by the number of people in the team. For example, a rugby team has 15 players, and the elite team is known as the First XV.

75 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” now, instead of the numbness of sporting people. I’m not saying all sporting people are like that, but it’s just a culture that is so different.”

Class music has shaped and supported this “radical” identity change. While his parents have noticed a change in Aaron, they are not aware of the daily events that have shaped him over the past 5 years. On class music, Hannah says, “No. I’ve no idea what you would do. I’m just happy if he’s doing something that he loves.” Hannah and John have always encouraged Aaron to pursue his own interests. “With my other boys, I’ve worked out that it’s best to let them make their own decisions about what they want to study in life and which way they want to go. They have to make their own decisions, their own choices and I’m happy for them to go that way. We both are, John and I, and they can make their own mistakes and we’re firm believers in letting them choose their own paths, basically. I let him choose his own subjects. They all had to choose whatever they wanted to do at school.” The freedom for Aaron to choose his own pathway is in contrast to other boys, and his identity work has benefitted from the support provided by class music.

4.4.3 Teacher philosophy and pedagogy Aaron’s comments about me provide insight into teacher philosophy and pedagogy. “If you’d asked me this a year ago, 2 years ago, I probably would have said bad things, because I was a brooding young teenager…. I probably would have said, ‘He’s an annoying teacher that is always on my back about not doing enough work,’ and I would have said something like ‘Music is not that important,’ and ‘I don’t see why I need to put so much effort into it,’ or something like that. But now I would have slapped that guy. Now I see you as a good role model. You’re a performer, composer, you’ve got all these skills in musical theory and you do cover a wide range of music. You’re never really had bias towards one particular type of music and for me that probably a great thing, because we’ve now been able to be exposed to so much.”

Importantly for Aaron, the teacher being unbiased towards a particular genre or style of music has allowed him to discover his own music interests, and the different interests of his classmates. He also enjoys class music because the teaching and learning is responsive to student interests and curiosities. Classes are targeted to the students in the room at that moment in time. “I guess class music is just open. It’s really not set to a book, people can ask a question just about something and the whole lesson will be changed by that question. Someone will enquire about why this is in this mode and eventually it will go to that and it’s not just do this chapter out of a book kind of thing, as in Maths, or read this text book and things like that, and I guess that’s why I enjoy Music, because it’s open ended and it can change like that.”

76 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do”

4.4.4 Combined music theory and making Aaron says that class music simultaneously combines music theory and making, unlike other subjects. “It’s both theoretical and practical. A lot of the subjects aren’t really like that. Maths is obviously all theoretical and in book, though, I guess, there are some subjects like Design Tech and Manual Arts, you both design your project on paper and then you build it, which is a lot like music; you design your songs and you perform it. There are a few subjects which are the same in those terms.”

In responding to the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?,” Aaron draws and describes two images (see Figure 4.3). The image on the left of the figure represents developing skills and knowledge in music notation for the purposes of composition, the image on the right represents class performances and the opportunities it provides boys to express themselves. A deeper investigation of these images uncovers that both composition and performance challenge Aaron’s musical identities.

Figure 4.3. Aaron’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”

4.4.4.1 Music notation literacy While he did not initially, Aaron now places value on and sees the benefits of being able to use traditional music notation. “Basically, the first left picture here [see Figure 4.3] is music on the

77 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” staff and is about learning composing and everything that comes with that: music notation, key signatures, and time signature. At some points I didn’t enjoy that about Music…. I only learnt basic skills in the younger years because I didn’t pay much attention…. I always thought it was boring and I really wanted to perform, which is the other side of my picture…. But I feel now if I had paid more attention towards that, my skills of reading and writing music would be better.”

Aaron is critically aware of his strengths and challenges, and further describes his journey through learning how to use music notation. “I feel that my ability to write is much higher than my ability to read [music notation]…. My ability to read is probably below average…. I really only learnt [notation] in the last 3 years… through class music here at QBS, especially in senior music. I really had pushed myself to compose on these compositions, which I guess is where I learnt most of the skills.” The class music program placed value on all students being able to use music notation as a way of communicating their ideas. I persisted with teaching all students how to use notation for the benefits it could offer them in their individual music pursuits. Aaron says, “I feel like last year was probably a breakthrough. I think we were doing key signature work, and it finally clicked in my head about where the sharp is on the page, where the flat is on the page, and till I worked it out it was, ‘How have I not known this?.’ I was just so ecstatic about just easily being able to go well that’s that. So really, for me, that was a great moment.”

When Aaron is composing and recording, he is not using notation, though feels restricted in what he can achieve without it. “Really, for me, I did go through this stage of composing for orchestras and strings and things like that, which I really did enjoy, and I do love having that skill, though I haven’t done it for a while. I feel as if my compositions could be better if I knew more and could read, especially being able to read music, this would help me perform other pieces and things like that. I did enjoy learning that skill, and I feel like that’s a very good skill for me, even though currently I’m more along the lines of playing into a click track rather than notes on a page.” A valued subject combined with learning achievement and success results in enjoyment.

Whilst Aaron’s music development has been hindered by delayed music education opportunities and a late motivation to engage in formal music learning, he now values class music and sees the potential it offers as a resource in his identity work. Developing skills in music notation has assisted in composition and provided a resource for self-expression in Aaron’s identity work.

78 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do”

4.4.4.2 Class performances Aaron viewed shared performances in class music as a way to have fun, learn from others, and for boys to express themselves. “The other picture [on the right; see Figure 4.3] is performing and it’s probably one of the best things. Everyone seems to love it and it’s a good way to have fun with your friends… not just because they’re amazing, but it just gives me opportunity to analyse how they play and better my skills.” The class provided Aaron with models of other boys, the majority of whom had much longer experiences in formal music education.

Aaron describes one of his favourite memories from class. He was watching his friends perform “in Year 10. At this point in their life, they weren’t really sure if they wanted to be musical or not and they put little effort into it. One of their performances was quite improvised with dance moves and all. I found them being able to open up and express themselves like that out of nowhere was awesome.” Aaron values music performance in class as a resource to express his and others’ identity work.

Aaron is critical of his own abilities and compares himself to others. He rates his performance skills “probably about average.” “A lot of the boys can play at least one instrument very well and some play a range of instruments very well. Others play one instrument really well, and others play one well and one not so well, which is I guess where I am. I play guitar quite well and piano more average and in singing I’m average or probably just good quality.”

While class performances provide models of performance for Aaron, it also highlights areas of shortcomings. “I’ve just performed quite a few times in front of the class, or in front of parents, or even at a speech night, and really for me, performing is difficult. I’m not the greatest singer; performing is just difficult for me…. I often do feel limited, especially lately, with just recording my music ideas. It’s very difficult if I’m playing most of the instruments in the piece and I’ve got a great idea and I want it to sound like this, but I don’t have the skills on the guitar or piano, especially the drum kit even, or bass. I never get a good bass line because I feel like it’s a guitar and play it like a guitar and then it’s not a bass line. So, for me, I feel, if I better my performing skills I can even better my compositions.” Aaron’s comments are evidence of highly critical reflection, though holds onto a growth mindset and an idea of a musical future he can shape through music learning.

4.5 Summary Aaron’s initial playful music engagement at home through “tinkering” and “fiddling” during early childhood laid the foundations for his music beliefs, values and identity work. His father

79 Aaron: “I have found a passion in music and that’s really what I want to do” provided a male inspiration as a performer and listening model. Aaron’s diverse listening preferences cater for his multiple uses of music in his life. These experiences have been motivating forces in Aaron’s persistence as a music entrepreneur to teach himself where formal music education has been unavailable.

Aaron’s story demonstrates both the impact of formal music education and the lack of opportunities in schools. The absence of formal music education in his primary school arguably delayed his chance to further develop specific music skills during his primary school years, despite showing interest. Recognising a lack of “opportunities” in regional areas, Aaron’s parents sent their son to boarding school in a capital city. The multitude of music opportunities available to Aaron at QBS had a significant role in shaping and supporting his identity work during his secondary school years.

Music acted as an agent of change in Aaron’s identity work. He says he recently changed his identity from a “sporty person,” later defined as “jock,” to “musician” and “aspiring producer.” He now prioritises music and participates in hours of music making and listening every day. Aaron confesses that he found school difficult and music provided a safe harbour and pathway for him. It gave him a reason to continue attending school. Aaron has an interest in using music to express himself and communicate his emotions and to impact others. Music enables him to communicate when he is unable to do so with words. He does this through composition and performance, neither of which he has shared with his parents. Aaron wishes to build on his current use of music into his future and class music has inspired future tertiary music study.

Class music at QBS provided Aaron with an opportunity to access a formal music education and develop his music skills and understanding. While not initially completely invested in formal music learning, he later found great benefit in the program and expressed some regret in his delayed motivation to engage. Aaron found that by developing skills in composing, performance, and listening he was empowered with tools to express himself and his emotions. He found himself through music and music education. The teacher was significant in providing a credible music model, continuing encouragement, and valuing diverse student musical pursuits. The learning of music across simultaneous music domains appeared in Aaron’s descriptions of the curriculum. Though initially reluctant, he later found great value in learning music notation, which informed his compositions and was significant in his identity work. Class performances empowered Aaron to participate in a community of respectful music leaners who were encouraged to share their themselves with each other.

80 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” 5 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 Introducing Blake Blake confidently introduces himself saying, “I’m a country music singer and I’m from the bush…. I want to be a country music star.” He began attending Queensland Boys’ School (QBS) in Year 10 as a boarding student. Prior to this, he lived with his family on their farming property in Austin,12 300 kilometres from QBS. “Austin has expanded a lot since it’s had gas mining over the last 5 years. The town has expanded to probably 2,000 people now, but growing up it was just a normal country town. You’d ride in on a horse if you had to and no-one would second-guess you…. The property that we live on is roughly 7,000 acres…. We have five and a half thousand cattle and we grow wheat, barley, forage sorghum, and peanuts. We’ve got a lot of action…. I’m pretty much just a mini-manager type person because my parents own it. I’ve got three other brothers, so they rely on us a fair bit because it’s hard to get staff…. I love to work on the property, … everything to do with the outback.”

When Blake arrived at QBS in Year 10, it was clear he was homesick. This affected his behaviour in class and his attitude towards learning. He felt “bloody awful really, but I knew I was coming my whole life…. I didn’t want to leave home because I love it so much and I thought my life was just in a little shell and planned out. I did love coming to the school to visit my brothers, meeting their mates, seeing how much fun you have in the boarding house and experiencing different people, but I just didn’t feel comfortable at first. It took me a good year to actually relax.” Despite missing home and being critical of city kids, Blake says he has ultimately benefitted from boarding at QBS. “Going back to Austin, my mates don’t know anyone. They’re so sheltered. They have no outer experience. They don’t have the opportunities that I have here. I’m recording an album and just made a film clip for my latest single and opportunities like that in Austin are very, very rare. You couldn’t do that, meeting people, meeting lifelong mates and teachers even. Teachers who are willing to help you and listen to you and encourage you. So, I think I’ve definitely benefitted.”

In his final year of schooling, Blake studies English Communication, Mathematics A, Manufacturing, Technology Studies, and Music. He participates in the senior choirs, rugby, Australian Rules Football, cricket, and a youth ministry group. He also receives individual vocal, guitar, and production lessons. I had taught Blake in class music since his arrival at QBS. At the time of the interview, Blake is 17 years of age.

12 A pseudonym.

81 Blake: “Chasing your dreams”

5.1.2 Introducing Julia (Blake’s mother) Blake’s mother, Julia, gave consent for her and her son to participate in the research project, however an interview with her was unable to be completed.

5.2 Blake’s music beliefs, values, and uses 5.2.1 Individualised resource to manage the self Blake values and uses music as a resource to manage the self. He believes music is an activity that everyone engages in, but as individuals we choose how. He says, “everyone uses it differently.” Comparing his use of music to his classmates he says, “How I use it is a lot different to how a classical boy would use it.” Overall, Blake is confident and satisfied in his individualised use of music. He says, “If you don’t want to be musically gifted or you don’t want to learn something, you don’t have to. You don’t have to be forced to do something you don’t want to do. If you enjoy listening to music and you don’t like playing music, you don’t have to do both. You can just enjoy the music. You don’t have to perform music.” Blake believes individuals should be able to pursue their own music interests and passions, and people can appreciate music without being actively involved in making it. Blake’s music beliefs, values, and uses are deeply embodied and embedded in his identity work and discussed in detail in Section 5.3 and 5.4.

5.2.2 Emotion and mood management Blake listens to music for managing his personal emotions and mood. He discusses how he uses music to relax and focus and does so across a variety of settings—including at home and at work—using mobile devices. “When I listen to music it’s probably always when I’m at home working. I always have my phone plugged into the aux cord in the car, and as I’m driving along I always have music on because it sort of calms you, it relaxes you, you can focus more, and you don’t get bored of what you’re doing.” Blake’s music follows him wherever he goes throughout his everyday activities. In addition to listening to music for emotional and mood management, it is also a significance resource in his identity work, as discussed in Section 5.3.

5.2.3 Relationships with others Blake values and uses music to establish, maintain and develop relationships with others. He calls this “connecting with people” and he uses music to be valued by others and make a valued contribution to others’ lives. Blake believes that music can help others by sharing stories of the human experience, including his own, through music. In responding to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?,” Blake draws himself on stage performing to an audience (see Figure 5.1). The

82 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” audience “could be my mates or they just could be strangers who have heard my music on YouTube or iTunes. They’ve seen that I’ve got a concert on and they’ve come down. They’re just fans who enjoy music.”

Figure 5.1. Blake’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

Forming connections with others is of importance to Blake. In his performances and songs, he aims to “impact them and communicate through my music, through my journey. I try and write about what I’ve been through and I’ve had a great response so far with people enjoying my music, so definitely impacting people is probably a good way to do it…. We’re all on a different journey but most steps in life, we can all experience the same feelings, though love is the easiest one. If you cop a heartbreak, and I’ve written a song about a heartbreak, that person out there might have had the exact same experiences, like dancing in the rain or just buying a girl some flowers. That’s like memories to them. If I’m singing that on stage and then they start crying because it just brings back a big ball of memories for them. So, impacting and making it like a journey through life for other people to listen to is a big thing.” Blake provides a specific song as an example. “I sing a song called, “Live like you were dying.”13 It’s a country song, obviously, but it’s about a man who doesn’t really connect with life but then he realises once his father dies that he has so much more to learn and develop. It really touches people…. People always come up and they’re in tears and you don’t know really how to react. It’s just so good to see that I can connect my music with people.”

13 (McGraw, 2004)

83 Blake: “Chasing your dreams”

A significant motivating factor for Blake is being valued by others for his musical contribution. He says, “Well, if people who you’re performing to don’t like your music, what’s the point in trying? So, to make them happy, you sing or write music to please them because that’s how you’re going to get known if fans like your music.” Blake finds self-value in what he does by aiming for his audiences to feel “joy” through his music making. The sense of belonging he receives from his music making is further discussed in Section 5.3.

5.3 Blake’s use of music to shape and support his identity work 5.3.1 Musical identity Blake’s identity work is shaped and supported by his musical identity. His musical identity is constructed of an identity in music (IIM) as a country music singer–songwriter and the role of music in his broader self-construct; music in identity (MII). Blake’s musical identity is informed by genre, musician models, a sense of belonging, and his dream.

5.3.1.1 “My genre” Blake’s upbringing in country Queensland has moulded his musical identity within the genre of country music, or “my genre” as he calls it. He says, “You’re influenced by the music around you and the people who like it.” Blake loves the farming life and says being in the city for boarding school is “just so boring. There’s nothing that really excites me here apart from sport and music, but being in the bush, you can do whatever you want. You’re free to go and jump on a horse. Before I came to boarding school, we’d come home from school and go and hop on a horse or drive a truck or tractor and just do what a normal country kid would do.” Blake feels that living outside the city granted him more freedom and life experience. “You’ve got boys here even my age who can’t even drive a car yet. I just feel like country people are more experienced, can live life a bit happier and have more background knowledge of everything compared to a person in the city.” Blake’s identity work within the country music genre enables to him to connect daily with the country lifestyle back home despite boarding in the city.

Even within the country music genre, Blake’s interests lie in popular and contemporary artists. He says that he finds the “slower old songs” of “an acoustic guitar and a rusty old voice” “old- fashioned” and “boring.” Blake’s listening preferences are also influenced by current trends in popular music. “Pop and country are sort of the same thing these days. They’re definitely combining.” Attributes of mainstream popular music and its artists have also influenced his identity work. “I love to sing…. It depends on the song but if [there is] … a strong message behind the song, I can portray

84 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” that … and connect with the audience…. [I try] to interact with audiences, share my experiences with other people and try and … live my dream really.”

At QBS, high value is placed on tradition and classical music. I ask if he listens to classical music. “It’s not my favourite to listen to but it’s probably one of the biggest genres there is. However, I grew up with different sounds and I’m not that interested in classical, but I have been made to sing it. I wouldn’t say I suffered it, but I tried to perform as much as I could in that genre, [as] much as I didn’t want to.” I ask if there has been some benefit to his experiences Blake clarifies his stance. “You ask why you have to sing that genre and why do you have to do something you don’t necessarily want to do, but it’s to expand your knowledge of music, expand your horizons, try and learn new things that maybe you can put into, or that I can put into my music … and make my music more enhanced.” There is an acknowledgement that there is value in being exposed to and making music in genres that are not of primary interest.

5.3.1.2 Musician models Blake uses other musicians as templates in his identity work. All of his influential models involved singing. Initially, musical modelling began at home as a toddler. “My grandmother is very musically gifted. She’s a singer, like a classical opera singer. She had a bit of an influence on me trying to teach me how to sing but I used to always have a guitar in my hand at the age of 3. Mum would always say I just always wanted to play and sing.”

Julia, Blake’s mother, provided opportunities for Blake to experience and learn from inspiring musical models. “Mum used to try and book me in to receive guitar lessons at the age of 6 but the teacher wouldn’t take me in because my fingers were too small to reach the top of the neck. I kept trying and then, when I was 9, he finally let me in. He usually takes them on when they’re about 11. He took me on, and he thought I had something special…. With the guitar teacher, he would make us sing as well so we would learn. The first song I ever learned was ‘Hang down your head Tom Dooley’14 … I thought it was cool singing along and playing.”

Blake remembers primary school class music including singing and playing. He learned the recorder and recalls his teacher tended to focus on “choir.” The male school principal also provided another strong music model for Blake. “There was a rock band I was in. I was the lead singer and lead guitarist and I did that for Year 5, 6, and 7. I had a really good principal who taught us guitar

14 (The Kingston Trio, 1958).

85 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” and taught us all the instruments…. In Austin High School. There wasn’t music there…. I did sing all the time though, at assemblies, Anzac Day, and functions.” At QBS, Blake’s class music, voice, guitar and production teachers all provided strong male singing models.

Beyond family and school inspiration, Blake has also made connections to professional and celebrity role models within the music industry. I had heard previously that he had performed with an Australian country music star and I ask him about this. “Lee Kernaghan was involved in a flood relief charity event…. He heard that I was a young boy in the region who got flooded and he heard that I could sing through a country music festival. He invited me and we sang one song together and it was probably the best experience of my life at that time. It really brightened the community up and my family because we were going through a pretty tough time. He’s probably the only big superstar I’ve sung with but there are other people in my community who I look up to and respect.”

Talent quests were also an opportunity to be placed in front of influential and inspiring judges, possibly leading to other opportunities. “Mum would enter me into country music festivals just to give me experience, and talent quests and whatnot, and I got given good feedback…. Peter Emmanuel, Tommy Emmanuel’s brother, was a coach at a talent quest I did one time and it was pretty cool playing alongside him.” Performing alongside celebrity role models has provided Blake with a template for his possible self. “It just feels really special because you’re actually doing it, it’s your dream.”

Blake’s experiences rubbing shoulders with Australian country music stairs motivates him to dream big. His main inspiration for his future possible self comes from listening to country music superstars. “That’s where I get my inspiration from, listening to other artists. Big-time artists really, … someone who has millions of fans. Someone who has sold a lot of albums or songs, not necessarily a lot of songs but someone who just writes a really good song that you can connect with and is just catchy and they’re a good person. You can watch them on YouTube and see what type of person they are, and if they’re stuck up or… a good bloke.” In this description, listening to an artist extends beyond making judgements on their music, but also to their celebrity identity and public standing. This has an impact on who Blake identifies as his role models.

5.3.1.3 Belonging Blake uses music to carve his place in the world. Through his humble music making he seeks self-worth, and believes he makes a valuable contribution and is valued by others. This sense of belonging in Blake’s identity work is shaped and supported by his peers, parents, idols, and fans.

86 Blake: “Chasing your dreams”

Being a boarding student, it is Blake’s peers who provide ongoing daily validation for his music making. “The first time I sang in front of the class… Year 10… no one had ever heard me sing before and just the reaction I got was… ‘Wow, these people are actually really encouraging!’” Blake says that he continues to find his peers supportive. Reflecting on another recent memory, he says, “Two days ago I sang at the Queensland School for Girls15 and I received the biggest standing ovation and I couldn’t believe it…. My mates do enjoy my music.” Blake is continually humble in his response to being valued by others, though still thrives off this positive recognition.

Recently Blake released a music single on iTunes that he’d produced at school. “When I first put my single out, within 24 hours it went number one on the iTunes Australian country music charts… and I couldn’t believe it…. One of my mates just walked into my room… and he just said, ‘How would it feel to be number one over Luke Bryan?’ Luke Bryan is an American country music artist who is my idol. I just said, ‘Oh, that would never happen. You’d be bloody dreaming, kid.’ Then he said, ‘Look at this,’ and I couldn’t believe it. I didn’t believe it! So, I went on my phone and went onto iTunes and it was there as well. I rang Mum and said, ‘Can you go on iTunes and just see what’s going on?’ Sure enough, it was. It was the biggest sense of achievement and I was pretty proud of myself.”

This sense of recognised music achievement was initially pushed by the family script. In Blake’s drawing response to “What do you enjoy about music?” (see Figure 5.1), I notice it is not just him on stage, and I enquire to as who the other two people are. “My parents…. They’re a big influence on me. I thank them for everything that they’ve done for me and have given me a world of opportunities and pushing me to pursue music.” Blake’s mother is a key supporter in his musical life. In response to his iTunes success, Blake says his mother “couldn’t believe it either. She just went into, well not shock, but she was just proud. I remember she wasn’t at home. They were away from home and I called her, and she was just really proud of me, I guess. She just said, ‘Well done. You’re chasing your dreams. Keep going.’”

Blake also seeks recognition and to be valued by his celebrity idols. “You want to meet these people, have them know your name, and know that you can sing and perform. Then you can look down at other people and they give you respect because you’re a good singer.” His celebrity role models have provided a template for identity and how to seek recognition from mass audiences.

15 A pseudonym.

87 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” Referring back to Blake’s drawing in Figure 5.1, I ask him to explain the word “Joy” he has written. “I’m singing on stage to an audience and we’re all happy. They’re rocking along to my music and I’m enjoying the fans who are accepting my music.” When audiences love his music, he says “it’s like a sense of achievement, it’s a part of your dream. You’re following your heart to sing and when you get up on stage, all you do is hope and pray that the audience will love you and love your sound. So, winning the audience over is a big thing…. You get people who want to encourage you who you feel like they are listening and they’re trying to connect with you and your music.”

Blake uses the approval of others as motivation to continue growing as a musician. “Just to have fans or followers or people who encourage you is such a big thing. It really gives you help, and it sort of inspires you to do more and to strive to something bigger and better.” Such positive audience responses fuel Blake’s aspirations for a celebrity identity. “I’m definitely a lower-class celebrity, but working my way up is definitely on the cards…. Not everyone gets to do that, and I’ve got the opportunity to try and be famous and to try and benefit out of singing. I suppose if I do keep on going with it, I’d probably give it a little bit of a crack at getting onto a B-level maybe.”

5.3.1.4 The dream Blake has a clear vision of a future as a “musician.” His past and present uses of music inform his “dream” and shape his desired future identity. In responding to the question, “What will you do with music in your future?,” Blake draws a picture of a semi-trailer with his name on the side, inspired by one of his idols (see Figure 5.2). He says he wants to “use my gift” to “live my dream.”

88 Blake: “Chasing your dreams”

Figure 5.2. Blake’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”16

“I’ve always dreamed of me owning a fleet of trucks with a big ‘Blake Campbell’ with my face on the side of it, the trailer, cruising around. Mum’s had the same vision for me. That would be the coolest thing to have a fleet of trucks with that on the side. That’s what Luke Bryan has that carts his gear around; carts his stages around, packs out stadiums to thousands and thousands of fans who enjoy music. I want to have that sense of accomplishment that I know people love me for what I do. In the future I definitely would love to be a musician…. I want to sell albums. I want to make music that people like. I want my name to be out there.”

Blake has previously mentioned that, after he graduates from school, he will pursue a diesel fitting trade. He explains how his trade and music will fit into his life. “Being a diesel fitter will take me 4 years, so I’ll also do music on the side. I’ll keep trying to record an album, record another album, and write music. I’ll definitely just write music even if I don’t record music until I’m finished my trade. But I’ll try and sing at pubs on Friday nights and I’ll do festivals. I’m going down to Tamworth Country Music Festival at the start of next year. I’ve been accepted into the Academy of Country Music for a week’s course there with a couple of big stars, so that will be a good experience which will get my name out there. If I have the opportunity to live this dream full-time, I would do it, definitely.”

16 The drawing has been digitally edited to use a pseudonym.

89 Blake: “Chasing your dreams”

5.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Blake’s identity work 5.4.1 Identity disruption The class music teacher and program in this setting shaped and supported Blake’s identity work by disrupting his preconceived musical identity. For the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?,” he draws and speaks about his learning journey over the past 3 years (see Figure 5.3).

Figure 5.3. Blake’s drawing for the question, “What do you about class music?”

“Me on this left side is I’m just starting and I have no idea what’s going on, but as the circle keeps going around over the years, I’m over on this right side where I still can’t read music as well but I understand it and solfa I can understand. And you, the teacher in the centre, have really pushed me and encouraged me to try different things. You made [me] sing classical music and made me try to use Sibelius software. Then you also let me do what I want with recording music instead of composing sheet music. I thought that really helped me because you are letting me do what I want but you’re also right behind me, encouraging me. I’ve learned a lot.”

Class music has been enjoyable for Blake as a mixture of tension and release. His musical identity has been disrupted through a high value on formal music learning, music notation literacy, and diverse repertoire genres. This has nurtured a growth mindset regarding to his future music learning and development.

90 Blake: “Chasing your dreams”

5.4.1.1 Formal music learning and development Prior to boarding school, much of Blake’s music learning and development was practical and informal in nature. This approach to learning is similar to how he learns on the family farm. He says, “I really enjoy hands-on stuff because I’m from the bush. I love welding and fixing things. Next year I want to be a diesel fitter so that’s pulling apart machines and putting them all back together again.” Blake learns from his father on the farm and this is the first time Blake’s father is mentioned in our interview. “Dad, he always just says, ‘Jump in that machine, work it out for yourself.’ So, that’s what I do, and I just teach myself.... Then with class music, I found I really need help. I need help a lot.”

While Blake was experienced and skilled as a country music performer, he discovered he was behind his peers in a broader range of music knowledge and understanding. “Coming to QBS was probably the biggest thing that’s happened to me.” He says that in Years 10 and 11 he “hated class music… because I didn’t know what I was doing, and it frustrated me because everyone was so advanced. Every other kid in the room had so much more knowledge than me, but all I could do was just sing and play. They knew everything and singing solfa I thought was the stupidest thing because it doesn’t make sense. Towards the end of Year 11, it really clicked why I’m here and what’s going on.”

As Blake’s teacher, I had a significant role in supporting Blake in this context. I would often assist Blake one-on-one to try and fill gaps in his music knowledge. “You would teach me stuff outside of class. The other boys were so far advanced, because they’ve been doing it since primary school. You’d sit down, simplify it for me, and then I could understand it and actually use it.” Such a formal way of learning was unusual for Blake. He says he was not sure how he felt, “but I knew it was the right thing.” He thought, “look at all these other blokes, they’re doing so well out of it so it must be good.” This experience has had a positive effect on Blake, who says, “It’s made me work harder today…. It’s made me listen more and I never talk in class. I just take it all in.” Blake is thankful to me, and says, “You are someone who’s willing to help. You’ve done a lot for me. You have pushed me to learn new things and to do stuff that I don’t want to do. You have paired me up with people who you think I’d relate to, and you’re always there for me if I ever have a question or want to develop more interest in music. I think you’re a good bloke.”

Blake believes that he receives the greatest benefit out of his regular one-on-one recording and voice lessons. “Class music has been good, but the private lessons are even better…. When you’re in a room with a group of boys, it’s a lot harder to understand what’s going on because they’re so far ahead of you.” Blake’s story highlights the value in class music teachers linking with co-curricular

91 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” music staff, particularly one-on-one studio music teachers. They have a unique opportunity to provide targeted one-on-one support and cater learning to individual interests.

5.4.1.2 Music notation literacy Blake’s musical identity was most confronted by a curriculum that valued music notation literacy and music theory. He refers to the whiteboard in his drawing (see Figure 5.3). Behind the teacher are the words, “Expanding My Horizons.” “There’s a heap of notes, so ti-tis and ta-tas and that bloody solfa stuff. I’d never heard solfa before. I didn’t even have a bloody clue what you were talking about the first year…. I never learned how to read music…. I’d just print out the words and then I’d take it in to my guitar teacher. He’d play the song and he’d write down the chords on top of the line, just G and A, and I would just pick it up from there.” For Blake, a lack of fluency in music notation brought on feelings of inadequacy in this environment. “I don’t like that I’m so far behind. I don’t like that every other boy is ahead of me in most parts of the class, and I don’t like that I don’t understand most things.”

Class music in this setting highlighted gaps in Blake’s musicianship, and he was somewhat frustrated by his perception of educational inadequacies in comparison to others. “As a little kid, a little preppie, they’re probably even smarter than me. Some of them can read music because that’s just what they’ve grown up with. I feel if I grew up with it, I’d probably be the exact same.” Despite this, Blake says, “I couldn’t see myself pulling out of class music to do another subject because… I love music.” We discuss if less-developed skills in music notation prevent him from pursing his dream after school. “No, because I can still write music without being able to read music, although it is handy to have.”

5.4.1.3 Diverse repertoire genres Blake was also challenged by the genres of repertoire studied in class music. Investigated units gave an emphasis to what he called “classical music.” Studied repertoire, however, not only covered music from the classical canon from the medieval period to the modern era, but also diverse range of genres including film music, jazz, 20th century innovations, protest through popular song of the late 20th century and today, electronic music, and music of the theatre, including rock opera and modern musicals. Students not only studied music from the past but were also asked to challenge music conventions and create their own styles. Blake said that he would improve “some of the repertoire and some of the topics…. I hate opera…. It’s just you can’t understand what they’re singing unless you have that language and it could be a beautiful voice, but to me you can’t connect with it…. I like music you can connect to and sing along to … modern music that you sing and that

92 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” you listen to probably would be easier to analyse and handle in class. So, a Luke Bryan17 song, just any one of his songs I would enjoy.” While a diverse range of music was studied, repertoire did not include country music. The inclusion of at least one country song may have assisted Blake in connecting with the other studied repertoire, and in connecting other students with country music.

Conversely, however, opportunities for Blake to pursue his interest in country music through assessment were provided and celebrated. He was able to complete all his composition and performance assessment in the genre of his choice and experienced great success. In asking Blake to describe his most memorable moment from class, he said, “Performing. Last year I sang a song called ‘I drive your truck’18… Just because that song has so much meaning to me. It’s a really powerful song and I can sing it well and I can interact with the audience. The boys that day couldn’t believe what they heard, and I thought that was probably the best memory I’ve had.” I drive your truck is a contemporary American country music song. The lyrics tell the story of a young male veteran dealing with the loss of a buddy while serving. Given Blake’s love for country music and missing his home, it is clear how this song would have meaning to him.

Unfortunately, Blake could be described as an “outsider” in this setting. I asked Blake, what would he have liked from the program, if he could redo his class music experience. “Probably have a band, like boys in the class who want to play with me and make better sounding music than just me on my own.” He was the only member of the class not to be involved in music collaboration with others in class or the co-curricular music program. While I was not aware of any other student identifying so strongly with country music as Blake, many others in the class did not restrict themselves to a genre and were more interested in quality music making. I ask Blake if he had asked any of the other students to make music with him. “No…. I don’t like to interfere with people. I don’t want to just say, ‘Oh, can you play this song with me?’ and they go, ‘Oh, do I really have to?’ in their head. I don’t want to force someone to play country with me if they don’t even like it. So, I don’t ask people to do stuff with me because I don’t want to intrude on them.” Blake was very conscious of the country music genre being unknown to most of his peers outside the boarding house. Despite this confidence in his own identity as a solo performer, he was still anxious about inviting others to be part of something so personal to him.

17 An American country music singer and songwriter. 18 (Brice, 2012).

93 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” For the last day of Year 12, I invited Blake to sing Home19 with the school’s big band, which I conducted. The piece had been covered by country music artist Blake Shelton in 2008 and was a fitting farewell in anticipation of Blake’s return home to outback Queensland. This was a memorable and moving performance, ending with both of us in tears.

5.4.1.4 Growth mindset Class music disrupted Blake’s pre-established musical identity and nurtured a growth mindset, or as he put it, “expanded my horizons.” “It’s made me a different person. It’s made me different with how I make music now. It’s important because if someone asks you, ‘What’s an E-flat major chord?,’ you can draw your little scale and then draw your little dots and then play it and you can show them on the guitar.” This disruption to Blake’s identity and exposing him to contrasting ideas has resulted in a greater respect for difference and learning new ideas. He says the most valuable lesson he learned from class music was “respecting other people’s work, respecting how they go about their style of music and listening, taking in what other people say because they also have a world of knowledge…. As a musician it’s taught you to expand your horizons and try new things.”

5.5 Summary Music has a deeply significant role in Blake’s identity work as an aspiring country music singer and songwriter. His upbringing in country Queensland, life working on the family farm, and ambitious parent encouragement has directly informed his musical identity. He values and uses music as a resource for managing the self and believes individuals should be free to pursue their own music interests and passions. He listens to music for managing his personal emotions and mood as he works and lives on the farm. Most importantly for Blake, he uses music to establish, maintain, and develop relationships with others. He believes music is a vehicle through which to share the human experience and he has much to offer through his music and story. Performing his music for others brings him “joy” and provides him with a sense of self-worth. His music beliefs, values, and uses shape and support his identity work.

Blake’s musical identity consists of a defined identity as a country music singer–songwriter (IIM) and the role of music in his broader self (MII). He loves living in the outback and his lifestyle on the farm; riding horses and driving trucks and tractors. Country music captures this way of living through song. He uses musician models as templates in his identity construction. This initially began at home with his classically-trained opera-singing grandmother and his parents modelling musical

19 (Bublé, 2005b)

94 Blake: “Chasing your dreams” ambition, and continued outside the home via various teachers and celebrity role models. Brushes with fame and early success through talent quests and charity events have fuelled his desire to become a music celebrity himself. Blake uses music to seek self-worth by making a valuable contribution, and desires to be valued by others including his peers, parents, idols, and fans. He is well on his way to achieving both, having released a single which reached number 1 on the iTunes Australian country music charts. His use of music leads towards living his dream in music.

QBS provided Blake with opportunities and challenges not available to him in country Queensland, despite him being an “outsider” within the school music program. Class music both shaped and supported his identity work by disrupting his musical identity. While he acknowledges the benefit of new music learning, he was frustrated by his perceived educational inadequacies in comparison to others in this setting. Class music disrupted his established music identity by expanding his horizons and highlighting gaps in his musicianship. His prior music learning experiences were mostly practical and informal, and initially Blake struggled with a program that placed high value on formal music learning. The class music teacher and his one-on-one production and vocal teacher became important support mechanisms in guiding him through senior secondary music studies. A lack of fluent music notation literacy presented hurdles for Blake in his identity work, though he later came to realise the benefits it might offer him. Likewise, Blake was unsettled by having to engage in a range of music genres other than country music. He did, however, have opportunities to complete composition and performance assessment with country music, and he thrived. The class music program left Blake with a newfound respect for different perspectives on music and he became open to new music ideas.

95 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” 6 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” 6.1 Introduction 6.1.1 Introducing Conor Conor describes himself as “outgoing, a bit eccentric at times, very open, a little bit over the top, … generous and… easy to get along with.” He says his favourite things are “spending time in a recording studio just writing music, making it sound good, gaming, … listening to music while I game, and working with my hands, like manual arts; building projects and seeing things come to life really.”

Conor began attending Queensland Boys’ School (QBS) in Year 8 as a day student. I had taught him class music since Year 10. He had two different teachers in Years 8 and 9. At the time of the interview, Conor is 17 years of age. In his senior year, Conor studies English, Mathematics B, Chemistry, Technology Studies, Christian Education, Music, and Music Extension. He is heavily involved in co-curricular activities and participates in volleyball, football, theatre, Amnesty International, and a youth ministry group. He sings in the senior choirs and in a student-formed vocal a cappella group, and plays percussion in the concert band, orchestra and brass ensemble, and drum kit in the big band. Conor receives individual percussion and production lessons.

6.1.2 Introducing Anna (Conor’s mother) Conor’s mother, Anna, is undoubtedly a significant influence on him. She identifies as a mother and a school class music teacher, keeping “the mother hat on and the teacher hat on.” In contrast to Conor, she says, “to a point I’m guarded. I watch what’s going on first.” Her favourite things are to “Watch my kids play sport… [and] sing in the choir that I’m in on Wednesday nights…. I walk in, I sing, I walk out. I enjoy that.” Conor has two siblings whose interests lie in sport.

Anna began learning piano when she was “eight and three quarters. It was the October and I turned nine in the December.” She continued learning throughout her schooling and at teaching college in a music education program. “Piano is my major. I very badly played the violin first year at uni. Almost as bad, I played bass clarinet 2nd and 3rd years and I’ve taught myself the flute in Year 4 because I was bored. And vocal, never been taught but I’ve done a lot of it.” Anna is a humble musician who is willing to try new things, even if it means teaching herself. I ask Anna which is her favourite instrument. “Piano because I can play it. No, I’d rather sing actually because I don’t have to rely on an instrument being in tune. I know when I’m out of tune and I can fix it. I can’t fix a piano.”

96 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” At this point in her life, her children and students determine what music she listens to. She says she listens to “anything and everything. I have teenagers, they get in the car and change the radio station every 300 metres. Seriously, whatever is on that is what we listen to in the car. Part of teaching is I need to know what’s on the radio.” When alone, Anna enjoys silence, “because my life during the day is so loud. Coming here this afternoon, did I have the radio on? No. It’s Friday afternoon, I want to sit in silence, thank you very much. I’ve had noise all day.” I ask Anna what being a school class music teacher involves. “What doesn’t it involve? … It involves being a teacher, being a musician, being a psychologist, being a parent, being a lunch convener, being a cleaner, being a problem solver, a counsellor, … etcetera, etcetera…. The fact that I can stop, just stop and not do anything else is good because soon as I get home, I’m the mother.”

Anna says she did not encourage Conor to pursue music, but it is clear her life story, work, and family home life have had a significant influence.

6.2 Conor’s music beliefs, values, and uses 6.2.1 “Freedom” Conor uses music for its intrinsic value and to manage the self, or achieve what he describes as, “freedom.” In response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?,” he draws a cliff face overlooking a green field and ocean absent of people (see Figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1. Conor’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

97 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” Conor explains his drawing. “It’s just an outlook with a field overlooking the ocean, and really it’s just freedom. Through writing music and listening to music, it takes you away. You can forget about what you’re doing, just sit and listen, and it takes to a whole new place…. You can show someone a complete storm or a really, really calm moment where it’s just peaceful, or hectic and people dying. It’s just able to convey more than words, without even needing words.” Conor speaks to the expressive potential of music. “It’s important to me because I really think without music there would not be much emotion left in the world. Sure, people would have emotions but it’s through things like poetry and music, it’s really how you can show it to a grand scale. Telling someone, ‘I really care about you’ is great, but through music it taps at what we have underneath, it just says more.” For Conor, music communicates what words cannot.

Conor describes a recent experience when he used music to manage his emotions and work through a difficult time. “I was going through a rough patch personally.... It wasn’t even that long ago. I locked myself in my room. I started having music blaring. At first it was really loud and really fast paced because I was so frustrated at the time. Shuffling my iPod, I eventually got to something a little bit calmer and it helps relieve the pressure and just get your feet back on the ground to say, ‘You can start again.’” Music is personally empowering for Conor; he says there is no other activity in his life that has a similar effect, “because everything else in my life has limits. Sport, you could be a great footballer, you could play in front of thousands, but if you just want calm and peace you can’t really get that through sport…. Academics, it’s stressful, … but … it still again has boundaries. Whereas music, you can do anything with music.”

Music has deep personal meaning for Conor. He uses music to achieve “freedom” and to “do anything.” This freedom is achieved by making and listening to music. He uses it also for emotion and mood management, as he believes music is a tool for communicating meaning that goes deeper than words. Conor believes music presents him with unlimited potential for expression when compared to other pursuits such as sport and academics.

Notably, Anna uses music for similar purposes. In responding to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?,” she draws the freedom from “the crowd” to be herself (see Figure 6.2).

98 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine”

Figure 6.2. Anna’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

Anna describes her drawing and says, “That’s me. I’m the one on the left.” On the right is “the crowd. Anyone else.” She explains that this drawing portrays her “being me. [Doing] nothing…. I don’t have to be anybody. I don’t have to be a mother or a teacher or whatever. I can just stop ... because in our lives we have so many people that demand things of us. It’s nice just to stop and do nothing and to just do what you want to do and be who you need to be…. Sometimes when I get stressed at school I go and hammer a piano for 10 minutes. It calms me down and then off I go again.” Anna uses music to pause and escape the busy world of being both a mother and a teacher. It is an autotelic moment for her to manage and reorder her thoughts and feelings. She comments that she hopes Conor uses music in the same way, “that he doesn’t have be anyone else and fool anyone else, he can just enjoy the music that he’s creating rather than giving all the time; he can take something back for himself.” There is no doubt the family script has also influenced Conor and the role of music in his life.

6.2.2 Diverse music expertise and excellence Conor places a high value on diverse music expertise and excellence. His does not aspire towards singular excellence, such as performing a specific instrument to a high level, but rather excellence across a range of instruments and musical pursuits, including performing, listening, experimenting, composing, and recording. Conor’s value and pursuit of musical expertise is modelled by the family script and initial opportunities have been provided through formal school music education. He recalls his earliest memories of music at a Queensland primary school. “I think we had two music lessons a week. You’d show up, play the recorder, get good at it, and then you’d get to

99 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” show off what you could do. I used to practise at home a lot, because mum would be like, ‘Why don’t you play the recorder if you’ve got nothing else to do?’ So, I’d practise a bit and practise a bit and come back and it was a lot better than everyone else. It was like, ‘Oh, this is really good. I’m excelling at something.’”

The family script and achievement in school class music motivated Conor to begin formal instrumental studies. “I started learning how to play drums when I was 6. It was arranged through school and Mum was just getting me into music really. Out of all the instruments, I chose drums basically because I could hit stuff and it was fun. So, once a week I’d get drum lessons for about half an hour, and they just carried on until the end of Year 5…. I also started learning percussion at the beginning of Year 4. I’m still carrying on with that…. I have been learning with a [percussion] teacher the entire way through school.” Conor’s percussion lessons included a variety of pitched and unpitched instruments, and he continued to develop drum kit performance skills.

In secondary school class music, Conor was introduced to the basic technical skills of other popular music instruments and continued developing through informal learning. “I self-taught myself how to play piano… and also a little bit of guitar work…. [I’ve been inspired by] a lot of older people that I know, especially mum and a lot of friends, and the talent they’ve had on different instruments, like being able to just pick up a guitar and play.” These models have had a strong influence on Conor. “I’ve wanted to become a well-rounded musician, so if someone says, ‘Go pick up the instrument and play me a song’ I can do it confidently and do it well.”

Conor explains that a well-rounded musician is “not being limited by my abilities. If someone asks, ‘Can you play drums?,’ I can say, ‘Yes.’ ‘Do you play guitar?,’ I can say, ‘Yes.’ When they ask me to go in and play on any instrument, I can play confidently and know that I’m talented…. Being a well-rounded musician, you have to be able to play a lot of different instruments, but it’s being able to play beyond what’s normally expected. Being able to convey emotion through music, not just hitting notes written on a page.” Conor’s view of a well-rounded musician is evidenced by an individual’s ability to perform with technical accuracy and expression on a variety of instruments. These attributes and values have been modelled by family—especially his mother—and friends.

This view of diverse engagement with music also informs Conor’s listening preferences. He says he prioritises “more independent artists” and new music. “I try and steer clear of pop, although it does occasionally creep back into what I’m listening to…. I don’t mind listening to it, I just don’t want to limit myself to popular music.” Conor discovers music through “the radio, YouTube, friends,

100 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” and also games… You hear a song and go, ‘That’s interesting.’ and try to find out where it’s from. You can find a whole new artist or genre you might like.” Anna confirms this comment. “He listens to a lot of things.... There’s such a variety, he doesn’t have to listen to one style or perform one style.”

Conor says that working in the recording studio is one of his favourite activities, and that he is intrigued by the finer details in sound. More than composing music, “it’s really experimenting, using different ways of compressing the sound, opening it up and trying to get the best possible result from what we started with.” It was the QBS class music program “back in Year 9 with the assessment piece” that provided Conor with this initial exposure to the recording studio. The task was “just a song, learn to play it, and then as an added bonus you’ll actually get it properly recorded and have an audio copy of it. Playing in the studio wasn’t inspiring, but really just watching, seeing what we’d made… and watching how intricate and detailed the little things were. Little details add up to a completely different sound.” Conor is intrigued by experimenting and manipulating the finer intricacies of sound. The role of composition in Conor’s identity work is discussed in Section 6.4. He envisions working in the recording studio being a significant part of his future, which is discussed in Section 6.3.

6.3 Conor’s use of music to shape and support his identity work 6.3.1 “Ingrained into who I am” Conor’s use of music deeply supports and shapes his identity work. He says, “I feel music affects me more in depth and emotionally than most people.” The combination of the family script, prior music learning and development, and his various music ambitions inform his overall musical identity. Conor’s musical identity as a “well-rounded musician” consists of multiple sub-identities in music weaving in and out of view, such as performer, drummer, and producer. He says, “I’ve sort of grown up around music, so it’s always been a part of my life. It’s become ingrained into who I am… and if I didn’t have music in my life, I wouldn’t know what to do.”

6.3.2 Musical future Music has a strong presence in Conor’s projection of his possible self. He responds in two parts to the drawing question, “What will you do with music in your future?” (see Figure 6.3). The top right drawing in the figure represents a recording studio mixing desk and the lower left reveals a microphone on stage ready for a headline performance.

101 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine”

Figure 6.3. Conor’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”

6.3.2.1 “Gap degree” Conor describes the top right mixing desk in Figure 6.3 with excitement. “I’d really love to go and run my own studio. Knowing what I’ve experienced and how much fun I’ve had, it’s just exciting being in the studio and making music. I’d really love to do that as a career. [I would work with] people… [who have]… a melody … and then see how excited they are when the final product’s ready. They’ve got a CD in their hands or whatever they use in the future, and going ‘This is what I’ve done.’”

Conor’s motivation is fuelled by his own success and making a valuable contribution through service to others. “I want to give back for [the] … experiences I’ve had. It’s been incredible, being able to work with people and the music I’ve written, and just seeing that progress from a drumbeat and some lyrics into a massive song. The strings, the organ, electronic keyboard, synthesizers, guitars, everything. Then learning how to just manipulate that and create a really good song. I want to do that for someone else.”

Conor intends to pursue this ambition after school through tertiary music study. He outlines his plan and says he will “firstly get into the right university course, hopefully majoring in sound production rather than performance. Then gradually getting in touch with contacts, slowly building up facilities, like a studio, … and becoming more experienced. Then when people say, ‘I’d like to record this,’ being well known enough and having the right contacts to go, ‘I know someone who’s pretty good, why don’t you give him a call?’”

102 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine”

Studying class music has supported Conor by exposing music career possibilities. He says, “It’s given me a broader perspective on everything you can do. Originally, I thought if you’re a musician you’re standing on front of a stage, in front of millions of people, like The Beatles for instance, just with a guitar or microphone…. I originally thought that was the only option I could do. Whereas class music and a range of different influences… [showed me] there’s a lot more jobs than I originally thought. They’re not all secure, it’s like who’s best, who do you know, but there’s a lot more jobs than I thought…. You’ve got the lead singer, but he can’t do anything without the guitarist. The guitarist can’t do anything without the drummer. The drummer can’t do anything without the audio engineers, and they can’t do anything without the technicians…. Everyone’s sort of relying on each other.”

While music has featured throughout his life for an extended period, and Conor seems to have a feasible future plan, this dream is rather recent. “It’s only really manifested in the past 3, 4 months or so…. Before then I was really ‘What if I do this? What if I do that?’” In discussing his post-school options, he says, “I didn’t really have any clear pathways to what I wanted to do. Medicine’s been the main thing, like going into surgery…. Just from personal experience, I find it really fascinating that you can hack someone’s bones apart with a grinder and call it a job…. Before then I was going to go into space.” He says, “as I was choosing subjects” in Year 10 for senior school “[I] knew doors were closing as to what I wanted to do in life…. For instance, thinking ‘If I want to do engineering, I’ll need Maths C. Do I really want to do engineering?’ I had to make a decision whether or not I wanted to do the work to get the job, and if I could really see myself doing it. The one thing I’ve said going into Year 12, was as long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine.”

Anna supported Conor electing class music because “A, I’m a musician. B, it’s because it’s what he wanted to do, and to achieve what he wanted to achieve in the long run you need to do something you want to do.” Referring to the music rooms, she says “He lives down here. He just loves it. Being involved with a group that is his group.” Anna believes it is important for “kids becoming themselves in a place where they feel safe doing what they want to do.” However, while studying music at school is highly valued, a career pathway in music is not.

Conor’s future career pathway features conflict between his “love” for music and perceived financial instability if he were to follow that path. Prior to this moment, Conor had not mentioned a future in Medicine at all. I asked where this influence had come from. “Dad’s side of the family. There’s a lot of people in the medical practice. All my aunties are nurses, my grandpa had a doctorate

103 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” in medicine…. Because I’ve always been seen as the smart one in the family they said, ‘You could go into medicine if you want, you’ve got potential to do it.’ Looking back, there wasn’t any pressure, it was just they were there for support if I needed it, and if I wanted to go into that career they’d be like ‘Yeah, here’s everything you need.’”

Medicine is typically regarded as a high-income professional position in society, whereas the music industry is viewed as having questionable job security and financially unreliable. Conor explains his perspective on this conflict and how he aims to find a balance between financial security and enjoyment. “It’s hard, I’d have to enjoy what I’m doing, or I’d go insane…. If I wasn’t enjoying it, the money wouldn’t be worth it. There has to be a degree of both.... As a 17-year-old the money is a really big thing.” Conor has firsthand experience of living with financial hardship. “[I grew] up under financial difficulty. There was a point when we were living week to week just on pay cheques. I’d want to be able to provide for my family really, and just not have to be stressed all the time about money.” Conor says he does not want to be in a position where he says, “Are we going to make it through the week? ... I’d still love to be having financial security, so medicine is still a viable option at this point in time, but I want to go into the music industry because I love it…. When people come up and ask me ‘What do you do?,’ I could be like ‘I’m a successful musician and I enjoy what I’m doing in life.’”

Anna hopes that beyond school Conor “still has [music] opportunities to be involved somewhere,” “keeps enjoying playing,” and possibly works “front of house” or “backstage” at concerts. The past financial experiences of the family, however, overshadow Anna’s enthusiasm for Conor to study music at university. Anna says, “This is his gap degree while he decides what he wants to do.” Unfamiliar with the expression, I ask her to explain what she means by “gap degree.” “Well, you have a gap year, he’s filling it in with 3 years of a degree because he wants to study and this time in his life when he’s got no other commitments, no girlfriend, no money commitments, no nothing, that’s what he needs to do. Because let’s face it, if he’s going to be a backstage person, a roadie or whatever, night gigs are not conducive to family relationships.” Despite Anna being a strong musician model at home and her support for music to have a continuing role in Conor’s life, there is tension in the family between pursuing a love for music and financial stability.

6.3.2.2 Being valued as a performing musician Conor describes the lower left drawing in Figure 6.3, representing his desire to be valued and recognised as a performing musician. He says, “It’s an ‘out-there’ dream from watching people perform. It’s the picture of a microphone and two speakers playing into a crowd. I wouldn’t see

104 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” myself as a front man, but I’d love to perform in front of like a million people or so, even if it’s just once. Even if it’s to go, ‘Yeah, I’ve played in front of more people than you’ll ever see.’” This dream for Conor is fuelled by a healthy envy and ambition. “It’s watching other people do it, seeing people live in action where every single person in that audience loves what they’re doing. They’ve paid money to go and see them, they must be that good. Again, just the reassurance, like you’re doing a bloody good job.”

Conor describes a moment from class music that influenced this desire. “At the end of Year 11 and 12, we’ve put on performances for parents, and… having them come up to me and go, ‘You did a good job, it sounded really good.’” This highlights an underlying aspiration of fame as a performing musician. This might be inherently linked to being a percussionist and drum kit player, always providing the foundation for other musicians, but receiving little credit. Anna provides a contrasting perspective. “He’s happy just to present. People can take it or leave it. He doesn’t want to be the best of the best. He has no desire to be other people.”

6.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Conor’s identity work Conor draws two images (see Figure 6.4) after reflecting on the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” At the top of the page, he draws a “half-finished stave” representing developing and applying audiation, and the lower drawing is of him sitting behind a drum kit depicting collaborative music making. Both drawings relate to developing music expertise and belonging.

Figure 6.4. Conor’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”

105 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine”

6.4.1 Thinking in sound and applying music understanding Conor’s ability to think in sound (audiate) and apply music understanding to various musical pursuits has shaped and supported his identity work. One example is shown in his drawing of the “half-finished stave” (see Figure 6.4). Conor explains how he enjoys confidently applying his musical thoughts to his compositions. He says he enjoys “being able to start something and see it progress… especially with composing.... At the start of Year 10, basically all I could do was go ‘Okay, so I know a G chord has these three notes, they look like this,’ and copy, paste, paste, paste for the rest of the assignment. It’s now to a point where, thanks to tuition learning different chord patterns and arrangements, from a basic melody I can transform it into whatever I want to. I can make it sound however I intended to. It’s really being able to learn to get the noises in your head onto paper and to make it sound how you want it to sound.” Conor values the musical independence granted to him through musical understanding.

Musical understanding in a Kodály-inspired music education is supported by developing student audiation through sequential and developmental learning processes. Up until the end of Year 10, students completed weekly musicianship tasks in both making and responding to music. Due to state syllabus requirements, this could not be formally assessed in Years 11 and 12. “Back in Year 10, we had these weekly tasks… and you’d sing it in words, sing with solfa…. You wouldn’t really think twice about it. We’d have to clap in time, or do augmentation, then clap ostinatos, which just seemed really pointless…. But now looking back on it, just even those simple tasks going clapping while singing, it helps because now I’m able to drum which is a lot harder than clapping, and sing at the same time, which has definitely helped…. It’s actually helped me a lot. I didn’t really enjoy it, but look at me now.” Conor’s account highlights the importance of explaining the reasons underlying these tasks to students and the long-term benefits of developing musicianship skills.

Conor believes an important aspect of being musically independent is the ability to confidently audiate your musical ideas and share these through music notation. “I think hearing a song in your head is great, it’s all well and good, you might even be able to sing it, but without being able to notate it, it’s sort of non-existent…. Just being able to notate it allows for corrections and you can share it if you notate it. Being able to properly notate, you can write exactly what you want to hear.” I ask Conor if he is currently satisfied with his ability to make meaning of his musical thoughts. “I’m progressively getting better, but no I can’t notate exactly what I hear in my mind…. I don’t think I can accept where I am at the moment, … it’s just not good enough. I’d need that drive, just to go, ‘No, I can always improve.’” Conor’s response is evident of his growth mindset and continuing ambition for excellence and expertise in music.

106 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine”

Conor recalls the sense of achievement he felt, and recognition he gained, from his first Year 11 composition. “The assignment was basically you have 30 seconds of music, write whatever you want.... From there I took inspiration from all sorts of places and collated them into one gigantic piece. It ended up going for about three minutes. At the time I was really proud of it.” I often showcased exemplar work to younger students for inspiration and to demonstrate the possibilities of music achievement by students similar to themselves. “About 4 months later, one of the younger boys came up to me and said, ‘We listened to your piece today and it was amazing!’… I was a bit dumbstruck at first, I mean it just doesn’t happen. I handed it in as an assignment thinking, ‘Sure, he’ll listen to it a couple of times and probably just save it so he has it on record.’ But the fact that I had people coming up and going, ‘Yeah, I heard it,’ it was really good. I listened to it again. I sort of just went, ‘Wow, it must have been that good that everyone should hear it….’ From there it’s sort of gone, ‘Yes, I am good at what I do.’” Achievement and recognition are driving motivations in Conor’s identity work. Musical expertise in composition is an avenue for Conor to feel valued and belong.

Conor also enjoys sharing his musical thoughts and learning “how to listen” from others through conservations and listening in class music. He describes an example: “Having listened to a music piece,” I asked the class about the texture they heard. “Someone would say, ‘It’s three instruments.’ Someone would be like, ‘No. it’s five.’ You’d have these really interesting debates about what exactly it is. There’d be words flying everywhere, but at the end of the day it hones your ear in to listen to more things. So, you’d listen to the piece again trying to make sure you’re right… teaching your ears how to listen essentially, trying to make sure you’re right.”

Anna confirms this account and says, “his eyes have been opened to a variety of music that now he can have a conversation about it or say ‘I hate this’ or ‘I like this’ and give a logical reason why, not just, ‘it isn’t in the Top 10, so I don’t like it.’” Given Anna’s expertise in music, conversations about the intricacies of music filter into everyday home life with Conor. She explains, “The music conversations are far different to the ones that I have with his brother and his sister. For example, we went and saw ‘Frozen’20 when it first came out. He sat down, I sat down, the music started, and we went for it. ‘Okay, this is where the overture starts. Okay, the heroine is going to be this. There’s the first part of the theme.’ The movie hadn’t even started, and we analysed it all the way through. It was fantastic; we had a great time. Whereas the rest of the family say, ‘Oh my god. I don’t even want to talk to you about it,’ and we just did it.” I ask how Anna feels, as a mother, to be

20 (Buck & Lee, 2013).

107 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” able to hold a deep conversation with her son about something quite meaningful to her. She says it provides a “shared experience. It doesn’t matter whether it’s your son or your grandmother, to have a shared experience of something with anyone is important. It gives you a sense of belonging.”

For Conor, learning how to think in sound and apply meaning has been a significant aspect of class music learning and has empowered him as a musician and person. Being able to apply meaning and communicate his music ideas creates opportunities for others to hear them and allows for a sense of belonging.

6.4.2 Music collaboration Class music has shaped and supported Conor’s identity work by providing opportunities for music collaboration. He enjoys the sense of belonging granted him by being able to work with others on musical problems and the opportunities to learn from his peers. He discusses his second drawing in Figure 6.4; him sitting behind a drum kit in a rock band. “The bottom of the drawing represents working with other people, and especially me behind a drum kit looking out, so you can see a guitarist and a vocalist. It’s being able to go, ‘I do this really well, let’s get together. You can jump on a guitar, get on vocals,’ and it’s making the piece sound really good, especially with the performing tasks. Going from pop to rock, country, jazz even, just being able to show so many different genres. It’s just good fun being behind a kit really working with other people.” Conor says his recent rendition of ‘War pigs,’21 as a band performance with his classmates, is an example of this. “It didn’t go quite the way we wanted it to, but at the end of the day we were still happy with the performance.” Collaborative performances provide an avenue to belong. “It’s a reassurance of my self-worth, because I know that without me being in the band there’s no sense of rhythm, sense of time, I’m really just a foundation. If I can make a good foundation and make that sound good, then it means the guitarist, he can play better, he can do fancy solos. The vocalist is always in time, he has the opportunity to just make things sound incredible. It’s just laying a good foundation knowing that I’m really important in what I’m doing. It just sort of makes everything worthwhile.” Anna also says Conor has “enjoyed making music with his mates.”

Conor believes collaboration is an important aspect of being a musician and “working with other people definitely helps” him to improve. Collaboration provides opportunities to learn from one another and share the process of finding solutions to musical problems. “Being able to collaborate with people makes you more open to their ideas. If you want to do a cover of a song, you don’t have

21 (Black Sabbath, 1970).

108 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” to stick exactly to the original version. You can go, ‘Hey, what if we do this bit in seven-eight?’ Everyone works together going, ‘Oh, this isn’t quite right let’s change it.’” This collaborative process is not limited to performing. “It’s the same with composing I guess, in that you can write a piece of music, you go up to someone and you can be like, ‘Have a listen to this, what do you think?.’ They could be like, ‘Oh this chord, what if you changed it to a major chord?’ Then from there it sort of progresses, and you end up with a much better piece than you started with because there’s so many different thoughts going into it. Two heads are better than one.”

Opportunities for critical peer feedback also allow students to learn from one another and are valued by members of the class. Conor says the most valuable lesson he has learned from class music is “as much as you hate it, getting criticism from other people helps.” “I’ll take a performance, for instance doing draft performances in front of the entire class. You’d give it your best shot and at the end of the performance someone might say, ‘Oh, your drumming’s a little bit off,’ or ‘Your singing, you might need to change the key, it’s a bit too high,’ and you take it personally. You put a lot of effort into it, and for someone to turn around and be like you did all right that really just hits hard. But they’re doing the best for you. Otherwise you wouldn’t do as good a job.” The class music environment in this setting shapes and supports students by privileging student voice and critique. Students are actively positioned to support one another in the development of their musicianship.

6.4.3 Teacher encouragement and challenge Conor’s musical identity has been shaped and supported by me, the class music teacher, persistently encouraging and challenging his musical expertise. He describes an example of drafting a film music composition in Year 11. “I took a scene from ‘The lion king’22 and started writing music for it…. You had to write, specifically, the sounds for what was going to happen. You suggested try doing major for one character and minor for another…. I changed videos at that point because you suggested it might be hard, which was annoying, because I’d spent a lot of time trying to find the perfect video. I ended up taking ‘The lord of the rings’.23 I came back with another draft, and you said, ‘This is rubbish.’ In my defence, I doubt I used these words, though I imagine I did encourage Conor to do better. “I’d worked hard on it, but I knew it wasn’t up to my best standards…. I went ‘Okay, I’ve got to find another way to do this.’ I think it was about two weeks later that I finally got something I was happy with…. This was about a weekend before the due date and you said, no, it was rubbish, start again. That really put a spanner in the works…. I had to make the music flow. Over trial and error, repeatedly stuffing up, I’d sort of worked out a good melody…. Because you were just

22 (Allers & Minkoff, 1994). 23 (Jackson, 2001–2003).

109 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” so annoying going, ‘No, start again. Start again. Change this, it’s rubbish,’ I actually ended up with a much better piece of music than I started with and I’m actually really thankful for it because to be quite honest, it was rubbish, the first thing I handed in to you.”

I asked Conor why he continued to keep seeking my feedback, despite these continued setbacks. “It’s sort of a desire to make the best music I can. Music can make people feel different ways, and if I can make people go, ‘Yes this is really good,’ and feel actually proud of me, I can be like, ‘Yeah, I’ve done a good job.’ Whereas you said it was rubbish, so I was like, ‘I’d better fix that up’ and come show you something even better. It was just to keep continually coming back going, ‘Is this any good? Is this any good? Is this any good?’ It just keeps pushing me to go, ‘I’ve got to do better.’” This account demonstrates that Conor values my music expertise and feedback. In addition to craving a sense of belonging by family and friends, it is also important for him that his music expertise is respected by me, his class music teacher. While Conor has been encouraged to succeed in and through music, importantly, he has also been appropriately challenged.

Anna confirms these sentiments. From her observations, she says Conor values that “he’s been encouraged, that you encourage all the boys…. He respects the manner in which you treat the boys and anybody that you impart knowledge. It’s not something to torture them with but you actually care about them and you want to give them the best information to do whatever they have to do.” A genuine sense of care for students is demonstrated by challenging students for the purposes of self- betterment as musicians and people.

The infinite possibilities in music allow for endless musical problems that require solving and unique student responses. Conor says, “Sport I’ve excelled in, academics I’ve excelled in, but music sort of keeps me coming back because there’s always more to do.” He comments further on the perception of class music. “A lot of people believe music is just a very easy course, like you show up, bang an instrument, there’s a pass. It’s challenging, and the fact that you have to be precise and exact with what you’re saying and even when you’re composing…. It takes an extra level of concentration and if you’re not passionate about it you’ll find it really hard because there’s no drive to keep going [and] experiment with different sounds.”

In seeking further challenges, Conor says he would improve class music by including deeper investigation into compositional technique and concepts, particularly harmony. “There’s a lot of emphasis on repertoire in class music, and, when it gets to the composing side, you’re sort of left to your own devices. Sure, you’ve handed in a draft or two, but looking at intricate chord patterns and

110 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” the way music is shaped… so that way you’re not just left to experiment, and you’re given a basis [to work from].” Conor is asking for the direct teaching of music theory, harmony, and composition to further support his musical identity and ambition for developing music expertise.

6.5 Summary The role of music in Conor’s identity work is deeply “ingrained.” His mother, Anna, is a class music teacher and while she is supportive of all her children’s different pursuits, she has no doubt been influential in shaping Conor’s music beliefs, values, and uses. This is evident in her modelling as a “musician,” providing opportunities for formal music education beginning in early childhood, being a source of encouragement and support, and sharing musical experiences. Like his mother, Conor enjoys music for the “freedom” it provides him. He values music for its intrinsic worth and its ability to communicate what words cannot. He also uses music to manage the self, including his mood and emotions. Conor places high value on diverse music expertise and excellence and aspires to be a “well-rounded musician” in performance, listening, experimentation, composition, and recording.

Music weaves through Conor’s identity work as he puts his music beliefs and values into practice. Multiple musical identities intertwine and work together in his identity construct. Class music has exposed the possible post-school music pathways available to him. His past success in and through music motivate his ambitions as an aspiring recording studio producer. He is also motivated to make a valuable contribution to others’ music, and dreams of being recognised as a performing musician himself. While his family have been highly supportive and encouraging in his school music achievement, they do not present enthusiasm for Conor’s plans to study music at university. These reservations stem from firsthand financial hardship, and there is conflict in the family between Conor pursuing his “love” for music and perceived financial insecurity. As a compromise, Conor intends to pursue tertiary music as his “gap degree” before further study.

School class music has shaped and supported Conor’s identity work by contributing to the development of his music expertise and facilitating a community to which he feels he belongs. Musical independence has been fostered by developing Conor’s ability to audiate, or think in sound, and apply musical understanding. He speaks to how he has been empowered with musical independence and finds a sense of belonging by being able to confidently share his ideas and learn from others through listening, using music notation, composition, and conservations about music. Class music has also provided Conor with opportunities for music collaboration and problem solving. He values the sense of belonging from these activities and genuinely appreciates learning from his

111 Conor: “As long as I’m doing music, I’ll be fine” peers as “critical friends.” The class music teacher has shown genuine care by being a source of continued encouragement and providing persistent and appropriate challenge.

112 Elijah: “Musical men” 7 Elijah: “Musical men” 7.1 Introduction 7.1.1 Introducing Elijah Elijah describes himself as “a mix of fun and also hard work, because I do enjoy having a lot of fun at times, but at the same time I realise the ultimate goal of school is to set you up for your life, your future and your career. That’s where hard work has to come in.” While he enjoys having fun and being social with his friends, he enjoys music for its personal value. “I think the thing I most enjoy doing would be playing games with friends or going out with friends… but to myself I enjoy composing a lot, so I find myself doing that a lot, too.”

At the time of the interview, Elijah is 17 years of age. He lives with his mother and his older brother. His father lives interstate for work though they are in contact every day. Elijah began attending Queensland Boys’ School (QBS) in Year 4 as a day student. In his final year, he studies English, Mathematics B, Mathematics C, Biology, Chemistry, Music, and Music Extension. He participates in debating, charity service programs, and is a member of several music ensembles as a percussionist in the concert band, pianist in the big band, and member of the two senior choirs. He receives individual guitar and production lessons. I taught Elijah class music for one term in Year 6 when I first began teaching at the school, and I taught him continuously from Year 9. While I did not teach him in Year 8 music (the last year of compulsory music), I taught other Year 8 classes in his cohort and was the curriculum writer for the year level at the time.

7.1.2 Introducing Ella (Elijah’s mother) Elijah’s mother, Ella, was born and lived in Sri Lanka until she was seventeen. Her favourite activities are “Dance, number one. Number two, music.” Ella describes her relationship with Elijah as open and honest. “We really communicate a lot, anything and everything. Girlfriends, boyfriends, ‘How is your married life?’… We don’t hide anything. Elijah is very comfortable talking about anything with me.” From the very beginning of the interviews, it is clear they have a strong mother– son relationship.

7.2 Elijah’s music beliefs, values, and uses 7.2.1 Music learning and achievement Elijah places high value on music learning and achievement. The family script has undoubtedly had a significant impact shaping and supporting Elijah’s music beliefs, values, and uses. While Ella is initially encouraging and supportive of her children pursuing music as school students, there is a devaluing of studying music as an appropriate post-school pathway. As senior schooling is

113 Elijah: “Musical men” often regarded as a time during which to prepare students for tertiary study, Ella presented as a significant hurdle to Elijah studying music in the senior school. This is reflective of her own life story.

Ella’s childhood was rich in musical engagement and she was supported by her own mother, who Ella describes as a “good singer.” Ella learned violin and voice in a class setting during primary school and also received individual lessons outside school. She continued individual lessons to the end of Year 10. Ella recalls how she was often used as a model for the class and enjoyed receiving praise for her musical successes. “I think in Years 2 to 5 it was compulsory [at my school] for everyone to learn a musical instrument. I chose violin and then I wanted to learn voice as well…. Not to boast about myself, but I always topped in music because I had the opportunity to learn at home… because my mother is a good singer as well; I always learned from her. When the private teacher taught me, she always watched and corrected me as well, so I had that additional structure in my life to take it to the classroom to show them. In [terms of] theory, she always asked me to explain to the other children. Elijah told me that he’s always good at theory, and I said, ‘You got that from me.’”

In responding to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?,” Ella draws a “happy face” and writes “dance for music” (see Figure 7.1).

Figure 7.1. Ella’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

Ella explains she enjoys music because “it makes me happy. I like to dance to music…. Life’s short you know, make the most of it being happy…. My work is really stressful, so to take that stress away… I need to do something which makes me happy, which is music and dance. Also, it connects people with various things, like music connects [me] with my closest friends.”

114 Elijah: “Musical men”

Ella’s high value on music, and music learning and development, in childhood leads to her providing music learning opportunities for her children. Elijah discusses the beginning of his formal music education experiences, with his older brother providing another musical model in the family script. “The first time I started taking lessons was when my brother started taking piano lessons. I went to his first lesson and I watched him practise and I was jealous. So, I made mum send me to piano lessons and then my brother got jealous that I was getting more attention in the lessons than him, so he quit, and he started getting drum lessons. I got jealous that he was getting drum lessons, so I went to take on [drum] lessons as well as piano. And when we moved from NSW to here, I kept going with the piano and drums, and eventually I finished Grade 8 in Piano at the AMEB24 course, and then I finished Grade 8 Drums with the Trinity College Rock and Pop course. I also finished Grade 5 Music Theory at AMEB, and now, because I’m bored of those two instruments, I am learning guitar. There are no grades. I don’t do vocal lessons, but I sing in choirs.” Elijah’s value on music achievement is driven by an underlying need to be valued by others. External music examinations provide formal recognition of his music achievement.

Unfortunately, the study of music was not available to Ella in her senior schooling. “Then in Year 11 and 12, which I didn’t get to finish in Sri Lanka, you can’t choose Music unless after finishing Year 12 you wanted to do a commerce degree. Then you can choose any of art, music, or dance, but if you wanted to do a maths part, then you don’t have the option of any music subjects. If you wanted to be in the science field, then you don’t have an option either to take music. I wished I learned music until I could in Sri Lanka, I didn’t have the option to do it.” She would later go on to say, “I regret it now,” regarding her own missed music education opportunities. Despite this “regret,” Ella’s own experiences of senior secondary music education not being highly valued are again played out in Elijah’s subject selection process.

At QBS, it was compulsory to study an arts subject until the end of Year 9. While studying Music in Middle School was supported through the school curriculum structures, great consideration was given to post schooling pathways when selecting subjects in senior secondary. Despite her own missed opportunities and confessed enjoyment of music, Ella attempted to continue her family script that Elijah cease studying class music in favour of more serious subjects and career rewarding subjects in order to maximise his tertiary entrance score. “I wanted Elijah to do Physics in Year 11…. I said to Elijah, ‘Choose whatever you are doing plus Physics, quit Music.’ … I thought it’s easier to score

24 Australian Music Examinations Board.

115 Elijah: “Musical men” marks in Physics because it’s more mathematical. ‘You are doing Maths B and Maths C, so it’s easier to get full marks than compared to Music. Music has a lot of writing involved, and you don’t like to sit down, study, and memorise. So, that will be harder to score marks. And also, with performance you get nervous like me. So, when you are nervous you don’t want to lose two or three marks where you can easily get it in Physics.’”

This advice was not well received by Elijah and his high value and enjoyment of music learning is evident in his response. Ella says, “We had quite a lot of arguments about subject selection. Elijah always tells me, ‘Mum, you know you can tell me, but I don’t have to listen to you.’ He’s open and honest, and I’m open and honest as well. He tells me, ‘You can tell me 10 times, Mum, … Dad can’t do anything, … the teachers will back me because it’s my choice, it’s not the parents’ choice.’” The school’s process around subject selection established a partnership between student, parent, and school, with significant value given to student interest and demonstrated ability in addition to career pathways. Ella’s numerous attempts at trying to convince her son were unsuccessful. She recalls saying, “‘I’m not going to give you pocket money. I’m not going to take you on holidays. You are not going to get brand clothes. You are not going to get the iPhone.’ No, it didn’t work. So, finally... I thought, ‘Whatever, you do it.’”

Elijah’s story demonstrates the potential for children to disrupt and amend the family script. In this case, the school provided support for Elijah to have a voice in his senior subject selection. Over the course of Elijah’s senior studies, Ella’s values towards studying music changed at the end of “Year 11 Semester 1 when he brought home the report.” She says, “a couple… of Elijah’s friends, did Physics, and when they didn’t get the GPA25 expected, I thought, ‘I’m wrong, Elijah is right.’ Also, Elijah explained to me how he could score more because those are suicide subjects;26 you have no relaxation…. So, I realised that I’m glad that Elijah got his way to do it. I was totally wrong. If Elijah was to do Physics and not Music at all, I think Elijah would have been very stressed, and he could not have achieved what he has achieved now. So, I think it’s a good choice of having that combination…, because I think Year 11 and 12 is really, really hard…. It’s helped him to relax and enjoy himself.” Ella now values class music as worthy of study for the role it has in Elijah’s broader life; for managing his well-being by providing variety in his study and a creative outlet.

25 Grade Point Average (GPA). The results of in school subjects were averaged to produce a GPA each semester for the purposes of tracking student progress. 26 The “suicide six” in school mythology refers to the Senior school subject combination of English, Mathematics B, Mathematics C, Chemistry, Physics, and Biology.

116 Elijah: “Musical men” Despite her initial reservations and statements of disinterest, Ella became an important source of encouragement and support for Elijah’s senior music study. “I said to him when he was originally choosing Music, ‘You’re not going to ask me to come and watch you, or come and ask me to give you any hints, or my opinion. I’m not coming into your room at all. You’re by yourself.’ Elijah was a little concerned because he likes my feedback. As a mother you say, but you never do. So, Elijah called me in to listen to some of his composing part, or even performance, in piano. I always go and sit down with him and make comments.... Elijah sometimes plays up until 11:00 o’clock…. We have a music room where we have two pianos and the drum kit, and upstairs we had Elijah’s two guitars. Then he plays piano.... He plays by himself, then he asks me, ‘Okay I’m ready, can you come and listen?’…. Sometimes it is in the middle of the night, so he has to wake me to ask…. I honestly did play a lot of part in his Music and Extension Music…. Oh well, I enjoyed it, … it was worth it.”

This account highlights Elijah’s strong love for music, so much so that he challenged his mother’s wish for him to study Physics instead. This is significant in that Elijah’s mother is a person he clearly loves and respects. However, he was able to change his mother’s value towards the study of music in senior secondary education. The argument over subject choice was not initially over music not being valued, but rather greater priority given to academic results which would subsequently lead to a professional career pathway, financial security, and later life enjoyment. In this case, future professional careers and personal lifestyle are given priority over enjoyment in the present, in the selection of subjects in the senior secondary.

7.2.2 Diverse and new music experiments Elijah places high value on diverse and new music experiments. Rather than mastering a single musical activity, Elijah is more interested in experimenting across a range of musical activities. His ways of engaging with music through performing, listening, and composing are fluid; he is motivated by his quest to uncover new music ideas and understanding. “I get bored really easily. I find once I’ve finished learning most of the basics about an instrument, or just anything in general, like a subject or an activity, I get bored of trying to master it because that just takes time and effort and dedication which I don’t really have for anything. I find it kind of restrictive in that if you were to master something you need to practise the same thing over and over again.”

Elijah discusses how this perspective has impacted his one-on-one music tuition. “I stopped getting piano lessons about AMEB Grade 8. I didn’t do AMusA27 or any of those because I was bored.

27 The Associate of Music, Australia is a diploma level qualification awarded by examination by the Australian Music Examinations Board.

117 Elijah: “Musical men” At the moment I’m still getting guitar lessons because I am still intrigued by the guitar and still experimenting. If I get bored of that then I’ll maybe change to, I don’t know, maybe just music production because I like composing.” It is worth noting that Elijah’s view of “the basics” is a high level of music proficiency. His preference for diverse and new music is also evident in his listening preferences. “I will recommend highly, and endorse fully, the band MUSE because they’re amazing, and I think everyone should get into their music because they’ve changed a lot. I think if you listen to the original albums, and you listen to all of them just in one night, your musical tastes will broaden themselves because you will just be intrigued by how much a band can change over the years. I enjoy their music because it’s so creative, and it’s such an escape from the usual rock, pop, and jazz music you hear on the radio…. I think my music has become experimental too.”

Elijah says he “really enjoys” composing “because I want to just try new stuff all the time…. You can’t master composing; you are always learning and you’re always just experimenting. He responds to the question, “What do you enjoy about music,” with a representative drawing of himself experimenting and composing music (see Figure 7.2).

Figure 7.2. Elijah’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

Elijah describes his drawing: “Well I may as well say this is me…. It doesn’t look like me but it’s a metaphor about me…. So, it’s not as weird as me… but what I am trying to convey here is that this is kind of anyone who is experimental with their music, or any kind of composer. This is a guitar, so an instrument to compose with, or a thing to just play randomly. And that’s a computer to notate, because we’re in the digital age you wouldn’t really write down on paper these days, you’d do it on

118 Elijah: “Musical men” the computer. And this really summarises what I enjoy most about music, composing. When I compose music, I’ll either be at the piano, the guitar, well one of those actually, or I’ll be doing Chemistry homework and I’ll just think of a melody randomly. I’ll stop Chemistry and go to the piano, and I’ll just experiment with the melody and try and think of what works. And eventually when I’m happy with it, I’ll record myself playing it because I’m afraid when I walk up the stairs I’ll forget. If I wanted to go upstairs, listen to it again, and then I’ll notate it on Sibelius. And then I will notate the harmony; I notate everything I can think of to make it better. And then when I get fed up with Sibelius because it sounds pretty bad,28 I’ll move to Ableton Live which is a digital audio workstation. And I’ll use their sounds, which are more professional, and try and actually create the song. That’s what I’m doing here…. I don’t go to a piano and say, ‘Okay I’m going to think of a melody today and it’s going to match this idea.’ When I compose, I never actually try and think of something. If I get an idea randomly then I’ll just go from there. Not once have I ever actually sat down and said, ‘Okay, this is my idea, what’s something that matches this idea?’ It’s usually getting an idea and then building something on from there. That’s what I do.”

I received an insight into this process when I arrived at the studio for our interview. Elijah was playing on the digital piano accompanied by music on his iPhone. I walked in and listened as I quietly set up the recording gear so as not to disturb him. It was clear he was exploring some musical ideas. I asked him to explain what he was doing. “I was trying to work out whether a particular melody in my head matched a harmony that I wanted to give it, so I was playing the piano to see if it worked. I had this idea for a game in my head because I like composing games. I find it more free than composing for film and television. I had this idea for a game, and I thought of a melody that I had for the first section of the game. Then I thought of the melody for the second section, so the first thing I did was try and put them together and see if it worked, and it did. Then I tried to think of a harmony for the second melody, and it worked. So to do that, because I can’t play them both at the same time as the first melody requires two hands, I had to record it on my phone and then I played it back and played the piano over that to see whether the harmony matched.”

Elijah uses music composition for self-expression. He says, “Composing, specifically, is important because I feel like it’s where I can express myself and it allows me to convey how I feel in a form other than talking. If I don’t feel like talking to someone at the moment I could just compose and just emotionally release myself into my music, and others can enjoy the music and listen to it as well.” Elijah clarifies that it is more the release of his ideas rather than trying to convey emotions. “I

28 The software Sibelius uses MIDI generated sounds as a default setting which students found did not represent their ideas favourably on playback.

119 Elijah: “Musical men” feel like most of my releases these days are more ideas I have for different things, and not so much emotions.” He describes his composition from the Protest and Rebellion unit in class music last term as an example. “That piece was called Flare, and I feel like it really captures everything that I kind of what I want to do with my music…. So firstly, Flare was a real experimental piece for me, personally, because it’s a trance piece and I composed it purely using Ableton Live. But the thing about that is because it was so weird with its time signature and its tempos and its harmonies, I skipped the whole process of notating it on Sibelius and went straight to Ableton…. Flare is a trance piece and it’s really weird in that the time signature is 30/8 time because they’re all quavers. And there’s groupings that are like, I think it’s three, three, two, three, etcetera…. The harmonies get really clashy, but what I wanted to do with that is convey clashes that actually sound nice and actually fits the piece…. It’s composed purely of synths and drums, so none of those instruments are real live instruments, they’re all electronically generated.”

I ask Elijah if he has always enjoyed this about music. “No, I never really had much exposure to composition until I came to QBS…. Until then I was really just playing piano because that’s what I did most, and listening to people sing, because I used to listen to the radio a lot because I get bored. I would hear tonnes of different songs and I’d just enjoy them, and it just went from there. Eventually, I found the world of composing and I got into it.”

Elijah’s present use of music is informed by his envisioned future use of music. “What I want to do with music is keep going in that direction, keep experimenting, and keep finding. I don’t want to settle on a style. I don’t want to find there’s the style called Cheese and I really love the style, and find I’m going to be composing that for the rest of my life. That just sounds really boring.” Not only is this value of diversity evident in Elijah’s use of music, but also in his professional career aspirations. “I want to study Medicine later, and I’ve kind of resorted to the idea of being a GP, and the reason for that is GP isn’t special, it’s not a specialisation, it’s really just you have a whole world of different views, like medical concepts that you can apply your skills to. If you specialise in cardio, or lungs, you’re going to be doing that for the rest of your life, and that really bores me, and the idea of that really bores me. In the same way that I want to diversify myself in Medicine, I want to diversify myself in music. That’s what I want to do, keep composing, maybe release my music to people.” Underpinning Elijah’s experimentation and composition is his continued quest for music diversity and new ideas. It is through these new ideas that he expresses himself as he continues to learn and grow.

120 Elijah: “Musical men”

7.3 Elijah’s use of music to shape and support his identity work 7.3.1 The mother script During the year, Elijah had expressed an interest in pursuing Medicine after graduating from school. He sat the UMAT29 in preparation for entrance to postgraduate medical study. I asked Elijah if he knew he wanted to pursue medicine prior to Year 12. “I’ve always wanted to do different things, and I think the real turning point for me of doing Medicine happened in Year 11. I had a massive year where I was just unsure whether I should follow what my most passionate thing was, which was music, or to do something that was more secure, and I can still have fun because I still enjoy talking to people.” He speaks to a conflict between his passion for music and perceived financial insecurity.

Elijah says that his pathway beyond school has been clarified in Year 12 as a result of greater exposure to adults’ lives. “I don’t feel the same way in Year 12, this year. Being exposed to real life and to a lot of adults, actually, has showed me that a lot of my mum’s friends are actual doctors. You could say if they were all musicians maybe I’d be more into music and maybe, but they’ve all been doctors and they have showed me the world of medicine, and I really like that world. In Year 11, if I was more passionate about music, which I was, that’s changed. In Year 12, I’m more passionate about talking to people, you know, what a GP does. I’m more passionate about what a GP does than what a musician would do. So, I didn’t always want to be a GP, but in Year 12 I definitely do want to be a GP more than anything else.”

Ella explains her influence. “Probably if I didn’t have a lot of input, he probably would have chosen to be a music teacher, but I had a lot of input to say why I want him to have a degree in something… [and music] as a hobby….” Ella’s influence in terms of music not being a preferred career pathway for Elijah is quite firm. She says, “Elijah always wanted to be a film composer. I always advised him, ‘How are you going to be popular? For the first few years it will be very hard. Or, how do you know that people are going to hire you?’ So, there’s always a question mark. ‘So, why don’t you have a degree in something?’ He always wanted to be a rich man. He always wanted to say yes to his [future] kids, ‘Yes you can have it, Yes you can have it.’ Naturally I can’t say that to him, so he said this is what I want to provide my children, ‘I never want to say no to them.’ I said, ‘Probably, then, you need to look at what avenue you work for your children.’ …. If I didn’t have an input, probably he would be a different person now.”

29 A competitive overall UMAT (Undergraduate Medicine and Health Sciences Admission Test) score provides provisional postgraduate entry into some universities to study Medicine.

121 Elijah: “Musical men” Despite Ella eventually persuading Elijah into pursuing a non-musical career pathway, she still wishes music to be part of his life beyond school. “I hope Elijah will keep learning some sort of music or have that connection with him and take that with him. It doesn’t matter if he is not coming to QBS, even at university, I hope that he’s going to continue, not just shut down…. I want him to take that experience and explore more, and I hope that he can continue doing it. I also hope that he has that connection with all the music teachers by coming to the music functions to participate.” Once Elijah has earned his non-music degree and secured a perceived feasible financial future, Ella is open to him pursing his musical ambitions. “I hope one day his dream comes true; you know how he wanted to be a composer. I want him to do a degree and keep that, and if he wanted to change and do the composing movies, he can do it. At least if he couldn’t go and work as a composer or he’s not popular or no one is hiring, the family or the children are not going to be starving, and he can always go back and do something because he had some degree to go back. Elijah always said he Googled who earns the most money, and he said to me, ‘The actors, the next is medical field.’ That’s what I said for Elijah to do. The medical degree is always helpful for you in the future.”

Ella is aware of her manipulation of the situation, but her influence was founded on loving intentions. A perceived possible bleak financial future instead of financial stability was a convincing argument for Elijah to refocus his musical and life ambitions from music being a “passion” to a “hobby”. Students and families may benefit from specific career education for jobs in the music industry and related fields. Elijah’s story warrants the advocacy of employment and pay reform in the music industry, so that financial concerns do not cause young people to turn away from a career in music and still allow them to contribute positively to society. Schools promoting holistic education would also benefit from encouraging students to consider the role of music in their lives beyond tertiary entrance results and career pathways.

7.3.2 “Music is everything” to “Music is a hobby” Elijah does not define himself as a musician, however, music has a significant and evolving role in his identity work. In this performative role, his musical identity is something that he does, rather than has. Ella says that “music is everything” for her son. “There are boys similar to Elijah, like Colton, who love music, but I have seen other boys, they’re not interested in music at all.” Ella describes some examples of Elijah’s use of music at home. “Everything is music for Elijah. When he has some spare time he always goes and plays the piano… or gets the guitar and walk around the house. In the bathroom, he sings. At the dinner table, he always brings his phone to have music, and I have to take it away from him. He talks to his cousin and sometimes he sings. Everything is more music for Elijah.” His use of music, though, is not just reserved for recognised musical activities. She

122 Elijah: “Musical men” says, “Elijah sometimes plays video games, and then he will stop, just listen to the music in the game.” She continues with another example. “Sometimes there are a couple of birds fighting over food, and he will run down from upstairs to downstairs and watching them fighting for breadcrumbs, and the noise and sometimes he takes a video of that and then listens…. He always connects with music.” From his mother’s observations, it is clear that music has a significant role in Elijah’s identity work. Ella confirms her son’s use of music is entrenched in who he currently is and how he identifies.

Elijah, however, now currently describes music as his “biggest hobby.” He spoke directly to the question, “What you will do with music in your future?” and did not draw. “My future with music isn’t getting famous, well actually don’t hold me to that, but I don’t think I’d ever transfer my entire life from medicine to music. I think it’s always going to be medicine-focused, and music is always going to be a side interest. What I’m going to do with music is just keep composing, keep experimenting, keep discovering myself and what I enjoy with the whole concept of music. I plan to release my music online, to find my niche audience, and to compose for them. I think I’ll still perform in bands, … I think I would still keep in touch with a lot of people who take music class in uni…. Music is a hobby of mine, it’s probably my biggest hobby, and it’s important because it’s how I have fun…. But what I am doing and what I want to do with my life won’t change too much, because, as I said, I do enjoy medicine more than music now.”

In order to persuade Elijah into what Ella perceives as a more secure pathway, he has been convinced that music study beyond school is not to be pursued. Elijah’s response highlights the malleable nature of musical identities from a boy where “music is everything” to a young man for whom “music is my biggest hobby.” This change in musical identity is a result of future financial ambitions, family pressure, and an evolving career pathway. Of note, however, despite not wishing to pursue a formal music pathway, music for Elijah is not an activity that only exists in a school setting, but rather he feels confident that with his knowledge, skills, and understanding he will continue to pursue his music interests beyond school in his own way. While a musical identity as a professional musician is not foreseeable, it is foreseeable that music will continue to play a role in his ongoing identity work.

7.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Elijah’s identity work 7.4.1 “Broadens my musical knowledge” Elijah’s identity work is shaped and supported in class music by learning and developing music knowledge, skills, and understanding. He says that his most enjoyable activity from class is “composing,” however, having already discussed this activity earlier, he decides to speak to his

123 Elijah: “Musical men” second most enjoyable activity, “analysing repertoire.” In response to the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?,” Elijah draws the class understanding how music works beyond just listening to and appreciating music (see Figure 7.3).

Figure 7.3. Elijah’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”

Elijah describes his drawing (see Figure 7.3) and the learning activity of “analysing repertoire.” “When we analyse different periods and the characteristics of those periods, and when we talk about stuff like Mixolydian mode or different types of musical characteristics, I find it so good. My second interest with music isn’t actually listening to it, it’s analysing it, and finding out the history and how people have done this, and how music has evolved, and the different types. Like Maths, Maths has different types. There’s integration, there’s differentiation, there’s fractions, there’s decimals, there’s algebra, I love learning about that stuff. Similarly, in music I love learning about the different types. There’s notation, there’s all the theoretical aspects to it I love. I love learning about that in class.” Elijah places high value on learning and understanding how disciplines work.

Extending Elijah’s understanding of theory and music genres has supported and shaped his use of music beyond the classroom and curriculum. He says, analysing repertoire is “important because it broadens my musical knowledge further, and it helps me be more experimental.” Elijah provides some examples. “For example, when we talk about Phrygian mode, I love the scale, so I went home and composed a lot with that scale.” His says another example “is when we talked about atonal music. I’d heard of it and I’ve listened to some, but I never really analysed it. When we analysed it in class, and the different types of atonal music and how they do different stuff, that really

124 Elijah: “Musical men” intrigued me. And that was important, because I went home and I composed a lot of kind of ideas that were atonal.” Deconstructing and analysing repertoire has had a direct impact on Elijah’s identity work and ability to express himself through composition. Analysing repertoire has empowered Elijah with music knowledge and understanding.

Elijah explains that different curriculum assessment provisions between middle and senior school have affected his musical development. While the state Senior Music Syllabus at the time (The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority), 2004) provided flexibility for schools and teachers to choose their own subject content, assessment conditions were somewhat defined with a maximum of seven assessments across the year. In contrast, lower year level assessment conditions were much broader and allowed teachers the flexibility to decide how they assessed students. When this cohort were in Years 9 and 10, I chose to implement continuous weekly assessment tasks in Composing, Performing and Responding. These small weekly tasks were essentially homework that was assessed. They were challenging, provided levels of differentiation, and fostered regular practice.

Elijah reflects on the difference in these assessment approaches: “In Year 9, we improved on a weekly basis. You couldn’t say one week would pass when we hadn’t gotten better…. I remember in 9 and 10 we used to have weekly kind of assessments that we had to do, and everyone hated them, and I hated them. But when I got into Year 11 that stopped and, at first, I was happy, but I think eventually I kind of got, well not upset, but I got a little saddened that we didn’t keep doing that. My skills improved so much from the beginning of Year 9 to the end of Year 9, and then in Year 10 to the end of Year 10, from all those little assessments we did. And they were really, really useful because it actually made you sit down. As I said before, I hated sitting down and actually having to work on my skills and refining them, and that made me do that. We had to submit videos and little compositional tasks and analysing tasks, and they were good in that they made you do what you didn’t want to do, kind of like homework in a way…. That’s not the same with Year 11 and 12. You don’t improve on a weekly basis, you improve more on like a term basis, or maybe not even that, maybe like a semester basis…. What I want music class to be more like in future for boys, would be to still convey that idea of working really hard and improving your skills on a weekly basis.” This account demonstrates the potential impact of assessment structures and Elijah’s high value of skill development in class music.

Elijah says that “class music has had a massive impact. If I never took class music, I think what I’d be into right now and what I’d be doing with music would be really, really different…. It

125 Elijah: “Musical men” really has influenced me and broadened my knowledge and without it I wouldn’t be the person I am today.”

7.4.2 Belonging through composition Elijah uses his music ideas and composition expertise to be valued by others, especially his peers. While Elijah admits to being quite a social person, he says he prefers composing by himself. “I feel like a lot of the other things in my life are shared with other people. If I’m studying, I’m usually studying with others. If I am gaming, I’m gaming with others. Composing I do on my own. I’m not saying I don’t enjoy composing with others, I just enjoy composing by myself more.” While Elijah might compose alone at a computer or instrument, he actively draws upon critical peer feedback in developing his work and a sense of belonging. He explains this process. “Firstly, a lot of the time I’ll have an idea and I won’t know if I like it, and so I’ll give it to a friend. Before saying what my idea for the harmony is, I’ll say, ‘How would you harmonise this?’ and I’ll get their idea and go from there.” Peer feedback is not only an opportunity to improve, but also to seek recognition and be valued by others.

Elijah says a standout memory from class was when his compositions were showcased to his peers. “We had to compose once a term basically, and at the end of the term you would always play all the compositions, play all the performances, etcetera. My favourite memory from class music was when you played my piece, Flare. I’m not sure if you noticed but I never actually look at the screen the entire time. I was looking at the class because I wanted to see whether they would react in the same way that I would to that piece of music. I wanted to see how many of them would like it, what they’d like about it, and just really how the class would take that. Because I compose for people as well, I don’t just compose for myself, because that’s kind of boring.” I asked Elijah did his classmates enjoy his composition. “Yeah…. A lot of them asked me how I did that…. People a lot of the time asked me, ‘How do you get these ideas? How do you develop them? Can you help me with my composition? Can you do this, do that?’ And I enjoy that because it makes me feel like I’m good at composing.” Being valued by others in the class also results in a sense of achievement and self- confidence.

Elijah, at times, also uses composition to make a valuable contribution to the lives of others. “My friend wanted to enter a video into this competition, this Australian competition, and he said I need some music, but it has to be original, so I composed for him. While Elijah mostly composes by himself, he does also collaborate with others on occasion. He describes an example with Colton. “We composed a whole rock album together, and we’d just send emails back and forth saying, ‘Okay, add

126 Elijah: “Musical men” a little bit here.’ And then I’ll say, ‘I’d add a bit here,’ and I’ll say, ‘I added one here,’ and I’ll say, ‘I edited this part,’ and go on.”

Elijah enjoys composing by himself, however, continually consults his peers through the experimentation process in order to seek their critical feedback and approval of ideas. He is interested in his work appealing to others and craves peer social recognition and worth. Elijah uses composing to capture attention and cement his place as a valued member of high school social playground.

7.4.3 “Life lessons” Class music has shaped and supported Elijah’s identity work as a “musical man.” He says he has learnt life lessons through class music with the teacher acting as mentor on moral and ethical issues. A positive student–teacher relationship is an underlying feature of this mentorship. Elijah believes my age assisted in establishing this relationship with the class. At the time of the interview, I was 29 years old. Elijah says, “I think the way you teach… works for our age demographic because we’re all young and you’re quite young… I think because you’re so young you understand how teenage boys want to be taught, and it’s pretty effective the way that you teach.” I ask Elijah to describe what he means by “effective.” “Well, I speak for myself when I say this, because I can’t assume that the whole class feels the same way, but I certainly think they do. If you were to make a pie graph of how much of the lesson is actually spent on actual music, I think the way that the pie graph would be shaped, would be pretty ideal, in that it’s not always fully intensive just work, work, work. You mix a lot of just actual talking to the students about how they feel, what they think about this actual composer.” Elijah identifies that it is important to the class that the teacher also shows their own personality and opinions: “You share your own opinions, which is good, and you’re open and honest. You’re really fun-loving in that it’s never really too serious with you. There are sometimes where boys will misbehave and you’ll have to put them in place, but I think the vibe of just having fun and coming to music to have a good time never really dies down.” The implications of this is that class music “has been my favourite subject to go to. In fact, I find music class to be the class I enjoy for what you are taught and for the fun you have in it. I don’t think that’s the same for any other class. I may have more fun in another class, but I won’t be taught the same amount of useful stuff for the subject. You are effective in that your style of teaching just mashes what it should be for teenagers.” Beyond me, the teacher, being a credible ethical model, Elijah has been shaped and supported by me sharing my own identity with the class and having fun with the students through age-appropriate learning.

127 Elijah: “Musical men” Elijah says his most valuable lesson from class music has been understanding others. “I think my most gained lesson from Music wouldn’t be music editing, it would be more understanding people…. If I wasn’t taking music, I’d be hugely different, not only musically but I think also morally, because I wouldn’t have had a lot of chats with you, and you’ve really influenced the way I treat and view others. You’ve made me see past what they actually do… and their thought processes when they actually do it.” In my classes I aim to nurture an environment where students respect and celebrate one another’s differences.

In the days prior to the interview, Elijah had presented me with a thank you card in appreciation of my year’s teaching (see Figure 7.4). He said he struggled to think what to write for me. “I know you, that’s why I said I can’t think of a single sentence that could summarise you, and so I used a ton of comments.” He concludes the card with “Thank you for making us musical men.”

Figure 7.4. Elijah’s “Thank You” card message to me at the end of Year 12.

I asked Elijah to explain this further in our interview. “The difference between men and musical men would probably be a musical man not only understands a lot more about music, but also about how people think. I think if you learn music you learn a lot more about thoughts, and the human thought process. I guess a musical man is someone who has more right-sided brain thinking. The left- side is more factual, and the right side is more emotional. I think his right side of the brain would expand and improve. To make us musical men you haven’t taught us just music lesson[s] but also life lessons, and I can’t say that any other subjects would have done the same. There’s been other teachers who you connect with on a personal level, but their goal is never to teach you about life or anything….

128 Elijah: “Musical men” I think you’ve really changed us morally and musically…. Your goal isn’t really just helping us with music, but it’s making us men.”

Even though Elijah is not continuing music studies after school, he says these moral and ethical values will benefit him as an aspiring medical practitioner. “Well, to be honest, because I’m not taking music in any of my classes in future, it’s really set me up morally. It’s aided me in my understanding of people, and because I want to be a GP that’s pretty core to the whole idea of it…. Biology is pretty important, but Music has pretty much been the second-most important subject I’ve taken, funnily enough, for helping me become what I want to be. If I had a different teacher it might be different, because I doubt the other teachers would have this kind of moral talks with you. It’s been good.” Elijah suggests a different music teacher may have had a different influence on him, highlighting the significance of the individual teacher, their philosophy, pedagogy, and curriculum choices.

In response to the question, “What do you hope Elijah enjoyed from class music?,” Ella read a prepared response. “You are a gifted teacher who makes excellent use of your own teaching skills to create an engaging and creative atmosphere in the classroom. Your warm, approachable manner shows your dedication to the students’ learning journey. I trust that learning which connects the student’s home to their classroom, creates not only a real-life engaging context, but deeper knowledge, connections, and understandings. I believe a teacher must be an inspiring role model who guides students to develop their full potential, academically and socially. I have witnessed this since 2011, when you took over my son’s music class from Year 9 until Year 12.”

She continued: “This is honestly true. I also actively participate in Elijah’s composing assessment and competitions by listening and giving my opinion about what I think of that piece. I sometimes argue with him as well. I thoroughly enjoyed participating in Elijah’s class music and music extension work.

Ella concluded: I strongly think it was a good choice of learning Music over Physics. Elijah seemed stress-free and relaxed more compared to the boys who did not study Music. I noticed from Elijah’s communication with me, you are not only his class music teacher, but also his mentor, or even at times his best buddy, to give him guidance on anything and everything. I really do appreciate you taking the extra time to help Elijah. Thank you, Jason.”

129 Elijah: “Musical men” Based on Elijah’s and Ella’s accounts, the teacher-as-mentor is a critical component in this setting. Mentoring not only exists in terms of being a strong musical model, but also a strong moral and ethical model providing “life lessons”. The process of mentoring builds on an established positive student–teacher relationship. Class music has the potential for the teacher to not only teach music, but also the essence of democratic citizenship and the human experience.

7.5 Summary Elijah’s music beliefs, values and identity work have been significantly shaped by both the family script and his music education. His mother, Ella, places a high value on school-age music learning and achievement, and has moulded Elijah’s music values and uses. He has excelled at numerous high-level musical instrument external examinations, including classical piano, contemporary drum kit, and music theory. While Ella values music learning, greater value is given to school academic results. Initially, Ella did not support Elijah studying senior music, due to her belief that other subjects would produce higher overall results and a subsequently higher tertiary entrance score. There were numerous arguments between Ella and Elijah on this topic, though eventually Ella capitulated to her son’s wishes to study class music. She later acknowledged the benefits it provided her son and she became a source of encouragement in his music studies. Elijah also values diverse and new music experiments, having recently started learning guitar and beginning studio production lessons. His listening preferences showcase his diverse interests, and he provides the discography of the band MUSE as an example. Elijah’s favourite musical activity is experimentation through composition, as it provides him with a means for self-expression.

Music has a significant and evolving role in Elijah’s identity work. While Ella may have been unable to dissuade Elijah from studying senior music, she was determined to influence his post-school career pathway decisions. Music teacher or film composer were both, at one point, possible future careers for Elijah, although Ella describes having numerous discussions with Elijah in which she painted a picture of a bleak financial future with music and promoted medicine as a sensible career choice. As part of this campaign, Ella surrounds Elijah with medical doctor family members who provide influencing models. The result is a change in the role of music in Elijah’s identity work from “music is everything” to music is “my biggest hobby.” Despite this shift, Elijah believes that music will continue to be part of his life beyond school to “keep composing, keep experimenting, keep discovering myself.” He feels confidently equipped with his music knowledge, skills, and abilities to be able to continue with music independently. Ella is also open to the idea of Elijah returning to composition after he completes his medical degree.

130 Elijah: “Musical men” Class music has had a significant role in shaping and supporting Elijah’s identity work. Broadening his musical knowledge has fuelled his interest in, and uses of, music. Elijah enjoys analysing repertoire in class as an opportunity to discover new music ideas and gain a deeper understanding of how music works in developing his own skills as a composer. He uses music composition in class to be valued by others and belong, and thrives on the recognition, accolades, and credibility he gains from his peers when his work is showcased to the class. The class music teacher has been an important mentor, providing a credible ethical model. He describes his most valuable lesson learned from class music as being how to understand people. Elijah says class music is not just about learning music, but also making people. These “life lessons” combine to produce “musical men.” Elijah says he will take and value these lessons from class music with him into future as an aspiring medical doctor.

131 Michael: “Hearing the little things” 8 Michael: “Hearing the little things” 8.1 Introduction 8.1.1 Introducing Michael Michael describes himself as “personable and honest.” In Year 12, he has the added responsibility of being School Captain, which includes an additional schedule of public events outside usual school hours. When the opportunity arises, he enjoys relaxing. “I enjoy actually listening to music just to chill out…. I do like socialising and I do like a bit of light exercise…. Doing nothing is also pretty good. I can normally sit down and do nothing for a couple of hours. It gives me a lot of time to think about things and I normally find that one thought leads into the other, so I just end up sitting minutes to hours if I have the time to do that.”

Michael began attending QBS in Year 8 as a day student. I was his home room teacher in Year 8 and have taught him in class music since Year 9. At the time of the interview, Michael is 17 years of age. In his senior year, Michael studies English, Mathematics B, Chemistry, Physics, Legal Studies, Christian Education, and Music. He is heavily involved in co-curricular activities and participates in volleyball, swimming, water polo, Amnesty International, and contributes towards charity work. He plays saxophone in the senior concert band and big band. Michael receives individual saxophone and voice lessons. He has taught himself bass guitar and plays for assessment in class music. He wishes to study medicine at university.

8.1.2 Introducing May (Michael’s mother) Michael’s mother, May, was born and lived in China before immigrating to Australia as an adult. She describes her “life as quite simple.” May says she is “an ordinary person…. I do my best to contribute to society and look after my own family.” She and her husband have two children, a daughter and her son, Michael. She has a variety of interests. “When I was young I loved my volleyball and all sorts of sports. Music, I love it, but I don’t have much knowledge about music, I can’t play as well as my son. I enjoy lots of things like just bushwalking and of course cooking…. I enjoy reading and I spend time with friends…. I enjoy life.”

8.2 Michael’s music beliefs, values, and uses 8.2.1 The family script: “We missed out” May’s music beliefs and values directly impact the opportunities afforded to her children and shape Michael’s beliefs, values, and uses of music. These values and beliefs have been shaped by May’s own experiences. High value is placed on learning a musical instrument, something she was not able to do. May recalls asking her mother for piano lessons. “I remember I said to my mum when

132 Michael: “Hearing the little things” I was little, I said I really want to play piano and Mum just said, ‘Look, it’s really, really hard to find a piano teacher here. Also, we can’t afford to buy a keyboard.’ My family situation was above average at the time but music was a luxury we could not afford.” May hopes to provide her children with music opportunities that were not available to her as a child in China. She says about Michael, “I just wish he picks up lots of things I never learned, that’s my wish, my hope.”

May’s views of school class music have changed over time. She does not have positive memories of class music from her own school experiences. May retells her memories of her school music education when responding to the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?” (see Figure 8.1).

Figure 8.1. May’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”

“I remember in primary school music was just once a week or something. We didn’t do much. The teacher just sang a song and then we followed her and practised, that’s all…. If we liked it, we sang along with energy. I remember some of the songs were just terrible… and I felt so sick of it. ‘Oh, why we need to sing this kind of song all the time?’ That’s all I remember about music.”

There was no specialist music teacher at May’s high school. She brought music from home to school and shared this with her classmates. “When I was in school, because of the Cultural Revolution, no one was a specialist music teacher. Someone who happened to play piano became the music teacher. So, my mum found lots of older Russian songs, beautiful Russian songs…. When my mum and dad were young, Russia and China were great brothers, so they knew lots of Russian songs.

133 Michael: “Hearing the little things” My mum taught me some first and then I went to school and sang them to my classmates. Then my classmates all started singing the songs.” May explains that her mother learned music when she was at school, however it was not a priority during the Cultural Revolution.

May now realises “we missed out.” “I grew up in family surrounded by parents, uncle, grandpa, all doing engineering or science, so we were not exposed to that other side at home. In China, at the time, we always believed a proper profession should be in engineering and science. Even literature was always ‘Oh my god, that’s not a proper degree!’” While music was valued by May’s family as a leisure activity, it was not suitable as a career pathway. Her initial values towards school music for her children were informed by her own experiences. “When my daughter was in high school, at the time I didn’t believe Music was a proper subject because I thought, ‘Oh my god, that’s just for kids. They don’t want to study and it’s just an easier subject for them.’ But just gradually, I changed my mind and I thought actually it is good.”

May’s values towards life and music have shifted and influenced the opportunities she has provided her children. “My husband and I are so boring because we didn’t have many chances to be exposed to other areas…. At the time only four percent of people got into university and so nothing was more important.... I now believe people who do music are happiest people in the world really. Because I am not in that group, I think, every time I look at a musician, I always think they are the happiest people in the world. My job is quite boring, ... so I thought my kids doing music would make them happier. My husband is the same.”

More than enjoyment and happiness, May believes music education has other benefits and plays an important role in a holistic education. “We think it helps their other studies. I think it’s just a way to broaden out your thinking…. I think the brain needs stimulating…. For our kids, now, of course we encourage them to do better in science, but also encourage them with literature, music, and sport.”

I ask May to compare her and Michael’s music education opportunities. “We just always feel amazed, because from the very beginning of his day care centre, music is just everywhere, and the children have great opportunities to choose an instrument. We didn’t have this option at all, only a few very, very fortunate kids could find a music teacher to learn a musical instrument. But look at Michael, we just think, ‘Oh, wow, isn’t it amazing,’ because every child in Australia have this opportunity and the school provides all the support.” Unbeknown to May, this last comment may be true for most Queensland school children, but it is not the case for all Australian children.

134 Michael: “Hearing the little things”

“How do you hope Michael uses music in his future?,” I ask. “In his lifetime, I’m sure he will enjoy music, and also I think in the future—when he gets older or maybe in the workforce—he can still enjoy playing with people. And that’s something not everyone has ability to do. It’s also about connections, meet friends and enjoy yourself, so there’s lots of things he can do with the music. I believe he is equipped well so he can do whatever he wants to do.” As you will soon read in Michael’s story, these values and beliefs towards music have been inherited by him.

May has been so inspired by her children’s music education, she says she would like to learn trumpet like her daughter. “I said to my daughter, ‘I really want to learn some instrument because I missed out….’ I think it is something I always thought I should, you know, something I love, but because of certain circumstances I missed out. That’s why I want my kids to do music. My husband feels the same way.”

Figure 8.2. May’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”

May’s story highlights the power and influence of the family script. She wants for her children what she could not have herself, particularly in relation to learning a musical instrument. Her story is an example of parents who have worked hard to create opportunities for their own children that they, as children, did not have available. Conversely, parents could take for granted musical opportunities afforded to them or they might even not react to missed musical experiences in their own lives. The power of the family script could work both ways, either to value or devalue music, for generations.

135 Michael: “Hearing the little things”

8.2.2 Music expertise Michael values music expertise. May reports, “I didn’t know at first, but I thought from a very young age he just loved music.” Michael uses musical models (family members, teachers, popular culture) as resources in developing his own music knowledge and skills. He values music learning and those who assist him in this pursuit. These values are evident from his musical beginnings and life history. “I started playing saxophone in Year 3. According to Mum, it was me who wanted to start playing an instrument, probably because my older sister played trumpet. I do, however, remember picking saxophone because Lisa Simpson played it on ‘The Simpsons’30 and I thought it was pretty cool.” Being a saxophonist myself, I can relate to this influence of popular culture. The Simpsons is an American animated sitcom that provides a satirical depiction of the working class. During my childhood, it was the only cartoon that was broadcasted during prime time and it influenced my desire to learn saxophone among other things.

The importance of the teacher being a credible musician and inspirational person is evident from Michael’s account. “I started getting private [saxophone] lessons at a local music school31 and I am lucky that I had a good teacher that really encouraged me and made me enjoy music. I stayed at that music school for, I think, another 3 years, over which time I had about 2 or 3 other teachers, of which I all recall being fairly cool people…. I then went to another music school from about Years 6 to 8. There I had a teacher who I remember being pretty cool and then another guy who I respected for being a really good player.... My last proper teacher there was part of some self-formed jazz bands. He taught me a lot of cool jazz/funk techniques, like growling, and the importance of breathing, and I think my enjoyment of music really stepped up from there. I think even some of my classical music was coloured by jazz. After this last teacher left, I started getting lessons with a teacher at QBS.” Michael also fondly recalls practising with his sister, demonstrating the importance of home support and encouragement. Potential models of music expertise may also be available to children at home. “My sister had just finished Year 12, too, and so would play with me while I practised playing the G note over and over again, which I also quite liked.” It is interesting to note that the absence of music in Michael’s parent’s lives led to them providing a broad range of musical opportunities for their children, with Michael’s older sister providing a strong music model and support for him at home.

30 (Groening, 1989–present) 31 Music school in this context refers to a privately-owned music studio business, usually employing a number of instrumental and vocal teachers for individual and small group lessons.

136 Michael: “Hearing the little things” A high value of music expertise was reaffirmed through recognition and celebration of Michael’s music achievements, including formal examinations and attainment of sought-after music opportunities. Michael describes completing 3rd and 4th Grade AMEB32 examinations while attending the private music school in his primary years. He says, “After Year 5, I joined the primary school senior band. I, at first, enjoyed playing with the older kids. I also had the opportunity to go on a week- long music camp in Years 6 and 7 and play with some people who were of similar abilities to me, which I really, really enjoyed, despite having a split inner lip from so much playing. I used to get to do solos, etc., at school concerts, which I also quite liked.” Michael’s story highlights the importance of creating opportunities for students who excel to also be challenged appropriately. Equally, Michael in retrospect saw failure as a valuable learning opportunity, admitting, “I failed my first attempt at 6th Grade, and was, of course, upset, though [it provided] a much needed blow to my ego, if you ask me.” Despite this temporary setback, Michael went on to complete his Grade 8 examination. Michael is quite self-reflective, and identifies that “throughout all this I suppose it was a combination of the personal satisfaction of achieving grades and the accolades of solo performances that mostly drove my enjoyment of music at a young age…. As I grew older, particularly now towards the end of school, it was the appreciation of skills needed to play well, wanting to have those skills and a general enjoyment of music that drove me to continue music.”

Michael’s response demonstrates an underlying thread of valuing music expertise through his childhood and adolescence in different learning contexts. Developing music expertise was challenging, and conquering these musical problems resulted in personal enjoyment and satisfaction.

8.2.3 Relationships through music Michael responds with three drawings to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” (see Figure 8.3).

32 Australian Music Examinations Board.

137 Michael: “Hearing the little things”

Figure 8.3. Michael’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

The top right-hand drawing in Figure 8.3 represents Michael “talking to others about music.” He explains how music is “a good ice breaker in really bad conversations and also for meeting people…. I’m friends with people that I probably wouldn’t talk to if it weren’t for music and that’s probably been one of the most rewarding things…. It is a good way to make friends and life is really boring without friends.... A good friend of mine, Tyler, and I talk a lot about music and different things in music and it makes for a great conversation. We don’t always talk about it, obviously, but it always something we have in common and I always enjoy talking about it.” Michael values relationships with others and uses music as a social resource. Music is used to assist in establishing, developing, and maintaining relationships with others.

Michael’s conversations about music are positively shaped and supported by his music expertise. His conversations demonstrate a high level of music vocabulary and understanding of music. He recalls a conversation with Tyler communicating about music: “Normally it is about weird music…. They are fairly short-lived conversations, but they are conversations, nonetheless, which is good.... The one that comes to mind is ‘Bound 2’33 by Kanye West…. We just ‘pay it out’ as to actually how bad it is, but strangely how much we enjoy it and that makes for good conversation.... The song called ‘Discipline’34 by King Crimson [is another example] and we both thought it was really cool

33 (West, 2013). 34 (King Crimson, 1981).

138 Michael: “Hearing the little things” that all the instruments play in different time signatures except the bass drum which had a four-four feel …. It was really weird, but it sounded really cool and we had a good talk about that.”

Ensembles are another avenue through which to maintain social relationships. Michael reports that around the time he completed his eighth-grade saxophone exam during Middle School he started to feel “a bit burned out from practising the saxophone, almost religiously, for 45 minutes to 1 hour [each day]…. I found band to be mostly more interesting and playing music with my mates.” Making music is also valued as an enjoyable social activity with friends.

8.2.4 Autotelic experience Michael places importance on the intrinsic value of “creating sounds” and uses music in this way for personal enjoyment. He represents this idea in the centre of his drawing (see Figure 8.3) in response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” He says, “Another thing I also like is creating music, if not on my own, playing things in a band. I sometimes do it now, but I don’t do exams or practise that much. Every now and again I take out my saxophone and I just play whatever, because I think it sounds good, or whatever is on the radio that I find interesting. It’s something to do and it is something to take my mind off other things. When I’m creating music it’s just my saxophone not writing music.”

When Michael refers to “creating music,” he means both performing the music of others and improvising his own music. “It’s half and half actually. Sometimes I take an old piece from, say, 6th Grade, like ‘The old castle,’35 because I think it’s a nice song and I enjoy being able to play it. Other times, when I don’t want to think too much, I sit there and play a backing track and improvise on top of whatever that is, or, you know, if there’s something on the radio which I heard that is nice I might try and learn that. Like there’s this song called ‘Jubel,’36 by Klingande, and it’s basically 3 minutes of sax, so I learned that over the holidays.” Michael explains that it was the repertoire “that was the only reason that made me practise [for saxophone exams].”

I ask if there is anything else in Michael’s life that has the same or similar sensation as music. “No, I don’t think so. I don’t really know how to express that with words, and the only thing I can say is, when I listen to a song that I really enjoy, there is this excitement. Not like the excitement I did well on an exam or the excitement that we came third on the sporting competition, but, I don’t know,

35 (Mussorgsky, 2012). 36 (Klingande, 2013).

139 Michael: “Hearing the little things” it’s just some sort of feeling inside that I get when I listen to something really nice. Like ‘At Home,’37 by the Crystal Fighters, I don’t [know] why, but I feel really happy when I listen to it, and at ease, and it’s something I get with that. I don’t really know how to articulate it.”

Michael values music for the autotelic experiences it provides. Music can be a valued activity in itself, rather than an accompaniment to other activities. He is skilled and confident enough to source and play music of his own choosing, and does so for its intrinsic value. His repertoire includes past favourites, and new music that has captured his attention. This activity is both enjoyable and relaxing, and part of his personal mood management.

8.2.5 Mood and emotion management Michael also values and uses music to regulate his emotions and mood. He represents this idea in his drawing response (see Figure 8.3) to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” “Relaxing music allows me to escape from the stresses of life and it is a good way to relax …. This year has been really busy with a lot of work and some stresses. Music just lets me sit down and enjoy something without having to think too much of it, and it is something I can do by myself because, while I enjoy going out and doing things, I appreciate time by myself.”

Michael is able to provide specific examples of music managing his mood and emotions. “Last weekend after doing a lot of work I just sat down for an hour listening to songs and that was really nice…. This is going to sound really tacky but when my girlfriend broke up with me earlier in the year I sat in my tears and listened to break up music. I think that helped a bit and it was good to take my mind off it; that people have similar experiences and that sort of stuff.” Music provides a resource for adolescents to learn about and share life experiences through the music of others and learn they are not alone in their experiences and feelings.

Michael values and uses music to manage the self. He uses music for a variety of desired emotions, including relaxation, enjoyment, and for raising his spirits. Music can also be used to learn about the human experience through others’ creative output.

37 (Crystal Fighters, 2011).

140 Michael: “Hearing the little things”

8.3 Michael’s use of music to shape and support his identity work 8.3.1 “I think music is potentially so much more for me” Music plays a significant role in Michael’s identity work. While he does not associate with a formal role in music (identity in music), music features in his broader sense of self and aspects of his daily life. His family script has resulted in music opportunities and the development of music expertise. He uses his music expertise to shape and support various aspects of his life: a resource for navigating the self (e.g., autotelic experiences and mood management), a template for who to be (e.g., teacher and family models), and connecting with others (relationships through music). Michael lives and grows as a person in and through music.

Michael’s projection of his future music use demonstrates the ongoing role music has in his identity work. He draws his response to the question, “What will you do with music in your future?” in Figure 8.4.

Figure 8.4. Michael’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”

The left drawing in Figure 8.4 depicts Michael listening to and “appreciating” music by himself. “The major thing that I’ll take with music won’t be a tertiary education. I might play in a band as part of a uni social thing, but I haven’t thought that far ahead. Probably the major thing I would take from music would just be appreciation of music, really how complex of a thing it is and

141 Michael: “Hearing the little things” the affect it can have on people, because I have been affected by it in ways that I can’t describe and just the feelings I get from it.”

Arguably, Michael’s listening to music goes beyond appreciation. He has a sophisticated understanding of music, and exhibits curiosity and intrigue. “When I sit down or when I listen to something new… I do enjoy hearing the little things come by…. Normally, actually, what happens is I try to listen quite carefully, and what happens is I always find this little part that I didn’t notice before…. Then I’ll find something else later in the song or another song and I think that’s really cool.” He provides another example. “One of my speakers blew out so the left side doesn’t work but the right side does, but then when I was listening to it in the car—because both car speakers work— I found another part that I didn’t hear before, and I thought it was really cool, and I got a bit more enjoyment about of that.”

Michaels describes the impact of listening to music in this way. “I think it brings on a different level of interest than it normally would…. The replay value is better because I always discover something new in a song and, then, once I don’t, I just stop listening to it. I think that’s really good. I think sort of it makes me feel a bit smarter than everyone else.” This listening habit, however, affects Michael’s uses of music that might be typical for others. “If I have music playing, I normally can’t concentrate on what I want to do because I just end up listening to the songs anyway. As of this term, I was doing a Chemistry research assignment and I had music playing in the background, but I found after an hour I didn’t really get anything done because I was just listening to the songs that were playing.”

Michael values his developed audiation skills and believes that these provide him with more enjoyment than they might others. “I think music is potentially so much more for me. I get these feelings from music I can’t explain, and I think that’s different from all the other boys. I think that’s because of my formal music training and the time I have spent with people who enjoy music, as opposed to a lot of other boys where sport and academic would take priority, so they don’t pay as much attention to it and they don’t get the same out of it as I would.”

The influence of the family script in shaping his possible future children is already evident in the drawing on the right side of Figure 8.4. “Thinking a bit ahead, I would encourage my children to pursue music—if I have children—and I think that is just so I can impart that appreciation on them. But mainly it would be the ability to enjoy music and the skills I’ve gotten would be very handy as well. It would be very handy as well just to be able to play saxophone and hear things.”

142 Michael: “Hearing the little things”

Michael says class music has had an influence on his use of music. “Class music has given me an appreciation of music that I do now. When I used to do sax, I found it to be a bit of a grind having to learn that this was a chord, that this was also this, and hearing different movements. I thought that was a bit boring, so I didn’t take that much in. Normally what would happen would be I would just cram the night before the theory behind the piece but in class music it is an environment and, for some reason, I feel like I want to learn more in that class than I do when I’m by myself. It’s probably mainly the people, the teacher, what we actually learn, and how we learn it. So, I think class music has helped foster that appreciation beyond what I would have without it.”

8.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Michael’s identity work 8.4.1 “Solfa did help me” Class music has shaped and supported Michael’s ability to “hear the little things” by developing his ability to audiate, or his ability to apply understanding to sound. Thinking in sound occurs across all music domains including listening, performing, and composing. From Years 8 to 10, the class music program at QBS required students to submit Kodály-inspired weekly continuous assessments across listening, performing, and composing. These tasks were specifically designed to develop student musicianship, including their ability to audiate. The nature of these tasks was challenging and fostered authentic music habits, such as regular practice, and provided an avenue for continuous feedback. Michael says, “Even though we did spend an outrageous amount of time on assessments every week, it is something that I didn’t regret doing ever…. While I didn’t realise it at the time, in retrospect, it did have an impact on my musical ability.”

Continuous development in solfa fluency, and the use of solfa to demonstrate musical thought, was emphasised in these tasks. Michael looks directly at the interview camera: “Mr. Goopy always asserted that solfa was good, and we would always try to refute that, but, he is right, solfa did help me. My example would be when I’m composing for a composing task, now I’m thinking of chord progressions, and I can hear which part needs to move a lot easier. Improvising got a lot easier once I knew about the la pentatonic scale and the relationship with the intervals, and I can just muck around now on background harmonies.”

Michael’s reflection demonstrates that it is possible to develop students’ audiation abilities, and development is deliberate in this context. His account is evidence of the musical and personal rewards to be gained by persisting with challenging and rigorous music learning in class music. Importantly, for Michael, developing his audiation has led to musical independence and agency.

143 Michael: “Hearing the little things”

8.4.2 Developing music knowledge and understanding of diverse repertoire Michael’s use of music in his identity work has been further enhanced by class music, which has developed his music knowledge, and understanding of diverse repertoire. Michael responds to the drawing question, “What do you enjoy about class music?,” in two parts (see Figure 8.5).

Figure 8.5. Michael’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”

Indicating the drawing on the left side of Figure 8.5, Michael discusses his interest in “expanding my repertoire of music.” The class music program aimed to immerse students in and understand music unfamiliar to them in order to broaden their musical palette. Michael recounts some examples from class. “In Term 1 last year, we learned about the different ages of music from the medieval period onwards, and the different styles of music associated with that. I thought that was very interesting and explaining why and how music does different things.” Connections between music of the past and contemporary music were made explicit. Michael says he enjoyed “hearing songs that I wouldn’t have, like ‘Bourrée’38 by Bach and the cover of ‘Bourrée’39 by Jethro Tull.” This was one example that served as a stimulus for one of the students’ first major composition assignments. “I think it was a good place to start when we were doing that assignment. You said you just take an idea and then you can develop it into something more and I thought that was really cool.”

38 (Bach, 1966). 39 (Tull, 1969).

144 Michael: “Hearing the little things”

Another example Michael provides is one of music “conveying an emotion or portraying a character. I thought that was interesting.” Investigating music repertoire also involved considering non-musical knowledge, such as related social and historical issues. “The interesting thing about that is how music can work to achieve certain ends…. I think one of my regrets was it is such a complex issue that involves a lot of social constructs and we probably didn’t go into that much depth…. At the time, I probably didn’t want to, but thinking about it, it would be interesting to learn a lot more about it, and I’m really glad in music we did touch on it at least, because it opens up a new element of thinking or type of thinking that I didn’t have before.”

Michaels explains that developing his music knowledge and understanding has “opened up much more enjoyment” of music. “The one that stands out the most is musical theatre and the unit we did on that. Until then I had gone to ‘Wicked’40 and ‘Dr. Zhivago’41 and I was like they’re nice, they’re good things, but once we had a look at musical theatre, and the leitmotifs that went through, and the different characters, I learned a lot more. ‘Les Mis’42 I enjoyed a lot more because I was like ‘that little thing was from that song earlier.’ The little subtleties in music give it a lot more enjoyment once you’re aware of it.”

May has observed Michael’s “taste” in music improve over time. “I never thought Michael would love some music.... Especially after he spent more time studying his taste has gotten better and better.”

8.4.3 Learning with and from others The class music program aimed to create a respectful and democratic learning community within which all student voices were valued. In his drawing (see Figure 8.5) on the right, Michael speaks to enjoying learning with and from “others’ ideas.” “I think it is always good to hear what other people think because then I learn something new as well, and I might be able to change my way of thinking that I may not have before.”

Learning with friends was a reoccurring theme throughout Michael’s interview. He reports that he initially chose music because he wanted to study a subject with his friends. He also says now, “Of all the subjects, Music is one that I can say that I do really enjoy… with people, my friends.”

40 (Schwartz, 2003). 41 (Simon, 2011). 42 (Schönberg, 1980).

145 Michael: “Hearing the little things” Michael’s account demonstrates the importance of creating an environment in which music learners go beyond forming positive working relationships, but also friendships that exist outside the classroom.

8.4.4 The teacher As the class music teacher, I have been significant in shaping and supporting Michael’s identity work. He reports that I demonstrated excellent music knowledge and skills and genuine care for students.

Michael says that I was highly skilled and knowledgeable in the areas targeted for development in class music. “I think you are a very capable teacher and sometimes I find a bit more capable than the role requires.... Funnily enough, our little group was talking about you and we thought, we never realised it, or appreciated it, but you are actually so good at music.... Your relative pitch and the way that you can just sing solfa I think shows a thorough understanding…. The way you can quickly analyse music is also really good, and the way you play the piano without making many mistakes. You’re very good at that and you can sing at the same time and do all of this stuff at the same time that most other teachers can’t.”

Michael reports that this judgement was only possible in comparison to other teachers. “Because you are the only teacher that we have ever really had, we never really appreciated that. Once we had a music relief teacher who couldn’t really play the piano, which isn’t to take away from his teaching, but it was then we learned that you were really good at music and you actually really understood everything.” Michael further reports on the relief teacher: “He couldn’t explain something as well as you could and I think that does show a difference in understanding, because the way I see it is you don’t understand it unless you can explain it to someone else so they can understand it.”

Michael says the impact of this was “I think that engendered a lot of trust in your ability” and “I think that brings a lot more weight to what you say. For example, my English teacher, I don’t want to bad-mouth him, but I don’t think is as good at English as I would like him to be for a teacher, and so when he says things I normally just shrug them off, and I might, in classic me fashion, accept what I want to think and unless he brings up a really good argument. But when you say something, 90% of the time it is more likely to be true and we trust and I think know that what you said is true, because you yourself have spent so much time in music and as a consequence of that are so good in music.” Michael’s response demonstrates the importance and impact of having highly skilled specialist music

146 Michael: “Hearing the little things” teachers. Such a response was reaffirming as I always strive to be a credible and highly skilled musician in my own right, including for the benefit of my students.

Michael also describes me as someone who cares and goes the extra mile. “I think something else about you is that you actually care and that is something you can say to a degree for most teachers, but I think more for you…. The fact that no matter how angry you get at us and no matter how much we don’t listen to you, you are still the guy that says, ‘Fine I’ll see you at 3:30 p.m. and we’ll talk about it then’. That’s a lot more than other teachers would be willing to do, so I think just your willingness to help even though it may seem like we don’t appreciate you, or even though you may not feel like we deserve your help. I know for one you kept badgering me because I hadn’t handed in a draft, and you offered to look at my draft even though it was past the draft day but that would be extra work for you, and I didn’t do it in the end. But the fact that you offered still said a lot.” Not only is it important for teachers to be highly skilled musicians, but genuinely interested in the development and welfare of their students.

8.5 Summary Michael’s music beliefs, values, and identity work have been directly informed by the family script and his music expertise. His narrative is in response to his parents’ reaction of “missing out” on their own music opportunities and the regrets they may have. As a child learning an instrument, Michael was driven by personal music achievement and the accolades he received. Now, as a proficient musician, he continues to engage in music for enjoyment and personal appreciation, individually and with others. He uses conversations about music as a social resource that enables the formation, maintenance, and development of relationships with others. His developed music expertise and vocabulary both aid in this pursuit. Likewise, he also values “creating sounds” as an autotelic experience. He is skilled and confident at sourcing and playing music of his own choosing, including old favourites and new music that has captured his attention. He also creates and listens to music as part of his mood and emotion management; music enables him to relax, and helps him to learn about the human experience through others’ music. While Michael uses music to accompany other activities, he also listens to music for its intrinsic value seeking to fulfil his musical curiosities.

Michael’s story is evidence of how music learning and development is worthwhile, even in the absence of ambition to study tertiary music and/or become a professional musician. His everyday listening habits are beyond appreciation, and he exhibits a sophisticated understanding, curiosity, and intrigue about how music works. The way Michael uses music in his life shapes and supports his identity work. He acknowledges this is a result of formal music education, and class music has

147 Michael: “Hearing the little things” contributed to his identity by deliberately developing his ability to audiate and think in sound. Michael also values the development of his knowledge and understanding of repertoire through diverse styles and genres. This expanding of his music knowledge and understanding has also been informed by non-musical knowledge.

Key to Michael’s enjoyment of music are the relationships he has with others through music in and outside the classroom. Not only does he communicate with others about music, but he also learns with and from others through music. His enjoyment of music appreciation and audiation is intertwined with communicating and learning from others.

Michael’s music teachers have been a significant influence in his learning and development. He comments on the music expertise and personal characteristics of both his instrumental and class music teachers. Excellent musical skills and knowledge led to trust and credibility in the teacher. Furthermore, it was also important to Michael that the teacher demonstrated genuine interest in students by going beyond the minimum requirements and expectations. These qualities contributed to Michael’s engagement in music learning and his identity work.

148 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other” 9 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other” 9.1 Introduction 9.1.1 Introducing Tyler Of all the Year 12 students in the class, I had taught Tyler for the longest period of time. He says his favourite things are to “play music, read books, listen to music, and watch TV.” Tyler began attending Queensland Boys’ School (QBS) in Year 6. I taught him in class music for one term in Year 6 and continuously from Year 8. At the time of the interview, Tyler is 17 years of age. In his senior year, Tyler studies English, Mathematics B, Biology, Legal Studies, Economics, Christian Education, and Music. He is involved in co-curricular activities and participates in football and a student scientist partnership program with the local university. Tyler plays guitar in the school’s leading big band and percussion in the leading concert band. Next year, Tyler wishes to study a dual degree in Law and Journalism at a local university.

9.1.2 Introducing Laurence (Tyler’s father) Laurence, Tyler’s father, spent his primary school years living in Brisbane and secondary school in Midland,43 a regional town in Queensland. He has three older brothers and currently holds a senior leadership role within a government department working with communities across the state. He has moved between Brisbane and regional Queensland during his professional career. His daughter (aged 19 years) went to a nearby girls’ school and is now studying at university.

Laurence answers that his favourite activity is “music. I’ve been playing guitar and playing in bands for many, many years and still do. I still play in the same band. We were in high school in Midland and I’ve done a lot of restaurant work and acoustic work. I suppose enjoyment-wise either listening to music or playing music is a significant component of it. Plus, I’m a bit older now, but any sport as well and just social activities.”

9.2 Tyler’s music beliefs, values, and uses 9.2.1 The family script Tyler’s music beliefs, values, and uses have been significantly shaped and supported by the family script, including the value of music as a family tradition, Laurence’s influence, and support for studying class music.

43 A pseudonym.

149 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other”

9.2.1.1 Music as a family tradition Music is highly valued and a tradition in Tyler’s family. Laurence recalls the role of music in his life growing up. “Music for me came out of my brothers and family.... My mother was a pianist and she had done her letters playing piano. The Beale piano was always in the house and there were always people coming around and playing music and singing. They always had sing-alongs at parties. I can remember coming home and my brother would be sitting there with the headphones on clicking away in front of the old big radiogram…. My eldest brother played the piano a little bit and the next brother was learning the guitar. I just got dragged along to the lessons at the same time.”

Laurence continued this tradition of music learning by taking his own children to early childhood music lessons. “We used to take Tyler and his sister to the Conservatorium, this little kids’ program. It was really good…. It was funny. One of the parents there were saying, ‘Oh this is so good that they’re at the Con. It’ll be this and it’ll be that.’ I remember looking and thinking that’s not what this is about. This is just about a little bit of exposure to them about the basic principles of music and understanding…. It was just fun for them.” This exposure to music also continued more formally. “We had them both learning the piano when they were younger. A young woman used to come to teach them at home and, again, they didn’t keep it up, but it was just another little bit of exposure and a little bit more of the learning.” Tyler also began learning other instruments, including guitar and percussion, through the compulsory school instrumental program.

9.2.1.2 The father script Tyler’s father, Laurence, has been the most significant influence in the family script. For Laurence, music has been a positive resource for managing the self and relationships with others. He says music has the “ability to give you strength in relation to times when you might need that but also friendships and relationships.” He draws upon a variety of positive performance experiences in his life. “In Midland, in the band, we played until one or two o’clock in the morning and then we’d go over to someone’s house. We’d sit round a fire with the guitar until the sun comes up. Everyone would be singing along, and it was a really great way of meeting new people and friends. I’ve been overseas on trips and taken the guitar and even just recently I went down to a work conference and took it out that night. It brings people closer together.” The role of music in Laurence’s life is so significant that he hopes Tyler enjoys similar experiences and opportunities. He says, “I hope that Tyler gets out of it what I have got out of it…. There are so many things with music that are just really, really good. I hope he gets to experience it all.”

150 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other” Laurence’s music making has been a musical model and influence for Tyler his whole life. He says, “When Tyler was younger, I played guitar in a three-piece band.... We used to have barbecues and we’d be strumming and playing some songs.” It is no surprise that Tyler gravitated towards the guitar. “Dad plays guitar, so I’ve always been around them…. One of my first memories was learning ‘Smoke on the Water’44 by ear when I was in Year 2…. I probably started lessons in Year 5 or 6.”

While music has a significant role in Laurence’s life socially, there is also a sense of what could have been in terms of a professional music career. “I suppose it’s not a regret, but, when you look back on your life, there were times earlier on when we often talked about going and giving it a go in the music industry.... I wish I was good enough and wish I’d done it, because I just love playing live. Even now, even at this age, still going out to Midland.” In light of this, Laurence discusses his wishes for Tyler. “I don’t know that I’d wish it necessarily for Tyler. If he wanted it, that’d be great…. I don’t think he would, and I don’t think he will. I think he just enjoys it for what it is as a supplement to everything else in life.” Having said this, Laurence maintains a glimmer of hope that Tyler will continue performing in his father’s footsteps. “I’d be surprised if he doesn’t somehow start a band or do something with music while he was at uni. That’s what I just keep saying to him.”

In the meantime, there is a strong push for Tyler to be part of Laurence’s continued music making. “I’m still trying to drag him to do things. I’ve been asked to play at restaurants again and I keep saying, ‘Do you want to come and we’ll do some James Taylor? All you’ve got to do is learn a few licks and you’ll be right.’ ‘No, I’m fine.’ Part of that I think is a teenager not wanting to play with dad, but I thought we’d got over that…. I give him plenty of opportunities, but he doesn’t necessarily take them on.” I suggest to Laurence that he asks Tyler if he would like to choose some repertoire and if that sparks any interest. He says, “Actually, that’d be interesting…. I’ll give that a go. The only thing is then I’ve got to learn something new.”

9.2.1.3 Support for studying class music Given the high value that Laurence places on music, including learning and developing expertise, he says it was an “easy” decision to support Tyler’s election to study class music at school. “Probably for me it was easy, because I believe in music and the importance of it, but it was more around he really wanted to do it and he enjoyed it…. In life, I think we spend a lot of time doing things that we don’t necessarily want to do. When I was at high school, I was told I had to do History,

44 (Deep Purple, 1972).

151 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other” Geography, Maths A, and Maths B, and blah, blah, blah. I had no choice. Not that there was a lot of choice in Midland, anyway, but that was it, I was doing academic subjects and academic subjects to go to university…. Whereas, from my point of view, if he had the exposure to music and he wanted to go and get involved in the music industry, ‘Great, if that’s where you want to be and what you want to do!’ So he’s at least had every opportunity to explore it at this stage of his life to the maximum.”

Laurence’s encouragement and support for Tyler has been driven by a combination of his own family script, his personal enjoyment, and what he considers his music education shortcomings. He draws music notation in response to the question, “What will you with music in your future?” (see Figure 9.1).

Figure 9.1. Laurence’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”

Laurence places a high value on music notation and understanding how music works. “I learnt things by ear and listened to something on the radio and could just play it…. Recently we got my mother’s Beale piano at home…. I’d love to be able to sit down and play something really classical and just read music like my mother did…. I’d really love to be able to do that and I’d love to in my retirement learn more and do more…. I’ve always wanted to take it to that next level.” Laurence compares himself to Tyler: “I’m very envious of what Tyler does…. He’s got a really good ear, but he also understands a lot more about music. I think he’s pretty good. He’s certainly better than I am.”

152 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other”

9.2.2 Flow in and through performance Tyler values music most for its intrinsic value and the state of “flow” (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990) it can provide him. He describes these autotelic experiences occurring not alone, but rather through performance with his friends. “The time when I enjoy music the most is when I forget things and we jam together for a while…. And it’s not all the time, but it’s just sometimes. It’s hard to describe, you just kind of connect more than other times…. It’s like you forget about things and you don’t worry.... It’s just a good feeling, everyone is in sync and having a good time together. It’s cool really.” He captures this experience as a drawing in responding to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?” (see Figure 9.2).

Figure 9.2. Tyler’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

Tyler says these experiences have occurred while preparing for class music performance assessment. “I am drawing one of the first times in music when we practised ‘prac,’45 and it’s just me, and then maybe early on it was Wyatt46 and Michael, and now it will be Michael and Dylan…. I don’t know if it’s one memory or a set of them, but it’s when we’ve been doing our ‘prac’ assessment and we’ve all been practising in a room. It often happens when someone will start playing some chords and someone will come in after that and kind of a more natural kind of progression rather

45 Allocated time in class music for individual and/or group performance practice. Repertoire choice is student-driven. 46 Wyatt attended QBS up until the end of Year 9. Tyler has kept in contact with him and they continued to rehearse together outside of school.

153 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other” than ‘okay, one, two, three, four’ and everyone starts at the same part. So, I’ll play like a basic chord thing, and then Michael will start doing a bass riff or something over it, and then Dylan will kick in the drums, and then Michael will start playing the notes and then I’ll do a solo.” These experiences, arguably, could have occurred through various means, but, in Tyler’s case, class music facilitated an opportunity for these states of flow. He says that no other activity in his life brings on this state.

Tyler considers whether this experience of flow that occurs when he’s playing music with others may have begun when playing with his father’s band. “I don’t know if it started with Dad and then that transpired to other people…. One of the annoying things about playing with Dad and his band is I don’t really enjoy the music they play, so I never really get that connection. Occasionally, we have songs we both like that I sometimes play and then I feel it, but like when we play in his band in Midland it’s all this best of Australian pub rock, which is disgusting, and we have to play to drunk country people. I can appreciate parts of it, but it’s just not as enjoyable when you don’t like the music. It’s not like jamming with friends to a song or a band you all like and you all sync together.” Tyler’s account demonstrates the importance of having like-minded collaborators, and the ability to choose personally satisfying repertoire, for performance.

The importance of collaboration with peers is also seen as important by Tyler in the creation of music. He says, “I was in a band with some others, with Wyatt and a couple of dudes from his school, and we were writing together. That’s a lot better because you feed off everyone…. It’s just a fun thing the way we can build on things. You’ll have one part and… you just keep adding that and it’s interesting trying to think what to do…. Some people can probably write a lot better on their own, but I feel having others’ ideas is better for me.”

9.2.3 Transferable extra-musical benefits Tyler also values music for its transferable extra-musical benefits. He says it has fostered an effective work ethic and helped him to understand how he learns. “I don’t know why, but people who do music always seem far more educated than the people who don’t do it all the time. In concert band, our conductor said, ‘You guys get on the bus at 11 unless you are a prize winner. Who’s a prize winner?,’ and everyone except two people put up their hands. So, I don’t know if there is a correlation between people who do music become smart, or smart people are interested in music, but I definitely think there is something there…. It’s taught me that I can be smarter at things I enjoy, just put more effort into them, and then I try and see aspects that I can enjoy in other subjects and I’ll try harder at that. I’ll chose the topic that interests me in one of my subjects and then I’ll actually get interest in it, and that’s how it’s taught me to be smarter in that way.”

154 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other”

9.3 Tyler’s use of music to shape and support his identity work 9.3.1 Father-son relationship Music plays an important role in the father–son relationship between Laurence and Tyler. The band Laurence formed in high school continues to this day and presented a musical opportunity for father and son to share music together. Laurence explains. “There’s a core three of us. The drummer still lives in Midland and the bass player… had an old shed and he’s enclosed it…, it’s air conditioned and carpeted. He’s bought a big Yamaha PA system, drums, guitars, amplifiers, and that sort of thing. I just go out there and all the gear’s there and away we go. The core of the band’s there. There was a lead guitarist who sometimes comes back to town… but the nice part of it is that Tyler has actually played in the band for the last 2 years as the lead guitarist. So, it’s been a good experience for him to come out and get involved.”

“We’ve been together 42 years. We’re still playing ‘Eagle Rock’47 and the same songs we were playing back then. We’ve learnt a few new ones along the way. The first night Tyler played with us was a few years ago and it was a 60th birthday party, and it had this big 60th birthday banner up the back, and he didn’t want to be seen in too many photos with the 60th birthday banner. It wasn’t a very cool thing to do. But he was only 15 or so…. We were playing at one of the local pubs in Midland. He leant over in one of the first brackets or something like that and said, ‘Dad, do you blokes know anything with more than three chords in it?’ I said, ‘Mate, what are they doing out there? They’re all dancing. It’s “Bad Moon Rising”48 and they’re having a fun time and they’re singing and dancing. They don’t know how many chords are in the song and it doesn’t matter so long as you’re playing what it is that people want to hear. It’s not for you, it’s for them.’ Even within the band we struggle with playing ‘April Sun in Cuba.’49 I don’t know how many times I’ve played it and the lead guitarist hates it. He’d never want to play it. I’d say, ‘But everyone’s yelling out for it.’ So, regardless of what you want to do, and there’s a time when you have to sell yourself.”

Laurence believes these experiences have had a significant positive impact on his relationship with Tyler and with Tyler’s identity work: “I think that’s been really, really helpful, … particularly through those teenage years…. It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other. We have to fly out to Midland, so we fly out on a Friday, rehearse on a Friday, and play on the Saturday night, or play on the Friday night and then spend the rest of the weekend packing up the gear, setting up

47 (Daddy Cool, 1971). 48 (Creedence Clearwater Revival, 1969). 49 (Dragon, 1977).

155 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other” the gear, having breakfast and dinners, and that sort of thing with the other guys. It exposes him to the country as well, so it’s been a really good part of the relationship.”

9.3.2 Individualised use of music Tyler exhibits an individualised use of music in his identity work, rather than adopting a defined cultural role, such as musician or guitarist. He uses music in social settings, mostly for the autotelic experience, for personal enjoyment, self-growth, and achieving a state of flow. He has also been shaped and supported by his father’s musical identity, which has acted as a model in Tyler’s everyday life. Tyler believes and acknowledges that people use music differently: “I think everyone’s different…. For example, Wyatt’s really into creating his own music and he writes a tonne. He will put it on the sound cloud, and promote it on Facebook, and things like that. I’m like less so into that. I think everyone’s different that way.”

Laurence comments on his observations of Tyler compared to others and notices that music has a more significant role in his son’s life. “I think he’s not a sporty boy, although he enjoys playing soccer, and he enjoys all that, and he can do it. But I personally think he’s more at home with music. I think he’s much more comfortable and he gravitates a lot more to that. I think he was really enjoying playing with Wyatt. They were getting a bit of a band going and I’d go and pick him up. He’d go over there in the afternoon after school and I thought that was really positive and really healthy.”

Tyler’s story is evidence that one does not need to label oneself as a “musician” in order for music to shape and support identity work.

9.3.3 Possible self Tyler’s present use of music and identity work directly informs his projected future use of music. In asking him, “What will you do with music in your future?,” he responds with the three drawings in Figure 9.3. “There’s lots of things I’ll be doing with music in my future, not just one. One is of me playing music, whether that be with my dad in Midland or in a band like the one with Wyatt. The other one is me attending concerts, which I really enjoy about music, and the last one is just me listening to music at home.”

156 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other”

Figure 9.3. Tyler’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”

9.3.3.1 Band performances Tyler’s various band experiences from home and school have provided him with a plausible and positive possible future for music making. Tyler speaks to the top left drawing in Figure 9.3 and says his father’s band “is one of the main performances for me that are outside of class music and music at the school. Most of my concerts are with school and so it’s the one concert, the only gig, I’ve done—not for the school—that’s really enjoyable.” Laurence’s band has significantly influenced Tyler’s present and future use of music. Tyler also positively speaks about band rehearsals with Wyatt: “Next year I might keep up that thing with Wyatt and maybe get gigs.”

There is a thought by Tyler that continuing to develop his guitar skills will increase his musical confidence and his enjoyment of performance. “At times I find it harder with that whole connection thing when I’m worried about what I’m playing. Like when playing ‘Feeling Good’50 with the school big band, because it’s so easy and one of my favourite songs to play, I get really into it and just not worry. But ‘Home,’51 because I’ve got that solo, I get kind of nervous. ‘Okay I’ve got a solo coming up, what are they going to think of my solo?’ Maybe if I kept playing guitar and got much better I can just do that because I’ll know I’m good enough and don’t have to worry about it. That’s when I’ll enjoy it more. I enjoy playing things you don’t have to worry about, and you get really into it.” He

50 (Bublé, 2005a). 51 (Bublé, 2005b).

157 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other” also says, “I’m going to get piano lessons next year I think …. I’ve got two pianos at home, like a keyboard and then an upright one, and I find myself just hopping on that when I’m bored, so I think I might try to get lessons next year.” While there is acknowledgement of the benefits of developing his musical expertise further, there is not a firm commitment and sense of motivation from Tyler to continue. While there is a desire to pursue music after school through band performances, no longer will Tyler have the school structures available to him that currently facilitate these opportunities. He will need a driving intrinsic motivation to set up these opportunities himself in order for them to become a reality in his future, rather than just a dream.

9.3.3.2 Live music performances Tyler “loves” attending live music performances and he intends to continue this in the future. The centre drawing shown in Figure 9.3 captures this intention. “That’s one thing I enjoy a lot. Just the energy of the people who are on stage and what they’re doing: I like theatre; I like rock concerts; Kayne West, that was good; I like rap concerts…. It’s anything. I love listening to orchestral things, but I’ve never gone to one because I’m not going to be like, ‘Hey dudes, let’s hit up the old Queensland orchestra.’”

9.3.3.3 New music Tyler actively seeks out and listens to new music and plans to continue doing so. This is reflected in his drawing on the right side of Figure 9.3. Tyler uses the listening preferences of others to assist in his identity work. “What I do in a lot of my spare time is go on music forum websites and see what other people are listening to and listen to that…. Earlier on, I listened to rock music, but have gone away from that…. I’ve been getting into jazz recently and hip hop.... I like fusion jazz a lot, like Weather Report and later Miles Davis’ stuff. I find that interesting…. The way they all improvise together, and the band feeds off each other, I find cool.... I’ll occasionally put on a classical piece. When we studied ‘The Moldau,’52 I really liked that, and I’d listen to that occasionally.” Tyler is not set on particular genres, but rather is open to new music curiosities. As such, his music tastes and preferences are evolving and update as he discovers new music.

I notice that Tyler mentioned music such as that performed by Miles Davis and ‘The Moldau,’ both of which were studied during class music. He says that class music has influenced his musical future “because without classroom music I would have kept listening to pretty standard pop and rock

52 (Smetana, 2009).

158 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other” music. Class music showed me classical and all those other pieces that I now really enjoy.” Class music has informed Tyler’s listening habits and opened his ears to diverse music genres.

Technology and online services have made his pursuit of new music from all over the world easy. “I just really love listening to new things and with the technology it’s really easy to find music. That’s exciting for me. It’s seriously just like one guy will say, ‘My friend made this really obscure album and you’ve got to listen to it.’”

9.4 Aspects of class music that shape and support Tyler’s identity work 9.4.1 “My hobby” Tyler places high value on the personal enjoyment he gains through performing music. He describes class music as his “hobby.” “Some people told me don’t just do Physics, Chemistry, all the hard subjects, because you’re not going to do well because you’re not going to enjoy it, and that’s what I found. I definitely enjoy Music most out of my subjects, and I’ve done quite well in it, I think. That’s what led me to do it; just my personal enjoyment for playing music and it was also a hobby. It’s the only subject I have that’s actually my hobby. All other subjects, I do the work there, and I don’t mind doing the work for school, but I’m not going to look up Mathematics problems in my spare time, that would be the worst.” For Tyler, class music allows him to pursue his personal interests as part of the school curriculum. Music makes the school day more enjoyable and workload manageable for Tyler.

Laurence’s observations confirm Tyler’s account: “I would say that it would be the thing that he has found the most enjoyment out of compared to other subjects. It’s been the whole package around that: the teaching staff, what he’s actually doing, and the boys, and the creative side of things. There’s never been any whinging or concern around having to do anything, or record anything, or work anything out, or arrangements, or anything like that. If anything, it’s actually seemed like he’s been interested in it and excited about it, whereas some of the other things it’s a bit harder to get him to study.” Laurence says that Tyler has enjoyed “the companionship of the boys as well.” He notes that Tyler has been excited to complete schoolwork for class music. “I think anything where you go to school and you actually really, really enjoy it benefits, because it’s part of then the whole enjoyment around being at school. We’ve never had to drive him to come to school or anything like that. He’s always interested. He’s always here.” Laurence believes that Tyler’s enjoyment of music at school has assisted in making his overall experience of school positive.

159 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other”

9.4.2 Diverse repertoire and ideas Class music has exposed Tyler to diverse repertoire and the value of different points of view. In responding to the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?,” he draws graphic notation (see Figure 9.4).

Figure 9.4. Tyler’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”

“That is us sitting around and you teaching us about how musicians and composers break away from conventions. The example I’ve used was the graphic notation…. I found it interesting to listen to something that might not even be as appealing to the ears but it’s cool to see where people would try and take it and where I hadn’t thought possible…. A lot of people aren’t interested in this, but I’m interested in the history of music…. I like learning about what have other people have done and why they’ve done it. There’s one Steve Reich piece, ‘Come out,’53 similar to ‘It’s gonna rain.’54 It was about injustice and racism of people who murdered black people. It was cool how they’ve used music to protest social things.” Tyler has enjoyed further understanding how music works and can address social justice issues.

Tyler’s class music exposure to diverse repertoire and ideas has led to him respecting and even wanting to learn from others’ different points of view. He says the most valuable thing he has learned from class music is to “to keep an open mind to music, learn lots of things from lots of people

53 (Reich, 1966). 54 (Reich, 1965).

160 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other” and places, even if you think it might be stupid at the time you can see the value in it later. If you’d shown graphic notation to me in Year 7, I would have been like ‘This is just crap,’ but at least I’ve become more open to the idea of what they’re trying to do…. It’s in the context behind the repertoire. I think it’s just the more you’re exposed to the more things you find you like and the more you’re opened to other things.” Such a response highlights the potential of musicology studies in secondary school.

Class music has broadened Tyler’s outlook on the human experience through exposure to different musics. In asking Laurence what he hopes Tyler has enjoyed about class music, he says, “Just that exposure to as much of music and music theory and the whole ranges of different music, whether it’s classical or whether it’s country or whatever it is…. I think it’s given him that gift. I used to send him off to guitar lessons as well at the best music shop and I say he’s had that exposure, but this has taken it to a whole new level which intellectually has stimulated him, and I think that’s the difference. That’s what’s been really good.”

9.4.3 In-tune singing Singing lies at the heart of Kodály-inspired practice and this class music program. The underlying philosophy is that all students have a voice and they engage in repertoire and learning, initially, through singing. Individual musicians develop together—as a learning community—and singing provides the cornerstone for performance specialisation in specific instrument studies. In commenting on how to improve class music, Tyler says, “This is a selfish answer, but less focus on singing. I feel like my instrument is probably guitar, Michael’s is sax, and Dylan’s is drums. I guess singing is a universal thing that you more or less can do, but I’ve never found enjoyment in it.”

While Tyler says that he has not enjoyed singing, he acknowledges that he has benefitted from it, and that he would do so even more if he were to try. “I’ve definitely benefitted from it. I can hear things better, but I hate singing. It would have benefitted me more if I’d tried.” Delving deeper into the issue, it seems Tyler does not enjoy singing because there is a lack of confidence in his own singing ability. “I think I used to be really bad, but I feel like the few times that we’ve tried singing I’ve been better. Now I’ve got this whole persona of ‘Tyler doesn’t sing,’ and, if I tried to sing, everyone would be like, ‘What are you doing?’ That’s part of the reason why I don’t anymore.” Laurence says, Tyler has reported at home that “you’re always trying to get him to sing. I said, ‘Well, sing. Sing, it’s easy.’ … The one thing I would have really liked, I suppose, for him to have done, that he doesn’t do, is he’s got no confidence to sing for himself. I would have loved for him to do more singing and I know that people tried.”

161 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other”

Reflecting on my knowledge of Tyler in Year 9, I recall that he found singing in-tune extremely difficult during the time when his voice was changing. His range was limited, and this effected his ability to match pitch. I ask Tyler how he thinks he could improve his singing. “By being confident…. I really don’t know how I can become more confident other than just doing it. I don’t know how you’re going to get up the confidence to just do it.” Tyler’s lack of confidence is cemented in a lack of knowledge of how to improve. However, Laurence has noted a recent change in Tyler’s attitude towards singing: “He’s just started…. I’ve heard him in the last few months. He’s just starting to sing as he plays the piano and that sort of thing. Yes, so it’s just starting to come in.”

While some basic singing techniques were covered in class and a strong model provided, it is clear Tyler would have benefitted from more specific assistance in developing vocal technique, possibly leading to an increased confidence in his singing abilities. Tyler’s story highlights the need to integrate explicit singing techniques into the curriculum program. These findings support the work of Young (2017), who advocates for explicitly teaching boys about their changing voices and developing vocal technique in class music. Around the time of this interview, I did begin incorporating vocal technique into classes with tremendous results. Students have since commented that they have enjoyed learning how to improve their singing. Singing can be taught in schools, and all students should have confidence in their singing abilities.

9.4.4 Learning from each other Students in class music were encouraged to share their work with others in the class and to learn from each other. This approach recognises that students do have the ability to make informed critical judgements and can help others. Michael and Tyler have shared their compositions with each other “because we’re good friends and we’re both on similar marks for that kind of stuff…. He’s like, ‘What do you think of this?,’ and I’d be like ‘Oh, yeah, I like this but I feel you could grow more in this part,’ or ‘this part should be slightly different,’ and things like that. And it’s also because drums and guitar are the hardest things to write for if you don’t play them, …. so that’s why he would come to me for advice. ‘Is this the right kind of guitar part?,’ or ‘Are these drums good?,’ and I tell him what to fix…. I enjoy helping people.” Tyler uses his music skillset to help others and receives assistance from others in return.

9.4.5 The teacher The teacher is critical to Tyler’s enjoyment of class music. Tyler reports the teacher–student relationship, music expertise, and the ability to respond to students as important aspects in his

162 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other” learning. “In all honesty, you’re actually my favourite teacher and also you’re good at teaching. My Legal Studies teacher is a great bloke, but not a great teacher. I think you get a good balance…. You know when to joke around, but you know when to say come on we’ve actually got to do work.... You’re someone who pays attention to the students and responds to them rather than just having a set way of teaching…. I feel like you do that, and I feel that’s what a good teacher does.”

Laurence confirms Tyler’s comments. “He must spend more time with you than anyone else because I’ve heard, ‘Mr Goopy…,’ ‘Mr Goopy…,’ ‘Mr Goopy…’ more than anyone without a doubt. I’d say that he respects you and really enjoys everything that goes on. There’s been not one negative comment, one issue that’s been raised, or I don’t like that, or I don’t like that. It’s always been really positive, and your name has probably—out of all the teachers—yours is the one name that comes up more often than not.”

9.5 Summary Tyler’s music beliefs, values, and identity work have been significantly shaped and supported by the family script. In his family, music is highly valued and music learning and development is a tradition beginning in early childhood. Tyler’s father, Laurence, provides an influencing performance model whereby music is a positive resource for managing the self and relationships with others. Laurence’s high school band still perform locally in regional Queensland. His ongoing involvement with the band is a continual tease, reminding him of what could have been—a professional music career. The personal enjoyment that Laurence receives from music is a motivating factor when encouraging music in Tyler’s life. A high value for personal enjoyment and music understanding made supporting Tyler’s decision to study class music “easy.” Tyler reports that music is his most enjoyable “hobby” and performing with others is the only activity during which he achieves a state of flow. He also believes that studying music has provided him with transferable extra-musical benefits which have positively impacted his work ethic and helped him to understand how he learns.

While Tyler does not identity as a musician or performer, music has a significant role in his identity work. He believes that his use of music is individualised, and he pursues aspects of music in which he is personally interested. Music plays an important role in the relationship between father and son; playing lead guitar in his father’s high school band has provided them both with the opportunity of “getting to know each other” through Tyler’s teenage years. Tyler’s present use of music directly informs his projected future uses, when he aims to continue performing in bands, attend live music performances, and discover new music. Laurence supports—if not to the point of pushing—his son in the direction of these pursuits.

163 Tyler: “It’s been a really nice way of getting to know each other”

Class music has provided Tyler with an avenue for personal enjoyment within the school curriculum. He says that music is his most enjoyed subject, and the only subject that he identifies as being a “hobby”. Like it was for his father before him, Tyler found that music at school provided structures for like-minded students to come together in music making as a band. Studying music at school has helped manage the workload of Tyler’s other curriculum subjects. Tyler has enjoyed further understanding how music works and how it responds to social issues of the time. Diverse repertoire choices have opened his perspectives to different points of view on the human experience. Tyler said he did not enjoy singing in class music, however, by delving deeper, it was discovered that he lacks confidence in his singing and does not possess the knowledge of how to improve his skills in this domain. The explicit teaching of singing technique within the curriculum program may have led to more positive experiences for Tyler. Tyler also reported value in learning from and helping his peers, both in terms of their music expertise and ideas. The teacher–student relationship, the teacher’s excellent music knowledge and skills, and ability to respond to students were also important aspects of the class music program that shaped and supported Tyler’s identity work.

The next chapter will draw together the analysis of all adolescent boys’ narratives, provide discussion, and present the overall findings of the study.

164 Analysis, Discussion and Findings 10 Analysis, Discussion and Findings 10.1 Introduction This study sought to investigate adolescent boys’ music beliefs, values, and identity work in a single-sex independent school. The following research questions framed this study.

1. What are the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys in a single-sex independent school? 2. How do these adolescent boys use music to shape and support their identity work? 3. What aspects of class music in this context shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music?

In this chapter I will draw together the analysis, discussion and findings of this study. The findings reported in this chapter are drawn from the thematic analysis of the previous narrative analyses of data relating to Aaron, Blake, Conor, Elijah, Michael, and Tyler. This chapter is structured according to the three Research Questions and other significant findings. For each Research Question, overall findings are presented followed by the detailed discussion of up to four emerging themes and sub-themes. Each theme is discussed and supported with quotations and examples from the previous six student narratives. Quotes from the four remaining student transcripts (Austin, Colton, Daniel, and William) provide further elaboration and illustration of the findings presented. The findings of each theme are then interrogated against existing relevant literature. The chapter concludes with a summary of the findings for each Research Question and other significant findings.

10.2 Research Question 1: What are the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys in a single-sex independent school? This study found that the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys are interconnected, individualised, diverse, and are evolving. Their beliefs and values are mental states that are inseparable from their behaviours and actions, overlapping and fusing together. Adolescent boys’ use of music embodied and embedded their music beliefs and values. These findings support existing research (Evans, 2016; North & Hargreaves, 1999) that reported there is a relationship between music beliefs, values, and uses.

In this study, adolescent boys’ music beliefs, values, and uses can be summarised into three intersecting themes: individual; relationships with others; and proficiency in the discipline of music. These findings contribute to existing literature on individual music uses and uses with others (Barrett,

165 Analysis, Discussion and Findings 2011, 2017b; Clayton, 2016; Merriam, 1964), and provide a set of uses for adolescent boys studying class music, including the proposed “proficiency in the discipline of music” as a significant use.

10.2.1 Individual Adolescent boys in this study used music as a means of making and managing the self. They discussed how their music beliefs, values and uses are individualised. The students were reflexive in their responses and able to draw comparisons between their beliefs, values, and uses of music and those of others, highlighting similarities and differences. Daniel spoke to this:

Not everyone uses music exactly the same. For me it’s a relaxing pastime to do. I really enjoy music and so I use it as an escape from the other more difficult things in my life…. I think other boys do use music in a similar way but for Colton it’s pretty much his life—music—it’s all he does and I’m not like that. For me it’s just another thing that I do but it’s probably the most enjoyable thing that I do. (Daniel)

These findings support the work of DeNora (1999) who asserted that individuals use music as a technology of the self, and to manage “their social psychological, physiological and emotional states” (DeNora, 2000, p. 47). Delving deeper, boys believed that their prior music education and experience affected their music beliefs, values, and uses. There were four overarching and interconnecting music beliefs, values, and uses of individuals as a technology of the self: the autotelic experience; self-expression and self-concept; self-regulation; and music and musician models.

10.2.1.1 Autotelic experience The adolescent boys in this study spoke of valuing and using music for autotelic experiences. Csikszentmihalyi (1990) described an autotelic experience—in his “flow” theory—as an optimal experience or a self-contained activity “that is done not with the expectation of some future benefit, but simply because the doing itself is the reward” (p. 67). All adolescent boys in this study valued and used music as an avenue for personal enjoyment. At the very least, boys described music as a “hobby” in the positive sense of the word. Many boys described music as something they “love” (Blake), their “passion” (Daniel), and “how [they] have fun” (Elijah). The drawing elicited from Daniel during his interview (see Figure 10.1) led him to speak about his passion for performance and the freedom it provided him: “It’s my passion—music. I love performing. It’s what I find enjoyable in music. It feels like a freedom. You can feel passionate about the music and really enjoy performing and conveying that message to others.”

166 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

Figure 10.1. A passion for music performance and the freedom it provides. Daniels’s response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

William described music being highly personal: “I think a lot of music is very personal and private.”

Colton, Conor, and Tyler spoke of music transporting them to another world: “Music is quite sacred to me in terms of the amazing place that you go to when you perform and practice and all that” (Colton).

Colton goes further in describing the “joy” music brings him: “When I’m in those moments of making music with people that I love it brings me all these feelings that are just like a drug.”

Csikszentmihalyi (1990) noted that most things we do are neither purely autotelic or “exotelic,” and it is possible that activities initially undertaken for extrinsic reasons can become intrinsically rewarding. There are numerous examples of this evolution in the narratives of the participants in this study. One such example is students completing assessments as a school requirement and extrinsically motivated by marks, eventually finding the work to be self-satisfying and intrinsically rewarding.

For all boys, this “hobby,” “love,” “passion,” and “fun” in music preceded any career aspirations. These autotelic experiences also influenced their decisions to elect class music. Many saw class music as an avenue through which to achieve autotelic experiences within the school curriculum. Some boys (Colton and Elijah) expressed frustration in other boys selecting to study

167 Analysis, Discussion and Findings music without a sense of serious commitment, and longed for more passionate engagement from others in their studies:

I feel like I chose music because I enjoy it and I want to immerse myself completely in it for that thrill and for all these opportunities I get to experience within it. So, I get all I can out of music, whereas I think other boys wouldn’t see, even acknowledge that there’s something that they could be feeling if they put a little bit more effort into it. They look at it at the moment as just a hobby and not see it as a way to transport yourself into another world where you feel these amazing sounds really uplifting you and bringing all that joy into your life. (Colton)

These categories of autotelic experiences contribute to the literature on music and “flow” theory (Csikszentmihalyi, 1990). These different levels of commitment to music shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work and is further discussed in Section 10.3.3.2.

10.2.1.2 Self-expression and self-concept All adolescent boys in this study described their use of music as an avenue for self-expression and self-concept. Many (Colton, Conor, Elijah, Tyler, and William) described music as a form of communication and emotionalising what words cannot express. Conor explained music is “able to convey more than words” and “taps at what we have underneath.” William said, “music has a tendency to be able to perhaps express yourself in a way that you can’t in words.”

Performance was particularly meaningful to students (especially Blake, Aaron, Daniel, and William), as it allowed them to express themselves, their views, and emotions. Composing music was another avenue for self-expression and self-concept (e.g., for Colton, Conor, and Elijah). Colton provided an example: “[Composing rock music] gives me a chance to express myself creatively through a genre that I really love and really enjoy listening to” (see Figure 10.2).

Figure 10.2. Composing on a laptop. Part of Colton’s response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

168 Analysis, Discussion and Findings While performance was accessible to all boys on some level, composition generally only resonated with boys who had high theoretical knowledge (e.g., Conor, Colton, and Elijah) and/or who expressed confidence in experimenting and creating popular music (e.g., Blake and Aaron). Daniel had also started arranging for group vocal performances. Students often shared and communicated about their individual compositions seeking critical feedback from their peers in the class (Colton and Elijah). While Blake, and to some extent Elijah, had aspirations to achieve celebrity status through their compositions, other boys pursued creating music for intrinsic motivations.

10.2.1.3 Self-regulation Most adolescent boys in this study used music for self-regulation. They reported that listening to music helped manage their personal and group emotions and moods in a variety of situations. This included as a resource for relaxing, focus and concentration, destressing, comfort in times of sadness, excitement, and happiness. Austin provided some examples and further illustration:

Running without music is impossible, I just can’t do it. After 500 metres you’re just like “Oh, this is the worst,” but then with music I found it way easier. It was just something that could distract you and it kind of gets you into a zone…. It can turn something that’s awful into something that’s really good, and not just because “Oh, this is music” and so it’s distracting you from the bad thing, it actually makes the bad thing better.

One time I was doing a maths question and I was like “This is super boring.” So then I put on, which I don’t usually do, I put on heavy metal music, … like really thrashy kind of metal, and I was like “This is super boring,” and then by the end of it, I was doing this question and feeling really hyped about it that I was getting this question right and doing all this stuff. I don’t know, it [music] just makes things better.

However, some students (e.g., Michael) described listening to music while studying as a distraction because they started analysing the music instead of completing their work. This varied between individuals. Michael also reported improvising music on his saxophone as a way to manage his emotions and escape the pressures of his school workload and responsibilities. Music used as self- regulation at times was also an autotelic experience.

10.2.1.4 Music and musician models Adolescent boys used others and the music of others as a technology of self. Role models and “inspiration” (Blake) were provided by listening to music as a consumer (including as an audience

169 Analysis, Discussion and Findings member) and observation working alongside others. Students made critical judgements when identifying role models and others who they considered to have obtained a higher level of desired musical expertise. These people included peers, teachers, parents, and known experts such as celebrities. Celebrity role models often varied accordingly to specific skills such as instrument, style, and genre. Role models often varied for individuals depending on specific individual values.

A role model was not seen by the participants as being related exclusively to people, however, and they saw the form of a musical work as being inspirational or influential:

I really love music that is interesting to listen to, not particularly lyrics, although that’s still important and enjoyable, but more to do with instrumentation, skill of musicianship, and the feeling behind it. So not pop with simple chord progressions, there’s always some that I love but mainly rock with a lot of depth to it in terms of sound and texture. (Colton)

Others spoke about class music broadening their musical palette. Class music presented an opportunity for students to discover unfamiliar and new role models. This included peers and/or their music serving as musical models. How music and musician role models shape possible selves is discussed in further detail in Section 10.3.4.

10.2.2 Relationships with others All adolescent boys in this study valued and used music to establish, develop, and/or maintain relationships with others. The various forms of relationships included family (e.g., father-and-son: Laurence and Tyler), peers (friendships), student–teacher, and with strangers (e.g., audiences and fans: Blake). Generally, however, musical activities were often with other students from class music, who shared common musical experiences and developed music expertise (e.g., class performances, composition collaboration, and feedback between Colton and Elijah; conversations about music between Michael and Tyler).

Boys in this study described how they valued and used music in their social lives. These findings support DeNora (1999) who concluded that music is an organising resource in the social life of women used to create and shape their own subjective states. In this study, adolescent boys used music as a resource to feel valued by others and make a valued contribution to the lives of others. O’Neill (2017) described this use of music as “connectedness” which focusses on “belonging.”

170 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

10.2.2.1 Feeling valued by others Music was viewed by adolescent boys as an avenue to be valued by others. The way adolescent boys used music with others was diverse and the degree varied between individuals. Examples included performances with and to each other (e.g., individual, class performances, garage bands, jam sessions, school and community ensembles), sharing music (e.g., new discoveries and original compositions in person and online), and communicating about music. Figure 10.3 provides an example from Colton:

This is the thrill I get from performing in front of a lot of people because I love to please people. When I play in front of a responsive audience that enjoys music and that enjoys what we’ve worked hard to create, it’s really satisfying and brings me a lot of joy. (Colton)

Figure 10.3. Being valued by others. Part of Colton’s response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

These opportunities allowed adolescent boys in some way to share part of themselves with others, seek feedback, gain social recognition, and form judgement on their own self-value and worth.

10.2.2.2 Making a valuable contribution Adolescent boys expressed a desire to make valuable contributions to others, particularly future possible audiences, for example: through performance (Blake, Colton, and Daniel), original music composition (Aaron), and production (Conor). Students spoke of their belief that others could benefit from experiencing their life stories through music and communicating emotion. This benefit ranged from a positive experience to engagement of deeper meaning: “It’s really cool to be able to perform with others, try to convey that message to them and seeing that joy on their faces if it is good” (Daniel).

I think that music was made to entertain people and not only that, but I think it’s made to comfort people as well. It’s a very empathetic medium in that it connects to people and anyone

171 Analysis, Discussion and Findings can relate to music because every piece tells a different story. It’s likely that story in some piece of music is going to relate to you in some way. I think it’s good to know that you’re not alone and that they’re there, and that what you go through is normal. (William)

Music presented boys in this study with an opportunity to make a valuable contribution. Being able to make meaningful contributions to others afforded these students social recognition resulting in a sense of self-worth. For Conor and Aaron, being valued themselves has resulted in a desire to serve and help others make a valuable contribution: “I want to give back for [the] … experiences I’ve had … I just want to do that for someone else” (Conor).

10.2.3 Proficiency in the discipline of music Adolescent boys in this study valued developing proficiency in the discipline of music. This finding has been previously unreported in the literature examining the “uses of music” (Barrett, 2011; Clayton, 2016; Merriam, 1964) and contributes significant new knowledge to the field. Boys’ value of musical expertise consisted of four interconnected sub-values: music learning; listening to diverse and new music; sound experimentation and music creation; and musical expertise independence.

10.2.3.1 Music learning All adolescent boys in this study retold stories about valuing music learning fuelled by a desire to achieve and succeed in the discipline of music. The underlying belief that music expertise is achievable and can be learned provided the foundation for learning:

[Learning music] is not as hard as it sounds. Things seem impossible, but you can break them down…. It takes time but you can do the things. If you really want to play something you probably can if you put the time into it. If you really want to transcribe something or understand something, it’s just going to take some time and then you’ll get better at it. It’s accessible. (Austin)

While all boys valued learning music in general, their motivations varied and evolved over time. Students were typically interested in deepening their music understanding, diversifying their music skills, achieving academically through music, and/or filling in gaps in their music knowledge.

Their motivation in music learning was directly shaped and supported by their music beliefs, values, and uses for individual purposes (see Section 10.2.1) and their relationships with others (see Section 10.2.2). Intrinsic motivations included personal satisfaction, personal achievement, and

172 Analysis, Discussion and Findings increased self-worth and confidence. Motivation in music learning was also closely linked to extrinsic motivations such as recognition and worth granted by peers, family, society, academic achievement results, awards, and institutions such as external examination boards. For the students most accomplished in the discipline of music, their influences on music learning values can be traced back to their early years.

Music learning not only took place in formal education settings, but also in informal settings and self-teaching situations. This was true for all students teaching themselves instruments associated with popular music such as guitar, bass guitar, keyboard, and drum kit. Boys in this study generally reported a desire to become “well-rounded” (Conor) musicians and to continue broadening their performance skill set. This learning directly resulted in them being able to perform, compose, and record using these instruments.

Adolescent boys’ beliefs and values towards music learning were also affected by their general attitudes towards learning and their ability to adopt a growth mind-set. The value of music learning also affected whether students elected to study class music in the elective years. These findings support the work of McPherson et al. (2012) who found similar results when examining adolescent music expertise development and identity.

10.2.3.2 Listening to diverse and new music Expanding on their value for music learning, adolescent boys’ in this study valued listening to diverse and new music. All adolescent boys in this study valued diversifying their listenership through new musics. Students were introduced to new music through class music and everyday life experiences, but also sought out new music on their own, notably through online digital technologies. Austin spoke to “new music” (see also Figure 10.4):

One of the things I enjoy is when you hear something that you haven’t heard before and you really like it. That of feeling of just realising, “This is the best”…. You discover a whole new genre of music you’ve never heard. (Austin)

173 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

Figure 10.4. New Music. Part of Austin’s response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

Overwhelmingly, class music participants in this study believed they listened to music more broadly than others who were not music students, and did so intentionally: “I also feel like I probably listen to more diverse music than other people…. I’m more interested in listening to things I haven’t heard as opposed to other people” (Austin).

Students also believed they listened and engaged with music with a higher level of musical understanding than others. Some boys (e.g., Michael) spoke of their curiosity of the “finer details” and the excitement of discovering new musical ideas through listening. Elijah’s second interest in music beyond composing, “isn’t actually listening to it, it’s analysing it.” This listening to the finer details of new and diverse music further developed boys’ music knowledge, skills, and understanding. Boys believed their more finely developed listening skills allowed them to engage with music more than others. They believed class music contributed to this.

These findings reflect the work of Hargreaves, North, et al. (2016) who reported that while “open-earedness” declines at the beginning of adolescence, it rebounds as the listener matures from adolescent to young adult. The authors also suggested that a focus on diverse styles of music during adolescence may help to frame the development of values, behaviour, and later social identity. This development is evident through the diverse exposure in the class music program and is discussed in Section 10.4.3.1.

10.2.3.3 Sound experimentation and music creation Adolescent boys in this study (Aaron, Conor, Elijah, Colton) valued enriching their music expertise through sound experimentation and innovation resulting in music creation. Students were captivated by the “finer details” of sound and its possibilities. A general process emerged, beginning with students improvising or “tinkering” on an instrument or music technology, and then arranging their ideas into a formal music work through a digital workstation at home and/or school. In all cases, their experiments and creations involved music technology in some way, both hardware and software.

174 Analysis, Discussion and Findings Technologies such as Sibelius (music notation software) and Reaper (sound editing software) allowed students to capture and share their music ideas. This process builds on the media creation participatory genres described by Itō et al. (2010) of “messing around” to deepening immersion by “geeking out.” For all boys except Blake, class music in this setting was the foundation stone for students experimenting with and creating music. Class music also provided a likeminded community and friendships for students to share their work with each other and seek critical feedback and social recognition (see Section 10.4.2.3).

10.2.3.4 Musical expertise independence In this study, adolescent boys’ learning in music was fuelled by an aspiration for musical expertise independence. Students demonstrated a desire to be highly skilled, knowledgeable, and thinking musicians, who could complete a variety of music making and responding tasks confidently and independently:

I’ve gotten to the point … where you listen to a song and then figure it out and learn how to play it. I really enjoy that .... It’s something I’ve wanted to do for ages. It’s always something that I wanted to be able to do for a long time, and so even though I could get a lot better at it, … I feel good because I think it’s impressive … it’s a sense of achievement. It’s like “Yeah, I’m good at stuff.” (Austin)

For adolescent boys in this study, musical expertise independence resulted in greater musical understanding leading to increased enjoyment, personal achievement, self-worth, and an avenue for recognition from others. Developing student musical understanding and independence through the class program shaped and supported students’ identity work (see Section 10.4.2.1).

10.3 Research Question 2: How do these adolescent boys use music to shape and support their identity work? This study found that the role of music in adolescent boys’ identity work was personalised; evolving; a resource for musical identities; and a resource for possible selves. This section will analyse and discuss the findings in relation to these four themes.

10.3.1 Personalised Adolescent boys’ personalised use of music supported and shaped individual identity work. While students broadly engaged in and through music in similar ways, such as performing and composing, the specific details and underlying motivations varied between individuals. The

175 Analysis, Discussion and Findings differences in individual music identities were vast, ranging from established cultural roles, such as musician (Aaron), singer (Daniel), composer (Colton and Elijah), producer (Conor), country music singer (Blake), to senses of musicality (comments on musicianship) and identity constructs (e.g., “music is my biggest hobby”). There were no two individuals who were the same. These findings reflect current research in the field of musical identities (Hargreaves, MacDonald, et al., 2016; Hargreaves et al., 2017) and provide a rich illlustration of adolescent boys studying class music.

10.3.2 Evolving For many adolescent boys in this study, their uses of music throughout their life history, present activities, and projection of their possible self, demonstrated the evolving nature of music in their identity work. As they grew from babies into toddlers, then as children journeyed through school towards adolescence, they experienced significant physical, cognitive, emotional, and social growth and development. External influences included changes to family circumstances, geographic location, schooling and teachers, peers, and access to music education and instruments. Combined, these evolving influences affected boys’ use of music and their identity work.

The word evolving (verb) has been deliberately used to indicate that adolescent boys’ uses of music build on past experiences and develop over time. As the use of music in their lives is continuously evolving, so is their identity work. The word “fluid” has been used in the literature (e.g., Elliott & Silverman, 2017, p. 32; O’Neill, 2017, p. 81) to describe the ongoing construction of identities and musical identities, however the word “evolving” (Hargreaves et al., 2018, p. 133) more accurately describes present and future uses of music and identity work being shaped by prior music engagement.

The evolving nature of identity work is captured in Elijah’s narrative where “music is everything” to “music is my biggest hobby.” Aaron used to previously identity as a “jock,” but later identified as a “musician.” Another example is William’s story. When he arrived at QBS in Year 5 William was allocated to learn flute in the compulsory band program. He continued to play that instrument until the end of Year 12. In Year 10, however, he started learning new additional instruments:

Towards about Year 10, I started getting interested in other instruments and thinking that there’s a lot more music than just sitting in a band playing the one instrument constantly. This is when I got interested in jazz. I started the alto saxophone, then went on to the tenor, and I joined your big band. I played bass briefly in the stage band in Year 9 and 10, but that was

176 Analysis, Discussion and Findings sort of an off the cuff want to play another instrument. But when I got the saxophone it was more of a serious commitment, that I knew that I would be in a proper band playing covers and jazz music. Eventually I moved on to just playing around with pianos and started singing, all in these last 3 years in senior school. (William)

William explains that learning additional instruments in Year 10 influenced his identity work:

I think yes in a few ways…. It includes broadening my mind to music by starting saxophone and vocal lessons, and listening to music more. Not just hearing music but actually listening to it and what it’s saying. I think it has changed the way that I portray emotion. (William)

This study provides elaboration on how adolescent boys’ evolving music uses shape and support their identity work. These findings support existing literature in identity construction and musical identities by Hallam (2017) who reported that identities “are constantly evolving as they are changed and re-constructed based on the feedback that we receive from our interactions with others” (p. 475) and Elliott and Silverman (2017) who wrote that “our musical and personal identities change in relation to our musical and personal interactions, contexts, and the affordances that musical experiences provide” (p. 32). Findings also support Hargreaves et al. (2018) who discussed the correlation between musical identities and musical development.

10.3.3 A resource for musical identities In this study, all adolescent boys used music as a resource to shape and support their musical identities as part of their broader identity work. They used music to inform and enact music in their identities (MII) and identities in music (IIM). It was found that many of the attributes associated with MII and IIM at times blurred, overlapped, and informed each other. Most adolescent boys in this study articulated having an identity in music (IIM) and all boys in this study used music to shape and support their self-identity (MII). The use of music was considered by all boys to be a normal part of their daily lives, and their use of music could be considered significant. Adolescent boys’ use of music as a resource to shape and support their musical identities supports the work of Elliott and Silverman (2017) who proposed that musical identities are enacted through social worlds, rather than being something people have. This finding also supports research by Hallam (2017), who argued it is possible for music to be a central component of an individual’s identity work even though the role of “musician” is not adopted.

177 Analysis, Discussion and Findings Four sub-themes emerged regarding music as a resource for shaping and supporting musical identities: multiple and circumstantial; significance of engagement; self-to-self and self-to-others; and, prior learning and development. The findings that follow support current research in the field (Hargreaves, MacDonald, et al., 2016; Hargreaves et al., 2017) and provide further elaboration on the definition and development of musical identities.

10.3.3.1 Multiple and circumstantial Adolescent boys presented themselves with multiple musical identities, which shifted depending on their musical development and circumstances. These circumstances were linked to their role in a music activity and other people involved at the time. These multiple identities were entangled as a collection of musical identities and/or musical identities comprising multiple underlying identities. For example, Conor identified as a “well-rounded musician,” with underlying identities of a developing drummer, producer, composer, singer–songwriter, vocalist, and guitarist. Blake identified as a country music singer, this also included the underlying identities of singer, guitarist, and singer–songwriter. These findings support the research of Hallam (2017) who reported: “individuals can develop many musical identities and hold them simultaneously” (p. 477). Elliott and Silverman (2017) discussed the circumstantial nature of identities in music and advised: “This does not mean a person is being untrue to herself. It only means that her identity shifts depending her engagements with her worlds” (Elliott & Silverman, 2017, p. 33).

10.3.3.2 Significance of engagement For all adolescent boys in this study, the significance of music use varied between individuals and was found to be spread over four levels of engagement: activity; hobby; passion; and holistic. The greater the use of music, the deeper the it shaped and supported boys’ musical identities.

At the lowest level of music engagement were everyday behavioural activities, mostly attributed to listening to music and general conversations about music. Boys in this study mostly spoke of their family and friends in this category who were often perceived as “non-musical” or “unmusical.” Michael said, for example, “My family isn’t a big musical family” though his family still enjoyed listening to music as part of everyday life.

Some students in this study, while clearly demonstrating a sophisticated understanding and enjoyment for music, described their engagement as a “hobby” (e.g., Elijah and Tyler). In this context, boys used the word “hobby” to describe an activity that they valued and enjoyed, however did not involve a serious life commitment or eventual career pathway. Declaring music as a “hobby” was a

178 Analysis, Discussion and Findings way for some boys to connect music to their identity. It is suggested that “hobby” was the role of music enforced by some parents in an attempt to roadblock serious commitments that could result in a career pathway with perceived economic uncertainty. Later in this chapter (see Section 10.5.1), the conflict between music and career pathways is discussed.

The word “passion” was used by some boys (e.g., Aaron, Conor, Daniel, Elijah, and William) to describe their engagement in music. In this context, “passion” described a use of music that was stronger than enjoyment, also described as “love” (e.g., Conor and Daniel): “It’s my passion—music. I love performing. It’s what I find enjoyable in music” (Daniel), and “playing music—that’s always been a fairly big passion of mine I like to think” (William).

A passion in music often resulted in a clear identity in music (IIM) and a role in the possible self, possibly a career pathway. For example, Aaron aspired to become a recording studio producer, Blake aspired to be become a “country music singer,” and Conor aimed to become a professional “well-rounded musician.”

It is worth remembering that adolescent boys in this study all studied class music, individual instrumental/vocal tuition, and participated in co-curricular ensembles. Their use of music in their daily lives was significant, and many considered music to be just a normal part of their daily “routine” (Colton). For some (e.g., Aaron, Blake, Colton, and Conor), this routine use of music intertwined with their self-identity and was inseparable from their overall self-construct:

I’ve sort of grown up around music, so it’s always been a part of my life really. It’s sort of become ingrained into who I am…. If I didn’t have music in my life, I’d just wouldn’t know what to do. (Conor)

While often such significance of music in one’s identity led to a declaration of an identity in music (IIM), this was not always the case. Colton is an example of a boy whose use of music was entangled in his overall self-identity. At no stage did he declare an identity in music, rather he identified more as a musical person. Despite Elijah declaring music was his biggest hobby, he went on to later describe himself as a “musical man.”

These varying commitment levels of the use of music in adolescent boys’ lives did lead to some frustrations for Colton and Elijah. Colton voiced irritation over boys who considered music to only be a hobby and felt they held him back from his musical development.

179 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

Music is quite sacred to me in terms of the amazing place that you go to when you perform and practice. It makes me sad because those boys could be feeling what other people feel which is what makes new friends and community. I feel sorry for them but then you also get that, “Oh, god, annoying,” because they’re interrupting the experience. (Colton)

In comparing their use of music to other boys outside the class, the students in this study believed their deeper music education provided confidence and expertise in music, thus shaping and supporting their identity work (e.g., William and Colton). These four categories of music commitment and engagement (activity, hobby, passion, and holistic) elaborate on the uses of music by adolescent boys’ and contribute new knowledge to the field.

10.3.3.3 Self-to-self and self-to-others Adolescent boys in this study used music as a resource for shaping and supporting their self- to-self and self-to-others musical identities. Their use of music as a resource for identity construction allowed the enactment of their music beliefs and values. Students spoke to how they used music as a medium for self-expression, particularly through performance and composition (e.g., Aaron, Conor, and Elijah). Composition allowed boys to document their identity, whereas performance allowed them to enact their identity. William explains that music is an avenue for showcasing self-concept through performance: “When you’re singing, … and you’re in front of people, I think people do get a better insight into what you can do, and I think therefore by that they have a better interpretation of who you are” (William).

Performances of original compositions, however, proved to be the most significant in identity work, as a resource to both representing and connecting boys’ identities with others (e.g., Aaron and Blake).

These findings build on the work of DeNora (1999) who proposed that “the sense of ‘self’ is locatable in music” (DeNora, 1999) and North and Hargreaves (1999) who found that adolescents use music to enact their values and beliefs. This study challenges the work of North and Hargreaves (1999) who found that adolescents use their listening preferences and music interests as a “badge of identity” (p. 75). Other than Blake who identified strongly with country music, the other students in this study rejected prescribing to a single genre of music and instead embraced diverse and new music.

180 Analysis, Discussion and Findings For all adolescent boys, their identities in music were used as a resource of self-to-others. Their identity in music afforded them social recognition by others, including their family, peers, and members of the broader community, and assisted them in constructing their place and role in their lived worlds. A label of an identity in music was used by adolescent boys to declare their music expertise, interests, affiliation to a group of people or activities, career aspirations, and/or overall self- identity to others. In all cases, boys spoke of their identity in music being positively valued by others, particularly in social settings by family and friends:

I think it’s good to have an identity. The kind of instrument that you play I think tells other people who you are, or sort of gives an image for yourself. I think when your friends are around they know you, or they see you as who you are and what you do. When you’re around likeminded people in music, I think they can identify you as someone who plays this instrument. I wouldn’t say it’s hugely important to me, but it has a certain presence in my life and I think has shown the point in my life where I’ve decided to turn my mind to music a bit more. (William)

Some participants perceived future casual or part-time professional music identities as a positive possibility during university studies as they constructed a non-music professional identity (e.g., Austin, Daniel, and Tyler). Some boys spoke of a desire for a professional identity in music (e.g., Conor and Aaron), and Colton planned to be a tertiary music student on his journey to becoming a medical doctor. All students but Blake and Aaron presented with a conflict between music passion and perceived financial security which influenced their identity work. Boys such as Elijah had accepted music as a “hobby” rather than adopting an identity. This conflict is discussed later in this chapter (see Section 10.5.2).

Findings of identities in music as a technology for self-to-others builds on the work of DeNora (1999) who reported: “Musical materials provide terms and templates for elaborating self-identity— for identity’s identification” (p. 49). Furthermore, adolescent boys in this study used music as a resource for a sense of connectedness and belonging, supporting the perspectives of O’Neill (2017).

10.3.3.3.1 Connectedness Adolescent boys used music as a relational resource for a sense of connectedness, providing networks of mutual meaning-making and activity. For students in this study, music connected people through shared experiences, conversations, memories, interests, and passions. These connections established and developed long-lasting relationships with family members, friends, and collaborators.

181 Analysis, Discussion and Findings For example, in the case of Laurence and Tyler, music has “been a really nice way of getting to know each other” (Laurence). Conor and Anna have used music for “shared experiences” (Anna). Michael uses music as a social tool such as a conversation “ice-breaker” and to establish connections with people. He said, “I’m friends with people that I probably wouldn’t talk to if it weren’t for music.”

I think it’s a good device to improving friendships, playing music with other people, because when it’s all coming together and you’re creating something as a group, I think you just bond with those people, and you appreciate what they can do as a musician and vice-versa. (William)

Colton drew and spoke about “the community of music” (see Figure 10.5).

Figure 10.5. “The community of music.” Part of Colton’s response to the question, “What do you enjoy about music?”

I meet loads of like-minded people I love when doing something that I love. All the conversations and making really beautiful music that I always enjoy suits my extroverted self and so music allows me to exploit that. I really, really enjoy that part of it. (Colton)

Relationships in and through music can contribute to the development of musical understanding as collaborators learn and grow from one another (e.g., Elijah and Colton composing, Michael and Tyler performing, peers as models for Blake).

10.3.3.3.2 Belonging Adolescent boys used music as a resource for a sense of belonging. Boys used music to shape and support an identity that was valued and made valuable contributions. The way boys used music to achieve a sense of belonging was personalised. In the case of Aaron, school music activities

182 Analysis, Discussion and Findings including class music, provided him with a sense of purpose that assisted him to attend and complete school, which positively impacted his well-being. The safe harbour and sanctuary that music provided Aaron shaped and supported his identity work. Other examples were Blake and Elijah, who used music for a sense of belonging from their supporters. Conor aspired to use music to make a valuable contribution to others through work in the recording studio. The personal significance of music in the lives of adolescent boys in this study cannot be understated.

10.3.3.4 Prior learning and development Adolescent boys’ musical identities in this study were nurtured through positive and ongoing music learning experiences. Their prior music learning and development shaped their musical identities, as did their musical identities support music learning. Participants’ music development was through both formal and informal experiences in music experimentation and learning. Prior music engagement continues to shape and inform their present and projected future musical identities as their identity work continually evolves.

The musical beginnings for every boy began at home with family members. Reflections on early engagements with music were mostly retold by parents, rather than students. All parents and families placed some value on music engagement, expertise, and subsequent education, though some more than others. Family music beliefs and values were modelled, enacted, and inherited through the “family script” (discussed in Section 10.5.1). Early influences and engagement in music varied between individuals, including play and “tinkering” (Blake and Aaron), models of listening (Aaron), models of music making (Tyler and Conor), encouragement and support through parent musical aspirations for their son (Blake, Michael, and Elijah), and models of high cultural capital (Colton). These findings support the research of Howe, Davidson, and Sloboda (1998), who suggested that early music experiences determine music expertise, and the broader work of expert performance.

All adolescent boys in this study were found to have had extensive formal music learning experiences and opportunities for development. Formal music learning pathways varied between individuals, as did the beginning age, formality, breadth, and depth of music education. For example, Tyler and his sister began formalised musical play in early childhood at the local Conservatorium with the aim being “fun” and providing “a little bit of exposure to them about the basic principles of music and understanding” (Laurence).

Opportunities for formal music learning were facilitated mostly in primary and secondary school through class music, ensembles and one-to-one and group tuition. All boys except Blake and

183 Analysis, Discussion and Findings Aaron had engaged in school music education prior to secondary school; such opportunities did not exist in their regional primary schools. This resulted in some insecurities in their music expertise. The significance of class music in shaping and supporting identity work is discussed in Section 10.4.

The influence of one-on-one tuition on music development and musical identities was significant for all students in this study. It provided them with not only a specialised technical skill set, but also contributed to their overall musical knowledge and understanding. These one-on-one experiences varied greatly between individuals. For example, Elijah had extensive formal music learning experiences on Piano (AMEB Grade 8), Drum kit (Trinity Rock Pop Grade 8), Theory (AMEB Grade 5), and was learning guitar. He also sang in choirs.

I did two years of study as a percussionist and I did about a year of lessons of piano when I was about seven and since then I’ve tried to like teach myself a bit… I’ve been having private [voice] lessons for a very long time—probably eight years and four here at QBS. (Daniel)

I’ve played clarinet to a fairly high standard. I did my Grade 8 AMEB last year. I’ve been doing National Band Championships with QYO55 Wind Symphony for three years and this year I was a first clarinet. I’ve sung in choirs for a while but only this year I auditioned for Gondwana National Choral School and I got into Chorale, which is the highest one, as a Bass 2. Otherwise just the normal opportunities that spring up like SHEP56 and all of the workshops that we do everywhere with QBS and just really involve myself in all the ensembles there. (Colton)

Boys continued to begin new formal learning, and even in the last couple of years, they had begun studying new instruments that were meaningful to them (e.g., William learning saxophone and singing). Rather than specialising on a specific instrument(s) over a long period of time, Austin provided evidence of continued music learning across a range of instruments:

Alto saxophone (Year 4–10) and bass guitar (Year 10 self-taught and then later lessons in Year 11), and guitar (one term Year 9), and piano (6–8 years old), and singing (Prep–3 choir, individual lessons Year 4)—there we go, there’s a long line up. (Austin)

55 Queensland Youth Orchestras (QYO) is a youth orchestra organisation based in Brisbane. 56 State Honours Ensemble Program (SHEP) hosted by Griffith University.

184 Analysis, Discussion and Findings Boys and families also looked beyond school for formal one-on-one tuition (e.g., Tyler and Austin) for a variety of reasons, including teacher, convenience, and cost. A variety of informal school opportunities for music learning and development also occurred beyond the music classroom, rehearsal room, and studio. In the case of Blake, a school principal led a student rock band that performed at school events. Daniel led an a cappella group of his peers. Over time, different student rock bands formed, hibernated, evolved, and fused. Formal school music provided initial skills and facilitated initial friendships for later informal learning. This serves as evidence of formal school music learning providing the foundation for later informal learning leading to meaningful and authentic music practices beyond school. This is the blurring of formal and informal; the entanglement of musical worlds supports the research of O’Neill (2017).

Adolescent boys were self-aware of their music expertise compared to their peers; they were able to make critical judgements and reflections on their music learning and development. Boys who had substantial formal music learning experiences were far more confident in their musical identities than those without. These findings build on the work of Smith (2011) who argued that an individual’s motivation to learn is a response to his or her past music experiences and enduring attitudes. Findings also support the work of O’Neill et al. (2002) and Hargreaves et al. (2018), and further demonstrate the interconnected relationship and potential of music education and musical identities.

10.3.4 A resource for possible selves Adolescent boys’ past and present uses of music significantly shaped and supported their projected future identity work and possible selves. It was found that boys who clearly articulated a music identity (e.g., “musician” by Conor) projected possible selves involving music as a significant role or career pathway. Likewise, their imagined music aspirations or possible future served as a guide to their present uses of music. As such, adolescent boys’ past, present, and future uses of music are constantly informed by one another. This is clearly evident with Blake: “I’m a country music singer and I’m from the bush, … I want to be a country music star.”

Adolescent boys used music and musicians as a model or template for their possible selves. Music role models ranged from family members, including parents, siblings and grandparents, to music teachers and celebrities in music. Blake, arguably having the most pronounced musical identity, had previously performed with an Australian country music star, which he described as “actually living your dream.” Music as an art form itself also served as a model, communicating society and cultural values and beliefs, providing an aural template and sparking new music ideas (e.g., Elijah).

185 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

All adolescent boys were able to foresee music in their future to varying degrees, with music for some having multiple roles. They wanted to continue their current uses of music (Tyler, Elijah, Michael, and Colton), continue to learn and develop their music expertise (Austin and William), and/or “chase [their] dream” (Daniel, Aaron, Conor and Blake). As their present music use and identity work were personalised and evolving, so were their possible selves.

Figure 10.6. Austin’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”

Austin drew (Figure 10.6) and said that he wanted to continue to improve his music transcription skills for bass and saxophone, though was doubtful about how long he would continue to play saxophone. He also said he would be “interested in trying, but not set on” playing in a band. While Austin expressed interest in continuing music after school and into the future, there was a sense of compliancy and not a strong level of long-term commitment to significant music participation.

William (Figure 10.7), however, was certain he wanted to continue to develop his music expertise as a vocalist and instrumentalist as an important part in his ongoing identity construction. He did not “see any point in stopping an instrument suddenly if you’ve been studying it for eight-odd years.”

186 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

Figure 10.7. William’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”

The aim is to benefit myself, because I’ve just always had a desire to show people—not to have attention or anything like that—that there’s another side to me which is music. I think singing is an excellent way to show people… I get a lot of happiness in general from playing music, creating something that sounds nice and people knowing you. (William)

Colton (Figure 10.8) had decided to complete undergraduate tertiary music studies before completing postgraduate studies in medicine. He spoke of music being part of his identity “for the rest of [his] life.”

Figure 10.8. Colton’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”

187 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

I want to be able to continue my ensembles and choral settings to get that full spectrum where I can exploit my talents in both sides and get the most enjoyment out of it, and obviously retain all of the friendships and all of the bonds that I’ve created with people through the making of music. I want to keep that for the rest of my life. (Colton)

Aaron, Conor, Daniel, and Blake all wished to “chase [their] dream[s]” (Blake) by performing live music to audiences. Their motivations to work towards this goal were linked to their individualised underlying music beliefs, values, and identity work. Daniel said that he wanted to be “singing in front of a very large audience, professionally” in his future (Figure 10.9). He said, if possible, “I would do that in a second.” However, his dream conflicts with perceived financial security and the likelihood of achieving in the music industry.

Figure 10.9. Daniel’s drawing for the question, “What will you do with music in your future?”

I really do enjoy performing and I would love to make a career out of it, but it is an incredibly difficult thing to make a name and really do well in. So, it is a dream and it can seem a bit unrealistic to me because it is so hard to do… I believe [a science pathway] is more secure and it isn’t going to get in the way of my music. I’m still going to be performing outside of school…. I’ll find people at uni that want to be in a band. I’ve got friends from school who might join so it will be good, and I’ll see where that goes and see if I can take it as far as I want. (Daniel)

188 Analysis, Discussion and Findings Daniel was not the only boy to experience this conflict. For some students (e.g., Elijah and Conor), their parents were strong advocates for not pursuing music tertiary study and careers. Anna accepted Conor’s decision to pursue tertiary music as his “gap degree” before medicine. This did not support boys’ identity work and subsequently shaped their possible selves. This significant finding is discussed in Section 10.5.2.

While continuing to have music in their lives, some adolescent boys also spoke of not continuing to play their school concert band instrument beyond school (Michael, William, and Austin). However, there was still considerable value given to learning instruments at school. Michael even proposed he would encourage his own future children to learn musical instruments.

This study supports the research of DeNora (1999) who reported “individuals are also choosing musics that produce self-images that are tenable, that seem doable, habitable” (p. 53). These findings support existing literature in the field of music possible selves (Campbell, 2009; Freer, 2010; Schnare et al., 2012) and provide further elaboration on adolescent boys in senior secondary school. This study demonstrates the interconnected relationship between past, present, and future uses of music and identity work by adolescent boys and contributes significant new knowledge to the field.

10.4 Research Question 3: What aspects of class music in this context shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music? Adolescent boys in this study clearly articulated aspects of class music shape and support their identity work. These findings reinforce and build on the work of Hargreaves, MacDonald, and Miell (2018) who argued that there is a “reciprocal relationship” between musical development and musical identities. This study also augments existing literature investigating adolescent boys’ identity work and class music in lower secondary school (Saunders, 2009; Saunders & Welch, 2012; Willow- Peterson, 2016), and contributes significant new knowledge in understanding adolescent boys’ identity construction in senior secondary school class music. Aspects and examples of practice have been framed into three interconnecting themes: teacher–student relationship; teacher philosophy and pedagogy; and the class music curriculum. Figure 10.10 provides a visual model of these themes and will be examined in detail throughout this section.

189 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

Teacher–student Teacher philosophy and Class music curriculum relationship pedagogy •Diverse music literature •Credible model and expert •Development of musical •Simultaneously interconnect •Ignite and share passion understanding music domains •Genuine care •Learner agency •Diverse and authentic •An ethical music learning learning experiences community •Entangled musical worlds

Figure 10.10. The interconnecting aspects of class music that shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in this study

10.4.1 Teacher–student relationship The most significant aspect of the class music program in shaping and supporting adolescent boys’ identity work reported by participants in this study was the teacher. The individual teacher was central to the class music learning ecology as they enacted their own philosophy, pedagogy, and curriculum. Overwhelmingly, the class music teachers’ values and beliefs played an important role in supporting and shaping adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music. These findings build on the work of Dwyer (2012)—who found that teachers’ values are enacted through their approach— and contribute new knowledge by examining the impact of teachers’ values on senior secondary adolescent boys’ identity development. Findings also support Hargreaves et al. (2007) who reported the intertwined development of teacher and student musical identities.

In this study, the teacher’s professional relationship with the students was the foundational aspect of class music in shaping and supporting students’ identity work. The teacher fostered positive professional relationships with students and positive student–student relationships. This created a respectful community of learners. Adolescent boys commented on the professional association between student and teacher being more than just functional and instructional, it was relational.

Existing education and music education literature notes the important contributions of the teacher–student relationship. Hattie (2012) ranked the teacher–student relationship as the twelfth highest influence on student achievement, with an effect size of 0.72. Evans (2016) argued the quality

190 Analysis, Discussion and Findings of relationship between students and teachers has a considerable impact on children’s motivation towards music learning. Elliott and Silverman (2015) proposed that the principal role of music educators is to develop “musical understanding through mentoring, coaching, modelling, encouraging, inspiring, and sharing in discussions with students” (p. 233). This study contributes new knowledge to the field and demonstrates that the teacher–student relationship in class music within this setting shaped and supported students’ identity work. Factors that influenced the teacher–student relationship in this study were: being a credible model and expert; able to ignite and share passion; and express genuine care towards student learning and well-being.

10.4.1.1 Credible model and expert The teacher as a credible model and expert were significant resources in shaping and supporting student identity work. Adolescent boys spoke of being influenced by a musical and ethical model. This model earned credibility through demonstrated musical and teaching expertise. Being recognised as a model and expert “brings more weight to what you say” (Michael). The teacher model also served as a template of a possible self for identities in music (IIM) and music in identities (MII).

Adolescent boys described the teacher as a music model demonstrating expert music knowledge, skills, and understanding across a range of music domains, styles, and genres. This was enacted daily in the classroom through teaching, but also through co-curricular activities and general interaction at school. Aaron said, “I see you as a good role model. You’re a performer, composer, you’ve got all these skills in musical theory and things like this.” This modelling of musical expertise gave the relationship credibility and influenced students’ possible selves. Students also identified pedagogical expertise as contributing towards credibility. Tyler said, “you’re actually my favourite teacher and also you’re good at teaching.”

Adolescent boys also described the teacher as an ethical model. Elijah spoke of the teacher imparting “life lessons” and how to a be a “musical man” through class music. His most valuable lesson from class music was “understanding people.” The interrogation of music repertoire, including social and historical contexts, and subsequent musical choices presented social and ethical challenges that were discussed and evaluated in class. The students’ ethics and morals were nurtured by the teacher, shaping and supporting their identity work.

Existing literature acknowledges the importance of teacher credibility and modelling. Hattie (2012) listed “teacher credibility” as the fourth highest influence on student achievement in his visible learning meta-analysis, with an effect size of 0.90. Saunders and Welch (2012) found that in positive

191 Analysis, Discussion and Findings teacher–student relationships, teachers act “as a musical ‘significant other’ who is able to mediate musical encounters in social contexts beyond the immediate setting of the practitioner” (p. 99). Elliott and Silverman (2015) argued the importance of modelling ethical understanding in their praxial philosophy of music education. Findings from this study provide further elaboration on the role of a credible model and expert on student identity work.

10.4.1.2 Ignite and share passion The relationship between teacher and student in this study is bound by a shared passion for music and the development of music expertise. Tyler called this shared passion a “common interest.” Elijah reported that the teacher shared his identity with students saying, “He shares his own opinions which is good that he’s open and honest.” Aaron commented that he benefitted from the teacher having an “unbiased” view of music styles and genres, and “we’ve been exposed to so much.” Sometimes igniting passion involved “pushing” students to be “better” or the “best” version of themselves (Conor). Colton said the teacher is “really dedicated” and “the fact that you’re so committed to that and to improving us individually and getting us to get an experience of music that is worthwhile for us further in life is just really great.” This supports Regelski (2015) who argued music education should “seek to light a fire of desire and commitment for music” (p. 88). Hattie (2012) noted the importance of passionate teachers in influencing student achievement, and Pitts (2012) found teachers sharing their passion as the most significant lasting impression of school music.

10.4.1.3 Genuine care The relationship between teacher and student was solidified by a sense of genuine care, support, and trust from the teacher. Trust and mutual respect were fostered both in the teacher–student and student–student relationships. Michael described the teacher as someone who genuinely cared about his students. The teacher “pays attention to the students and responds to them rather than just having a set way of teaching” (Tyler). Responding to students involved both supporting and challenging their identity to become more than they thought possible. In the case of Blake, he commented that the teacher “pushed me to learn new things.”

I think what you teach is not only more interesting, but I think because you’re relating… I’d say that you are a very effective teacher… You know all of us well, and we know you well, … and you know who we are. (William)

These findings from a class music context build on the work of Davidson, Moore, Sloboda, and Howe (1998) who found that perceived personal attributes of instrumental music teachers, such

192 Analysis, Discussion and Findings as “being friendly, chatty, relaxed and encouraging,” were significant in additional to professional qualities such as “pushiness” in a child’s decision to continue studying an instrument. These findings support those of Saunders and Welch (2012) who reported effective music teachers were “respectful of, and interested in, the young person’s musical opinions and preferences” (p. 99).

10.4.2 Teacher philosophy and pedagogy Music teacher philosophy and pedagogy shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work. “Philosophy” in this context refers to the underlying principles that lead and guide the class music program whereas “pedagogy” refers to the act of teaching (the enactment of philosophy). These two components of teaching directly inform one another. The personal teaching philosophy in this setting is outlined in the Prelude, Chapter 1, and Chapter 2 of this dissertation.

In this study, the overarching aim of “human flourishing” was found at the core of the teacher philosophy and pedagogy. Student flourishing shaped and supported adolescent boys’ identity work. This was most notably captured in the narrative of Elijah; class music empowered him to be a “musical man” helping him become who he wants to be, teaching him “life lessons” including ethics and morals, and “understanding people” and how to respond to them. Others described the personal enjoyment class music provided them over other subjects (e.g., Tyler). Aaron is another example of class music facilitating student flourishing; class music was the reason he continued to attend school and supported his well-being. Elliott and Silverman (2014) reminded us that Aristotle considered human flourishing or eudaimonia—“a ‘good life’ of significant, enjoyable, and meaningful work and leisure; personal and community health and well-being; virtue; and fellowship, self-worth, and happiness for the benefit of oneself and others” (p. 59)—to be the highest human value. In this context, student flourishing arose through: the development of musical understanding; nurturing learner agency; creating a community of ethical music learners; and entangling student musical worlds.

10.4.2.1 Development of musical understanding Adolescent boys’ identities were shaped and supported in class music through the development of their musical understanding. One of the teacher’s philosophical aims in developing student musical understanding was to grant access to musical independence and lifelong music participation. Participants discussed how their individual musical identities were developed, and in some cases disrupted or realised, through learning in class music. This view is aligned with Wiggins’ (2015), who advocated that “music learning should empower learners with musical understanding so that they can become musically proficient and eventually musically independent of their teachers” (p.

193 Analysis, Discussion and Findings 39). This finding also supports Elliott and Silverman (2015) who advocated that musical understanding “belongs to the individual music maker”, and developing musical understanding affords music makers a deeper understanding of their “self-identity, musical identity, and self- efficacy of a music maker’s personhood and relation of that musical personhood to others” (p. 278).

The process of developing musical understanding in this context empowered adolescent boys’ identity work. This process began with a common core of music skills and understanding, the development of the ability to think in sound, leading to musical independence. While these characteristics of music learning have been investigated extensively in the literature, this overarching three-step process has been previously undocumented and contributes important new knowledge to the field.

10.4.2.1.1 Common core of music knowledge, skills and understanding Adolescent boys’ musical independence in this context initially stemmed from developing a common core of music knowledge, skills and understanding. Students developed both their “musicianship” and “listenership” (Elliott & Silverman, 2015) in and through music led by the teacher across a diverse range of music domains and genres from a range of times and places. The diverse range of music domains included performance (singing and playing), improvisation, composition, analysing music, theoretical understanding, aural skills, music technology, and social and historical contexts. Learning experiences were built from carefully selected and significant examples of repertoire. Boys were challenged to solve authentic music problems independently and collaboratively. They were presented with opportunities to prepare for lifelong participation in music and tertiary study if they chose. Students developed as musicians by authentically making and responding to music. In short, they did what musicians do.

Such a common core was rigorous and challenging for these students; they were also kept busy. Boys articulated that they enjoyed, and in some cases craved, developing their skills and musical understanding through such an approach. They described class music as a mix of “fun and hard work” (Elijah). They enjoyed a formal class music education that facilitated a love of music learning through rigour, challenge, grit, and risk-taking.

It is difficult to do really well in music because it takes hard work… but that being said it is an enjoyable subject to do and especially to do well in because you really do feel you’re becoming a better musician and doing some really cool things with your music. (Daniel)

194 Analysis, Discussion and Findings Austin (Figure 10.11) described the feeling of solving a musical theoretical problem in class music, in response to the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?.”

Figure 10.11. An epiphany moment. Part of Austin’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”

That’s like a clarification moment, like an epiphany with the “Ah hah.” I don’t know why it sparkles, but that’s like a “Wow, amazing moment.” I wrote “G7” specifically because I didn’t really know what was going on. I didn’t know what dominant seven chords were, I didn’t understand. And modulation, I didn’t get that either, which is why the dominant thing I didn’t understand. When I finally understood what they were it was like “Oh, wow,” like they’re in every song and they’re all over the place and it’s like “Oh, that’s cool.” When you play music from then on, you have a new understanding of it which was cool because dominant seven chords are such a big part of music. (Austin)

Colton (Figure 10.12) described his “love” for developing his music knowledge and understanding through the analysis of music.

195 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

Figure 10.12. Analysis of music. Part of Colton’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”

I really loved analysing genres in the context of society and what was happening at the time. I loved learning what drove the progression of music technologically, socially, and technically.... And it’s great learning about people like Mozart, deconstructing their life and then understanding how they came to be so prevalent in the music arena and their influence and contribution to that bigger picture…. It’s great. It justifies why it’s so cool. (Colton)

All students in this study expressed enjoyment and an active desire to learn and develop through class music. Colton and Elijah expressed some frustration, wanting all members of the class to take a serious approach to their music learning. This is contrary, however, to the reason they both chose the subject at the beginning of their elective studies in Year 9 as they both thought of music as an easy subject to do well in. It was not an uncommon reason for boys to choose to study class music in Year 9 because they thought it would be one of their easier subjects. This desire for an easy subject changed over time to one where some students were hungry for more. Austin chose music:

Honestly because I wanted a subject that wasn’t as intense as… the maths and science I do …. It’s been a bit less of a wag than I thought it would be. I have cared about it more than I thought I would because before going to music I was like so this is your down subject but I felt that I put as much time into music as other stuff. I actually do want to do well in it which I was surprised by because I thought I’d just be like “Oh yeah, whatever” just to get by, but no, I actually try. (Austin)

While literature recognises the importance of developing musical understanding (e.g., Wiggins, 2016), this study goes further to advocate for the rigorous development of a foundational

196 Analysis, Discussion and Findings common core of music knowledge, skills and understanding in the school music classroom that provides a springboard for multiple musical identities.

10.4.2.1.2 Thinking in sound A significant aspect of class music that shaped and supported adolescent boys’ identity work was the development of the “thinking musician.” In particular, boys reported a sense of empowerment through the development of their ability to “think in sound.” Conor described it as “teaching your ears how to listen.” This process involves hearing music in the mind and assigning meaning to it. Gordon (1999) defined this process as “audiation” and compared it to “what thought is to language” (p. 42). He argued “when we merely recognize or imitate what we have heard, or memorize what we intend to perform, we live in the past. In audiation, the past lives in us” (p. 42). Central to the concept of audiation is the internalisation and meaning-making of music.

Students in this study felt empowered by the ability to decipher the music of others and musical ideas in their minds. It was desirable for boys to be able to communicate their musical thoughts. This especially became important for boys who declared a passion for composition. Conor went as far as saying, “I think hearing a song in your head is great, it’s all well and good, you might (even) be able to sing it, but without being able to notate it, it’s sort of non-existent.” Gordon (1999) called this “notational audiation” (p. 42).

This ability to audiate was explicitly developed over years. Associated teaching activities were not always initially enjoyed by some boys (e.g., Michael, Daniel, and Elijah), but in hindsight they all agreed that audiation was an ability worth developing as musicians. Michael admittedly said, “Solfa did help me”. Daniel jokingly used the words “ruin” to describe the experience that he no longer just passively listens to music, rather he applies his audiation abilities as a matter of habit.

I analyse whatever I listen to and notice when it’s not right and live performances are just ruined… I went to see the Lion King (the live musical). I’ve seen it twice before and both times I thought it was absolutely fantastic. I’m sure that it was the exact show that we went to which didn’t seem as good because I knew what was wrong every time they sang… I have a greater appreciation for when it is perfect and spot on. I’ll understand when it is right and when it’s not and I really see when people are going above and beyond with their music. (Daniel)

This process of audiation as habit is also echoed by Austin:

197 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

I wouldn’t say I analyse everything I listen to, but I do more than other people. Other people probably don’t because they’re not educated or not interested in it. They just listen to the music and they’re like “Yeah, that’s cool,” but then I’ll hear it and—I feel pretentious saying it—but you try to find out why it’s good. I’ll listen to something and rather than be like “Oh, this is good” and not knowing, I pinpoint it. I don’t know why, but I just do. I was like “Oh that bit’s amazing, specifically this part is really good.” (Austin)

Students described applying critical musical thinking as both makers (improvising and composing: Michael) and listeners (analysing: Elijah, Colton, Conor, and Daniel) of music. The music knowledge, skills, and understanding afforded to students through class music empowered them to develop personal critical reflections and music viewpoints, and the confidence to explore their musical interests and passions:

We’ve learned the theory of music, and not just hearing music but listening to it. Listening to the instruments playing, and the way they’re playing it and the timbre and the texture of the music. I think just having studied that has required me to pull apart a piece of music and understand what’s going on. I think compared to people who haven’t studied music, I think that I interpret it differently or hear it differently to how they would. (William)

I can make it sound however I intended to, and it’s really being able to learn to get the noises in your head onto paper and to make it sound how you want it to sound, rather than limit yourself. (Conor)

Teaching students to think critically in sound and providing them with a way to communicate and enact their musical ideas, empowered their musical identity work. Adolescent boys acknowledged the challenge of audiating their music ideas, however indicated they valued this ability and wanted to further advance this skill.

Sometimes I don’t know how to write down on the page what I’m hearing in my head and so it can be frustrating trying to work that out sometimes, but it is a really enjoyable thing when it all comes together in the end and you get to hear your work… I do think I have gotten better at knowing what I’m hearing in my head and knowing how I write my music. (Daniel)

198 Analysis, Discussion and Findings These findings support those of Wiggins (2015) who argued “good musical problems involve and require musical thought” and “learners will need to engage in thinking in sound” (p. 59). Cuskelly (2006) argued that audiation is the “most significant component of meaning in music” (p. 37). In this context, adolescent boys’ musical thinking is “powerful knowledge” (McPhail, 2017), shaping and supporting their identity work.

10.4.2.1.3 Musical independence In this setting, a common core of music knowledge and skills, supported by the development of the independent ability to think in sound, led to adolescent boys’ musical independence. This musical independence empowered students with musical expertise to pursue their own music interests and tackle new musical problems with confidence. The development of musical understanding leading to musical independence shaped and supported adolescent boys’ identity work.

Scaffolding dominated music learning at the beginning of secondary school in this context. Students even commented that a rigorous common core of learning experiences in lower secondary was the most significant time of their musical growth in class music (e.g., Elijah). As boys developed an independent ability to think in sound and apply meaning across a range of music concepts, styles and genres, there was a gradual release of scaffolding and their musical independence increased. While the release of scaffolding was targeted at the general ability of the class, differentiation was needed for individuals for both support and extension. These findings support a constructivist vision of learning where it is argued the primary role of the teacher is to nurture musical independence: “The primary role of a teacher is to provide scaffolding for learners, enabling them to operate within their zones of proximal development, resulting in their achieving a higher level of understanding and competence in music, gaining musical independence” (Wiggins, 2015, p. 42).

Cleaver and Ballantyne (2014) reminded us that the essence of adopting a constructivist vision of teaching also means “there will be as many versions of constructivism as there are alleged proponents” (p. 229). The individual teacher’s philosophy and these findings reflect the work of Scott (2011) who advocated constructivist and traditional practices can work together to facilitate student musical independence. This study provides an example of this argument in practice.

10.4.2.2 Learner agency Adolescent boys’ identity work in class music was shaped and supported by the teacher nurturing and focussing learner agency. Wiggins (2015) describes agency as “a [person’s] belief in themselves, a sense that they have the capacity to engage, initiate, and intentionally influence their

199 Analysis, Discussion and Findings life circumstances” (p. 22). The findings that follow support the recommendation of Cleaver and Ballantyne (2014) who proposed that music teachers should assist students in constructing individualised musical identities by developing learner agency. Students in this study spoke of three main ways the teacher nurtured student agency: responding to the needs and interests of the students; opportunities for students to express themselves; and opportunities and support for personal choice.

10.4.2.2.1 Responding to the needs and interests of the students Adolescent boys reported that class music responded to the needs and interests of the students. Students said unlike other subjects in this context, class music was “not set to a book, … it’s open ended and it can change like that.” (Aaron). The teacher directly responded to student needs and interests through curriculum choices, including repertoire selection, targeted activities, responding to questions, facilitating discussion, and individual and class feedback.

I think you keep the interest of the class in mind a lot more than another teacher would, maybe because you have more direct control over what we do as opposed to other people who are like “Well I’ve got to teach you maths.” You seem to care more about what the class is doing and try to make it as interesting as you can whilst covering the courses. (Austin)

The context of class music in Queensland allowed for individual teacher choices based on the needs and interests of students. School work programs were directly written by teachers for their context and students. Having only one Year 12 music class in the school also allowed for flexibility that would not be available in subjects with multiple streams (e.g., maths). This flexibility in state curriculum delivery directly allowed for the setting to support learner agency.

10.4.2.2.2 Opportunities for students to express themselves Adolescent boys in this study reported that class music was a subject that more easily allowed them to express their personal identity than did their other studied subjects:

When you’re in a music classroom there are guitars and there’s a piano and there are amps… Because you’re around instruments, you know there’s more to the room than just being a room, because it’s an area of performance… I think it sort of just plays a part in saying that this isn’t just necessarily a place of learning, or it’s not just somewhere where you go to sit and learn about something and get told something, but it’s also a place where you can be yourself and express emotion. I think you don’t really get that through other classrooms, which is what makes music so different from other subjects. (William)

200 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

Elijah discussed how composing music allowed him to “tell people how you feel.” Aaron discussed how he is “not really bottled up anymore;” class music gave him the social tools to “just talk about things” and has had an “emotional impact” on him.

10.4.2.2.3 Opportunities and support for personal choice Supporting multiple identities in class music presents challenges. The music education philosophy in this constructivist context valued diversity and encouraged students to pursue their own identity work through personal music interests and passions. Such an approach resulted in the study of a diverse range of styles, genres, music domains, and catered to students of varying abilities. This setting emphasised studying a rigorous breadth of music rather than a narrow depth. Typically, adolescent boys without substantial formal music learning favoured such an approach. Blake, for instance, felt this approach helped class music become accessible to him, valued his interests, and allowed him to continue learning. It also allowed other boys, such as Colton, to explore unfamiliar musical pursuits that had sparked a curiosity:

In comparison to other classes I get to experiment a lot more. There’s a lot more fluidity with the extent to where I can push myself. There are less boundaries so I can explore more things, challenge myself and have more fun with it. (Colton)

This supports Blair (2009) who suggested: “to have transformative musical experiences and to value music and grow in their love for it, students must engage with it in personal ways” (p. 45). However, adolescent boys—such as Conor, Colton, and Elijah—with substantial formal music education in the Western European tradition, expressed frustration at times with this diversity, particularly student ability. They valued musical skills in a traditional sense (e.g., notation and instrumental technical accomplishment) and they felt diversity limited their ability to delve deeper and develop as musicians.

There’s a balance, and I want to be able to challenge myself in my own level and learn more and not have to be dragged back by other students and curriculum. But then the curriculum also needs to be tight enough so that other students need to feel involved and feel like they need to learn to get something out of music and to progress and to make music a more valued subject in terms of education because it will make you learn more. At the moment it’s lacking that because there’s such a discrepancy between people who know more and people who know less. (Colton)

201 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

While acknowledging the difficulties of such a situation, Austin suggested a possible solution would be cater for more “one-to-one” learning within the class:

I feel like sometimes it could be better if it was a bit more one-to-one, but I guess it’s impossible. I feel because of the diversity of our class, particularly our class in general, it’s a bit difficult… There’s some people that have just done it completely and so when you talk about a mode, they’re like “Yeah, that’s this mode, right?,” and then you’ve got some people who you talk about a mode and they’re like “I don’t even know what you’re talking about.” I’d say I may be in the middle… I don’t know how you would fix that, but that’s a problem I’d say. (Austin)

These findings build on previous studies investigating identity work in class music settings, and demonstrate the importance of “freedom in decision making” (Willow-Peterson, 2016) and allowing students to form personal relationships with music learning (Saunders, 2009, 2010).

10.4.2.3 An ethical music learning community In this study, adolescent boys’ accounts of learning in the senior years of class music often involved interacting directly with other people or with their ideas. Through social processes, the class music environment nurtured an ethical music learning community wherein the interests of individuals and the collective were heard and valued. Boys reported collaborating towards mutual improvement of class members as musicians and people.

These findings are a blending of a social constructivist view of learning (Wiggins, 2015) and praxial music education (Elliott & Silverman, 2015). Willow-Peterson (2016) reported students “belonging to the classroom community” led to the development of musical identities in middle school. This study provides further elaboration in a senior secondary setting. As a community of music learners, the class music program in this context embraced: ethical lessons; belonging; communicating about music; collaborating friendships; and sharing student music.

10.4.2.3.1 Ethical lessons Adolescent boys articulated learning about the human experience or “life lessons” in and through music, shaping and supporting their self-identity. For some they described this ethical learning as their most “valuable” lesson from class music. Elijah went as far as to call this becoming a “musical man.” In this description, he spoke of democratic and ethical morals, values, and

202 Analysis, Discussion and Findings responsibilities. Not only was peer feedback heard, but also considered, valued, and actively sought, and founded in valuing the expertise of peers.

Michael said, “it’s always good to have your ears open as to what other people think.” Tyler concurred by saying he learned to “keep an open mind to music,” referring to other ideas from people and places in and through their music. Conor said the most valuable thing he has learned from class music is “as much as you hate it, getting criticism from other people helps,” knowing they have the best intentions. Blake said his most valuable lesson was:

Respecting other people’s work, respecting how they go about their style of music and listening, taking in what other people say because they also have a world of knowledge, not just you, not just the teacher. Everyone has different aspects on life. (Blake)

Although Colton was unable to separate class music from other music experiences, he said:

Through music, especially as an example in choirs, I always wanted to be heard and so I would sing loudly and then at some transitional period the thing that I most valuably learned was that it’s not about that. It’s that experience that I’ve learned to love so much now of that ensemble and music can do so much more for you outside in the big world that doesn’t necessarily have anything to do with your own success or with anything to do with yourself, but rather other people and immersing yourself in that art to get something out of it and to make those performances to audiences that would also get something out of it. For me to get that different perspective on what music is there for, it was really valuable. (Colton)

These findings provide a case study example of class music practice, and support Elliott and Silverman (2017) who argued that musics “provide powerful intersubjective contexts in which people of all ages and abilities can positively co-construct each other’s musical-social-personal identities and narratives and, more deeply, co-construct empathetically each other as persons” (p. 29).

10.4.2.3.2 Belonging By its nature, class music created an environment where adolescent boys dedicated to music created a community of like-minded people. This environment led to class members finding a sense of belonging with each other. Anna, Conor’s mother, said that the music department gave Conor a place to belong, where kids were able to become themselves doing what they wanted to do. Blake

203 Analysis, Discussion and Findings commented on the support he felt from his peers when performing for them. This was echoed by others.

You know that class of people could be the only people in the school who know that much about music and that everyone else really has no idea of how much more there is to learn. I think there’s sort of just a bond made through the class that you don’t really get through other subjects. (William)

Something as simple as the room setup contributed to creating a sense of belonging.

I’d say that because the way that we sit in sort of a horseshoe, and we are all around where you are, there’s no front of the room or back of the room really in the music class, because you’re so close to each student, as opposed to having students in the back row. No one can feel left out, and just because everyone’s at the front of the room, naturally it’s just more interactive in the sense that you can easily just talk to someone just by looking at them… I think that’s not only more interactive, but it’s more intimate. (William)

These findings in a class music setting provide additional explanation to the findings previously reported in Section 10.4.2.3.2.

10.4.2.3.3 Communicating about music Communicating about music can provide the basis for adolescent boys’ musical relationships, social interactions, and friendships. Class music provided the foundation for discussions, providing students with a framework (the musical elements and compositional devices), a vocabulary (music- specific terminology), knowledge (style and genre), and context (socio-cultural history). Discussions began in class with studied repertoire, but then transitioned to unstudied repertoire. This extended beyond the classroom to their own music between peers and at home (in the case between Conor and his mother). Between peers, this often resulted in sharing music with each other, mostly online. Discussions occurred in person and online between two or more people and involved the exchange of ideas and views. These discussions about music included justification, and sometimes caused others to rethink their own position. Austin provides an example in Figure 10.13.

204 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

Figure 10.13. Conversations about music. Part of Austin’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”

I find it good talking about the stuff we did in music with other students… I find it interesting conversation... I feel like a lot of conversation that is had amongst at least the people I talk to, is mostly jokes and banter, but this is serious conversation that you can have about something that you have in common, which is rare I think. (Austin)

10.4.2.3.4 Collaborating friendships Belonging results in social inclusion and collaborating friendships. These extended to all areas of the course, including performance, composition, and analysing repertoire. Laurence (Tyler’s father) commented that his son enjoyed “the companionship of the boys.” Performance easily lent itself to collaboration. Aaron said, “Everyone seems to love it and it’s a good way to have fun with your friends.” Class music provided adolescent boys with a collaborative structure where previous attempts at collaboration were not successful. Daniel explains how he tried forming a band with Tyler in Year 8:

We tried to form a band. It didn’t go so well because between us we never managed to get anything done. We were always getting distracted and end up playing games on the PlayStation or something like that. (Daniel)

Class music facilitated an opportunity, the time, and skills for adolescent boys to collaborate musically and experience success. Daniel provides an example in Figure 10.14 of what he enjoyed from class music.

205 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

Figure 10.14. Performance collaborations with friends. Part of Daniel’s drawing for the question, “What do you enjoy about class music?”

Probably in class music when we did Jesus Christ Superstar with Heaven on their Minds57 stands out as a really good performance for us… We did the Music of the Theatre unit in class and I suggested that one to the guys and as soon as Mike and Tyler heard it they couldn’t stop singing the riff over and over again so I thought, “Yeah, this is going to be good.” We did have to put the key down a little because it was a bit high for me but it was still really, really good. I enjoyed that. (Daniel)

Conor described both performances and compositions being enhanced by the opportunity to work with others, bounce off each other’s expertise, opinions, and collective wisdom.

10.4.2.3.5 Sharing student music Adolescent boys benefitted from sharing their music work with their peers. This was established in class with the class teacher showcasing work of all qualities to students, for the purposes of learning from one another. Students learnt from each other’s strengths and areas for development, as well as each other’s musical ideas and expertise. They were actively encouraged to consult with one another beyond the classroom. This usually occurred between boys where a friendship existed outside of the class (e.g., Michael and Tyler), and with boys who were to mutually benefit from the sharing. In the case of Elijah and Colton, arguably their common interest in composition fostered their friendship. Their feedback related to the quality of musical ideas, specific instrumental performance techniques, and conventions for specific genres and styles. There was an underlying value of helping others (e.g., Tyler).

57 (Lloyd-Webber & Rice, 1973).

206 Analysis, Discussion and Findings Sharing music was also for the purposes of being valued and seeking recognition, and provided opportunities for students to showcase their skills and for their expertise to be desired by others (e.g., Elijah). This positively contributed to their confidence and self-worth.

I really love it when you show the compositions to the class because I love seeing other students’ creativity and what they did with the tasks. It’s really fun and you go, “Oh, that’s really cool. I love how they did that and this and….” I just love listening to them because you know that person and you know their personality. You’ve seen them, you’ve talked to them and they’ve created this thing in the same process that you love to create compositions so you can relate strongly with that. (Colton)

These findings reflect the work of Wiggins (2016); learners working together can engage in “group think” and benefit from the perspectives of others.

10.4.2.4 Entangled musical worlds Students in this study viewed their music learning in various settings and environments to overlap and complement each other, combining to shape and support identity work in and through music. These settings and environments included music at home, music with friends, and music at school (class music, one-on-one tuition, ensembles). This is not surprising as class music students were actively encouraged to apply their learning to real life situations beyond the classroom, make personal meaning of their learning, and bring music from other contexts into the classroom, including those in the school co-curricular music program. Adolescent boys were strongly advised to connect learning and AMEB exam repertoire from their performance specialisation one-on-one lessons to their class performance assessment, and likewise for production students to connect their work to composition assessment. This approach led to the rich entanglement of students’ musical worlds. These findings support O’Neill (2017), who proposed, “the boundaries around their particular musical worlds may not be perceived as bounded at all but rather surrounded by a zone of entangled or interwoven pathways” (p. 83).

Despite this entanglement, however, boys were able to articulate aspects of the class music program that shaped and supported their identity work. Class music was a music learning ecology in its own right and provided boys with a central hub to connect the various facets of their musical worlds. These findings elaborate on the research of O’Neill (2017), in that class music in this setting provided students with “an interface between activity, materiality, networks, human agency, and the

207 Analysis, Discussion and Findings construction of identities within the contexts that render young people’s experiences meaningful” (p. 80).

10.4.3 Class music curriculum The class music curriculum, including content and learning experiences, were found to shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work. In this sense, the term “curriculum” is being used to describe the materials (content and resources) the teacher used, rather than government issued curriculum or policy. Three interconnecting themes emerged: diverse music literature; sequentially laying music domains; and diverse and authentic learning experiences.

10.4.3.1 Diverse music literature Music literature and repertoire from a diverse range of Western music styles and genres formed the core of the curriculum in this context. Genres ranged from Australian, Western European and Northern American classical music from the Middle Ages to present, jazz, musical theatre, popular, and electronic music. In Aaron’s words: “You do cover a wide range, you’re never really bias towards one particular type of music and for me that probably a great thing, because we’ve now been able to be exposed to so much.”

While all studied repertoire was selected by the teacher, careful consideration was given to breadth, quality, multiple student identities, and the potential contribution to the development of student musical understanding. The complexity of repertoire was selected to align developmentally with student abilities.

A diverse listening culture in class music contributed to cultivating a high value for “new music” (Austin; previously discussed in Section 10.2.3.2) and shaped and supported adolescent boys’ identity work. Michael called this “expanding my repertoire of music.” For many boys, this resulted in a broadened listening culture and excitement towards discovering new music: “It’s a cool feeling when you find something new that you really enjoy, and you know you are going to enjoy it for a long time” (Austin).

Different music or “the other” exposed students to alternative individual, musical, cultural, and societal perspectives and celebrated difference. Building on this foundation of mutual respect, adolescent boys were encouraged to pursue individualised music interests and passions, supporting and shaping individuals’ identity work. In the case of Blake, this exposure initially disrupted and challenged his existing musical identity and identity work (discussed further in Section 10.4.3.2.3).

208 Analysis, Discussion and Findings Students also had opportunities for performance practice on repertoire of their own choosing around the theme of the unit. They could choose studied or unstudied repertoire to pursue, which often involved informal learning experiences facilitated in the classroom.

Importantly, class music in this setting did not place value on a specific music genre— classical music, jazz, or popular music—but rather diverse music literature. The findings reflect existing music education literature: “The best music learning environment is one rich in a diversity of musics” (Wiggins, 2015, p. 63). Elliott and Silverman (2015) committed themselves to “teaching and learning all forms of music making and listening” (p. 43). Studying multiple music genres catered for multiple musical identities and student interests. This study builds on Willow-Peterson’s (2016) findings where “exposure to the other” contributes to the development of middle school boys’ identity construction and provides elaboration in a senior secondary context.

10.4.3.2 Sequentially layering music domains Class music shaped and supported adolescent boys’ identity work by developing student musical understanding in and through diverse music styles and genres through a process of sequentially layering performance, analysis, and composition learning experiences. The curriculum was not only the subject matter of music literature, but also the process of developing music skills and understanding through repertoire. The process usually began by performing repertoire in various ways as a group and individually, then drawing upon these lived experiences to analyse music, followed by improvisation and composition activities for students to put into practice music ideas investigated or inspired from previous performance and analysis. Figure 10.15 depicts this layering process and provides some further details of this process.

209 Analysis, Discussion and Findings

Diverse music styles and genres Performance

Develop music knowledge and skills Analysis through performance of repertoire Develop knowledge and skills of music elements, compositional devices, Develop music understanding Composition concepts, and style and genre through analysis of repertoire Sing repertoire in words, time names Aurally and/or visually deconstruct and/or solfa as a class, small groups repertoire according to music elements Creation of original music ideas and indivdiually and compositional devices through composition Perform individual part-work including Examine social and historical context Arrange, improvise and compose using sing-and-plays relevant to repertoire studied repertoire as stimulus Perform repertoire on instruments Analyse and evaluate repertoire Listen to, perform and analyse student Listen to expert model performances Synthesis of individual music compositions viewpoints Use music technology—various Develop understanding of music notations and sound recording software terminology and vocabulary and hardware Develop English literacy skills

Figure 10.15. Development of musical understanding in and through diverse music styles and genres through the layering of performance, analysis and composition learning experiences

William said, “I think it’s [class music] very effective because it’s managed to mix the want to go out and play an instrument, and just muck around with music and see what you can create with the theory of music.” This process allowed for students to engage in rich and authentic music making and responding experiences that were multilayered and interconnected. Cuskelly (2009) argued for such an approach, valuing the inherent nature of music, and wrote; “It is important to acknowledge that music is a multifaceted art form that requires high levels of intellectual functioning across a range of seemingly disparate activities” (p. 25). This view is also supported by Elliott and Silverman (2015) who advocated for the valuing of all domains of musicing and listening. In this study, three emerging themes require further elaboration: curriculum-as-practicum; music notation literacy; and disrupting and challenging existing musical identities.

10.4.3.2.1 Curriculum-as-practicum In this research setting, musical learning mostly stemmed from musical performance, with a strong emphasis on singing. Singing was viewed by the teacher as a musical activity in which all students could actively engage, both as a means of performance in itself and the development of common core musical knowledge, skills, and understanding. Repertoire was not limited to vocal music, however included all styles and genres, and instrumental parts were also sung in harmony. Students developed part-work skills and the musical mind through sing-and-plays and small ensemble work. This approach allowed students to experience and “live” the music before delving into related analysis and composition learning activities. Students then applied their common core of

210 Analysis, Discussion and Findings musicianship to their individual instrument specialisations. In this approach, value was placed on the student as musician, and instruments as vehicles for specialised artistic expression.

While some students were more comfortable with singing than others, all students recognised the value of developing their singing ability through real life application. For instance, many students found the value of singing through formation of their own bands (e.g., Tyler). Singing was often connected to developing understanding through tonic solfa and music notation, which aided students’ development of music notation literacy, music theory (particularly harmony, e.g., Michael), and audiation. Initially, for students who missed the beginning years of this approach to class music and immersion in solfa (e.g., Blake who arrived at QBS in Year 10), it was difficult for them to catch up and see its value. Over time, as their skills developed, they articulated the value in its use.

Such an approach is aligned with Kodály-inspired practice and has been documented by Cuskelly (2006) and Young (2017) in other Australian combined primary and secondary schools. This is also in line with Elliott and Silverman’s (2015) view of “curriculum-as-practicum;” they argued that “musical understanding develops best through active music making and listening in curricular situations that teachers deliberately design to approximate (not duplicate) the salient conditions of musically and socially valid musical praxes” (p. 231). Wiggins (2015) argued that “music learning experiences should be designed to enable the nature of the learner’s thinking and acting to parallel what experts in the field actually do” (p. 58). Put simply, do as musicians do.

10.4.3.2.2 Music notation literacy The development of traditional music notation literacy skills was embedded throughout performance, analysis, and composition. Value was placed on students being able to communicate their music ideas and understand others’ through notation. The sophistication and complexity of engagement in notation (e.g., score reading) gradually deepened and broadened over time. Students who began with the class music program in Year 8 and/or learned instruments heavily based on the Western classical tradition, thrived in such an approach.

I think hearing a song in your head is great, it’s all well and good, you might [even] be able to sing it, but without being able to notate it, it’s sort of non-existent. … Just being able to notate it allows for corrections and you can share it if you notate it. Being able to properly notate, you can write exactly what you want to hear. (Conor)

211 Analysis, Discussion and Findings For Blake and Aaron, their struggle with traditional music notation disrupted their identity work in and through music. As boarders from regional areas, they did not have access to primary school music education (class and instrumental) that included the development of traditional music notation skills. When beginning secondary school, they initially struggled to see the value of music notation and resisted engagement. However, at the end of their schooling, both boys expressed regret and a sense of a missed opportunity in not being as proficient in notation as their peers. This has led to some self-doubt and now see value in music notation literacy.

Developing music notation literacy is a key characteristic of Kodály-inspired practice (Houlahan & Tacka, 2015; Kodály, 2019). This study demonstrates that developing music notation literacy in senior secondary class music positively shapes and supports adolescent boys’ identity work.

10.4.3.2.3 Disrupting and challenging existing musical identities While class music supported adolescent boys’ identity work, it also shaped identities. For many boys, class music challenged them to approach music in a broader and deeper way. The class music context challenged students through unfamiliar music making domains. All adolescent boys in the class had individual and/or ensemble performance experience, however in this context very few students were involved in improvising, arranging, and/or composing music. With one third of the state syllabus (The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority), 2013) dedicated to composition, this domain of musicing through class music learning significantly supported and shaped adolescent boys’ identity work. Creating their own music became especially significant for Elijah, Colton, Conor, Aaron, and Blake.

One third of the curriculum was dedicated to analysing repertoire. This inherently gave value to communicating musical understanding using English literacy skills. Students rarely formally studied music that was previously familiar to them and a focus was on broadening student musical perspectives. This proved challenging for boys with limited musical vocabulary and theoretical understanding, and disrupted what they had previously considered of value as a musicians.

Students with limited early music education experienced the most significant identity disruptions and transformative experiences. Blake said class music “made me a different person” when discussing music notation and previously unfamiliar music genres. Aaron is the most significant example of disruption, identifying as first “jock” then “musician,” with class music giving him a reason to attend school. Boys who had predominately engaged in music through performance were

212 Analysis, Discussion and Findings challenged in composition activities: “[Class music] made me try things that I probably wouldn’t have, like composing. I would just never try to compose and I’m glad I have” (Austin), and “[Class music] pushed me in a lot of areas where I wouldn’t otherwise have gone into most likely” (Daniel).

Disruption and challenge are supported in the literature. Wiggins (2016) reminded us that “to learn something new, a learner must be willing to engage above his or her level of competence and comfort” (p. 55). This study demonstrates the positive implications for challenging and disrupting students’ existing musical identities.

10.4.3.3 Diverse and authentic learning experiences The class music program in this context aimed to create authentic music learning experiences by actively entangling the musical worlds of adolescent boys. The application of class music into boys’ lives beyond the classroom granted what the literature describes as “real life” and “authentic” music learning (Elliott & Silverman, 2015; Wiggins, 2015).

Students were actively encouraged to connect learning in the classroom to outside learning (e.g., one-on-one performance and production tuition, school ensembles, and self-teaching). This extension of student learning allowed a core curriculum in the class music program to be enriched further through specialised performance and/or production that students had elected on top of their class music learning. Examples included vocal class music performances by Daniel and William that were supported by one-on-one tuition. The performance of songs that Blake and Aaron composed in their production lessons were further developed in their voice lessons and submitted for classroom assessment. Conor benefitted from his one-on-one drum kit tuition when composing for the production studio and class music. Elijah and Colton used their rich classical performance backgrounds to pursue contemporary composition in their own time. Elijah went a step beyond other members of the class and moved into self-taught music production techniques.

Another example is that Daniel started a vocal a cappella group called the QBS Majors with seven other boys from his year performing contemporary choral arrangements at numerous major music events throughout the year. In many cases, Daniel created the arrangements himself and drew on skills developed in class music.

I think classroom music has really helped me, especially with my composing. If it was not for classroom music I wouldn’t have even tried to arrange pieces for the QBS Majors but now I

213 Analysis, Discussion and Findings really do enjoy putting those pieces together and I think it’s also helped a lot earlier on in Year 10 and 11 with my stage craft in performance. (Daniel)

Students were able to showcase these skills through class music concerts to classmates, families, and friends. They were encouraged to share their compositions and discuss analysing repertoire with each other in their everyday lives. The entanglement went further with Tyler sharing performances with his father’s high school band, Blake releasing music through iTunes, and Aaron through managing external bands. Work developed in this context was also featured in tertiary music auditions and portfolios of Colton, Conor, and Aaron.

The domain of analysing repertoire required students to deconstruct and analyse repertoire and synthesise evaluations. Repertoire was not studied in isolation, and connections were made between repertoire highlighting influences, innovations, and contrasting ideas of styles, genres, and unit themes. Elijah spoke about how analysing repertoire was his second most enjoyable musical activity. Colton also spoke passionately about learning about the social and historical context of music.

I loved Gregorian Chants, so cool, and I loved that Evolution course that we did especially in the beginning parts, seeing how it all progressed from being really simple, no notation. Then as humanity evolves we get all of these bigger kind of instrumentations with still simple music and then the ornamentation of Baroque and then keep on going to the Romantic period. Just this semester looking at then how people are trying to make all these new weird types of music, the rebellion against the conventions which was really interesting as well because now you kind of think philosophically where do we go from here? We’ve got all these huge arrays of genres and all these sub genres that we can use by mashing all this together but finding a new colour—where do we go from here? It’s all so contemporary. It’s great. It’s fascinating. (Colton)

This learning in class music equipped adolescent boys with the confidence and tools to critically analyse and evaluate music in and out of the classroom. Groups of boys—such as Elijah and Colton, and Michael, Tyler, and Austin—spoke of how listening, analysing, and communicating about music became a collaborative social activity that stemmed from class music. These skills were developed in a way that allowed students to become independent, and apply in unfamiliar contexts. They were able to create their own and new music ideas.

214 Analysis, Discussion and Findings As a result of a broad curriculum, consisting of diverse opportunities for musicing and the study of musics, adolescent boys were exposed to a broader range of post-schooling opportunities than they previously “imagined” (Aaron). Participants said, “class music has shown me what I can do” (Aaron) and provided a “a broader perspective on everything you can do.” (Conor). In particular, students were afforded greater insight into the broader definition of being a musician; beyond that of a performer on stage. For boarders, such as Aaron, Hannah acknowledged giving her son access to broader life and career opportunities was a reason they sent their son to boarding school in a capital city. These opportunities assembled models of possible selves, and supported and shaped boys’ identity work. Colton elaborates:

Well [class music] has prompted me to go on to do a course in music because I feel like I didn’t get enough out of it and because I want to learn more. I’ve had these little tastes that I’ve enjoyed and I want to go more in-depth into it…. Class music has motivated me to continue that aspect of music and expand my knowledge. (Colton)

Findings from this study reinforce existing literature advocating for diverse and authentic music learning (Elliott & Silverman, 2015; Wiggins, 2015). Importantly, entangling student musical worlds and the application of music learning to everyday life facilitates the construction of music possible selves. This study provides new knowledge and examples to the field through the perspectives of adolescent boys studying senior secondary class music.

10.5 Other significant findings Other significant findings emerged that were beyond the scope of this study’s research questions, but relevant to shaping and supporting adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music.

10.5.1 The music family script shaped and supported adolescent boys’ identity work The “family script,” notably the music beliefs, values, and uses of parents, siblings, and grandparents, significantly shaped and supported adolescent boys’ identity work. In some cases, these music values were generational. In this study, each family had its own music beliefs, values, and uses, and the replication of the family script ranged from natural adoption through everyday use to deliberate parent intervention. For example, Aaron described the influence of his father’s listening habits at home. His father projected values of listening to a large library of music, modelled listening habits and use of music technologies, and promoted particular genres. In the case of Blake, his parents actively sought out musical opportunities for their son and “pushed [him] to pursue music” (Blake).

215 Analysis, Discussion and Findings With varied levels of success, Laurence deliberately sought to replicate his music values and beliefs in his son and recruited Tyler for his own high-school band. Not all family scripts were positive towards music. Most parents (notably Ella and Anna) of participants in this study deliberately intervened to redirect their sons career pathways away from music. This is explored in Section 10.5.2 in further detail.

Some parents (e.g., May, Ella, and Laurence) spoke of amending their own family scripts in order to allow greater access to music and music education opportunities for their sons. There was generally a high value for music, despite limited music experiences and education in their own learning. Through their own “regrets” (Ella), they did not want their sons to “miss out” (May). This was particularly the case for Ella and May who were schooled overseas with limited access to formal music education. The amending of the family script was also influenced by adolescent boys. May said that by observing the positive influence of class music on Michael, her views towards class music had changed. Elijah disputed his family script and eventually changed his mother Ella’s values towards continuing to study music in senior secondary.

Families also recruited others to continue promoting the family script; most notably in the case of music education and teachers. For some families, this began with formal early childhood music learning, though, by secondary school, all students were involved with one-on-one instrumental, vocal, and/or production tuition in addition to class music. School music education served as a resource for reinforcing the family script, but also resulted in the influence of school and teacher music beliefs, values, and uses. Arguably, in some cases, the school and teacher script overshadowed the family script. This was particularly the case for Aaron and Blake as boarders.

These findings support and build on the work of Borthwick and Davidson (2002) who argued family members provide “the initial blueprint of expectation for musical development” (p. 76) and influence children’s musical identities. They reported that parents, in particular, seek to “replicate” or “amend” their own musical experiences for their children based on their own past levels of musical satisfaction.

10.5.2 Adolescent boys’ identity work is shaped by the conflict between their passion for music and perceived future financial security While parents placed high value on their sons having a music education and music expertise as school students, greater priority was given to professional careers, associated income, and financial security beyond secondary school. As the setting in this study positively shaped and supported

216 Analysis, Discussion and Findings adolescent boy’s musical identities and possible selves through music learning and development, a conflict eventually emerged between most boys’ identity work and passion for music, and their parents’ script and broader societal expectations.

Most parents, particularly those from professional backgrounds, believed music would not provide future financial security for their sons, and their sons’ future families, and that it was easier to produce higher incomes in other industries. Some parents deliberately intervened to reshape their sons’ values towards music and music as a career at the end of secondary school. This conflict played out in different ways for different families. Ella’s intervention reshaped Elijah’s values from “music is everything” to “music is my biggest hobby.” The impact of Anna’s efforts to reshape Conor’s music values resulted in his pursuit of tertiary music being labelled his “gap degree” before studying medicine. Colton also had decided to pursue music as his undergraduate degree before postgraduate medicine, though with family support. Daniel said he decided to pursue a medical science pathway after school, though if more realistic, “I would do [music] in a second:”

I really do enjoy performing and I would love to make a career out of it, but it is an incredibly difficult thing to make a name and really do well in. So, it is a dream and it can seem a bit unrealistic to me because it is so hard to do. (Daniel)

While the end of secondary school may present greater opportunities for adolescents to pursue individual pathways, it is also a time when adolescent boys re-evaluate the role of music in their identity work. Their identity work may be in conflict with their and others’ expectations of adult life and may cause an amendment of their musical identity. This critical stage in their identity work can reshape their values, beliefs, and uses of music and, potentially, have life-lasting consequences.

These findings build on the previous work of Harnischmacher (1997), who reported that music goals and aspirations can sometimes conflict with and be disrupted by others. This study also confirms the findings of Yun Dai and Schader (2002) who reported on the evolving nature of parents’ music learning beliefs and values in correlation to their child’s age and musical development.

10.6 Summary of findings This research study investigated adolescent boys’ music beliefs, values, and identity work in a single-sex independent school. The findings contribute significant new knowledge in understanding adolescent boys’ identity work and the role of class music, and more broadly to the fields of music,

217 Analysis, Discussion and Findings music psychology, and music education. New questions are raised worthy of future research. The following summary of findings directly answers the research questions of this study.

10.6.1 Research Question 1: What are the music beliefs, values, and uses of adolescent boys in a single-sex independent school? The music beliefs, values, and uses of music by adolescent boys in this study were interconnected, individualised, diverse, and are evolving. Their beliefs and values were found to be mental states, inseparable from their behaviours and actions, overlapping and fusing together. They used music for making and managing the self for: autotelic experiences; self-expression and self- concept; self-regulation; and music and musician models. Music was used by adolescent boys to establish, develop, and maintain relationships to be valued by others and make a valuable contribution to others’ lives. Students in this study placed high value on developing proficiency in the discipline of music, consisting of value for music learning; listening to diverse and new music, sound experimentation, and music creation; and, musical expertise independence.

10.6.2 Research Question 2: How do these adolescent boys use music to shape and support their identity work? It was found that the adolescent boys in this study used music in personalised and evolving ways as an ongoing resource to shape and support their musical identities and possible selves. They were found to have multiple and circumstantial musical identities and the extent of their engagement with music and music’s influence varied between individuals, ranging from hobby to holistic. Participants were self-aware and able to identity these differences. They used music as a resource for self-to-self and self-to-others in the construction of their musical identities for the purposes of connectedness and a sense of belonging. Boys used prior musical experiences in music learning and development to inform their present and projected future use of music.

10.6.3 Research Question 3: What aspects of class music in this context shape and support adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music? Students in this study articulated that aspects of school class music had a significant and positive role in shaping and supporting their identity work. The teacher’s professional relationship with the students was a significant factor and students described the teacher as a credible music and ethical model; able to ignite and share passion; and express genuine care towards student learning and well-being. Student flourishing was at the core of the teacher’s philosophy and pedagogy. Musical independence was nurtured through a foundational common core of music knowledge, skills and understanding, and development of students’ abilities to independently think in sound and apply

218 Analysis, Discussion and Findings understanding. Students were empowered with learner agency through the teacher responding to the needs and interests of students and providing opportunities for students to express themselves and have personal choice. An ethical music learning community was nurtured through deliberate ethical lessons, fostering a sense of belonging, facilitating conversations about music, collaborating friendships, and sharing student music. Musical worlds in and out of the classroom were entangled. The curriculum was found to value diverse music literature, sequentially layer music domains; and provide diverse and authentic music learning experiences. Adolescent boys in this study valued a curriculum-as-practicum approach, music notation literacy, and the disruption and challenge of their existing musical identities.

10.6.4 Other significant findings Other significant findings emerged from this study that were beyond the scope of the research questions, though relevant to shaping and supporting adolescent boys’ identity work in and through music. The music family script was found to significantly shape and/or support adolescent boys’ identity work. In nearly all cases, school music education was found to be highly valued but not as highly as a secure financial future as an adult. Related to this finding was the emerging conflict for most students between their passion for music and a pathway to perceived financial insecurity.

The next chapter presents recommendations for practice, policy, and research informed by the findings, and a conclusion to the study.

219 Recommendations and Conclusion 11 Recommendations and Conclusion 11.1 Introduction This study has presented the narratives of ten adolescent boys and made meaning of their music beliefs, values, and identity work. As a case study of music learning and development mediating musical identities, aspects of a class music program were identified that shape and support adolescent boys’ self-concept and connections with others. This research has supported previous findings in the literature and identified new emerging themes that warrant further study. The findings of this study can be used to inform practice and policy. In this chapter, recommendations for practice, policy, and research will be detailed, and a conclusion to the study will be provided.

11.2 Recommendations for Practice This study serves as evidence that music education, particularly class music, has the potential to positively shape and support students’ broader identity work. Adolescent boys and their parents reported the significance of class music in boys’ identity construction as they developed musical independence. Class music acted as a mechanism through which to unite boys’ diverse music education opportunities. The family script was influential in shaping boys’ music beliefs and values. Students and their parents would have potentially benefitted from further music career and pathway advice. Various role models served as templates for possible selves, particularly the model provided by the class music teacher. For these reasons, my recommendations for practice are:

11.2.1 Practice Recommendation 1 Class music should aim to positively shape and support students’ identity work in and through music. Adolescent boys in this study reported the positive role class music had in their past, present, and projected future identity work. I call for class music education to be given serious consideration within the school curriculum and broader community for its potential to shape and support adolescents both musically and personally. There is a need to further understand students as individuals and the personalised and evolving nature of music in their lives. Music education is not only an avenue through which to develop musical understanding, but also a component of a holistic and humanistic education. The characteristics of class music found in this study serve as one possible model of a program, particularly for boys’ education.

11.2.2 Practice Recommendation 2 Class music should aim to nurture students’ musical independence by explicitly developing music knowledge, skills, and understanding. Students in this study described the musical benefits and influence on their identity work they received from a rigorous class music program that explicitly

220 Recommendations and Conclusion aimed to develop music knowledge, skills, and understanding. Music learning and development in this context was not left to chance. By establishing a common core of music skills and understanding, and developing students’ ability to independently think in sound (audiate), students reported a sense of musical independence. While not guaranteed, this personal independence presents individuals with potentially more meaningful opportunities for lifelong engagement and participation in and through music.

11.2.3 Practice Recommendation 3 Class music becomes a connecting hub for diverse school music education opportunities. This case study highlighted the various and entangled ways in which school music education (class, ensemble, studio, and informal) can shape and support personalised and evolving adolescent identity work. The class music program in this study became the central hub connecting the diverse music learning and development opportunities in adolescents’ lives. While such an approach is dependent on the support of curriculum and co-curriculum staff and program structures, it has the potential to further positively influence adolescents’ identity work.

11.2.4 Practice Recommendation 4 Schools provide specialised music pathway and career education to students and their families. This study highlighted the significance of the family script and values towards music in students’ lives after school and as a career pathway. Students in this study reported that class music broadened their understanding of music in their lives and for potential careers. It is recommended that explicit music pathway and career education is provided to students and their parents. Programs should illustrate that the choice to study music also complements and supports a non-music career pathway. Pathway and career education could be embedded as part of the class music program, or as a broader approach to careers education in the arts and creative industries. Careers education and subject selection should also be flexible enough to cater for the evolving nature of identity work, rather than locking students into a set pathway.

11.2.5 Practice Recommendation 5 Teacher education programs prepare future music specialists as credible music and ethical models. This study showcased the significant influence of both positive and negative role models on adolescents’ projections of their possible selves. Adolescents used others, including family, peers, celebrities, and teachers—particularly the class music teacher—as templates for their identity work. To shape and support positive identity work in and through music, it is imperative that class music teachers receive an initial teacher education that prepares them to be positive music and ethical

221 Recommendations and Conclusion models. Importantly for initial teacher education programs, it is recommended that future music teachers in all school settings (early childhood, primary, and secondary) embody exemplary music skills, knowledge, and understanding.

11.3 Recommendations for Policy The findings of this study demonstrate the potential for music education to positively shape and support the identity work of children and young people. Despite all schools in Queensland being reported as offering music (Pascoe et al., 2005), equitable access to quality music education remains a significant issue in Australia, where 62.74% of primary and 33.78% of secondary schools do not offer class music (Petrova, 2012). An inquiry into music education by the Parliament of Victoria (2013) found grouping music into an Arts curriculum has placed strain on some schools’ abilities to deliver music education. The musical beginnings of participants in this study draw attention to the importance of early childhood music education. While the Early Years Learning Framework for Australia (Department of Education, 2009) provides a national early childhood education framework, music education hardly rates a mention (Abad, 2017). Furthermore, this study found the class music teacher to have a significant role in the development of musical identities and broader identity work. The need to improve music teacher education in Australia is prominent in recent government reviews, particularly in regards to early childhood and primary school settings (Parliament of Victoria, 2013; Pascoe et al., 2005). With current state government (Government of South Australia, 2018) and national media (Westh, 2018) initiatives shining a spotlight on music education, now is the time to review and revise national and state policy pertaining to the delivery of music education in schools, early childhood centres, and initial music teacher education programs. For these reasons, my recommendations for policy are as follows.

11.3.1 Policy Recommendation 1 Government policy is established to ensure all Australian primary and lower secondary school students have access to a sequential class music education delivered by a specialist music teacher. The Australian Curriculum: The Arts (Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority, 2016) intends to provide all Australian students with an Arts education, though the suite of five subjects are implemented in various forms across the country. This study demonstrates the implications of an absent specialist primary school music education (e.g., in the cases of Blake and Aaron) and the potential of secondary school music education. All students in primary and lower secondary school deserve access to a sequential specialist music education. This study serves as an example case for primary and secondary school music education.

222 Recommendations and Conclusion

11.3.2 Policy Recommendation 2 Early childhood education policy provides provision and standards for all young children to have access to a Music Early Learning Program (MELP). All adolescent boys and their parents in this study reported the positive impact of musical beginnings in early childhood through various means, such as music at home and through formal MELPs. This study adds to the growing literature on the benefits of music in early childhood education. Guidelines and policy for early childhood education currently do not adequately address music in the curriculum (Abad, 2017), and this should be rectified. Barrett et al. (2018) argue that “music should be an integral feature of policy and practice in the early years, both in its own right and also for its power to support young children’s wider development at home and in(to) school” (p. 239). All young Australian children deserve to access an early childhood music education.

11.3.3 Policy Recommendation 3 National minimum hours for specialist early childhood, primary, and secondary music education courses are established for tertiary initial teacher education degree programs. This study demonstrates the importance of specialist music teacher credibility and expertise in shaping and supporting student identity work in and through music. Not only is there disparity in access to music education in schools, but also in tertiary initial teacher education programs. In my undergraduate studies at the University of Queensland, I received 104 hours of specialist class music teacher education (Stevens, 2003) along with other specialist music courses in performance, conducting, arranging, and musicianship. Numerous reports (Pascoe et al., 2005; Petrova, 2012; Stevens, 2003) detail far fewer hours dedicated to tertiary music teacher education courses and music education that is delivered as part of arts education courses. These reports also note a downward trend in the number of hours dedicated to music education in Australian universities to make way for other curriculum priorities. This is despite Education Queensland, the largest employer of teachers in the state, defining primary and secondary music, physical education, and/or LOTE teachers as the only specialist teaching roles in their employment award (Teaching in State Education Award - State 2016, 2016). The accreditation of teacher education programs in Australia is overseen by the Australian Institute for Teaching and School Leadership (AITSL) and its state representative bodies. It is recommended that these bodies and universities recognise the need for music education specialists and set appropriate minimum hours for initial music teacher education.

11.4 Recommendations for Research The field of musical identities has flourished since I began this research project, with the publication of numerous significant articles and the Oxford Handbook of Musical Identities

223 Recommendations and Conclusion (MacDonald et al., 2017). This study identified emerging themes that were not readily available in the literature and that warrant further research. For these reasons, my recommendations for research are:

11.4.1 Research Recommendation 1 The interplay between past, present, and projected uses of music are investigated, and how these uses shape and support the identity work of adolescents transitioning to adulthood. The musical identities of adolescent boys in this study were influenced by the interconnecting relationships of their past, present, and projected uses of music. The examination of these relationships may help schools and teachers nurture positive musical identities that prepare adolescents for lifelong and meaningful music engagement beyond their schooling experience.

11.4.2 Research Recommendation 2 The identity work of children and adolescents studying school class music education in diverse settings is further examined. This study has highlighted the significance of class music on adolescent boys’ identity work in senior secondary school and paves the way for future research in this area. The field would benefit from investigating Australian programs and participants from diverse settings, considering, for example: co-ed and single-sex schools; year levels; sex and gender; race, religion and cultural heritage; social-economic status; state, independent, and religiously-affiliated schools; city, regional, and remote settings; and primary and secondary schools. Comparisons between students having received extensive formal music education and those without would further contribute to the field. Findings would be beneficial to nurturing diverse musical identities through school class music.

11.4.3 Research Recommendation 3 How the entanglement of school music teachers and learning experiences shape and support student identity work is studied. While adolescent boys in this study were able to articulate views on class music, often these experiences were entangled with other school music teachers and learning experiences such as ensemble, studio lessons, and informal opportunities both at school and beyond. In this study, class music acted as a hub connecting these diverse experiences of the individual and those of other individuals. Further examination of how different teachers and opportunities in school music education can interact and benefit one another would have positive outcomes on musical development and identity work.

224 Recommendations and Conclusion

11.4.4 Research Recommendation 4 The role of music identity work in broader identity theory is researched. This study makes a significance contribution to research, not only to the music identity field, but also to broader psychosocial development and learning. Participants in this study offered perspectives on how music has positively shaped and supported their identity more broadly. The potential of music identity to positively shape and support individuals’ and communities’ broader identity work requires further investigation.

11.4.5 Research Recommendation 5 The competing priorities of the family script and the implications on musical identities and broader identity work are further examined. This study drew attention to the music beliefs and values of parents and families, and the subsequent influence on their sons. In all cases, there was a high value placed on music education and expertise for boys during school, however less so as young adults. Some parents went to great lengths to intervene in senior secondary to amend the family script which resulted in boys being conflicted between the desire to follow their music passion and perceived financial insecurity if they did so. Further examination of the family script and family music values would allow families and schools to better support students in their identity work.

11.4.6 Research Recommendation 6 The role of teacher as researcher is further studied. The teacher as researcher in this study provided a rich form of critical reflection and professional development not normally available in the daily work of education. The relationships strengthened through data collection and the generated insight of student and parent perspectives surpassed my expectations. Some of the answers to interview questions provided by students would arguably not have been collected by research “strangers.” Further investigation is required into how best to support teachers as researchers and to ensure their research is credible, achievable, empowering, and positively impactful.

11.4.7 Research Recommendation 7 “Draw and tell” artefact elicitation techniques with adolescents and adults for generating data are further investigated. Semi-structured interviews incorporating a “draw and tell” artefact elicitation technique were conducted with all adolescent boys and their parents in the study. This data collection technique was used to provide participants with a stimulus to discuss their points of view. The data generated were rich, resulting in lengthy prose and deeply insightful responses to questions that asked participants to first draw a response and then discuss their drawing. This artefact elicitation technique could prove useful for studies in other fields and with other age groups.

225 Recommendations and Conclusion

11.5 Conclusion This study has examined adolescent boys’ music beliefs, values, and identity work in a single- sex independent school. The narratives and findings from this research are significant and contribute new knowledge to the fields of music, music education, and music psychology. It was found that adolescent boys in this study embed and embody their music beliefs, values, and uses. They use music for making and managing the self, forming and maintaining relationships with others, and developing musical expertise. Boys’ personalised past, present, and projected future music learning and behaviours shape and support their evolving identity construction. Music learning and development in this setting nurtures positive musical identities, highlighting the significant potential and responsibility of school music education programs. This study documents aspects of school class music that positively shape and support adolescents’ identity work, notably the teacher-student relationship, philosophy and pedagogy, and curriculum. The findings of this study have led to recommendations for practice and policy, and raise new questions for future research investigations.

The next chapter presents an epilogue of the adolescent boys and researcher at the conclusion of this study.

226 Epilogue Epilogue Several years have passed since the ten adolescent boys in this study graduated secondary school. They have all celebrated their 21st birthdays, their paths have diverged, and they are living lives as young men. While their uses of music have evolved over this time, their past experiences— including those from class music—and future musical aspirations continue to support and shape their identity work. This chapter briefly reports on the participants and researcher at the conclusion of this investigation.

~

After graduating secondary school, Aaron began a Bachelor of Music Technology degree at the state conservatorium. He enjoyed collaborating, being creative with and inspired by other people, and felt confident with the skills he learned at school, however, after the first semester deferred his study indefinitely. Aaron says he found the teaching and learning strategies used in his general schooling and tertiary education did not work for him, and describes himself as someone who prefers to learn through doing: “falling over and trying again.” Since this time, he has been working full- time and for the past year has been living in Sydney. Aaron plays guitar almost every day, teaching and challenging himself with covers and creating his own music. His music making has been a familiar constant in his life and has helped him deal with moving to a new city. He would still love to fulfil his dream to run a recording studio but has concerns about the financial security and challenges of this pathway. Despite music being only a hobby in his life, Aaron still considers himself a musician.

Austin is in his fifth year studying a dual Bachelor of Engineering (Honours) and Master of Engineering majoring in Software Engineering. He has not played either saxophone or bass for about a year but does intend to revisit these instruments in the future. Austin has wanted to join a band but has not found a group with the right fit. He says they are either too serious or not serious enough. “I very much wish to keep playing music throughout my life, but the joy of music for me stemmed from creating something truly great as a group, and hence being unable to find a group to play with limits my motivation.” Austin uses his analysis skills from class music in his everyday listening and communication about music. His lasting lesson from class music comes from the analysis and the ability to find greater meaning in music in relation to the broader social-cultural context. He keeps in contact with Michael and Tyler from class, and they still talk about music casually. Austin says he will always listen to and enjoy music as a significant part of his life, however he is unsure what role

227 Epilogue music making will have for him. He would like to think he will return to music, as the social and creative outlets it provides are something he misses.

Blake was driving a tractor on the family farm when I spoke to him recently. After school, he completed a four-year diesel fitting apprenticeship incorporating travel around Australia. Since last year he has been working on the family farm in charge of cattle movement in the feedlot across a nine-property mixed farming operation. Blake continues to write songs, sing, and play guitar, along with some dabbling on keyboard and drum kit. When he finished school, he attended the Tamworth Junior Country Academy leading to the Tamworth Country Music Festival. He worked with Lee Kernigan again, which boosted his confidence and industry contacts. At the time of calling, Blake said just last month he played at the local pub, and his mates came to support him. This happens several times a year, and, when at parties, Blake shamelessly approaches the band and tries to be involved. At home, when his younger brother returns from boarding at QBS, they enjoy making music together. Reflecting on class music, he remembers the talent of the other boys and is thankful for being pushed to read music notation. Blake has spent the last years focussing on his diesel apprenticeship and is now looking for opportunities to continue his musical aspirations. He has written new songs and just needs to record them. He will soon travel to Melbourne to attend a Luke Combs concert who is an American country artist. Later in the year, he is travelling to Canada for three months for work, where he hopes he might have a chance to fulfil his dream of visiting Nashville.

Since school, Colton has completed a four-year Bachelor of Music (Honours) degree majoring in Composition, and continues to sing, and play clarinet. He fills in for singers in local cathedral choirs, and continues to tour as part of a nationally recognised choral organisation. I attended his Honours presentation; in his study Colton investigated the emotions conveyed to listeners by rock music. Colton has composed for various genres (classical and contemporary) and has had his work performed by various local ensembles and musicians. He has also recorded and produced his own music and recently released an 11-minute progressive rock song featuring Daniel as the lead vocalist. Colton says his lasting memory from class music was the joy he experienced as part of his group band, and singing duet performances. His tertiary music studies have allowed him to develop his music expertise, resulting in more meaningful music collaborations and compositions. True to his plan, he recently began study towards a Doctor of Medicine degree. He works as an assistant for ophthalmologists, and tutors indigenous boarding students at QBS. Despite his study focus now shifting, he intends for music to remain a large part of his immediate future. He says he will audition for a community orchestra, continue singing in cathedral choirs, touring, writing songs, and

228 Epilogue collaborating with friends. He plans to be heavily involved in the Med Revue,58 including arranging music.

Conor says he has not gone a day without music since leaving school. He completed a three- year Bachelor of Music majoring in Sound Production, though felt unfulfilled by this study and wanted to be further challenged. In his final year of study, I employed Conor to teach production lessons and classes at my new school. To his surprise, he found genuine satisfaction in connecting with young people and helping his students succeed. Conor now says that Music was never his gap degree before Medicine, but rather a gap degree to find out who he was. He discovered a passion for music theatre and became involved in local amateur productions. He later auditioned around the country for courses and is now in his second year of studying a Bachelor of Music Theatre interstate. Conor says the course “fits so much better,” as the expected musical standard is uncompromising. For the past couple of years, he has been writing and workshopping a musical about hypermasculinity and boys’ mental health. He says that it is based on his personal experience; all of the characters represent an aspect of his high school identity. His family remain hesitant to support his lifestyle and career, and to this Conor responds, “this is me.” He has, however, been invited by his mother to lead music workshops for her senior students. Conor’s dream is now to perform on Broadway six times per week. He says that, ultimately, his immediate focus is on enjoying his life. Without prompting, he quoted his high school self, “As long as there is music in my life, I will be happy.”

Daniel is currently in his second year of Doctor of Medicine studies, having previously completed undergraduate studies in Biomedical Science, which included an international exchange to the U.S. He works casually as a tutor, both privately and at QBS. Daniel continues to sing, and last year featured on a recording of music composed by Colton and performed in the Med Revue, an annual music production by medical students. He has also joined a local a cappella group which is available to hire. Building on his work from school, he has started arranging popular music for the group. Daniel says he remembers class music fondly and is enjoying using his music expertise to pursue arranging and group music performances. He says he uses music as a mental health break and a reprieve from study. “I find it very effective in improving my mood and bringing joy to my life.”

Elijah is currently studying a Doctor of Medicine degree. He continues to play the piano and guitar, leisurely, and sings in the shower and car. He still analyses music whenever he listens to new songs and soundtracks. Lately, he has been analysing the designs behind various game soundtracks

58 School of Medicine annual production.

229 Epilogue he has grown fond of. Elijah composes whenever he is in the mood and finds the time. Contrary to his experience in high school, he says he analyses music more than he composes nowadays. Elijah says there are many reasons for him not having pursued music too heavily at uni: “I’ve enjoyed pursuing my interests in other things and placed much less of a priority on my musical development. I find myself interested in genres and aspects of music that ensembles or most groups do not focus on. Perhaps as a result of these reasons, I’ve found myself less enthusiastic about music in group settings and more so enjoyed music in my own personal setting.” There are no definite plans for how Elijah envisions he will use music in future, and he is content to let things come as they may for now.

Michael is in his second year of postgraduate medical study. He works part time as an anatomy tutor and a scribe for an ENT59 surgeon. Michael took a break from music after high school, only playing “sporadically if I heard a cool sax part in a song.” He says he stopped playing as he felt burned out after playing continuously from Year 3. After a while, he began to miss playing and, last year, he played again for 2 months when a few of his medical student friends formed a big band for a charity gala. He says the quality of the band was quite high being filled with “over-achievers.” He realised, from his experience of this event, that he does miss playing music, and seeing others who continued to develop their musical expertise after graduating school left him with a sense of regret. He plans to play saxophone again for the next annual charity gala, and aims to play more whenever there is an opportunity. Michael is also interested in the idea of sound production, having watched some online videos. As a result, he’s downloaded some software and is ready to begin experimenting with it. In reflection, he says the best part of class music was broadening his understanding of music and spending time with his mates. Michael keeps in contact with Tyler and Austin, and says music is a big talking point with them and his friendship circles in general, whether this be about a new album or some event. He also listened to Daniel sing at a recent medical charity event. In his musical future, Michael intends to continue using music to wind down, and keep music as a big part of his friendships.

Tyler is in his second to last year of studying a dual Bachelor of Laws and Bachelor of Business degree while working full-time as an assistant for a barrister. He still plays guitar occasionally, and sometimes goes out to Midland with his father to play in his father’s band at the local pubs and at other events. However, he says he has definitely been playing less the last year or two than he was at the start of university. This has changed from his time at school, when he was playing a lot more with the big band and concert band and in class music, with group performances for assessment. He says the reason for this is probably the lack of structure around learning and

59 Ear, nose, and throat.

230 Epilogue playing music after school and, as time as has gone on, he has naturally drifted away from some of the people he used to play with. Tyler’s lasting memory from class music is the fun he had playing music and learning songs in groups as part of the performance assessments. Tyler is satisfied with how he uses music in his life and music will continue to be a hobby. He hopes to continue playing guitar at home on occasion, and would still like to have piano lessons.

William is in his final year studying a dual degree in Fashion and Law. He is the only person studying Fashion Law at his university and is particularly interested in sustainability and social issues in this area. He works as a part-time undergraduate researcher at the university and as a paralegal at a local insurance law firm. William initially began a single degree in Law and says he found its competitive nature challenging; he struggled to conform to the status quo. He felt he was compromising his identity and it was only when he also began studying fashion that he was able to stay true to his personality and express himself creatively. “I enjoy the self-expression, telling the story of who you are and what you want to be, the noises and statement you can make.” William does not know where his flute and bass are currently stored, though says he engages with music more now than ever before. “I use music all the time to improve my mood, lift me up, empower me, inspire me, and shape how I am feeling.” He sees links between fashion and music and says fashion is often used to visually represent music. William has his sights set on a career in fashion law and is excited by the prospect of living overseas in New York or London.

~

In the years since beginning doctoral studies, I have grown immensely on this journey professionally and personally. Not only have I investigated the role of music in the lives of students and parents closely, but have also, in the process, questioned my perspectives and practice. My personal beliefs and values have been challenged and, at times, disrupted. New curiosities and questions have emerged, and I am eager to continue searching for answers. This study has helped me begin re-evaluating who I am and what is important to me. On this journey, I have been reminded that music is significant in my identity work, and I am passionate about others learning in and through music.

This research project has brought much more personal meaning to me and my participants than I originally envisaged. I have been reflecting and crafting stories of boys’ lifeworlds for nearly 7 years. I know their stories at a moment in time perhaps better than they can remember, and our relationships have continued beyond the school gates. My study has been enriched by continuing to

231 Epilogue teach full-time in schools, resulting in daily reflexivity between practice and research. I have learnt to value and actively seek out the student voice. Not only did the meaning of music to boys surpass my expectations, but also their ability to articulate sophisticated reflections on music in their identity work. The influence of music at home and prior to school was more significant than I anticipated. Similarly, so was the conflict between future musical aspirations and the desire for financial security.

Just as the boys in this study have moved on from QBS, so have I. I am now employed as a Head of Faculty at a new combined primary and secondary Catholic boys’ school, similar to my own high school. While this school’s educational values have a different emphasis to QBS and students generally come from families of a different social-economic status, it is my observation that the findings in this study are directly transferrable to this context. Music can play a significant role in boys’ identity work, and success in music learning is meaningful and contagious. The epilogue stories of the participants in this study reveal music continues to feature in their lives beyond school. Music is not an end itself but a component of a fully rounded and humanistic education.

In the next chapter of my journey, I plan to continue living, working, and developing as a musician, music teacher, music researcher and musical person. This study has opened a world of exciting curiosities, and its conclusion allows for personal rejuvenation and new professional opportunities. In my future, I intend to prioritise music. I plan to continue developing as a singer and choral director. I will keep listening to new live and acoustic music, and being inspired by the artistry of others. I will continue to refine and share my teaching as a means to guide others in their own music learning and development. I am eager to continue reading, thinking, discussing, and researching music and music education. I am passionate about being an advocate for the right of all peoples to have opportunities for music in their lives and access to music education. While the role of music in my life will no doubt continue to evolve, I am certain it will always be part of who I am.

232 References References Abad, V. S. A. (2017). Music Early Learning Programs: Parental beliefs, aspirations and participation. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Ádám, J. (1971). Growing in music with movable do. (G. Peterson, Ed., L. L. Boros, J. Held, & L. Munkachy, Trans., Vol. 1). New York, NY: Pannonius Central Service. Adler, A. H. W. (2012). Rediscovering musical identity through narrative in pre-service teacher education. In M. S. Barrett & S. L. Stauffer (Eds.), Narrative soundings: An anthology of narrative inquiry in music education (pp. 161–178). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Adler, A. H. W. (2003, June 26–29). Let the boys sing and speak: Masculinities and boys’ stories of singing in school. Paper presented at Sharing the Voices: The Phenomenon of Singing IV, St. John’s, Newfoundland, Canada. Adler, A. H. W., & Harrison, S. D. (2004). Swinging back the gender pendulum: Addressing boys’ needs in music education research and practice. In Research to practice: A biennial series: Questioning the music education paradigm. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Music Educators Association. Allers, R., & Minkoff, R. (Directors) (1994). The lion king [Film]. Walt Disney Pictures; Walt Disney Animation Studios. Ashley, M. (2008). Teaching singing to boys and teenagers: The young male voice and the problem of masculinity. Ceredigion, Wales: Edwin Mellen Press. Ashley, M. (2009). How high school boys sing? Gender, authenticity and credibility in the young male voice. London, England: Ashgate. Ashley, M. (2010). Slappers who gouge your eyes: Vocal performance as exemplification of disturbing inertia in gender equality. Gender and Education, 22(1), 47–62. Ashley, M. (2011). The angel enigma: Experienced boy singers’ perceptual judgements of changing voices. Music Education Research, 13(3), 343–354. Australia Council for the Arts. (2017). Connecting Australians: Results of the National Arts Participation Survey. Sydney, Australia: Australia Council for the Arts. Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. (2015). My school. Retrieved from http://www.myschool.edu.au Australian Curriculum, Assessment and Reporting Authority. (2016). Australian Aurriculum: The Arts. Retrieved from http://www.australiancurriculum.edu.au/the-arts/curriculum/f-10 Bach, J. S. (1966). Lute Suite in E Minor, BWV 996: Bourée [Music recorded by J. Bream]. On Bach: Lute Suites nos. 1 & 2. RCA Victor. Bachmann, M.-L. (1991). Dalcroze today: An education through and into music. Oxford, England: Clarendon Press.

233 References Bahn, S., & Barratt-Pugh, L. (2013). Getting reticent young male participants to talk: Using artefact- mediated interviews to promote discursive interaction. Qualitative Social Work, 12(2), 186– 199. doi:10.1177/1473325011420501 Baker, J. S. (2014). Learning, identity work, and music use in young garage bands. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Ballantyne, J. (2000). Senior classroom music: Factors influencing subject choice. Queensland Journal of Music Education, 7(1), 39–58. Ballantyne, J. (2007). Documenting praxis shock in early-career Australian music teachers: The impact of pre-service teacher education. International Journal of Music Education, 25(3), 181–191. doi:10.1177/0255761407083573 Ballantyne, J., Kerchner, J. L., & Aróstegui, J. L. (2012). Developing music teacher identities: An international multi-site study. International Journal of Music Education, 30(3), 211–226. doi:10.1177/0255761411433720 Barone, T. E. (2000). Aesthetics, politics, and educational inquiry: Essays and examples. New York, NY: Peter Lang. Barrett, J. R., McCoy, C. W., & Veblen, K. K. (1997). Sound ways of knowing: Music in the multidisciplinary curriculum. New York, NY: Schirmer Books. Barrett, M. S. (2011). Musical narratives: A study of a young child’s identity work in and through music-making. Psychology of Music, 39(4), 403–423. doi:10.1177/0305735610373054 Barrett, M. S. (2011). Towards a cultural psychology of music education. In M. S. Barrett (Ed.), A cultural psychology of music education (pp. 1–15). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Barrett, M. S. (2016). Attending to “culture in the small:” A narrative analysis of the role of play, thought and music in young children’s world-making. Research Studies in Music Education, 38(1), 41–54. doi:10.1177/1321103x15603557 Barrett, M. S. (2017a). From small stories: Laying the foundations for narrative identities in and through music. In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Handbook of musical identities (pp. 63–78). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Barrett, M. S. (2017b). Policy and the lives of school-age children. In P. Schmidt & P. Colwell (Eds.), Policy and the political life of music education. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Barrett, M. S., Everett, M. C., & Smigiel, H. M. (2012). Meaning, value and engagement in the arts: Findings from a participatory investigation of young Australian children’s perceptions of the arts. International Journal of Early Childhood, 44(2), 185–201. doi:10.1007/s13158-012- 0059-9

234 References Barrett, M. S., Flynn, L. M., & Welch, G. F. (2018). Music value and participation: An Australian case study of music provision and support in early childhood education. 40(2), 226–243. doi:10.1177/1321103x18773098 Barrett, M. S., & Mills, J. (2009). The inter‐reflexive possibilities of dual observations: An account from and through experience. International Journal of Qualitative Studies in Education, 22(4), 417–429. doi:10.1080/09518390802448549 Barrett, M. S., & Smigiel, H. M. (2003). Awakening the “sleeping giant?:” The arts in the lives of Australian families. International Journal of Education and the Arts, 4(4). Available from http://ijea.asu.edu/v4n4/ Barrett, M. S., & Smigiel, H. M. (2007). Children’s perspectives of participation in music youth arts settings: Meaning, value and participation. Research Studies in Music Education, 28(1), 39– 50. doi:10.1177/1321103x070280010204 Barrett, M. S., & Stauffer, S. L. (2009). Narrative inquiry in music education. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Barrett, M. S., & Stauffer, S. L. (2012). Narrative soundings: An anthology of narrative inquiry in music education. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Bennetts, K. S. (2013). Boys’ music? School context and middle-school boys’ musical choices. Music Education Research, 15(2), 214–230. Black Sabbath. (1970). War pigs [Song]. On Paranoid. Vertigo. Blair, D. V. (2009). Stepping aside: Teaching in a student-centered music classroom. Music Educators Journal, 95(3), 42–45. doi:10.1177/0027432108330760 Bonar, C. M. (2017). Toward meaningful music education in the middle school music classroom: An action research project. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia. Borthwick, S. J., & Davidson, J. W. (2002). Developing a child’s identity as a musician: A family “script” perspective. In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Musical identities (pp. 60–78). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Bowman, W. D. (2018). Music’s place in education. In G. E. McPherson & G. F. Welch (Eds.), Music and music education in people’s lives (Vol. 1, pp. 19–37). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Brice, L. (2012). I drive your truck [Song]. On Hard 2 Love. Curb. Bridges, D. (1980). Outcomes of a developmental music program. Bulletin of the Kodály Education Institute of Australia, 5(1), 7. Brinkmann, S., & Kvale, S. (2015). InterViews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing (3rd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

235 References Bruner, J. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. Cambridge, MA: Hardvard University Press. Bublé, M. (2005a). Feeling good [Song]. On It’s time. 143; Reprise. Bublé, M. (2005b). Home [Song]. On It’s time. 143; Reprise. Buck, C., & Lee, J. (Directors) (2013). Frozen [Film]. Walt Disney Pictures; Walt Disney Animation Studios. Campbell, D. L. (2009). Relationships among middle school students’ music possible self beliefs and their music participation. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Pennsylvania State University, Ann Arbor, MI. Campbell, P. S. (1998). Songs in their heads: Music and its meaning in children’s lives. Cary, NC: Oxford University Press. Campbell, P. S. (2002). The musical cultures of children. In L. Bresler & C. Marme Thompson (Eds.), The arts in children’s lives: Context, culture, and curriculum (pp. 57–69). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Campbell, P. S. (2008). Musician and teacher: An orientation to music education. New York, NY: W. W. Norton. Campbell, P. S., Connell, C., & Beegle, A. (2007). Adolescents’ expressed meanings of music in and out of school. Journal of Research in Music Education, 55(3), 220–236. doi:10.2307/4543122 Carlin, J. L. (1997). The issue of music in schools: An “unfinished symphony?” Journal of Aesthetic Education, 31(1), 57–62. doi:10.2307/3333471 Carlisle, S., & Simon, G. M. (2012). Believing selves: Negotiating social and psychological experiences of belief. Ethos, 40(3), 221–236. doi:10.1111/j.1548-1352.2012.01255.x Carroll, A. E. (1985). A Queensland connection with the work of Zoltán Kodály. In L. Vikár (Ed.), Reflections on Kodály (pp. 32–39). Budapest, Hungary: Editio Musica Budapest. Choksy, L. (1999a). The Kodály method I: Comprehensive music education (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Choksy, L. (1999b). The Kodály method II: Folksong to masterwork. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Choksy, L., Abramson, R. M., Gillespie, A. E., Woods, D., & York, F. (2001). Teaching music in the twenty-first century (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative inquiry: Experience and story in qualitative research. San Franciso, CA: Jossey-Bass. Clayton, M. (2016). The social and personal functions of music in cross-cultural perspective. In S. Hallam, I. Cross, & M. Thaut (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of music psychology (2nd ed., pp. 47–59). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

236 References Cleaver, D. (2004). Illuminating musical lifeworlds: Phenomenological narratives of the musical life worlds of five senior secondary school students. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia. Cleaver, D. (2009). Storying the musical lifeworld: Illumination through narrative case study. In M. S. Barrett & S. L. Stauffer (Eds.), Narrative inquiry in music education: Troubling certainty. Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Cleaver, D., & Ballantyne, J. (2014). Teachers’ views of constructivist theory: A qualitative study illuminating relationships between epistemological understanding and music teaching practice. International Journal of Music Education, 32(2), 228–241. doi:10.1177/0255761413508066 Cohen, L., Manion, L., & Morrison, K. (2011). Research methods in education (7th ed.). Oxon, England: Routledge. Colville Fletcher, J. (2015). Religious music in everyday life: Adolescents’ identity work in Catholic schooling. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Comber, C., Hargreaves, D. J., & Colley, A. (1993). Girls, boys and technology in music education. British Journal of Music Education, 10(02), 123–134. doi:10.1017/S0265051700001583 Cooksey, J. M., & Welch, G. F. (1998). Adolescence, singing development and national curricula design. British Journal of Music Education, 15(1), 99–119. doi:10.1017/S026505170000379X Costa-Giomi, E. (2012). Music instruction and children’s intellectual development: The educational context of music participation. In R. A. R. MacDonald, G. Kreutz, & L. Mitchell (Eds.), Music, health and wellbeing (pp. 339–356). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Creedence Clearwater Revival. (1969). Bad moon rising [Song]. On Green River. Fantasy. Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Crooke, A. H. D., & McFerran, K. S. (2015). Barriers and enablers for implementing music in Australian schools: The perspective of four principals. British Journal of Education, Society & Behavioural Science, 7(1), 21–41. Cross, I. (2016). The nature of music and its evolution. In S. Hallam, I. Cross, & M. Thaut (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of music psychology (2nd ed., pp. 3–17). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Crystal Fighters. (2011). At home [Song]. On Star of love. Zirkulo Records. Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1990). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York, NY: Harper Perennial.

237 References Cuskelly, J. (2006). The search for meaning in music education: Reflections on difference and practice. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Cuskelly, J. (2009). Music education, rigour and higher order thinking: Unique contributions from the Kodály Approach. Australian Kodály Journal, 25–29. Daddy Cool. (1971). Eagle rock [Song]. On Daddy who? Daddy Cool. Sparmac; Wizard. Davidson, J. W., Moore, D. G., Sloboda, J. A., & Howe, M. J. A. (1998). Characteristics of music teachers and the progress of young instrumentalists. Journal of Research in Music Education, 46(1), 141–160. doi:10.2307/3345766 Davis, M. (1994). Folk music psychology. The Psychologist, 7(12), 537. Deep Purple. (1972). Smoke on the water [Song]. On Machine head. Purple; Warner Bros. DeNora, T. (1999). Music as a technology of the self. Poetics, 27(1), 31–56. doi:10.1016/S0304- 422X(99)00017-0 DeNora, T. (2000). Music in everyday life. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2011). Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (4th ed., pp. 1–20). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Department of Education, Employment and Workplace Relations. (2009). Belonging, being and becoming: The Early Years Learning Framework. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government. Dillon, S. (2007). Music, meaning and transformation. Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars. Dragon. (1977). April sun in Cuba [Song]. On Running free. Portrait Records. Duckworth, A. L. (2016). Grit: The power of passion and perseverance. New York, NY: Scribner. Duckworth, A. L., Peterson, C., Matthews, M. D., & Kelly, D. R. (2007). Grit: Perseverance and passion for long-term goals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92(6), 1087–1101. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.92.6.1087 Dweck, C., S. (2006). Mindset: The new psychology of success. New York, NY: Ballantine. Dwyer, R. M. (2012). Music teachers’ values and beliefs: Narrative case studies of music education. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Dys, S. P., Schellenberg, E. G., & McLean, K. C. (2017). Musical identities, music preferences, and individual differences. In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Handbook of musical identities (pp. 247–266). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Eder, D., & Fingerson, L. (2003). Interviewing children and adolescents. In J. A. Holstein & J. F. Gubrium (Eds.), Inside interviewing: New lenses, new concerns (pp. 33–50). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

238 References Eliot, L. (2009). Pink brain, blue brain: How small differences grow into troublesome gaps—and what we can do about it. Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Elliott, D. J. (1995). Music matters: A new philosophy of music education. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Elliott, D. J. (2009). Praxial music education: Reflections and dialogues. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Elliott, D. J. (2012). Another perspective: Music education as/for artistic citizenship. Music Educators Journal, 99(1), 21–27. doi:10.1177/0027432112452999 Elliott, D. J., & Silverman, M. (2014). Music, personhood, and eudaimonia: Implications for educative and ethical music education. The Journal for Transdisciplinary Research in Southern Africa, 10(2), 57–72. Elliott, D. J., & Silverman, M. (2015). Music matters: A philosophy of music education (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Elliott, D. J., & Silverman, M. (2016). Arts education as/for artistic citizenship. In D. J. Elliott, M. Silverman, & W. D. Bowman (Eds.), Artistic citizenship: Artistry, social responsibility, and ethical praxis. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Elliott, D. J., & Silverman, M. (2017). Identities and musics: Reclaiming personhood. In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Handbook of musical identities (pp. 27–45). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Elpus, K. (2017). Music education promotes lifelong engagement with the arts. Psychology of Music, 1–19. doi:10.1177/0305735617697508 Evans, P. (2016). Motivation. In G. E. McPherson (Ed.), The child as musician: A handbook of musical development (2nd ed., pp. 325–339). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Evans, P., & McPherson, G. E. (2017). Processes of musical identity, consolidation during adolescence. In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Handbook of musical identities (pp. 213–231). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Feierabend, J. M., & Strong, M. (2018). Feierabend fundamentals: History, philosophy, and practice. Chicago, IL: GIA. Finnegan, R. (1997). Music, performance and enactment. In H. Mackay (Ed.), Consumption and everyday life (pp. 114–146). London, England: SAGE. Frazee, J. (1987). Discovering Orff: A curriculum for music teachers. New York, NY: Schott Music Corporation. Frazee, J. (2006). Orff Schulwerk today. New York, NY: Schott Music Corporation. Freer, P. K. (2006). Hearing the voices of adolescent boys in choral music: A self-story. Research Studies in Music Education, 27(1), 69–81. doi:10.1177/1321103x060270010501

239 References Freer, P. K. (2007). Between research and practice: How choral music loses boys in the “middle.” Music Educators Journal, 94(2), 28–34. Freer, P. K. (2009a). Boys’ voices: Inside and outside choral music. In J. L. Kerchner & C. R. Abril (Eds.), Musical experience in our lives: Things we learn and meanings we make. Blue Ridge Summit, PA: Rowman & Littlefield Education. Freer, P. K. (2009b). Boys’ descriptions of their experiences in choral music. Research Studies in Music Education, 31(2), 142–160. doi:10.1177/1321103x09344382 Freer, P. K. (2009c). “I’ll sing with my buddies”—Fostering the possible selves of male choral singers. International Journal of Music Education, 27(4), 341–355. doi:10.1177/0255761409345918 Freer, P. K. (2010). Two decades of research on possible selves and the “missing males” problem in choral music. International Journal of Music Education, 28(1), 17–30. doi:10.1177/0255761409351341 Freer, P. K. (2015). Perspectives of European boys about their voice change and school choral singing: Developing the possible selves of adolescent male singers. British Journal of Music Education, 32(1), 87–106. doi:10.1017/S026505171400031X Gammon, V. (1996). What is wrong with school music?—A response to Malcolm Ross. British Journal of Music Education, 13(2), 101–122. doi:10.1017/S0265051700003089 Goopy, J. (2008). Connections. Brisbane, Queensland, Australia: Sound Thinking Australia. Goopy, J. (2013). “Extra-musical effects” and benefits of programs founded on the Kodály philosophy. Australian Journal of Music Education, (2), 71–78. Gordon, E. E. (1999). All about audiation and music aptitudes. Music Educators Journal, 86(2), 41– 44. doi:10.2307/3399589 Gordon, E. E. (2003). Learning sequences in music: Skill, content, and patterns: A music learning theory. Chicago, IL: GIA. Government of South Australia. (2018). Music for a world class education: Music Education Strategy 2019 to 2029. Retrieved from https://www.education.sa.gov.au/sites/default/files/2019-2029- music-education-strategy.pdf Groening, M. (Creator). (1989–present). The Simpsons [Television series]. 20th Century Fox Television; Gracie Films. Guba, E. G., & Lincoln, Y. S. (1988). Do inquiry paradigms imply inquiry methodologies? In D. M. Fetterman (Ed.), Qualitative approaches to evaluation in education (pp. 89–115). New York, NY: Praeger.

240 References Guerra, N. G., & Bradshaw, C. P. (2008). Linking the prevention of problem behaviors and positive youth development: Core competencies for positive youth development and risk prevention. New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development, 2008(122), 1–17. doi:10.1002/cd.225 Gurian, M., & Stevens, K. (2004). With boys and girls in mind. Educational Leadership, 62(3), 21– 26. Gurian, M., & Stevens, K. (2005). The minds of boys: Saving our sons from falling behind in school and life. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Hall, C. (2005). Gender and boys’ singing in early childhood. British Journal of Music Education, 22(1), 5–20. doi:10.1017/S0265051704005960 Hall, C. (2011). Voices of distinction: Choirboys’ naratives of music, masculinity and the middle- class. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. Hall, C. (2018). Masculinity, class and music education: Boys performing middle-class masculinities through music. London, England: Palgrave Macmillan. Hallam, S. (2006). Music psychology in education. London, England: Institute of Education, University of London. Hallam, S. (2015). The power of music: A research synthesis of the impact of actively making music on the intellectual, social and personal development of children and young people. London, England: Music Education Council. Hallam, S. (2017). Music identity, learning, and teaching. In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Handbook of musical identities (pp. 475–492). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Hallam, S., Burnard, P., Robertson, A., Saleh, C., Davies, V., Rogers, L., & Kokatsaki, D. (2009). Trainee primary-school teachers’ perceptions of their effectiveness in teaching music. Music Education Research, 11(2), 221–240. doi:10.1080/14613800902924508 Hallam, S., Creech, A., Papageorgi, I., Gomes, T., Rinta, T., Varvarigou, M., & Lanipekun, J. (2016). Changes in motivation as expertise develops: Relationships with musical aspirations. Musicae Scientiae, 20(4), 528–550. doi:10.1177/1029864916634420 Hallam, S., & Papageorgi, I. (2016). Conceptions of musical understanding. Research Studies in Music Education, 38(2), 133–154. doi:10.1177/1321103X16671037 Hargreaves, D. J. (1982). The development of aesthetic reactions to music. Psychology of Music [Special Issue], 51–54. Hargreaves, D. J. (1996). The development of artistic and musical competence. In I. deLiège & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Musical beginnings: The origins and development of musical competence (pp. 145–170). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

241 References Hargreaves, D. J., & Lamont, A. (2017). The psychology of musical development. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. Hargreaves, D. J., MacDonald, R. A. R., & Miell, D. (2016). Musical identities. In S. Hallam, I. Cross, & M. Thaut (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of music psychology (2nd ed., pp. 759–774). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Hargreaves, D. J., MacDonald, R. A. R., & Miell, D. (2017). The changing identity of musical identities. In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Handbook of musical identities (pp. 3–23). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Hargreaves, D. J., MacDonald, R. A. R., & Miell, D. (2018). Musical identities mediate musical development. In G. F. McPherson & G. F. Welch (Eds.), Music and music education in people’s lives (Vol. 1, pp. 124–142). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Hargreaves, D. J., & Marshall, N. A. (2003). Developing identities in music education. Music Education Research, 5(3), 263–273. doi:10.1080/1461380032000126355 Hargreaves, D. J., Miell, D., & MacDonald, R. A. R. (2002). What are musical identities, and why are they important? In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Musical identities (pp. 1–20). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Hargreaves, D. J., North, A. C., & Tarrant, M. (2016). How and why do musical preferences change in childhood and adolescence? In G. E. McPherson (Ed.), The child as musician: A handbook of musical development (2nd ed., pp. 303–322). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Hargreaves, D. J., Purves, R. M., Welch, G. F., & Marshall, N. A. (2007). Developing identities and attitudes in musicians and classroom music teachers. British Journal of Educational Psychology, 77(3), 665–682. doi:10.1348/000709906X154676 Hargreaves, D. J., Welch, G. F., Purves, R. M., & Marshall, N. A. (2003). ESRC End of award report: Effective teaching in secondary school music: Teacher and pupil identities. London, England: International Music Education Research Centre. Harland, J., Kinder, K., Lord, P., Stoot, A., Schagen, I., Haynes, J., . . . Paola, R. (2000). Arts education in secondary schools: Effects and effectiveness. Slough, England: National Foundation for Educational Research. Harnischmacher, C. (1997). The effects of individual differences in motivation, volition, and maturational processes on practice behaviour of young instrumentalists. In H. L. Jorgensen & C. Andreas (Eds.), Does practice make perfect? Current theory and researeh on instrumental music practice (pp. 71–88). Oslo, Norway: Norges Musikkhøgskole. Harrison, S. D. (2005). Let’s hear it for the boys: The place of boys’ music in a feminist world. In E. Mackinlay, D. Collins, & S. Owens (Eds.), Aesthetics and experience in music performance (pp. 115–122). Newcastle, England: Cambridge Scholars Press.

242 References Harrison, S. D. (2007). A perennial problem in gendered participation in music: What’s happening to the boys? British Journal of Music Education, 24(3), 267–280. Harrison, S. D. (2008). Masculinities and music: Engaging men and boys in making music. Newcastle upon Tyne, England: Cambridge Scholars. Harrison, S. D. (2009). Male voices: Stories of boys learning through making music. Camberwell, Australia: ACER Press. Harrison, S. D. (2010). Boys on the outer: Themes in male engagement with music. Thymos: Journal of Boyhood Studies, 4(1), 39–53. Harrison, S. D., Welch, G., & Adler, A. H. W. (2012). Perspectives on males and singing (Vol. 10). New York, NY: Springer. Harrison, S. D., & Young, A. (2017). Choral pedagogy and the construction of identity: Boys. In F. Abrahams & P. D. Head (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of choral pedagogy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Hartwig, K. (2003). Music in the year 8 classroom: An action research project. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia. Hartwig, K., & Barton, G. (2004). The implementation of the new P–10 Arts Syllabus: The teachers’ voices. In K. Hartwig (Ed.), Artistic Practice as Research: Proceedings of the XXVth Annual Conference (pp. 65–69). Melbourne, Australia: Australian Association for Research in Music Education. Hatch, J. A. (2002). Doing qualitative research in education settings. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press. Hattie, J. (2009). Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement. London, England: Routledge. Hattie, J. (2012). Visible learning for teachers: Maximizing impact on learning. London, England: Taylor & Francis. Hoermann, D. B. (1985). In L. Vikár (Ed.), Reflections on Kodály (pp. 104–109). Budapest, Hungary: Editio Musica Budapest. Hoermann, D. B., & Herbert, G. F. (1979). Report and evaluation: A developmental programme of music education for primary school (Kodály-based). Brookvale, Australia: Dominie. Houlahan, M., & Tacka, P. (2008). Kodály today: A cognitive approach to elementary music education. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Houlahan, M., & Tacka, P. (2015). Kodály today: A cognitive approach to elementary music education (2nd ed.). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. House of Representatives Standing Committee on Education and Training. (2002). Boys: Getting it right. Canberra, Australia: The Parliament of the Commonwealth of Australia.

243 References Howe, M. J. A., Davidson, J. W., & Sloboda, J. A. (1998). Innate talents: Reality or myth? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 21(3), 399–407. doi:10.1017/S0140525X9800123X Itō, M., Baumer, S., Bittanti, M., boyd, d., Cody, R., Herr-Stephenson, B., . . . Tripp, L. (2010). Hanging out, messing around, and geeking out: Kids living and learning with new media. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Ittzés, M. (2006). Zoltán Kodály: In retrospect. Kecskemét, Hungary: Zoltán Kodály Pedagogical Institute of Music. Jackson, P. (Director). (2001–2003) The lord of the rings [Film series]. New Line Cinema; WingNut Films. Jeanneret, N. (2010). Musical Futures in Victoria. Australian Journal of Music Education, (2), 148– 164. Johnson, M. D., Morgeson, F. P., Ilgen, D. R., Meyer, C. J., & Lloyd, J. W. (2006). Multiple professional identities: Examining differences in identification across work-related targets. Journal of Applied Psychology, 91(2), 498–506. doi:10.1037/0021-9010.91.2.498 King Crimson. (1981). Discipline [Album]. E. G. Records. Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching. Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86. doi:10.1207/s15326985ep4102_1 Klingande. (2013). Jubel [Song]. Kodály, Z. (1974). The selected writings of Zoltán Kodály. (F. Bónis, Ed., L. Halápy & F. Macnicol, Trans.). London, England: Boosey & Hawkes Music. Kodály, Z. (2019). Zoltán Kodály: Writings on music education. (M. Ittzés, Ed., K. Ittzés, Trans.). Budapest, Hungary: Keskeny Print House. Koza, J. E. (1993). The “missing males” and other gender issues in music education: Evidence from the “Music Supervisors’ Journal,” 1914–1924. Journal of Research in Music Education, 41(3), 212–232. doi:10.2307/3345326 Kvale, S., & Brinkmann, S. (2009). InterViews: Learning the craft of qualitative research interviewing (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Laiho, S. (2004). The psychological functions of music in adolescence. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy, 13(1), 47–63. doi:10.1080/08098130409478097 Lamb, R., Dolloff, L.-A., & Howe, S. (2002). Feminism, feminist research, and gender research in music education. In R. Colwell & C. Richardson (Eds.), The new handbook of research on music teaching and learning. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

244 References Lamont, A. (2002). Musical identities and the school environment. In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Musical identities (pp. 41–59). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Lamont, A., Hargreaves, D. J., Marshall, N. A., & Tarrant, M. (2003). Young people’s music in and out of school. British Journal of Music Education, 20(3), 229–241. doi:10.1017/S0265051703005412 Langston, T. W. (2005). Capitalizing on community music: A case study of the manifestation of social capital in a community choir. (Unpublished doctoral thesis), University of Tasmania, Launceston, Australia. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE. Lincoln, Y. S., Lynham, S. A., & Guba, E. G. (2011). Paradigmatic controversies, contradictions, and emerging confluences, revisted. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative research (4th ed., pp. 97–128). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Lloyd-Webber, A., & Rice, T. (1973) Heaven on their minds [Song]. On Jesus Christ Superstar: The Original Motion Picture Sound Track Album. MCA Records. Lowe, G. M. (2008). A study into year 8 student motivation to continue class music in Perth, Western Australia. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia. MacDonald, R. A. R., Hargreaves, D. J., & Miell, D. (2002). Musical identities. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. MacDonald, R. A. R., Hargreaves, D. J., & Miell, D. (Eds.). (2017). Handbook of musical identities. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Mackay, L. M. (2007). Intellectual quality and higher-order thinking in music education. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia. Markus, H., & Nurius, P. (1986). Possible selves. American Psychologist, 41(9), 954–969. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.41.9.954 Martino, W. (2011). Failing boys! Beyond crisis, moral panic and limiting stereotypes. Education Canada, 51(4). Martino, W., Kehler, M., & Weaver-Hightower, M. B. (2009). The problem with boys’ education: Beyond the backlash. New York, NY: Routledge. Marzano, R. J., Pickering, D. J., & Arredondo, D. E. (2011). Dimensions of Learning Teacher’s Manual (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD. McEwan, R. W. (2006). Student motivation to participate in an elective classroom music curriculum: A case study of the multi-dimensional aspects of participation and motivation. (Unpublished doctoral thesis), University of Tasmania, Hobart, Australia.

245 References McEwan, R. W. (2013). Secondary student motivation to participate in a year 9 Australian elective classroom music curriculum. British Journal of Music Education, 30(1), 103–124. doi:10.1017/S026505171200023X McGraw, T. (2004). Live like you were dying [Song]. On Live like you were dying. Curb. McGregor, G., & Mills, M. (2006). Boys and music education: RMXing the curriculum. Pedagogy, Culture and Society, 14(2), 221–233. McInnes, P., & Corlett, S. (2012). Conversational identity work in everyday interaction. Scandinavian Journal of Management, 28(1), 27–38. doi:10.1016/j.scaman.2011.12.004 McLean, K. C., & Syed, M. (2014). Oxford handbook of identity development. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. McPhail, G., J. (2017). Powerful knowledge: Insights from music’s case. The Curriculum Journal, 28(4), 524–538. doi:10.1080/09585176.2017.1358196 McPherson, G. E. (2009). The role of parents in children’s musical development. Psychology of Music, 37(1), 91–110. doi:10.1177/0305735607086049 McPherson, G. E. (2016). The child as musician: A handbook of musical development (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. McPherson, G. E., Davidson, J. W., & Faulkner, R. (2012). Music in our lives: Rethinking musical ability, development and identity. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. McPherson, G. E., & O’Neill, S. A. (2010). Students’ motivation to study music as compared to other school subjects: A comparison of eight countries. Research Studies in Music Education, 32(2), 101–137. doi:10.1177/1321103x10384202 McPherson, G. E., & Welch, G. F. (2018). Introduction to Volume 1. In G. E. McPherson & G. F. Welch (Eds.), Music and music education in people’s lives (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. xxiii–xxiv). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Mead, S. (2006). The evidence suggests otherwise: The truth about boys and girls. Washington, DC: Education Sector. Meehan, S. (1996). An analysis and comparison of three interpretations to the Kodály philosophy. (Unpublished master’s thesis), Monash University, Melbourne, Australia. Merriam, A. (1964). The anthropology of music. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press. Mills, M., Martino, W., & Lingard, B. (2007). Getting boys’ education “right:” The Australian Government’s Parliamentary Inquiry Report as an exemplary instance of recuperative masculinity politics. British Journal of Sociology of Education, 28(1), 5–21. Monaghan, L., & Goodman, J. E. (2007). A cultural approach to interpersonal communication: Essential readings. Malden, MA: Blackwell.

246 References Mussorgsky, M. (2012). The old castle [Sheet music]. In L. Teal (Ed.), Solos for the alto saxophone player. New York, NY: Schirmer. Nemes, L. N. (2017). “Let the whole world rejoice!” Choral music education: The Kodály perspective. In F. Abrahams & P. D. Head (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of choral pedagogy. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Nightingale, D. J., & Cromby, J. (1999). Social constructionist psychology: A critical analysis of theory and practice. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press. North, A. C., & Hargreaves, D. J. (1999). Music and adolescent identity. Music Education Research, 1(1), 75–92. doi:10.1080/1461380990010107 North, A. C., & Hargreaves, D. J. (2008). The social and applied psychology of music. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. O’Leary, M. (1986). Teaching the flute to young children using an approach based on the music educational principles of Zoltán Kodály. (Unpublished master’s thesis), University of Melbourne, Australia. O’Neill, S. A. (2017). Young people’s musical lives: Learning ecologies, identities, and connectedness. In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Handbook of musical identities (pp. 79–104). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. O’Neill, S. A. (2018). Becoming a music learner: Toward a theory of transformative music engagement. In G. E. McPherson & G. F. Welch (Eds.), Music and music education in people’s lives (Vol. 1, pp. 163–186). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. O’Neill, S. A., Sloboda, J. A., Boulton, M., & Ryan, K. (2002). Young people and music participation project: Practitioner report and summary of findings. Keele, England: University of Keele. Odendaal, A., Levänen, S., & Westerlund, H. (2019). Lost in translation? Neuroscientific research, advocacy, and the claimed transfer benefits of musical practice. Music Education Research, 21(1), 4–19. doi:10.1080/14613808.2018.1484438 Orff, C. (1978). The Schulwerk (M. Murray, Trans., Vol. 3). New York, NY: Schott Music Corporation. Parliament of Victoria. (2013). Inquiry into the extent, benefits and potential of music education in Victorian schools. Melbourne, Australia: Education and Training Committee. Pascoe, R., Leong, S., MacCallum, J., Mackinlay, E., Marsh, K., Smith, B., . . . Winterton, A. (2005). National review of school music education: Augmenting the diminished. Canberra, Australia: Australian Government. Patton, M. Q. (2015). Qualitative research and evaluation methods: Integrating theory and practice: The definitive text of qualitative inquiry frameworks and options (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

247 References Petrova, I. (2012). What makes good music programs in schools? A study of school music across Australia and a comparison with England and Russia. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia. Pitts, S. E. (2001). Whose aesthetics? Public, professional and pupil perceptions of music education. Research Studies in Music Education, 17(1), 54–60. doi:10.1177/1321103x010170010601 Pitts, S. E. (2005). Valuing musical participation. Burlington, VT: Ashgate. Pitts, S. E. (2007). Anything goes: A case study of extra-curricular musical participation in an English secondary school. Music Education Research, 9(1), 145–165. doi:10.1080/14613800601127627 Pitts, S. E. (2012). Chances and choices: Exploring the impact of music education. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Polkinghorne, D. E. (1995). Narrative configuration in qualitative analysis. Qualitative Studies in Education(8), 5–23. Queensland School Curriculum Council. (2002). The arts years 1 to 10 syllabus. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland School Curriculum Council. Rauscher, F. (2009). The impact of music instruction on other skills. In S. Hallam, I. Cross, & M. Thaut (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of music psychology (pp. 244–252). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Regelski, T. A. (2015). A brief introduction to a philosophy of music and music education as social praxis. London, England: Routledge. Reich, S. (1965). It’s gonna rain [Music work]. Reich, S. (1966). Come out [Music work]. Reichert, M., & Hawley, R. (2009). Teaching boys: A global study of effective practices. International Boys’ School Coalition. Reimer, B. (1970). A philosophy of music education. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Reimer, B. (1989). A philosophy of music education (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Reimer, B. (2003). A philosophy of music education: Advancing the vision. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Rentfrow, P. J., & Gosling, S. D. (2006). Message in a ballad: The role of music preferences in interpersonal perception. Psychological Science, 17(3), 236–242. doi:10.1111/j.1467- 9280.2006.01691.x Riessman, C. K. (2003). Analysis of personal narratives. In J. A. Holstein & J. F. Gubrium (Eds.), Inside interviewing: New lenses, new concerns (pp. 331–346). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the human sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.

248 References Rivers, C., & Barnett, R. (2011). The truth about girls and boys: Challenging toxic stereotypes about our children. New York, NY: Columbia University Press. Roberts, L. M., & Creary, S. J. (2012). Positive identity construction: Insights from classical and contemporary theoretical perspectives. In G. M. Spreitzer & K. S. Cameron (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of positive organizational scholarship. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Ross, M. (1995). What’s wrong with school music? British Journal of Music Education, 12(3), 185– 201. doi:10.1017/S0265051700002692 Ruddock, E., & Leong, S. (2005). “I am unmusical!:” The verdict of self-judgement. International Journal of Music Education, 23(1), 9–22. doi:10.1177/0255761405050927 Saunders, J. A. (2009). The music classroom: Pupils’ experience and engagement during adolescence. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). University of London, London, England. Saunders, J. A. (2010). Identity in music: Adolescents and the music classroom. Action, Criticism and Theory for Music Education, 9(2), 70–78. Saunders, J. A., & Welch, G. (2012). Communities of music education: A pilot study. London, England: International Music Education Research Centre (iMerc). Sax, L. (2005). Why gender matters. New York, NY: Three Rivers Press. Sax, L. (2007). Boys adrift. New York, NY: Basic Books. Schnare, B., MacIntyre, P., & Doucette, J. (2012). Possible selves as a source of motivation for musicians. Psychology of Music, 40(1), 94–111. doi:10.1177/0305735610391348 Schönberg, C.-M. (1980) Les Misérables [Musical]. Schwartz, S. (2003) Wicked [Musical]. Schwartz, S. H. (2015). Basic individual values: Sources and consequences. In T. Brosch & D. Sander (Eds.), Handbook of value: Perspectives from economics, neuroscience, philosophy, psychology and sociology. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Scott, S. J. (2011). Contemplating a constructivist stance for active learning within music education. Arts Education Policy Review, 112(4), 191–198. doi:10.1080/10632913.2011.592469 Scripp, L., Ulibarri, D., & Flax, R. (2013). Thinking beyond the myths and misconceptions of talent: Creating music education policy that advances music’s essential contribution to twenty-first- century teaching and learning. Arts Education Policy Review, 114(2), 54–102. doi:10.1080/10632913.2013.769825 Simon, L. (2011) Doctor Zhivago [Musical]. Simpson, R., & Lewis, P. (2007). Voice, visibility and the gendering of organizations. Hampshire, England: Palgrave Macmillan.

249 References Sloboda, J. A. (1991). Music structure and emotional response: Some empirical findings. Psychology of Music, 19(2), 110–120. Sloboda, J. A. (1996). The acquisition of musical performance expertise: Deconstructing the “talent” account of individual differences in musical expressivity. In K. A. Ericsson (Ed.), The road to excellence (pp. 107–126). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Sloboda, J. A. (2001). Emotion, functionality and the everyday experience of music: Where does music education fit? Music Education Research, 3(2), 243–253. doi:10.1080/14613800120089287 Sloboda, J. A. (2005). Exploring the musical mind: Cognition, emotion, ability, function. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Sloboda, J. A., & Davidson, J. W. (1996). The young performing musician. In I. Deliege & J. A. Sloboda (Eds.), Musical beginnings: Origins and development of musical competence (pp. 171–190). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Sloboda, J. A., O’Neill, S. A., & Ivaldi, A. (2001). Functions of music in everyday life: An exploratory study using the experience sampling method. Musicae Scientiae, 5(1), 9–32. doi:10.1177/102986490100500102 Small, C. (1998). Musicking: The meanings of performing and listening. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press. Smetana, B. (2009). Vltava: Die Moldau (Má vlast, No. 2) JB 1:112/2. Edwardsville, IL: Serenissima Music. (Original work published 1874) Smith, B. P. (2011). Motivation to learn music: A discussion of some key elements. In MENC handbook of research on music learning. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Smith, R. (2009). The interview as narrative—A commentary. In M. S. Barrett & S. L. Stauffer (Eds.), Narrative inquiry in music education: Troubling certainty (pp. 81–85). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Snow, D. A., & Anderson, L. (1987). Identity work among the homeless: The verbal construction and avowal of personal identities. American Journal of Sociology, 92(6), 1336–1371. Sommers, C. H. (2013). The war against boys: How misguided policies are harming our young men. New York, NY: Simon & Schuster. Stake, R. E. (1995). The art of case study research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Stake, R. E. (2005). Qualitative case studies. In N. K. Denzin & Y. S. Lincoln (Eds.), The Sage handbook of qualitative research (3rd ed., pp. 443–466). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Stevens, R. S. (2003). National report of trends in school music education provision in Australia. Sydney, Australia: Music Council of Australia.

250 References Stunell, G. (2006). The policy context of music in English primary schools: How politics didn’t help music. Research Studies in Music Education, 26(1), 2–21. doi:10.1177/1321103x060260010401 Sutherland, A. (2015). “3:36 pm, that’s when all the fun starts:” Forming musical identity through secondary school music. Australian Journal of Music Education, (2), 162–175. Sveningsson, S., & Alvesson, M. (2003). Managing managerial identities: Organizational fragmentation, discourse and identity struggle. Human Relations, 56(10), 1163–1193. Tarrant, M., North, A. C., & Hargreaves, D. J. (2002). Youth identity and music. In R. A. R. MacDonald, D. J. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Musical identities (pp. 134–150). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Teaching in State Education Award—State 2016. (2016). Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Industrial Relations Commission. The Kingston Trio. (1958). Tom Dooley [Song]. On The Kingston Trio. Capitol. The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority). (2004). Music senior syllabus. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Studies Authority. The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority). (2007a). The arts: Essential learnings by the end of year 7. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Studies Authority. The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority). (2007b). The arts: Essential learnings by the end of year 9. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Studies Authority. The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority). (2007c). The arts: Year 10 learning area. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Studies Authority. The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority). (2008). Music extension senior syllabus. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Studies Authority. The State of Queensland (Queensland Studies Authority). (2013). Music senior syllabus. Brisbane, Australia: Queensland Studies Authority. Thomson, W. (1974). Comprehensive musicianship through classroom music. Belmont, CA: Addison-Wesley. Trevarthen, C. (2002). Origins of musical identity: Evidence from infancy for musical social awareness. In R. Macdonald, D. Hargreaves, & D. Miell (Eds.), Musical identities (pp. 21– 38). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Tull, J. (1969). Bourée [Song]. On Stand up. Island; Reprise. United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). (2016). Safeguarding of the folk music heritage by the Kodály concept. Retrieved from https://ich.unesco.org/en/BSP/safeguarding-of-the-folk-music-heritage-by-the-kodaly- concept-01177

251 References Varvarigou, M., Creech, A., & Hallam, S. (2014). Partnership working and possible selves in music education. International Journal of Music Education, 32(1), 84–97. doi:10.1177/0255761413491060 Vygotsky, L. S. (1966). Genesis of the higher mental functions: Abridged translation. In P. H. Light, S. Sheldon, & M. Woodhead (Eds.), Learning to think (pp. 32–41). London, England: Routledge. Vygotksy, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes (Ed. & Trans., M. Cole, V. John-Steiner, S. Scribner, & E. Souberman). Cambridge, MA: Hardvard University. Wade, D. (1996). Approaches of music educators to Kodály-based music education in the Australian context. (Unpublished master’s thesis), Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia. Walker, L. N. (2009). Stories from the front. In M. S. Barrett & S. L. Stauffer (Eds.), Narrative inquiry in music education: Troubling certainty (pp. 179–194). Dordrecht, the Netherlands: Springer. Watson, T. J. (2016). Organizational identity and organizational identity work as valuable analytical resources. In M. G. Pratt, M. Schultz, B. E. Ashforth, & D. Ravasi (Eds.), The Oxford handbook of organizational identity. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Weber, J., & Rolle, C. (2019, April). Connecting art and education: The role of beliefs in the pedagogical practices of composers and songwriters. Paper presented at the Research in Music Education Conference, Bath Spa University, England. Welch, G. F., & McPherson, G. E. (2018). Commentary: Music education and the role of music in people’s lives. In G. E. McPherson & G. F. Welch (Eds.), Music and music education in people’s lives (2nd ed., Vol. 1, pp. 3–18). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Welch, G. F., Purves, R. M., Hargreaves, D. J., & Marshall, N. A. (2010). Reflections on the Teacher Identities in Music Education [TIME] Project. Action, Criticism, and Theory for Music Education, 9(2), 11–32. West, K. (2013). Bound 2 [Song]. On Yeezus. Def Jam. Westh, S. (Director). (2018). Don’t stop the music. [Television series] Screen Australia; Australian Broadcasting Commission. Wiggins, J. (2001). Teaching for musical understanding. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Wiggins, J. (2015). Teaching for musical understanding. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Wiggins, J. (2016). Teaching music with a social constructivist vision of learning. In C. R. Abril & B. M. Gault (Eds.), Teaching general music (pp. 49–72). New York, NY: Oxford University Press. William, D. (2011). Embedded formative assessment. Bloomington, IN: Solution Tree Press.

252 References Willow-Peterson, K. A. (2016). Identity development among adolescent males enrolled in a middle school general music program. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Boston University, Boston, MA. Yin, R. K. (2014). Case study research: Design and methods (4th ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE. Young, A. R. T. (2011, July). The adolescent male changing voice: Physiological, psychological and practical considerations for classroom music teachers. Paper presented at the International Kodály Symposium, Brisbane, Australia. Young, A. R. T. (2012). The courage to sing: Reflections on secondary school singing. In S. D. Harrison, G. F. Welch, & A. H. W. Adler (Eds.), Perspectives on males and singing. New York, NY: Springer. Young, A. R. T. (2017). Teaching boys music in the first year of secondary school: Discerning and improving attitudes of young male students to singing and learning in classroom music. (Unpublished doctoral thesis). Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia. Yun Dai, D., & Schader, R. M. (2002). Decisions regarding music training: Parental beliefs and values. Gifted Child Quarterly, 46(2), 135–144. doi:10.1177/001698620204600206

253 Appendices Appendices

Appendix A: Human ethical clearance application approval

254 Appendices

Appendix B: Gatekeeper information sheet and approval form

School of Music Level 4 Zelman Cowen Building Telephone: (07) 3365 4949 Fax Number: (07) 3365 4488 Email: [email protected]

A case study of the music education beliefs, values and practices that support the development of multiple musical identities in boys’ education

6 March 2014

Principal Queensland Boys’ School

Dear Principal

RE: Research project gatekeeper consent

As you are aware, I am undertaking a research project towards a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) supervised by Professor Margaret Barrett and Dr Julie Ballantyne at the School of Music, University of Queensland. I am writing to outline the details of this project and seek your consent as ‘gatekeeper’ to conduct research at Queensland Boys’ School.

Project description A successful class music program prepares students for meaningful lifelong musical participation by supporting the development of multiple musical identities. This project seeks to answer the question, “What are the music education beliefs, values and practices that support the development of multiple musical identities in boys’ education?” Multiple musical identities are understood as both the range of individual identities (e.g. classical violinist, film composer, popular music artist, musical theatre performer, community musician, audience member) and the opportunity for multiple identities within music. The beliefs, values and practices of the class music program at Queensland Boys’ School will be investigated to identity those aspects that support the development of multiple musical identities.

Possible benefits The school and wider community will possibly benefit from the project. Students, parents and staff will be presented with opportunities for reflection and to voice their opinion on what enables boys to become ‘musical men’ in the class music program. Discoveries and realisations will be used to strengthen the program and could serve as a model of excellence for others. This project is timely as state and federal governments look for models to implement the Australian Curriculum: Arts. The project will also contribute to my own professional development. The wider community will be able to benefit from the contribution to academic knowledge, specifically in boys’ education and music education.

Participants The project will consist of approximately 42 participants consisting of boys from Foundation, Year 3, Year 9, Year 12, their parents and teachers. All children and young people under the age of 18 will have written parental/guardian approval to participant. Students’ school work and study will not be advantaged or disadvantaged as a result of participation in this project.

Interviews Each participant will complete a one-on-one interview of 45-60 minutes in length during the 2014 school year. Interviews will be arranged with participants at a mutually convenient time outside of class on campus. Participants will also be asked to draw to three questions or bring artefacts of musical meaning to the interview. Video and audio recording and still photography will be used to record the interviews and artefacts. Participants may also choose not to answer the questions if they wish.

255

Appendices

Storage and use of data Data will be stored in a locked filing cabinet at my secured home office. It will be stored in its original format for a minimum of five years following the thesis and article publications. Data may be converted to digital format. All digital data will be secured using password protection. Data of all formats will be securely destroyed at the end of its use.

The data collected through the case study is primarily for the use in the thesis itself which is not expected to be completed for a number of years. It will also be used in other academic work, including the presentation of professional conference papers and publication of academic journal articles.

Confidentiality Pseudonyms will be used for the school and all participants (students, parents and teachers). No collected data which could identify the school and individual participants will be published in the thesis or academic journal articles.

Collected video, audio and still images that are likely to identify the school and participants may be presented at professional conferences. Only video, audio and still images of those participants who have first given informed written consent will be shown publicly. This will be obtained by circling ‘yes’ to indicate agreement on the consent form.

Payment No payment will be offered for participation in the research.

Withdrawal You can withdraw the school’s participation at any time, for any reason, without penalty or prejudice by contacting me (details below). If you decide to withdraw, I would like to use the data collected up to the time of withdrawal as part of the research project. Should you choose to withdraw, please tell me at the time of withdrawing if you do not wish the collected data to be included in the project.

Queries This study adheres to the Guidelines of the ethical review process of The University of Queensland. Whilst you are free to discuss the school’s participation with myself, if you would like to speak to an officer of the University not involved in the study, you may contact the Ethics Officer on 3365 3924.

I look forward to beginning this next stage of my research project. Please do not hesitate to contact me if you have questions or would like more information.

Warm regards

Jason Goopy PhD Candidate School of Music University of Queensland [email protected]

Supervisors: Professor Margaret Barrett (07) 3365 3513 [email protected]

Dr Julie Ballantyne (07) 3365 7369 [email protected]

256

Appendices

School of Music

Level 4

Zelman Cowen Building

Telephone: (07) 3365 4949

Fax Number: (07) 3365 4488 Email: [email protected]

A case study of the music education beliefs, values and practices that support the development of multiple musical identities in boys’ education

Investigator: Mr Jason Goopy (07) 3365 4949 [email protected]

Supervisors: Professor Margaret Barrett Dr Julie Ballantyne (07) 3365 3513 (07) 3365 7369 [email protected] [email protected]

GATEKEEPER APPROVAL FORM

By signing below, I confirm that I have read and understood the information package and in particular that:

• I understand by agreeing to participate in this project I give permission for the research to take place at Queensland Boys’ School, and I am satisfied that the interests of the staff, parents and students of the school community are protected; • I understand that the participation of the school is entirely voluntary, that I do not have to participate in this research, and that I may pull out at any time without comment or penalty; • I understand that the school’s involvement in this project is confidential, and I am satisfied that my identity will be protected in publications; • I understand that the school may be identified in professional conference presentations; • I understand that I will not receive any payment or reward for participating in the project; • I have asked any questions that I have and I am happy with the answers; • I understand that I can ask any other questions at any time; • I understand that I can contact the University Ethics Officer on 3365 3924 if I have any concerns about the ethical conduct of the project; and • I agree to participate in the project.

I am interested in receiving copies of reports or publications generated from the research. Yes No (Please circle) If yes, please provide an email address: ______

………………………………………...... ………………………………...... …………… Full name Signature Date (please use block letters)

257

Appendices Appendix C: Year 12 student recruitment information script

The following points were read by the Head of Music to the Year 12 students studying class music to recruit participants for this study.

1. As you know, Mr Goopy is completing a doctorate in Music Education at the University of Queensland. At the end he will produce a thesis consisting of 80,000 words. 2. I would like to introduce the project to you. 3. Mr Goopy would like to interview boys and their parents from your class. The interviews involve discussing your perspectives on music and class music. 4. Participation is voluntary and you may withdraw at any anytime for any reason. Your participation will not advantage or disadvantage your school work, study or assessment. 5. You and your parent would do one 45-60 minute interview each at the beginning of Term 4 after school. This letter contains lots of detailed information and Mr Goopy can answer any further questions you have. 6. To participate, the consent form needs signed by you and your parent, then returned to Mr Goopy so he can arrange an interview. 7. Please raise your hand if you would like to receive an information letter and consent form.

258

Appendices Appendix D: Student and parent information sheet and consent form

School of Music Level 4 Zelman Cowen Building Telephone: (07) 3365 4949 Fax Number: (07) 3365 4488 Email: [email protected]

A case study of the music education beliefs, values and practices that support the development of multiple musical identities in boys’ education

6 March 2014

Dear Parent/Guardian

I am your son’s academic class music teacher at Queensland Boys’ School. I am conducting a research project towards a Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) at the School of Music, University of Queensland. This means I will be writing a thesis of 80,000 words with the aim of making an original contribution the fields of boys’ education and music education. I am writing to ask for you and your son to participate in my project.

Project description A successful class music program prepares students for meaningful lifelong musical participation by supporting the development of multiple musical identities. This project seeks to answer the question, “What are the music education beliefs, values and practices that support the development of multiple musical identities in boys’ education?” Multiple musical identities are understood as both the range of individual identities (e.g. classical violinist, film composer, popular music artist, musical theatre performer, community musician, audience member) and the opportunity for multiple identities within music. The beliefs, values and practices of the class music program at Queensland Boys’ School will be investigated to identity those aspects that support the development of multiple musical identities.

What will I be asked to do? You and your son will each be asked to complete a one-on-one 45-60 minute interview with myself. Interviews will be held at QBS outside of class at a time convenient for you. Parents and secondary students will be given the questions prior to the interview. Participants will be asked to draw responses to three questions to stimulate discussion. Parents and secondary students may alternatively bring objects of personal meaning (e.g. instrument, sheet music, photo of a person, device) or provide a small performance or composition if they prefer. Interviews will be audio-visually recorded and will include some still photography. Parents and secondary students will receive the questions prior to the interview. Participants may also choose not to answer the questions if they wish.

Possible benefits The school and wider community will possibly benefit from the project. Students, parents and staff will be presented with opportunities for reflection and to voice their opinion on what enables boys to become ‘musical men’ in the class music program. Discoveries and realisations will be used to strengthen the program and could serve as a model of excellence for others. This project is timely as state and federal governments look for models to implement the Australian Curriculum: Arts. The project will also contribute to my own professional development. The wider community will be able to benefit from the contribution to academic knowledge, specifically in boys’ education and music education.

Who else will be involved? The project will consist of approximately 42 participants consisting of boys from Foundation, Year 3, Year 9, Year 12 and their parents and teachers. School work and study will not be advantaged or disadvantaged as a result of participation in this project.

259

Appendices

Payment No payment will be offered for participation in the research.

Withdrawal from the research Participation is voluntary and you and your son may withdraw at any time, for any reason without penalty or prejudice by contacting me (details below). If you decide to withdraw, I would like to use your data collected up to the time of withdrawal as part of the research project. Should you choose to withdraw, please tell me at the time of withdrawing if you do not wish your collected data to be included in the project.

Storage and use of data Data will be stored in a locked filing cabinet at my secured home office. It will be stored in its original format for a minimum of five years following the thesis and article publications. Data may be converted to digital format. All digital data will be secured using password protection. Data of all formats will be securely destroyed at the end of its use.

The data collected through the case study is primarily for the use in the thesis itself which is not expected to be completed for a number of years. It will also be used in other academic work, including the presentation of professional conference papers and publication of academic journal articles.

Confidentiality Pseudonyms will be used for the school and all participants (students, parents and teachers). All possible measures to protect you and your son’s privacy will be taken. No findings which could identify individual participants will be published.

Collected video, audio and still images that are likely to identify the school and participants may be presented at professional conferences. Only video, audio and still images of those participants who have first given informed written consent will be shown publicly. This will be obtained by circling ‘yes’ to indicate agreement on the consent form.

Queries This project complies with the provisions contained in the National Statement on Ethical Conduct in Human Research and complies with the regulations governing experimentation on humans. Whilst you are free to discuss your participation in this study with myself (contactable on 3309 3520), if you would like to speak to an officer of the University not involved in the study, you may contact the Ethics Officer on 3365 3924.

Upon completion of the thesis within a couple years the results will be compiled in a written summary. If you would like a copy please let me know on the Consent Form. I greatly appreciate you returning the Consent Form to me at the QBS Music Department or through your son’s class teacher. I will then contact you to arrange an interview.

Warm regards

Jason Goopy PhD Candidate School of Music University of Queensland (07) 3365 4949 [email protected]

Supervisors: Professor Margaret Barrett (07) 3365 3513 [email protected]

Dr Julie Ballantyne (07) 3365 7369 [email protected]

260

Appendices

School of Music

Level 4

Zelman Cowen Building

Telephone: (07) 3365 4949

Fax Number: (07) 3365 4488 Email: [email protected]

A case study of the music education beliefs, values and practices that support the development of multiple musical identities in boys’ education

Investigator: Mr Jason Goopy (07) 3365 4949 [email protected]

Supervisors: Professor Margaret Barrett Dr Julie Ballantyne (07) 3365 3513 (07) 3365 7369 [email protected] [email protected]

PARENT / GUARDIAN AND STUDENT CONSENT FORM

By signing below, we confirm that we have read and understood the information package and in particular that:

• We agree to separate one-on-one interviews; • We understand that our participation is entirely voluntary, that we do not have to participate in this research, and that we may pull out at any time without comment or penalty; • We understand that our involvement in this project is confidential, and we am satisfied that our identities will be protected in publications; • We understand that we will not receive any payment or reward for participating in the project; • We have asked any questions that we have and we are happy with the answers; • We understand that we can ask any other questions at any time; • We understand that we can contact the University Ethics Officer on 3365 3924 if we have any concerns about the ethical conduct of the project; and • We agree to participate in the project.

We consent to the presentation of collected video, audio and images that may identify Yes No us at professional conferences. (Please circle)

We are interested in receiving copies of reports or publications generated from the research. Yes No (Please circle) If yes, please provide an email address: ______

Parent / guardian

………………………………...... ………………………...... …………… Full name Signature Date (Please use block letters)

Student

………………………………...... ………………………...... …………… Full name Signature Date (Please use block letters)

261

Appendices Appendix E: Year 12 student interview guide

45-60 minutes

In the case where a student brings an artefact, questions will be modified accordingly.

o = prompts if needed

Privacy and personal background • Name of participant and leadership position • Location and time of interview • Do I have permission to record this interview? • Imagine you have to introduce yourself to someone that doesn’t know you at all. How would you describe yourself so they get an idea about who you are? o Personality o Favourite things to do o Instruments/voice studied o Musical tastes and interests o Non-musical activities (e.g. sporting, cultural, spiritual)

Music: What do you enjoy about music? [5 minutes for drawing] • What does your drawing represent? • Why is this important to you? • Is there any special experience that made you like this? • How is this different to other things in your life? • How else do you use music in your life? o Personal o With family o With friends • Do you think this is the same as other boys and men? o Friends o Father o Men • Do you think boys and girls use music differently?

Class music: What do you enjoy about class music? [5 minutes for drawing] • What does your drawing represent? • Why is this important to you? • How is this different to other things at school? • How do you benefit from this? • What else do you enjoy about class music? • How long have I taught you for? • What is your favourite memory from over the years? • What has been your favourite repertoire? • What has been your favourite teaching segment? • How would you describe the class music program? • What has been the most valuable thing you have learned? • How would you describe me? • Why did you choose to study class music?

262

Appendices

• What would you improve about class music? • What do you think of the daily music program in P-3?

Musical future: What will you do with music in your future? [5 minutes for drawing] • What does your drawing represent? • Why is this important to you? • How has class music influenced your future? • How else will music be a part of your future? o Daily life o Life after school o Future career o Friends, family and children

263

Appendices

Appendix F: Parent interview guide 45-60 minutes

In the case where a participant brings an artefact, questions will be modified accordingly.

o = prompts if needed

Privacy and personal background • Name of participant and position • Location and time of interview • Do I have permission to record this interview? • Imagine you have to introduce yourself to someone that doesn’t know you at all. How would you describe yourself so they get an idea about who you are? o Personality o Favourite things to do o Instruments/voice studied o Musical tastes and interests o Non-musical activities (e.g. sporting, cultural, spiritual)

Music: What do you enjoy about music? [5 minutes for drawing] • What does your drawing represent? • Why is this important to you? • Is there any special experience that made you believe this? • What do you hope your son enjoys about music? • How is this different to what he actually enjoys about music? • How is this different to other things in your son’s life? • How do you encourage this? • How else do you hope he uses music in his life? o Personal o With family o With friends • Do you think this is the same as other boys and men? o Friends o Father o Men • Do you think boys and girls use music differently?

Class music: What do you enjoy about class music? [5 minutes for drawing] • What does your drawing represent? • Why is this important to you? • Is there any special experience that made you believe this? • What do you hope your son enjoys about class music? • How is this different to what he actually enjoys about class music? • How does your son benefit from this? • How do you encourage this? • What does he say about the lesson? • What does he say about me? • What else does he enjoy about class music? • How is this different to other things at school?

264 Appendices

• Why do you support him studying class music? • What would you improve about class music? • What do you think of the daily music program in P-3?

Musical future: What will you do with music in your future? [5 minutes for drawing] • What does your drawing represent? • Why is this important to you? • What do you hope for music in your son’s future? • How has class music influenced your future? • How do you encourage this? • How has class music influenced your future? • How else do you think music will be a part of his future? o Daily life o Life after school o Future career o Friends, family and children

265 Appendices

Appendix G: Blank artefact elicitation templates

266 Appendices

267 Appendices

268