IUCN situation analysis on East and Southeast Asian intertidal habitats, with particular reference to the Yellow Sea

John MacKinnon, Yvonne I. Verkuil and Nicholas Murray

Executive Summary

Out of concern for alarming rates of decline of biodiversity of the intertidal zone of the East Asia-Australasian Flyway (EAAF), this report uses available information to assess the status of this important ecotype. We use the status and population trends of key species of waterbirds as the best indicator of the environmental health of intertidal habitats. The findings presented are alarming. Rates of species decline of up to 8% per year are among the highest of any ecological system of the planet and the Flyway is liable to soon experience many extinctions and collapses of essential and valuable ecological services unless current trends can be reversed. This is a clear failure to meet targets and obligations under several key international environmental agreements.

Although all sectors of the Flyway face a variety of threats, the Yellow Sea eco-region emerges as a focus of greatest concern and the fast pace of coastal land reclamation emerges as the most pressing and irreversible factor. Remote sensing and geographical information system (GIS) analyses have shown losses of up to 60% of intertidal habitats in some key areas. Losses of such magnitude are likely the key drivers of waterbirds declines in the region.

An analysis of the use of 400 coastal sites along the Flyway is included and 16 priority areas are thus identified. As a caveat, it is clear that different species utilise different suites of sites during northbound and southbound migration. Therefore, protection of only the best sites will not provide an adequate site network for all migratory species and broader protection of as many sites possible is required.

The fast pace and nature of human developments affecting this zone is not in harmony with the natural environment and jeopardizes both those species that depend on this zone as well as the valuable ecological services that intertidal zone ecosystems deliver. The paper examines the reasons for this lack of harmony by reviewing the drivers that lead to environmental degradation and evaluating the weaknesses and dysfunctions in those processes – legal, financial, habitat and species conservation, awareness and knowledge - that could maintain or restore a balance between development needs and environmental needs. Drivers are reviewed at both the national and site specific level.

The paper highlights the risks to biodiversity, human health, livelihoods of coastal villagers and security of economic investments of allowing a ‘business as usual’ scenario to continue and identifies areas where stronger conservation actions and initiatives are urgently required to restore a balance between development and environment. The authors urge relevant agencies to recognize the importance of the intertidal zone, be aware of the scale and urgency of threat faced and attend to the necessary steps identified. The EAAF is a shared resource serving the heritage of 22 countries, so many of these steps need to be taken in an internationally cooperative context. Unless the fast economic development of this region can be balanced with adequate environmental safeguards, impressive looking economic gains will be short-lived and will precipitate a growing list of ecological disasters.

The current paper serves as a wake-up call and presents a series of recommendations for more studies, better monitoring, improved legislation, improved governance and better mobilization of limited conservation capacities.

Content

Executive summary 1. Introduction 2. Methodology of study 3. The intertidal zone of East and Southeast Asia 4. Mud matters – the importance and values of intertidal habitats 5. What the birds tell us - identification of critical sites and species 6. Parallel declines in other taxa and services 7. Threats to the intertidal zone 8. Vanishing intertidal habitats 9. Direct links between species decline and habitat loss due to land reclamation 10. Review of drivers of coastal zone reclamation 11. Review of protective measures and tools available Conclusions of this study Acknowledgments References Appendix 1. List of Globally Threatened birds of intertidal habitats in East Asia Appendix 2. List of priority areas for waterbirds, and in particular shorebirds, of the EAAF, with specific threats Appendix 3. Major problems, drivers and possible solutions to reduce loss of intertidal habitats and biota Appendix 4. List of major international programmes with direct relevance to EAAF Appendix 5. Matrix of issues affecting different countries Appendix 6. Comparative review of PA legislation and management Appendix 7. Comparative table of national procedures for EIA /SEA Appendix 8. Recommended scope for Action Plan Appendix 9. A selection of case studies in priority areas

1. Introduction

Because birds are largely diurnal, visually distinctive at medium range and are monitored by considerable numbers of bird-watching enthusiasts, they are outstanding indicators of environmental health and change. Because birds occupy a wide range of niches and use so many types of food and physical resources, they are particularly sensitive to environmental degradation. So, just as nineteenth century miners looked to their caged canaries as indication that it was safe to continue breathing the mine air, so we can use data on fluctuating bird populations to alert us of modern environmental dangers. In this way the recent reports of major declines of birds migrating through the East Asian-Australasian Flyway are indicating the rapid destruction of bird habitats throughout Asia.

This report highlights that the destruction of Asia’s intertidal zone constitutes one of the fastest losses of biodiversity globally. Intertidal habitats are vital for the survival of millions of birds of several hundred species, as well as nesting beaches for endangered sea turtles, breeding areas for Asia’s seals, spawning grounds for important economic fisheries and homes of thousands of species of invertebrate crustaceans, worms and molluscs. Many species which rely on intertidal habitats are in trouble; five regional species of intertidal sea grasses are globally threatened (Short et al. 2011) and the estuarine Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin is critically endangered (Ross et al. 2010) . The clearest evidence of the high number of globally threatened species dependent on these habitats is among the birds, particularly waterbirds, with 24 globally threatened species among the shorebirds, waterfowl, spoonbills, cranes, seabirds and pelicans (BirdLife 2005) that use Asian intertidal habitats, and 9 more shorebird species under review to be listed. The reports on these species emphasise that these losses are more than just the sad loss of our fascinating natural heritage but constitute a threat to the lives, health, safety and welfare of hundreds of millions of our fellow humans, a threat to trillions of dollars worth of land and property and a risk to the health of the great oceans on which we all depend. The intertidal zone, with its sand and mud bars, beaches, and mangroves, deliver a vast list of valuable ecological services that we are discarding too causally in favour of near-sighted development goals.

Approximately 35% of mangroves and 19% of coral reefs have been destroyed globally (Wilkinson 2008, Giri et al. 2010) . But for intertidal habitats, which are heavily impacted by human influence, we have little certainty of their present distribution, status and trends (Healy et al., 2002, Millenium Ecosystem Assessment 2005, Keddy et al. 2009) . Current estimates of intertidal habitat loss in Asia equate to loss rates greater than or equal to global rates of mangroves, tropical forests and coral reefs declines. Losses of up to 51% of coastal wetlands have occurred in China over the past 50 years and in Singapore 76% of coastal wetlands have been reported lost (Hilton and Manning 1995, An et al. 2007) . Loss of intertidal areas within migratory pathways, where birds must replenish their energy stores during migration, can have extreme consequences for shorebird populations(Myers et al. 1987, Goss-Custard et al. 1995, Buehler and Piersma 2008) . For the millions of shorebirds that migrate through the East Asian-Australasian Flyway (EAAF), the intertidal areas of Asia are a crucial migratory bottleneck and extreme habitat losses are driving major population declines in many of these species (Barter 2002, Barter 2003, Bamford et al. 2008, Cao et al. 2009, Rogers et al. 2010, Yang et al. 2011).

2. Methodology of study

This study used data on waterbirds to identify key areas for biodiversity conservation and data on land claim to identify which of the most important sites are the most threatened. An investigation of the main drivers of the threats followed, focusing on case studies of the most threatened, most important sites for waterbirds. Species which inhabit intertidal areas, particularly shorebirds, give us a convenient and powerful indication of ecosystem well-being, given that they are at the top of the food chain and we have very good monitoring data for these species (Mallory et al. 2006) . The data can tell us which are the most important and vulnerable sites for biodiversity conservation, in terms of the sites with the largest numbers of birds and which support the greatest number threatened species. Information on past, current and future plans for land claim of intertidal habitats gives an indication of the sites most threatened with destruction. This report focuses on the drivers that are causing, or threaten to cause, the most severe failures of intertidal ecosystems, both in general across the entire Flyway and specifically in those most important sites.

Databases were established on the abundance, distribution, conservation status and other pertinent details of 155 species of birds that depend on East Asian intertidal habitats and associated habitats, of which 24 are globally threatened and 71 are migratory shorebirds (including gulls and terns). These were assessed to select suitable indicator species for an analysis of 395 coastal sites, from China to Bangladesh, consisting of Important Bird Areas (IBAs), EAAF Migratory Sites and other coastal (protected) areas. Our biodiversity assessment is restricted to shorebirds and threatened waterbirds which are confined to intertidal zones and the intertidal habitats. We identified key areas that harbour high levels of biodiversity at any time of year, weighted by: a) The number of globally threatened and near-threatened shorebird species and other tidal waterbirds b) Number of shorebirds species present with > 1% of their biogeographical population c) Total abundance of shorebirds. A short list of 30 sites of greatest importance were identified and pooled into areas when situated along a continuous coastal stretch of intertidal habitats. For each of the identified key areas we listed:

1) The area of intertidal wetlands (pre-2000); 2) The area of remaining intertidal wetlands (in 2010); 3) The area of intertidal wetlands affected by land claim between 2000 and 2010; and as predicted, between 2010 and 2020 4) The conservation status of intertidal wetlands that meet the Ramsar criteria for wetlands of international importance;

On country level we identified: 5) The area of intertidal wetlands affected by land claim or conversion to land and artificial wetland in the periods pre-1980; between 1980 and 2000, and 2000 and 2010; and as predicted, between 2010 and 2020; 6) Examples of conservation initiatives taken in order to maintain or restore intertidal wetlands and dependent waterbird populations.

Additionally, for the most important sites and the total Flyway we present (in collaboration with the University of Queensland) trend data on bird populations.

The analysis of drivers involved identifying the major threats to coastal ecosystems and seeking the underlying causes behind those threats. It included a review of the policy, legislation, Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) processes, Protected Area (PA) coverage and management of each country against the background of the types of socio-economic development in those countries. We employed simple scaled rating scores dependent on expert opinion and review.

Combining the two approaches we have identified where conservation efforts are failing to keep up with or cope with habitat threatening developments and thus identify areas where more action is required. These needs are summarized in the outline for an action programme.

3. The intertidal zone of East and Southeast Asia

The intertidal zone of East and South East Asia extends for 34,000 km from China and Korea, down along the costs of Vietnam, Cambodia, Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia and north around the coast of Myanmar to Bangladesh. An even greater length, 128,000 km, of coasts surround the islands of Japan and nations of Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) – Philippines, Malaysia (East), Indonesia, Brunei, and Singapore. The intertidal zone on the coastline is narrower than a line on a map; the total area involved is very small, fragile and is rapidly vanishing. Indeed, several countries have already lost between 40%-60% of all intertidal habitat (Davidson & Stroud, in prep) .

The coasts of Asia range from cold temperate to tropical and offer a range of habitats from mud to sand, gravel to mangroves. Of particular value to wildlife are the tidal estuaries of some of Asia’s great rivers – Yellow River, Yangtze, Red River, Mekong, Irrawaddy, Salween and Ganges and these areas emerge from our analysis as the most important for endangered waterbirds (see Appendix 2.). The eastern coastline serves as a migration Flyway for the many species that nest in the north – eastern Russia and Alaska - but winter in the Yangtze valley of China, or south to Australasia. Many species migrate annually through this Flyway, from the high arctic to Indonesia, New Zealand and Australia.

At least 33 Globally Threatened/Near Threatened birds occur (of which 24 in the tidal zone) with as many as 9 additional shorebirds that may be added to these lists soon (see appendix 1). The Flyway is characterized by more waterbird species, less waterbird species listed as Least Concern and far more waterbird species listed as Near Threatened or Globally Threatened than any of the world’s other major migratory Flyways is far more threatened species that any other major Flyway (Davidson & Stroud, in prep).

Apart from birds, this zone contains the nesting areas for rare turtles and king crabs; home for dolphins, sea lions, a wealth of crustaceans, mollusks and endemic sea grasses, and supports the livelihoods of hundreds of thousands of coastal fishermen.

4. Mud matters – the importance and values of intertidal habitats

For centuries the intertidal zone has provided a wealth of services in support of human welfare. Earliest human remains are often found in association with mounds of sea-shells indicative of the importance of this zone as a sustainable harvesting area for healthy food. The food list was broadened by the fish, birds and reptiles that also found their own foods along the shoreline. Clean beautiful shorelines offer wonderful and inspiring recreational opportunities, including for gastronomic tourism associated with seafood, and important local economies can develop as a result.

Shorelines function as physical collecting zones of stones, gravel, sand, mud and fringe vegetation that slows and breaks the action of waves. Gentle beaches tame ocean waves providing harbours, safe places for villages and towns and protection of adjacent agricultural areas. The binding of sand, mud and other sediments helps keep our seas clean and productive and removes many pollutants from the air and water. Increasingly, the importance of these habitats for carbon storage – “blue carbon” is being realized (Decho, 2000). Healthy strand vegetation (sea grass) and mangroves provide significant shelter in the face of typhoons and storms and against the tsunami that are frequent in a zone prone to devastating earthquakes. Coastal damage seen after the great tsunami of Aceh, Indonesia in 2004 and again in Japan in 2011 reveal that sites protected by intact healthy coral, mangrove or other coastal vegetation were dramatically less damaged than sites where nature had been destroyed.

Intertidal habitats and mangroves provide safe spawning areas for countless species of fish and crustaceans on which coastal fisheries depend and consolidate sediments into fertile new lands protecting offshore coral reefs from siltation and thereby enhancing the productivity of reefs and inland seas. We need healthy coastlines and when those coastlines are unable to support even the wading bird communities or the invertebrates they depend on as food, it is clearly time to take heed that they are now dangerous for humans also. The table below summarises the main ecosystem services provided by mudflats.

Services/benefits provided Notes Vulnerability References (will be added, JMK)

Provisioning Services

Sustainable fisheries Hundreds of thousands of fishermen Reclamation, overharvesting, alien depend on nets and fish traps in tidal species and pollution all threatening zone for their livelihood. Intertidal zone is fisheries which are now in serious important nursery area for many decline economic species of deeper water also

Biochemical Extraction of medicines and other materials from biota

Genetic materials Genes for resistance to plant pathogens, ornamental species, etc.

Regulating Services

Detoxification and purification Mud, gravel and their fauna of worms, Loss of purification role leads to of water resources mollusks and crustaceans remove dangerous outbreaks of red and pollutants from water green algal blooms and dangerous toxins in seafoods

Climate regulation and carbon Mudflats are important carbon sinks that Reclamation converts important Decho, 2000 fixation help to regulate climate change through carbon sinks into carbon sources the process referred to as ‘blue carbon’

Coastal protection Mudflats and beaches disperse and break Reclamation increases focuses and tidal action and safeguard shoreline from increases wave action and cyclones, tsunami, erosion and salination accelerates scouring at other parts of coastline increasing risk of storm damage and floods Water regulation (hydrological Groundwater recharge/discharge flows)

Cultural Services

Habitat for birds and other Many charismatic, rare and important Reclamations, cutting of mangroves, wildlife species depend on this zone. They are introduction of alien plants and easily viewed on open flats and beaches pollution all destroy wildlife habitat adding to recreational and conservation values

Educational Opportunities for formal and informal education and training

Landscape diversity and scenic Beauty and inspiration of the shoreline Conversion, reclamation and values adds to property values and supports development along the shoreline large tourism industry destroys aesthetic values

Supporting Services

Nutrient recycling Storage, recycling, processing, and Changes to seawater chemistry acquisition of nutrients result in loss of many important species and negative changes in benthic communities. Hypoxia destroys many economic species

Soil formation Sediment retention and accumulation of organic matter

More precise economic assessments of the values of these services need to be undertaken. But one preliminary study by the Korean Ocean Research and Development Institute (KORDI, 2006) came up with the following estimates: annual value of a hectare of Korean intertidal habitats (US $32,660) including marine products ($9,993), ecosystem preservation ($8,548), habitat ($7,533), water purification ($3,702), recreation ($1,443), and disaster prevention ($1,442). Given that there are more than 1 million ha of intertidal habitats in the Yellow Sea points towards values exceeding US$ 30billion per annum. An et al (2007) estimates that the historical loss of 51% of China’s coastal wetlands (not all intertidal) result in an annual loss of US$46 billion.

5. What the birds tell us: Identification of critical sites and species

Many birds that inhabit intertidal habitats are migrants and travel annually along the East Asian-Australasian Flyway (EAAF). They connect continents and countries and are therefore excellent environmental indicators at both global and local scales. There are indications of serious problems along the Flyway. As many as 89% of all monitored populations of Arctic breeding shorebirds in northeastern Russia now show decline (Syroechkovskiy 2012). Monitoring on beaches of Australia shows declines in the numbers of most Flyway migrant shorebirds wintering there (Rogers et al. 2011). Analysis of monitoring data of Japanese shorebirds between 1975 to 2008 show declines in most species but interestingly a much higher proportion among species that are dependent on Yellow Sea stopover sites (Amano et al 2011).

The fastest declining migratory shorebirds in the Flyway are two extreme habitat specialists: Red Knot (Wilson et al. 2011, Amano et al. 2011) and Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Zockler et al. 2010b). With the current rates, for every 100 Red Knots migrating along the Flyway in 1992 only seven will be left in 2020. Spoon-billed Sandpipers will be extinct although conservation action has started (Pain et al. 2011).

At least 50 species of migratory shorebirds and 21 migratory gulls and terns in the Flyway are strongly dependent on intertidal habitats. Twenty-two migratory species, including the Endangered Nordmann’s Greenshank and the Critically Endangered Chinese Crested Tern, have their entire global population in the Flyway. These two and ten more migrants (12 ) are globally threatened, and 9 others (e.g. Terek Sandpiper) have strongly declining populations and are under consideration to be red-listed. A further 15 red-listed resident shorebirds and other waterbirds use intertidal habitats in East Asia, such as the Endangered Black-faced Spoonbill and the Vulnerable Milky Stork. In total 24 tidal species in the Flyway are globally threatened.

Eight key areas for shorebird biodiversity are in the Yellow Sea (see map above. The Saemangeum in South Korea was among the most important of all until 2006 when it was enclosed by a seawall, now having no remaining intertidal habitats to support birds Moores et al. 2008 . Outside the Yellow Sea, eight areas in South and Southeast Asia with high intertidal biodiversity were identified. Some of the areas in the south are mainly wintering sites and are critical to the survival of particular species, such as the Critically Endangered Spoon-billed Sandpiper and the Endangered Nordmann’s Greenshank who winter on Sonadia Island in Bangladesh and in the Gulf of Martaban in Myanmar. In every key area the extent of intertidal habitats has been reduced by land reclamation, often by more than 50% in the last ten years (Appendix 2).

As many as 22 of the 50 migratory shorebirds in the Flyway strongly depend on the Yellow Sea: 50-100% of the individuals use the Yellow Sea during northbound or south bound migrations (Barter 2002) . In eight species as much as 70% of the population relies on the Yellow Sea as a fuel stop (Barter 2002) . All these species are declining. Three species are Near Threatened (Great Knot, Far Eastern Curlew and Eurasian Curlew), two are globally declining (Bar-tailed Godwit and Grey Plover), and three are regionally declining (Dunlin, Kentish Plover and Whimbrel)Amano et al. 2010). It is abundantly clear that dependence on the Yellow Sea negatively affects the population trends of shorebirds (Amano et al. 2010) .

6. Parallel declines in other taxa and services

The bird declines are a sure warning that the productivity and health of the intertidal zone faces an urgent crisis. Confirmation of these trends are paralleled in other taxa and the growing frequency and scale of ecological disasters. Important stocks of economically important fish, crustaceans, shellfish and cephalopods are all collapsing with associated loss of livelihood for hundreds of thousands of traditional fishermen. Sea mammals and turtles also show sharp declines. The frequency of toxic algal blooms increases dramatically; temperature, acidity and water levels are rising; the frequency of catastrophic storms increases and the damage to coastlines from cyclones and tsunami’s becomes more serious wherever the natural coastline has been destroyed.

Some documented examples of biodiversity decline and increasing catastrophes Change observed Comment Cause References The output of prawns, in the Bohai This is an important economic catch. 20% of Excessive fishing, over-exploitation Sea fell from more than 40,000 all China’s protein is marine based. and pollution have severely damaged tonnes in the 1970s to just 1,000 this fishery resource. tonnes in 2004. 130,000 km 2 of Chinese seas now This constitutes half of all China’s marine Pollution from land-based and marine classified as eutrophic area sources, especially agricultural chemical run off Serious declines in all marine Seal breeding sites on winter ice flows of Pollution leads to reproductive failure, Smith & Xie Yan 2008, mammals of Yellow Sea. The only Bohai Sea and summer resting places on loss of fish prey to starvation, habitat Ross et al. 2010 breeding species – Largha Seal now islands of Yellow Sea all threatened loss on summer beaches and listed as endangered. Indo-pacific accidental death in fishing nets humpback dolphin is critically endangered Serious loss of coastal vegetation Many commercially important plants Habitat loss due to reclamation, Zhang et al. 2005 throughout the region including declining – reed harvest, medicinal species, fishponds, saltpans combined with major loss of mangroves (China has fodder species, plants used by fisheries and invasion by alien species such as lost 73% since 1950s) ecological and physical fixation of coastal Spartina grass sediments Important beds of seaweeds and Many edible species of algae being lost; sea Pollution, changes in nitrogen levels WWF 2006, Short et sea grasses seriously damaged and grasses important for wildlife (5 species and salinity caused by damming al. 2011 declined globally threatened); single celled algae estuaries important for fishery food chains and carbon fixation Dramatic increase in jellyfish Injury to humans, loss of tourism revenues, Overfishing of jellyfish larval Kawahara et al.2006, blooms in Yellow Sea indirect reduction of fisheries predators, Litter provides habitat for Xian et al. 2005, jellyfish. Jellyfish prey on fish larvae. Titelman & Hansson 2006 Green turtle (Chelonia mydas ) Previously distributed widely throughout the Caught in fishnets and nest Song et al. 2002 regional breeding populations have waters of China and commonly found on disturbance declined dramatically in recent nesting beaches in South China. The only years. Presently only seven natural remaining mainland nesting beach is located beaches in China are used by in the Gangkou Sea Turtle National Nature nesting green turtles. Reserve (114 o2'E, 22 o3'N ) in Guangdong Biotic community structure In effort to restore large loss of biomass 15 Biomass loss was caused by Zhen, Chen, Luo & changed from crustacean to tons of benthic organisms were returned construction of deep water channel in Wang 2006. mollusks dominated in Changjiang between 2002-2004, but resultant Changjiang River estuary. estuary community changed and less valuable. Overall changes in biotic Less big carnivorous fish, more small low Overfishing, pollution, habitat loss and UNDP/GEF 2009. composition value fish, more jellyfish, less diatoms and reduced river intake (results in Strategic Action more flagellates lowering of Si/N ratio) Programme (SAP) for the Yellow Sea Large Marine Ecosystem Probablility of hypoxia increased by This serious lack of oxygen leads to collapse Pollution and loss of tidal cleansing Wei, He, Li & Wang 90% since 1990 around Changjiang of marine ecosystems and fisheries resulting functions increased by reclamations 2007 estuary in dead zones Frequency of harmful algal blooms Causes direct economic losses estimated at Pollution and loss of tidal cleansing Liping Song 2007, (HAB) increased 3.4 times since 2 billion yuan annually in China alone plus functions increased by reclamations Zhou, Zhu & Zhang 1990s, now affecting 16,300 km 2 in associated health risks 2001 Yellow Sea Small Yellow Croaker has seen 80% This was formerly one of the most abundant Overfishing combined with changing Zhou 2004, Tang 2006 decline since the 1960 in both economic species of the yellow sea nature of the Yellow Sea. High trophic China and South Korea accounting for 37% of total catch. species replaced by low trophic anchovy and sandlance South Korea sees sharp declines in 50,000-90,000 tons of hard clams and 1000 Saemangeum supply almost dried up WWF 2006 mollusk harvest tons of mud octopus were collected since closing of the seawall gates in annually in South Korea, mostly in 2006. Saemangeum estuary

7. Threats to the intertidal zone

Shoreline viability and the health of bird populations are negatively affected by a wide range of threats.

• Damming of the major rivers of the region leads to changes in silt discharge, seasonality and quality of freshwater discharge. Silt load of the Haihe river which flows into the Bohai Sea has reduced from an average of 0.75 kg/m3 to 0.1 kg/m3 as a result of damming and upstream water extraction (CCICED 2010b) . Reduced discharge along the entire east coast of China reverses the shoreline accretion process to leave a now receding shoreline which will cause huge loss of recent coastal reclamations(CCICED 2010b) . • Overuse of chemicals in agriculture leads to excessive nitrogen in freshwater systems and growing threats from toxic algal blooms in many coastal reaches. The Yachting events of the 2008 Olympics nearly had to be abandoned due to massive algal blooming around Qingdao. Blooms in 2008 and 2009 caused direct economic losses of near 2 billion RMB (CCICED 2010b). • Pollution due to industrial emissions, wastewater and sewage discharges both directly into the coastal zone and also into the rivers that flow into it. Common pollutants include phosphate, hydrocarbons, inorganic nitrogen, heavy metals and organic matter, all of which can also stimulate the occurrence of algal blooms. Plastic litter, on beaches and in the sea, is mildly toxic and occurs in ever greater physical volumes in all coastal areas of the globe. Being non-biodegradable, plastics area serious threat to all marine wildlife. In the intertidal zone, plastics may be ingested by wildlife, contaminate feeding sites, reduce access to feeding and roosting sites, and directly impact individual animals through entanglement. • Windfarm construction, whereby large wind farms are being constructed offshore, mostly on tidal flats, results in large losses of intertidal habitat. Windfarms also present a significant risk coastal birdlife, primarily through collision with wind turbines. • Tidal energy developments, which involve the construction of sea walls and tidal barrages, lead to direct loss of tidal flats. These developments also change near-shore tidal flows, which leads to increased impacts to siltation dynamics and damage to near-shore areas. • Overharvesting and overuse of intertidal resources, including fish, mollusks, sea-cucumber, sea-urchins and seaweeds. The recent industrialization of harvesting methods has resulted in far greater harvests with less manual labour required, which is undoubtedly impacting ecosystem processes throughout the intertidal zone. • Oil spills are an increasingly dangerous problem. The South China Sea to Yellow Sea passage is the busiest shipping lane in the world. Accidental leaks occur and oil rigs are becoming more common in the Bohai Sea and South China Sea. There are hundreds of small leaks barely reported but major oil leaks have already impacted many coastal habitats in the Republic of Korea and the Bohai Sea of China. • Hunting for human use using mist nets, fine fish nets, snares, poison and guns are used on or adjacent to beaches throughout the region. • Competition for food by human fishermen together with associated disturbance by humans, boats and dogs • Anthropogenic climate change leads to raised temperatures, sea levels, acidity and reduced oxygen. Tropical cyclones are becoming more frequent. These changes will result in loss of many beaches and intertidal habitats (including many valuable agricultural and maricultural developments, villages and even coastal towns) and seasonal mismatch between migration times and habitat productivity. • Loss of habitat . According to the China National Wetland Conservation Action Plan (2002) some 1.19 million ha of coastal tidal flats have been lost and 1 million ha of coastal wetlands have been urbanized or used for mining. This constitutes a loss of 50% of all China’s coastal wetlands. Mangroves had decreased from 50,000 ha in 1950 to 14,000 ha by 2000 – a 73% loss. Loss of coastal wetlands has continued and indeed accelerated during the following decade.

8. Vanishing intertidal habitats

It is hard to identify exactly what threats cause the greatest declines in shorebird populations. Questionnaires sent to managers of sites of the Flyway Partners revealed the perceived concerns as shown (left figure) with pollution considered the major threat. However these sites are mostly protected areas with some security. Moreover pollution can be tackled. Our own analysis suggests that by far the most serious and irreversible threat is the loss of habitat caused by reclamation of intertidal habitats for other uses such as agriculture, fish ponds, salt pans and increasingly ports, industrial sites, tourism and new urban development. In the key areas we identified in the Yellow Sea between 2000 and 2010 on average 43% of the intertidal habitats was lost (that is 240.000 ha of areas with high numbers of shorebirds, Appendix 2). One area with 30.000 ha vanished completely. This habit of converting the shallow intertidal flats into new land is ancient but the extent of conversions and the reasons for conversion accelerate with the pace of development and the increase in engineering technology. Habitat loss due to reclamation of the estuarine mudflats is progressing in the Yellow Sea region at a pace of 8% per annum (figure below). This is a faster pace of loss than other better publicized concerns such as rainforests, polar ice, coral reefs. Also the rates have accelerate dramatically in the last years.

9. Direct links between species decline and habitat loss due to land reclamation

Whilst declining populations of birds seems to mirror losses of habitat overall, it is still not clear that habitat loss is the major cause given the range of other threats impacting bird populations throughout Asia. Studies investigating the magnitude of the causal relationships between habitat loss and population trends/population demography are badly needed, and will provide the ultimate information on the urgency of the situation. However, several studies have suggested a link between habitat losses and declines of birds, such as when declines immediately follow habitat losses, or declines occur in migratory populations only (Amano et al. 2011, Wilson et al. 2011) .

Saemangeum, Republic of Korea

The Saemangeum mudflats at the mouths of the Dongjin and Mangyeong Rivers, on the coast of Jeollabuk-do has been recognised as one of the most important stop over points for migrating shorebirds in the world (Scott, 1989, Appendix 2). In the 1980s 200,000 shorebirds depended on the Saemangeum estuarine habitats as an important feeding ground on the East Asian Flyway, including the two endangered shorebirds Nordmann's Greenshank and Spoon-billed Sandpiper . The entire estuary was dammed by the 33 km long Saemangeum Seawall Project despite repeated criticism from environmentalists, closed off in April 2006 and officially completed in 2010 (work began in 1991). Reclamation within the wall continues and land is scheduled to be converted for agriculture or industrial development (see artists concept below). Shortly after closure mollusks started dying and the populations of the birds depending on the estuaries as migration stop-over decline dramatically (Moores et al. 2008, Moores 2012) .

While investigating causes of decline in several shorebird species, the Australian Shorebird Studies Group (Rogers et al. 2011) has monitored the number of wintering arrivals on Australian beaches and undertook banding studies of several species. They calculated percentages of populations using different stopover sites of the Flyway by counting the proportions of banded individuals. For species which used stopovers sites in the Flyway that have been destroyed, a corresponding decline in overall numbers was observed.

In ROK was observed to what extent birds that formerly used particular intertidal habitats are able to change to other flats when their original habitat is reclaimed. There are strong declines in birds counted on Saemangeum before and following closure of the sea walls and indeed a corresponding but minor increase in the numbers of birds now using two estuaries – Geum and Gomso - to north and south of Saemangeum. However total count show a large overall decline and this is also reflected in clear overall declines of populations in Australia.

Site Number of species that Number of species that declined, 2006-2008 increased, 2006-2008

Saemangeum 19 5

Geum Estuary 9 15

Gomso Bay 0 12

SSMP Region 15 9

Many species show declines that cannot all be attributed to this one site lost but since an estimated 60% of all intertidal habitats in the Bohai and 40% in the total Yellow Sea region have already been reclaimed or closed from tidal flows, the overall scale of habitat loss along the whole Flyway is very major.

Species recorded on 80 Dec. 2008 As % of 1999 & 2001 mile beach surveys

Bar-tailed Godwit 51,719 46.9 %

Common Greenshank 2,534 104.0 %

Curlew Sandpiper 3,292 41.0 %

Eastern Curlew 423 59.7 %

Great Knot 128,653 76.1 %

Greater Sand Plover 22,885 35.4 %

Grey Plover 1,146 72.3 % Grey-tailed Tattler 7,950 54.3 %

Pied Oystercatcher 809 116.0 %

Red Knot 23,123 77.9 %

Red-capped Plover 6,752 219.4 %

Red-necked Stint 28,443 118.5 %

Ruddy Turnstone 2,433 69.9 %

Sanderling 3,605 112.0 %

Terek Sandpiper 4,689 47.1 %

Whimbrel 363 196.0 %

Another interesting observation of the study is that some Australian resident shorebirds such as Red-capped plover and Pied oystercatcher plus birds less dependent on shoreline such as Whimbrel have shown increases in numbers as though benefitting from reduced competition from immigrants .

Population declines in migratory shorebirds in over-wintering sites have been investigated in Moreton Bay, Australia. Wilson et al. (2011) analysed shorebird population data from Moreton Bay, Australia. By comparing populations of migratory species with resident species, they showed that it was mostly the migratory species which were declining, and suggested that the declines observed in the migratory species were being caused by impacts to the populations outside of Moreton Bay. Specifically, since all the species that were identified in the study as declining are dependent on the Yellow Sea during migration, they suggested that habitat losses in that region are the likely to be the primary cause for the declines. With some species in Moreton Bay declining at rates of up to 9% per year, the authors concluded that if the declines observed there are consistent with wider trends across the flyway then a large number of migratory species in the EAAF are in significant decline.

Why small habitat losses have disproportional effect on populations of migrating birds

Not all migrating birds use exactly the same routes and stopover sites. Some species are very specialized and can only use sites with specific resources (Piersma 2006) . Different species bills are adapted to hunt in different types of mud or sand and take different foods. Northern routes differ from southern routes due to seasonal differences in food availability (Newton 2007) . The entire mixed species migration is dictated by specialization and constraints (Piersma 2007, Buehler & Piersma 2008) . This leads to 45% of a world population of Red Knots using only 20 km of coastline in Bohai Bay, China (Rogers et al. 2010) , or more than 70% of the Flyway’s bar-tailed godwits depending one other Yellow Sea site, Yalu Jiang (Barter and Riegen 2004) . Thus we see that a few percent loss of migratory stopover sites lead to up to 80% loss in bird numbers (Moores 2012) . A relatively small loss of sites can result in a big population decline (Wilcove & Wilkelski 2008) . A classic example is the crash in American migration of red Knot because overfishing of horseshoe crabs in Delaware Bay meant their annual feast of crab eggs was lost (Baker et al. 2004) .

The gradual degradation of former migratory sites also causes remaining sites to become funnels of heightened significance. Reclamation of Tianjin raises the importance of Tangshan (Yang et al. 2011) (now threatened by the Caofeidian reclamation plan); loss of habitats along the south China coast have heightened the importance of Mai Po and Deep Water Bay (Anonymous 2009) ; damage to the entire eastern sea board of Sumatra have funneled populations on the Banyuasin delta; and developments in the Red River delta have concentrated birds into the small site of Xuan Thuy. The closure of Saemangeum (itself a funnel for several species) has diverted birds to adjacent though less adequate sites of Geum and Gomso also threatened by looming reclamation plans (Moores et al. 2008) .

10. Review of drivers of coastal zone reclamation

The threats are complex and difficult to remedy. They are often brought about by indirect and underlying causes, drivers and processes. Appendix 3 presents a matrix of the observed problems, their causes and possible solutions.

Several different drivers are at work encouraging the reclamation of estuarine tidal mudflats. All are ultimately financial in nature and tend to dominate the weaker drivers for biodiversity conservation and protection of coastlines for their ecosystem services.

Demographic Almost one third of the global human population currently live along the seaboards of E and SE Asia. This number rises at tremendous speed due to the labour force following work at the main population centres on the Asian coastlines. The pressures of expanding new developments and industries are unparalleled in the history of the world and set to increase even faster over the next three decades. For instance the 554 million people living in coastal areas of China is projected to grow to 700 million by 2020 and 840 million by 2030 (Jiang et al. 2006) . Republic of Korea also develops its coastal zone at very high rate.

Economic GDP of the 11 coastal administrations of China rose at average 10% per annum between 2001 and 2009 reaching 19.5 trillion RMB or 57% of the national GDP. This figure is projected to rise another 2.5 times to reach 47 trillion RMB by 2020. Many heavy industries – steel, automobiles, petrochemicals etc. have been relocated into coastal areas and ports and storage quays have been developed to accommodate the huge increase in China’s import and export sectors. The eight largest container ports in the world and 13 of the largest 20 are all located within the study area. The Chinese shoreline occupied by harbours may increase from 600 km to 1000 km. Together with other expansion of coastal industries and urban development a further 5000 km 2 of sea will likely be reclaimed.

GDP of marine industries (shipping, fishing, mining, tourism, salt production and exploration for oil and gas) has grown even faster at average 15% per annum in China. New industries such as marine energy, marine engineering, biopharmaceuticals and marine sciences will help propel this growth even faster. Republic of Korea was ranked world No.1 in shipment contracting 2003 to 2008 and then China took over the world No. 1 in contracting 2009 to 2010.

The ships and marine equipment exports in Korea 2010 registered an increase of approximately 10% compared with the previous year by showing $ 49.8 billion, recording the largest performance ever. Korea hopes to regain world No.1 status during 2011 despite a small decrease in production.

Low costs of land reclamation Work by Linham et al. (2010) into coastal defence unit costs, found that the cost of land claim by elevation raising in South-East Asia varies from US$3-5 per cubic metre of material used, at 2009 price levels. This is much cheaper than land purchase or rental in most countries and certainly in urban areas. For land claim in Hong Kong Harbour, Yim (1995) stated the costs of land claim per square metre of claim are US$3.9 when utilising marine fill and US$6.4 when using land-based fill material (prices normalised to 2009 levels). Costs including subsequent construction on reclaimed lands can be far greater. The table below gives a few regional examples.

State/territory Location Area reclaimed Total Cost Unit cost per ha

Taiwan Kaohsiung 4.225 km 2 US$3.0 billion US$ 7 million Harbor

Bangladesh Meghna 600 km 2 US$ 18 million $US 300

Republic of Korea Kwangyang Hang

Republic of Korea Saemanguem 28,300 ha $2.1 billion $ 74,204

China Xiamen 3,933 ha $3.4 billion $882,400 (Peng et al. 2005)

Socio-political The development of marine resources has been identified as a special focus under China’s 10 th , 11 th and 12 th 5-year plans (2001,2006,2011). Implementation of Marine Development and Development of Marine Industries were respectively specified in the reports of the 16 th and 17 th National Congress of the Communist Party of China (2002, 2007). In 2008 the State Council of China published the ‘Planning Outline of National Marine Program Development’.

Cultural and Religious A number of temples and some colourful festivals for appeasing sea deities are found along the coasts of Bohai, Yellow and S China seas. These are largely now developed as tourism sites and add more pressure to the coastline than act as drivers of conserving or preserving the scenic values.

Science and Technology Advances in Science and Technology can reduce wasteage of marine resources and improve effectiveness of conservation but for the most part drive further the levels of use of resources and damage to ecosystems. Eutrophication of freshwater systems and hypoxia in coastal marine ecosystems result from excess application of inorganic fertilizers. Advances in fishing technologies have contributed significantly to the depletion of marine fish stocks. Other advances are pushing the development of exploration for oil, gas and other submarine minerals, development of marine energy sources, exploitation of new marine food sources, development of additional mariculture systems and use of new species in biopharmaceuticals industry.

Advanced research and understanding of climate change may lead to greater awareness of the threats to the coastal zone from rising sea levels and increased and intensified storms and cyclones which may result in a slowing of investment into this threatened zone but may simply result in the reliance on even greater physical constructions and sea defenses.

11. Review of protective measures and tools available

Weakness of drivers for conservation of intertidal habitats

Despite universal policy declarations promoting harmony and balance between development and the natural environment and ecosystems, physical developments are sweeping the seaboard at considerable damage and loss to the environment. These damages include:- • loss of coastal wetlands and ecological services • weakening of carbon sequestration functions of the ocean and coastal wetlands influences • loss of habitats and feeding areas for birds • decrease in biological diversity of benthic species • damage to coastal landscape diversity • damage to fish and shellfish habitats leading to unsustainable fishery resources • decline in water purification services; and increased risk of marine disaster Why are the conservation drivers that should be achieving a safer balance so dramatically failing to ensure environmental protection?

Awareness

Despite the tremendous efforts of WWF, Birdlife International, Wetlands International and many other international and domestic programmes and NGOs in terms of raising awareness for biodiversity, wetlands and key sites and species, awareness of the importance of preserving natural ecosystem functions remains low within government, media, public and fishing communities affected. Fine rhetoric, promoting maintaining balance and harmony between ecosystems and human development, found in so many government policy statements fails to be delivered in reality.

Awareness based on species concerns or appeals to sentimental values are failing to halt developers who can promise hard money and jobs. Greater emphasis should be placed on the loss of economically valued ecological services and the increasing threats and damage to life, health and property.

Important studies and recommendations at the global level such as The Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity (TEEB) reports (TEEB, 2010) or at national level such as the special ecosystem services task force report to the China Council for International Cooperation in Environment and Development (CCICED 2010a) make an awareness splash on publication but the awareness is not sustained and governments scramble to tackle new pressing priorities. The time for such awareness to be digested and relayed by media, educators and NGOs is too slow to reach the general public and local communities, who are anyway too poorly empowered to effect development plans. It is often quicker to take awareness directly to local communities.

Apo Island Project, Philippines – an example of local community driven conservation

Local fishermen at Apo Island were convinced by marine scientist, Dr. Angel Alcala, to create a marine sanctuary instead of overfishing the area which would have led to the destruction of their reef system. Apo has since come to be known as one of the best examples of community-organized marine sanctuaries. It took three years of communicating with the local fishermen but Dr. Alcala was successful and with the help of the Silliman University Marine Laboratory and the village head (woman), an area 450 meters along the shoreline and 500 meters out from shore was selected in 1982. This conservation model led the way for the creation of hundreds of marine sanctuaries in the Philippines and is proof that community driven conservation efforts really does have an impact and even though it takes some time to see that impact, it is nonetheless worth it every time. Fisheries around such sites continue to increase decades after establishment of the sanctuaries.

Availability of Information

Lack of clear accurate, trusted and convincing information both in general terms and at specific sites makes it only too easy for developers to push through their plans and for local government to approve them without proper costing of environmental damages and losses. Existing EIA regulations can be easily flouted, EIA reports become a whitewash. EIA regulations are themselves often biased in favour of development at the expense of environment.

Even when good information exists it is often unavailable because of poor access, scientists refraining from releasing results before they are slowly published, information is lost in technical jargon that non-specialists, such as planners and media, cannot understand or have time to sort through.

There is a considerable production of disinformation by the development sector to confuse opinion and deny credibility of much of the sound research warning of dangers and advocating more cautious development. Legal Instruments

Legal instruments for conservation fall into two main categories – procedures for identifying, proposing and gazettement of priority sites for protection as nature reserves and secondly – application of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) in the process of development.

PA management

All countries of the region have well developed protected area systems. Even DPRK claims to have 6% land coverage and most countries are well over the 10% target proposed by CBD. More specifically most of the countries are parties to the Ramsar Convention of Internationally significant wetlands and have established country focal points for the protection and monitoring of wetlands and especially Ramsar Sites. So why cannot adequate intertidal zone habitat be acquired and protected?

Analysis of the impressive protected areas of the region (BirdLife International et al. 2007, IUCN 2004) reveals that there is a bias in establishment towards mountain reserves and inland wetlands but a significant lack of representation of lowlands, coastal and marine areas. The reasons for this bias are that it is easier to acquire large protected areas in the agriculturally less productive and more remote mountain areas combined with high levels of awareness for the need to protect upstream water catchments in this region of high rainfall.

The opposite situation applies to the coastal zone. Awareness of conservation needs is lowest and due to reasons of demography and access, competition for coastal lands is greatest. Conservation agencies have low financing, limited resources resulting in weak protection and management of existing sites combined with generally low political influence.

Review of EIA/SEA procedures in the region

Most countries have legal requirements for applying EIA but in several cases penalties are very weak, involvement of public is limited or absent, biodiversity requirements are minimal or poorly defined and EIA is conducted by the developer not an independent assessor.

Whilst EIA centres on projects SEA (Strategic Environmental Assessment) is focused on Policies, Plans and Programs. SEA is geared towards upstream issues and is aimed at sustainability and cumulative and indirectly induced environmental effects. SEA would be effective in planning wise use of coastal estuaries but is still only sparsely applied within the region. The table in Appendix 7 compares legal approaches

Financial limitations

As a result of low awareness of the high service values enjoyed from natural ecosystems, Governments worldwide view protected areas non- productive sectors and are stingy on allocation of adequate budgets to perform strong protective management. It is ironic that the only protected areas enjoying large operational budgets are those that open the doors to mass tourism and visitor use which tends to cause severe conflict of interests. In this region, much more so than in others, where PAs do get large budgets these funds are generally allocated on grand showcase buildings or equipment rather than basic protection on the ground. (Xie Yan et al.)

Integrated planning and coastal management Almost all countries of the region profess to employ some forms of integrated planning and management of their coastal zones. The problem is that awareness of the importance of biodiversity is so weak that relevant experts are rarely engaged on the integrated planning teams and if involved can generally only offer generic platitudes in the lack of hard economic data. The result is that biodiversity is rarely well presented and under protected in resultant plans.

Conclusions of this study

The study reports on a large and urgent problem. The problem extends far beyond the crisis facing many intertidal shorebirds and encompasses other taxa, commercial fisheries, health and livelihoods and the ecological well being of intertidal zones across the whole of East Asia and in particular in the Yellow Sea eco-region. The rate of decline of species and the degradation and loss of their habitats cannot be ignored without severe consequences. A business as usual scenario will result in growing ecological disasters.

The nations of the region are collectively and individually failing to deliver on promised conservation obligations and targets agreed under several international conventions and agreements.

The issue is multinational in nature and requires multinational and national approaches to tackle. The severity of the issue is not well recognized. There is a need for much greater international highlighting and international cooperation to deal with the many different threats and drivers of environmentally degrading processes at play. These processes are not all sea based. Silt which is the lifeblood of the intertidal system is derived from inland sources. Actions are needed at inland point sources, the seas and along the shoreline.

The authors urge IUCN to play a stronger role in coordinating such actions. IUCN should commission ecosystem studies, help develop an integrated action plan and work with key governments to find solutions. A wide range of initiatives and partner programmes should be harmonized.

The countries of the region should be encouraged to slow down the destruction of the last estuarine intertidal habitats by following the precautionary principle, delaying signing new reclamations until better assessment of losses is completed and strengthening SEA/EIA procedures and the network of coastal protected areas.

Acknowledgments

We wish to thank all participants and the Secretariat of the East Asian-Australasian Flyway Meeting of Partners5 and the Spoon-billed Sandpiper Task Force Workshop, held in March 2012, Palembang, Indonesia. We particularly thank all the regional experts who gave their time to provide detailed input and discussion with the authors during the meeting. We also wish to thank Nicola Crockford, Simon Stuart, Mike Hoffmann, Mike Crosby, Doug Watkins, Nial Moores, Taej Mundkur, Nils Warnock, Richard Fuller, Simba Chan, Phil Battley, David Melville, Rob Schuckard, Jesse Conklin, Christoph Zöckler, Nigel Clark, Ken Gosbell, Eddy Wymenga, Evgeny Syroechkovskiy, Lei Guangchun, Cristi Nozawa…… for feedback and support.

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% Global % Shorebird flyway Species Common Name IUCN listing Population size population population in Yellow Reason for listing

Group in EAAF Sea (Barter 2002) Category

Tiny population which is declining owing to egg-collection, disturbance and the loss of coastal Sterna bernsteini Chinese Crested Tern CR SN C2a(ii);D <50 100% wetlands . Extremely small population, and an extremely rapid population reduction. Habitat loss in its breeding, A2abcd+3bcd+4abc passage and wintering grounds, which is compounded by disturbance, hunting and the effects of Eurynorhynchus pygmeus Spoon-billed Sandpiper CR WS 245-500 100% significant numbers d;C2a(i) climate change. Fledging success and juvenile recruitment are very low, leading to fears that the population is ageing rapidly. Very small population, split into several small subpopulations, that is believed to be undergoing a Platalea minor Black-faced Spoonbill EN WS C2a(i) 1,700 100% continuing decline owing to loss of habitat to industrial development, land reclamation , and pollution

This elusive species has a very small, and very rapidly declining population as a result of the ongoing Heliopais personatus Masked Finfoot EN WR A2cd+3cd+4cd 1,000-2,499 100% loss and degradation of wetlands and especially riverine lowland forest in Asia. Very small population, which has undergone a rapid decline that is projected to continue in the Ciconia boyciana Oriental Stork EN WR C2a(ii) 1,000-2,499 100% future, based on current levels of deforestation, wetland reclamation for agriculture , overfishing, and disturbance. Very small population. Population in Japan is stable but the mainland Asian population continues to Grus japonensis Red-crowned Crane EN WR C1 1,700 100% decline owing to loss and degradation of wetlands through conversion to agriculture and industrial development. Very small population which is declining as a result of the development of coastal wetlands Tringa guttifer Spotted Greenshank EN WS C2a(i) 500-1,000 100% significant numbers throughout its range, principally for industry, infrastructure projects and aquaculture. Small, declining population, principally as a result of the reclamation of tidal mudflats and estuarine Egretta eulophotes Chinese Egret VU WS C2a(i) 2,600 - 3,400 100% habitats for industry, infrastructure development and aquaculture. These factors qualify it as Vulnerable. Conservation measures have resulted in a population increase in Europe. However, rapid population Pelecanus crispus Dalmatian Pelican VU WS A2ce+3ce+4ce 10,000 - 13,900 80% declines in the remainder of its range are suspected to be continuing and therefore the species is listed as Vulnerable. Rapid population decline which is suspected to have been primarily driven by habitat loss and Numenius madagascariensis Far Eastern Curlew VU WS A4bcd 38000 100% deterioration. Further proposed reclamation projects are predicted to cause additional declines in the future. Rapid population decline caused by the reclamation of non-breeding stopover grounds, and under the Calidris tenuirostris Great Knot VU WS A4bcd 304000 100% 100% assumption that further proposed reclamation projects will cause additional declines in the future.

Population is undergoing a rapid decline as a result of widespread degradation and disturbance of Rynchops albicollis Indian Skimmer VU WR A2cde+3cde+4cde 6,000 - 10,000 80% lowland rivers and lakes Leptoptilos javanicus Lesser Adjutant VU WR A2cd+3cd+4cd 6,500 - 8,000 100% Small population is rapidly declining, in particular as a result of hunting pressure.

Rapid population decline owing to ongoing loss of coastal habitat , human disturbance, hunting and Mycteria cinerea Milky Stork VU WR A2cd+3cd+4cd 5000 100% trade. However, further data are needed onrates of decline in Sumatra, its stronghold. Despite poor breeding success in recent years owing to drought, and considerable pressure from Anser cygnoides Swan Goose VU WR A2bcd+3bcd+4bcd 60,000 - 80,000 100% habitat loss, particularly owing to agricultural development, and unsustainable levels of hunting, Small, fluctuating population, breeding at a very small number of wetlands. Susceptible to stochastic Larus relictus Relict Gull VU SN D2 2,500-9,999 100% effects and human impacts. Also thought to be declining as a result of reclamation of coastal wetlands for development.

Small, declining population. The rate of decline is likely to increase over the next three generations Larus saundersi Saunders's Gull VU SN A3c 7,100 - 9,600 100% (18 years) as a result of land reclamation on tidal flat s and disturbance at colonies.

Appendix 1. (continued)

% Global % Shorebird flyway Species Common Name IUCN listing Population size population population in Yellow Reason for listing

Group in EAAF Sea (Barter 2002) Category

Quite widespread, but moderately small population, thought to be in decline, owing primarily to Limnodromus semipalmatus Asian Dowitcher NT WS - 23,000 90% 40% destruction of its wintering grounds . An even more rapid population decline may take place in the future owing to climate change. This species qualifies as Near Threatened because it has a small population. If the population is found Esacus giganteus Beach Thick-knee NT WS - 6,000 80% 0% to be in decline it might qualify for uplisting to a higher threat category.

Widespread and has a large global population, its numbers have declined rapidly in parts of its range Limosa limosa Black-tailed Godwit NT WS - 630,000 - 805,000 2% 30% owing to changes in agricultural practices. Overall, the global population is estimated to be declining

Common in many parts of its range, and determining population trends is problematic. Nevertheless, Numenius arquata Eurasian Curlew NT WS - 770,000 - 1,065,000 40% 93% declines have been recorded in several key populations and overall a moderately rapid global decline is estimated. Likely to have a moderately small population which, owing to the development pressures on the Charadrius peronii Malaysian Plover NT WS - 10,000 - 25,000 100% 0% coastal areas it inhabits, is likely to be undergoing a decline. Narrow range in which development and recreation are putting pressureon critical breeding habitats. Charadrius javanicus Javan Plover NT WR - unknown 100% 0% It is likely to have a moderately small population, and this is thought to be declining. Undergoing a moderately rapid population decline owing to unsustainable subsistence harvest. Gavia adamsii Yellow-billed Loon NT SN - 16,000 - 32,000 20% However, accurate data is lacking and further surveys need to be conducted to quantify the current rate of harvest. Limosa lapponica Bar-tailed Godwit to NT? WS - 1,100,000 - 1,200,000 28% 71% Rapidly declining in parts of its range

Calidris ferruginea Curlew Sandpiper to NT? WS - 1,800,000 - 1,900,000 10% 10% Rapidly declining in parts of its range

Charadrius leschenaultii Greater Sand Plover to NT? WS - 180,000 - 360,000 46% 50% Rapidly declining in parts of its range

Heteroscelus brevipes Grey-tailed Tattler to NT? WS - 40,000 100% 4% Rapidly declining in parts of its range

Charadrius mongolus Mongolian Plover to NT? WS - 310,000 - 390,000 41% 23% Rapidly declining in parts of its range

Calidris canutus Red Knot to NT? WS - 1,100,000 15% 63% Rapidly declining in parts of its range

Arenaria interpres Ruddy Turnstone to NT? WS - 460,000 - 800,000 6% 13% Rapidly declining in parts of its range

Xenus cinereus Terek Sandpiper to NT? WS - 160,000 - 1,200,000 18% 27% Rapidly declining in parts of its range

Pluvialis squatarola Grey Plover to VU? WS - 692,000 - 692,000 18% 84% Rapidly declining in parts of its range

Species group key WS = Waterbird - specialist intertidal WR = Waterbird - regularly occurs in intertidal WO = Waterbird - occasional visitor to intertidal SN = Seabird neritic (coastal) Appendix 2. List of priority areas for waterbirds, and in particular shorebirds, of the EAAF, with specific threats

Status of waterbirds Other Country, key area and protection status Extent tidal flats dependent on tidal flats Habitat change and land threats* Other information threats (site, region)

Specifically named sites and IUCN Key Area Land claim Erosion/accretion Changes of habitat nature associated areas H=hunting; P=pollution,etc. Data references** meeting1% Maximum recorded populationsize shorebirds§ Keyseason (nonbreeding NB,northbound Protected Sites within Key Area*** Protected area (ha) Important Bird Area(IBA) Total IBA\EAAF size (ha) Tidal flat size before2000 (ha) Tidal flat size current(ha) Tidal flat lost (ha) Number of (Near) Shorebird populations

Long-term average Banyuasin Delta 9 12 86,661 coastal accretion Local fishing industry Tanjung Koyan. Associated and associated Sembilang NP - 31 32 Heavy pressure from ~13,750 ••• ••• S N NB rate is estimated at thrives largely on shrimps areas: Sembilang NP , areas- Sumatra, Ramsar Site 33 reclamation activities

83,361) about 100m per and prawns Tanjung Selokan Indonesia 423,750 9 - - year 202,896 (core Bamfordet al. 2008

Longshore-moving cycles of erosion Up to 1997, 76 Reclamation for housing Kuala and accretion, and 5 6 17,408 reclamation projects estates, tourism, industry, Selangor changes in the involving 384,000 ha of agriculture, and Nature Park; location of the land (Yusoff et al. aquaculture reduced the north-central Klang Islands seaward edge of Kapar Power Station , Klang ~14,000- 2006). Mud and number of feeding and Selangor coast, Mangrove 11 ••• ••• NB S N mangrove forest in H P D Islands, Pantai Rasa Sayang, 25,000 sandflats are not roosting areas; port Malaysia Forest modern times Pantai Tanjong Karang ~ 28,000 ~ protected under the development Klang Islands Reserve - affected by law; sand mining; (Li et al. 2007, Bakewell potential increases of silt «36,899> reclamation of 2009). Illegal mangrove Ramsar sites 9 11 discharge by the 27,434 mangroves** logging** larger rivers (DR

260 high(incl. tide roost); 11,000 Wells, pers. comm.) Yeapetal. 2007, Liet al. 2007, Bamfordet 2008,al. Bakewell 2009

Through entire delta Xuan Thuy 8 2 7,801 12 13 areas reclaimed for An Hai, Ha Nam, Nghia Hung Red River Natural 14 15 ~31,000- agricultural land, (Day and Ninh Co Estuary), Estuary - Wetland ••• ••• N S -- 16 17 58,000 aquaculture ponds, Thai Thuy, Tien Hai, Tien

Vietnam Reserve - 12,000 64,000 60 61 forestry and urban Lang, Tra Co, Xuan Thuy Ramsar Site 8 4 10,899 development Bamfordet 2008 al.

Gan Gio Tidal flats dynamic Mangrove due to erosion and Mainly shrimps ponds and Protected 5 1 20,083 Mangrove planting on accretion agricultural (rice) fields, Bai Boi, Binh Dai & Ba Tri, Gan Area; Tan Mekong and accreting mudflats (Sourcebook 2012). some salt ponds. Disused Gio, Tan Thanh intertidal area Thanh 1 2 51 H (small Saigon Delta - ~273,800 ••• ••• NB N S reduces habitat for Accretion rates agricultural land also & Ngang Island . Associated intertidal area 62 63 scale) Vietnam migratory waterbirds along the coastline provides habitat (Buckton area: Dat Mui National Park & Ngang 223,213 331,627 (Buckton et al. 1999) of up to 50 m per et al. 1999). Mangrove (Ca Mau Province) Island, 9 4 34,373 year (Buckton et al. forests protected now. potential 1999) Ramsar site Buckton et1999,al. Bamford etal. 2008, Sourcebook 2012,V. Morozov, pers. comm.

Mudflats converted to Tidal flat lost through Sonadia Island Sediment transport shrimp ponds, saltpans and 4 15 207,654 Coastal Embankment ECA - IBA & and replacememt mangrove plantations; also Damar Char , Hatiya Island, Project (CEP) (Kabir & Ganges- Ramsar create new islands urgent action are required Nijum Dweep, Patenga Beach, Hossain 2007); Hatiya? Brahmaputra- candidate; 10 11 and change to mitigate shorebird Char Shahajalal, Char Kukri ~68,000 ••• ••• NB and Sonadia Island H P Meghna Delta, Nijum Dweep 12 16 channels and flow hunting (Chowdhury et al. mukri, Sonar Char. Associated 210,770 (Chowdhury et al. 601,700 217,000 Bangladesh NP; of delta arms 2011). Pollution on ,Zöckler etal. 2005, areas: Sonodia Island (Cox's (+40,000 2011) have been Sundarbans - (Zöckler et al. Patenga beach due to port Bazar), Sundarbans 9 16 in Indian proposed as seaport Ramsar Site 2006) and ship breaking Sundarb site (Chowdhury pers. comm.) ans) Islam 2001 Islam 2006, Kabir Hossain & 2007, Zöckler et2010b,al. Chowdhuryetal. 2011

Appendix 2. (continued)

Status of waterbirds dependent Other Country, key area and protection status Extent tidal flats Habitat change and land threats* Other information on tidal flats (site, region) threats

Specifically named sites and IUCN Key Area Land claim Erosion/accretion Changes of habitat nature associated areas H=hunting; P=pollution,etc. criterion Maximum recorded populationsize shorebirds§ Key season (nonbreeding NB, northbound Data references** Protected Sites withinKey Area*** Protected area (ha) Important Bird Area(IBA) TotalIBA\EAAF size (ha) Tidal flatsize before2000 (ha) Tidal flatsize current(ha) Tidal flatlost (ha) Numberof (Near) Shorebird populations meeting 1% Recession rate of 1.2–4.6 m/year; ca. --- No reclamation on any 1 km tidal flat lost Don Hoi Lot has razorshell significant scale has in last 30 years, fishery and is the single Inner Gulf of Don Loi Hot - taken place (Round especially from most disturbed stretch of Thailand - 32 23,000 23,000 0 NB N H Inner Gulf of Thailand Ramsar Site 2006), but election Bang Pakong River shoreline for waterfowl in 87,500

Thailand 100,000 campaign proposed land to the Thachin the entire gulf (Manopawitr 5 10 117,500 claim of 10km of coast. River & Round 2004) (Sripanomyom et al. 2011) Manopawitr Round& 2004, Round2006, Sripanomyom et al. 2011

Moulamein Deep Sea Associated areas: Dawei River Gulf of Martaban Port. Further south: Areas is too dynamic for H mouth in the Tanintharyi and River mouth no protected Dawei Industrial Zone is Oil and gas aquaculture. Unsustainable (mistnet coastal zone, Nanthar Island in - area of Sittaung 0 - ~2,500 ~2,500 ••• 5 13 65,246 ••• areas undergoing mega coastal exploitation. fisheries with fine-mess s/snares the Rakhine coastal zone, River - Myanmar development (Zau Lunn, nets. /poison) Irrawaddy Delta (Labutta), (15,000ha) pers. comm.) Letkok Kon Naing 2007, Bamford et al. 2008, etZöckleral. 2010a, &N.H. pers.Hla Clark, comm.

Of Asan Bay >30,000ha «82.993> reclaimed; much of Geum smothered in silts: 7 12>14¶ Asan Bay (Asan-ho lake and 103,271¶ Cheonsu reclaimed in lagging effect of Natural Sapgyo-ho lake), Cheonsu eastern Yellow 1980s; large-scale Saemangeum project, Monuments 4 5 6 52,000 Accretion are very Bay , Geum-gang estuary , Sea coast - ongoing land claim in leads to die off of shellfish and/or Wildlife 10 17 155,000 103,000 (34% N S slow (Lee & Han-gang estuary , Icheon Republic of Geum; Namyang now (Kim & Choi 2006). Benthic 2,620

Reserve ( sites 18 19 56,477 loss) Chough 1989) Bay, Namyang Bay, Song Do Korea largely reclaimed; small- habitat quality change after in italic ). Tidal Flat, Ganghwa-do island, scale land claim in reclamation (Choi et al. 17 18 «339,903 Yeongjong-do Island. Ganghwa and Yeonjong, 2010) after large-scale in 1990s Barter 2002,Barter Rogers etal. 2006, Bamford et al. 2008,Moores et al. 2008,Moores 2012

Land claim affected 30% of flyway's great knot (Rogers Seawall closed in 2006, et al. 2009). Between 1997 5,000 ha flats remains and 2001, c.316,000 Saemangeum but without tidal shorebirds during reclamation No tidal flats 28,000 «198,031 exchange (Moores 2012). northward migration, c. former Dongjin and project - after seawall - 21 22 29,000 <1,000 (97% 10 15>10¶ N=S - >54,393¶ Had Yellow Sea’s largest 257,000 on southward Mangyeong/Mankyung estuary

Republic of closed in 2006 17,042 loss) concentration of Spoon- migration (Yi 2003, 2004). Korea billed Sandpiper (Moores In 2010, 10,000 shorebirds 2012) during southbound migration (Korean Shorebird Network 2011). Yi Yi 2003, 2004,Rogers etal. 2006, 2009, Mooresetal. 2008, Korean Shorebird 2011 Network

~300 Nakdong-gang Nakdong Busan City wants to built (in Estuary - Sea of Estuary airport in estuary. Various 35 1,500 1,200 1980s) 11 5 33,109 S N -- Nakdong-gang estuary Japan, Republic Natural reclamation projects 9,560 9,560 (20% of Korea Monument ongoing loss) Doornbos et al. 1986,Barter 2002, Bamford et al. 2008,Moores 2012 Status of waterbirds dependent Other Country, key area and protection status Extent tidal flats Habitat change and land threats* Other information on tidal flats (site, region) threats

Specifically named sites and IUCN Key Area Land claim Erosion/accretion Changes of habitat nature associated areas H=hunting; P=pollution,etc. Data references** Protected Sites withinKey Area*** Protected area (ha) Important Bird Area (IBA) TotalIBA\EAAF size(ha) Tidalflat size before2000 (ha) Tidalflat size current (ha) Tidalflat lost (ha) Numberof (Near) Shorebird populations meeting 1% criterion Maximum recorded populationsize shorebirds§ Keyseason (nonbreeding NB,northbound

No land claim. Intertidal Ponds function as de facto Inner Deep Bay Mai Po 10 9 49,451 mudflats and mangroves nature reserves yet allow Mai Po . Associated areas: (Mai Po) and Marshes & in Ramsar Site are listed for resource harvest and Futian NR (IBA C496) and Shenzhen Bay - Inner Deep 1 3,150 2,960 190 N NB S as Restricted Area under - subsistence use by local Taipa-Coloane Wetland (IBA 1,513

China, Hong Bay - Ramsar 11,500 the Wild Animals people Macau1) Kong Site 11 9 51,045 Protection Ordinance (http://www.ecf.gov.hk/en/a (Lee 1999) pproved/ncmap.html) Lee Lee 1999,Bamford et 2008,al. Anonymous 2009

Chongming: 2.19 million Chongming: Claimed land ha (50% wetland) for farmland, fishponds, Chongming enclosed by seawall; road systems more than Dongtan 15 35 164,243 >15,000ha intertidal has doubled; 30% of intertidal Nature Yancheng Total been developed, before Reductions on planted with invasive Reserve, Yancheng Chongming Dongtan Nature ~40,000; ~100,0 1990s in agriculture, after sediment Spartina (Ma et al. 2009). Jiangsu and Yancheng ~100,000; Reserve, Dongsha Islands, Chongming 00 1990s in aquaculture (Ma contributions of Yancheng: shellfish harvest Shanghai coast, National 367 Chongming N=S Jiuduansha Nature Reserve, Jiuduansha (60% et al. 2009). Yancheng: Yangtze River (Barter et al. 2001); P H Yellow Sea, National 375 Jiuduansha NB Rudong, Yancheng Nature NNR and from 1988 salt flats from impacts extend of managed for red crown eastern China Nature 563,600 485,900 NNR Reserve. Associate area: Min 236,851ha 15% >40% to <20% of reserve tidal flats (Cao et al. cranes. Rudong: Polution Reserve - 279,600ha Jiang Estuary (2007) loss) (Ke et al. 2011)). 2009) from chemistry developing Ramsar Sites; Rudong: reclamation zone, invasive Spartina, Jiuduansha 18 38 «240,911 plans (China Coastal restricted roost areas NNR Waterbird Census Team (China Coastal Waterbird 2011) Census Team 2011) Barter etBarter 1997,al. Barter et 2001,al. Bamfordet 2008,al. Ma et 2009,al. Cao et 2009,al. Ke et 2011,al. China Coastal CensusWaterbird Team 2011 Sediment contributions of 7 16 134,893 Until 1980s, major Yellow River Yellow River Laizhou Bay - 23,000 reductions in tidal flat Laizhou Wan, South Bo Hai Delta (Huang 327 declined by 70% south Bohai ~43,000 ~20,000 (53% N S area and rates of loss are - Wan, Yellow River Delta He) NR - not a 328 lleading to erosion loss) accelerating (Cao et al. (Huang He) Nature Reserve

Sea, China 385,000 Ramsar Site 153,000? of the delta and 2009) 7 19 196,404 tidal flats (Cao et al. 2009) Zhu etZhu 2001,al. Barter Xu & 2004, etBarter al. 2005,Bamford etal. 2008,Cao et al. 2009 Land claim affects most of flyway's bar-tailed Yalu Jiang Yalu Jiang godwits (Barter & Riegen Estuary and National 10,000 Roost sites in fish ponds Yalu Jiang Estuary 2004). Extensive past associated areas Nature 62 ~90,000 ~80,000 (10.5% 16 10=13 174,179 N - are critical (Barter et al. (Dandong) , Ryonghung Gang reclamation of tidal flats Reserve - not loss) 2000b) - China, DPR 108,057 200,000 Estuary? (Barter et al. 2000b); Korea a Ramsar Site ongoing land claim (D. Melville, pers. comm.) Barter etBarter al. 2000b, &Barter Riegen 2004, Bamfordet al. 2008

Land claimed to grow Shuangtaizihe commercial grass ( Spartina 12 12 65,855 Sedimentation kou National sp.). Shuangtaizihekou rates insufficient for Liaodong Bay - Nature 13,000 Tidal flat claimed to grow NNR managed for red Linghekou, Shuangtaizihekou new saltmarsh north-east Bohai Reserve 52 ~42,000 ~29,000 (31% N S commercial grass (D. crown breeding grounds (D NNR and Inner Golf of generation (D. Sea, China (Shuangtai loss) Melville, pers. comm.) . Melville, pers. comm.). Liaodong Melville, pers. Estuary) - Intensive reed harvesting, comm.) Ramsar Site (80,000)128,000 12 12 97,793 aquaculture and oil extraction. Barteret 2000a,al. Bamfordet 2008 al.

-31,300 Further land claim plans (to - 15 53,425 for 34,700ha of tidal flat Bohai Bay - 1993) - Beidaihe(?), North Bo Hai would affect 62% of north-west no protected 21,800 Wan, Northwest Bo Hai Wan, - 311? ~90,000 37,000 N S global populations of red -- Bohai Sea, areas (to Shi Jiu Tuo/Daqing He , 7,000 130,000 knots and 56% of the China 2010) Tianjin/Tangshan/Caofeidian global population of relict (59% 11 21 148,791 gulls (Yang et al. 2011) loss) Barter etBarter 2003,al. Bamfordet al. 2008, Rogers et 2010,al. Yang et2011 al. Key to Appendix 2

* information without reference is taken from Asian Wetlands Directory 1989 and EAAF Shorebird Network Site ** information on IBAs and GTBs taken from BirdLife Factsheets *** NP = National Park; WCA = Waterfowl Conservation Area; ECA = Ecologically Critical Areas § highest count for each species, either wintering, or during northbound or southbound migration ¶ changes from 2006 to 2008 after closure of seawall in Saemangeum « declines in shorebird population recorded

Appendix 3. Major problems, drivers and possible solutions to reduce loss of intertidal habitats and biota

Root causes/ drivers Perverse processes Resultant threats to Ultimate problems Domestic solutions International solutions intertidal zone Short-sighted Over-use of chemical Dangerous algal blooms, Health dangers, blockage of Review agricultural policies; FAO and other agricultural policy, fertilizers. Release of red tides; reduced water waterways, toxic to some reverse perverse subsidies; international programmes perverse subsidies, excess nitrogen into transparency; fish, loss of diatoms basic to promote more sustainable available to help countries low awareness, weak water system reduced silicates; many foodchains; Increased practices; strengthen agro- develop sound agricultural agro-practice eutrophic conditions toxic dinoflagellates; biodiversity protection policies and practices. controls reduced oxygen in water Sharing of best practices. Weak regulations Release of untreated Algal blooms and Severe health dangers, loss Ensure both regulations and WHO and other and law enforcement sewage into water dangerous bacteria of tourism potential, enforcements maintain high international programmes or lack of budget for system loss of biodiversity sewage treatment standards. This can help countries achieve sewage treatment must cover domestic sewage and higher standards of waste farm animal wastes treatment Weak EIA, weak Release of toxic Toxic materials enter Human health hazard Improve environmental Stockholm Convention and pollution legislation, metals and Persistent food chains and mud including carcinogenic legislation, law enforcement and other programmes weak law Organic Pollutants threat; Kills many wild monitoring. Better zoning and available to share enforcement drive (POPs) into water creatures and targets siting of pollution sources. information on ways to industries to take system from vulnerable species; Establish strict food and health achieve sound economic shortcuts. industrial pollutants can persist in standards: develop treatment management of chemicals Vietnam War mud and living creatures facilities and wastes defoliation (historical for many years; fisheries residues). decline Failure to collect and Dumping of Massive unsightly and Plastic waste covers Campaigns and taxes to Waste often comes from treat garbage. untreated garbage hazardous flotsam beaches and mudflats, discourage use of plastic bags distant countries. Issue Excessive use of into waterways littering beaches disturbs wildlife, occupies and other unnecessary needs to be tackled on a plastic containers space can be hazardous to packaging. Improve recycling and global basis. and wrappings animals especially if garbage treatment. ingested. Slightly toxic Inadequate controls Leaks from drilling Oil spill washed up on Oil kills many birds fish and Tighten national standards and Law of Sea and other and enforcement of platforms, tankers shoreline invertebrates controls; improve response programmes can be applied standards. and cleaning bilges capability; ensure bird treatment Inadequate capacity available equipment to clean up spills Few livelihood Overharvesting of Cutting of mangroves, Loss of fish stocks, loss of Add more habitat to PA system; Certification for sustainable alternatives, growing seafoods – fish, erection of net systems invertebrates, disturbance strengthen protective harvested products; demand from crustaceans, and traps; raking of to birds, management and law Bilateral programmes can tourism industry and mollusks, worms mudflats enforcement; provide livelihood help provide alternative for export, lack of alternatives; use PES to pay for livelihoods adequate quotas and good ecosystem co-management controls Low awareness of Budgets are available Damaging important Loss of wetlands; Scientific community should Ramsar, Wetland ecology by foresters. for tree planting, wetlands by introduction of alien advise managers on when and International and other Trees are not always open wetlands offer inappropriate tree species; changes to water which species of tree planting are organizations and ‘good’. cheap, open areas planting table; shorebirds favour not appropriate programmes should for planting wide open spaces where highlight this threat to they feel safe from wetlands and provide predators guidelines on ‘When not to plant’ Lack of SEA; weak Urban, touristic or Loss of vegetation above Loss of nesting areas and Approve and apply SEA International lobbying can planning, weak PA aquaculture the high-tide line night roosts of resident and legislation. Strictly prohibit major be applied through legislation, failure to encroachment passage birds developments in areas identified international mainstream for essential ecosystem conventions/programmes; biodiversity, low functions. Strengthen EIA media coverage and awareness and short- enforcement. Strengthen diplomatic lobbying by sighted economic awareness campaigns to public International agencies. policies and planners Technical assistance can be delivered via international projects. Failure to Mega-development Sea walls, reclamation of Irreversible and entire Development of Biodiversity Core articles of CBD. mainstream plans for new mudflats, blockage of destruction/loss of Strategy and Action Plans. Many programmes willing biodiversity, short- economic zones; original water flows intertidal habitats Ensure biodiversity is considered to work with countries sighted economic perverse incentive by all relevant sectors. towards better biodiversity policies; lack of schemes, land Strengthen SEA processes and mainstreaming. Diplomatic suitable regulations allocations EIA application. comment and lobbying by and subsidies to International organizations promote wiser land and programmes. allocations. International projects should set good example following highest standards. Failure to harmonize Damming, water Reduced flow of Salination kills riverine and Important to achieve good Rivers cross national human water needs diversions and river freshwater into estuaries coastal flora, coastal balance between different water boundaries. Several with environmental water extraction; agriculture and many needs; preserve water security International programmes water needs. Failure water wastage due invertebrates; Reduced silt and water quality; tackle entire water systems to mainstream to inefficient flow deprives mud bars of Tight regulations and controls on – Greater Mekong biodiversity into irrigation fresh silt and nutrients, can water use and abuse Programme, Amur River hydro projects. Weak lead to shoreline retreat. Programme etc. control of water use. Funders and investors in hydro and irrigation projects should apply high environmental standards Weak landscape level Deforestation and Excessive silt loads in Silting kills coral reefs Restrict forest clearance, limit CBD obligations and GEF planning; weak agriculture in steep rivers; undermining the structure bio-fuel production; expand funds available for regulation landscapes. Failure to Loss of precious topsoil of coastlines and resulting reforestation but with local combating land enforcement attend to erosion in shoreline erosion species; use PES to reward good degradation (corrupt blind eye) scars. catchment protection Weak hunting Use of guns and Excessive hunting and Loss of millions of birds Review the need to erect mist- CITES and TRAFFIC can help controls. Some traps, electricity, mist netting (especially annually, all down the nets on airports. monitor illegal trade lines. perverse policies like poisons and shore and water birds) migration Flyways Stimulate alternative livelihoods International organizations netting birds on explosives. for sport, food, sale or to in coastal areas. and programmes can exert airports. Weak law Mist netting of birds protect crops or for air Tighten hunting regulations. diplomatic pressure to enforcement in PAs in reserves, safety Tighten law enforcement encourage countries to agricultural lands, better tackle these issues airports. Failure to curb and Man induced Climate Increased extreme Raised stress on all Reduce national greenhouse gas Climate Change Protocols limit release of change weather (both hot and ecosystems. emission levels; encourage encourage countries to greenhouse gases; cold, wet and dry); Bleaching of corals. development of clean energy curb greenhouse gas excessive and more typhoons, floods, Changes to species alternatives; emissions. GEF available to continuing droughts, heatwaves; migration patterns and sources; fund projects aimed at destruction of raised sea temperatures, mismatch of timings. Develop national stategy for tackling climate change natural vegetation sea levels and sea pH; Loss of coastal habitat. biodiversity and climate change; issues. REDD programme. changes ocean currents; Revise PA system for greater Ensure biodiversity loss of glacier water climate change resilience, concerns are included in sources especially promote connectivity. climate change mitigation plans. Poverty and lack of Unsustained cutting Conversion of Destruction of mangrove alternative mangroves for fuel mangroves into fish habitat; acidification of soils livelihoods; weak and tannins; ponds and waters; source of alien control of forest uncontrolled harvest invasives damage; lack of of other resources suitable incentives Uncontrolled release Forestry, Spread of many alien Damage to environment, Adopt cautionary AIS legislation This issue is covered under of alien invasive horticulture, invasive species of fauna displace local species, with provisions for safe trials, CBD and PoWPA. species agriculture, and flora; spread of destroy local species; releases, monitoring, responses. Assistance can be gained aquaculture and diseases and pathogens damage health of wildlife, Should include secure GMO from some international accidents all bring domestic animals and regulations. programmes, by way of new species humans Undertake studies, reporting and information sharing, best monitoring. control practices etc., such as Global Invasive Species Programme (GISP) Corruption; Approval of Lack of mainstreaming of Destruction of habitat; Constantly fight and punish Comment; diplomatic lack of transparency developments that biodiversity into plans promotion of many illegal corruption; lobbying; Setting good enrich a few and developments. actions; Develop better transparency; examples powerful people but Whitewash EIA. Greater public participation and at cost of: Diversion of key funds. comment; environment, long- Misappropriation of Greater freedom of media to term economic farmers and public lands. cover environmental issues sustainability, wider Failure to include public, biodiversity environmental costs and externalities into development cost/benefit calculations Lack of awareness; Failure to build long- Lack of funding, weak Loss of habitat, loss of Promote awareness campaigns; Development of or lack of funding term environmental environmental species, weak protection of Include environmental training in distribution of awareness concerns into protection, lack of PAs, excessive consumption education; reward environmental materials in local languages development process concern at degrading of unsustainably harvested awareness in performance environment products evaluation Low capacity for Lack of reliable facts Decisions are made Damaging developments Strengthen research and Improve the collation, research and and figures; low without sound and losses of habitat monitoring. Involve academic analysis and publication of monitoring; low awareness information base institutions in management relevant data. Improve funding allocations advice; promote better data access to data via open sharing; participate in websites and in local international programmes languages. Lack of agreement Failure of countries Grab whilst you can Inability to establish Refrain from irreversible Encourage peaceful on marine to take sustainable behaviour protected areas or apply developments or actions pending resolution, peace parks or boundaries use approach sustained harvesting of dispute resolution get both sides to agree on resources necessary conservation measures

Appendix 4. List of major international programmes with direct relevance to EAAF

Programmes Mission/Functions Activities

UN Convention on Articles cover the entire spectrum of Programme of Works for Protected Areas specifically tries to Biological Diversity (CBD) actions to conserve biodiversity promote compliance in protecting natural areas for biodiversity. Species Survival Commission attends to species concerns with many taxonomic specialist groups. Produces species survival plans

Global Environmental Provides funds for regional and national Has undertaken regional Southern Seas project and many national Facility (GEF) projects under CBD wetlands protection projects

Royal Society for Specialist society supporting all types of Supports SBS task force. Provides funds, news and technical protection of Birds (RSPB) bird conservation activities in UK and materials. worldwide

Wildfowl and Wetlands Promotes research, conservation and Has special project for conservation of Spoonbill Sandpiper using Trust (WWT), Slimbridge education on matters of wildfowl and artificial breeding and headstarting. their wetlands

Japan-Australia Migratory Cooperation between Japan and Australia Support protection of sites and study of migrations between the Bird Agreement two countries including Ramsar Site Towra Point NR.

East Asia-Australasia 13 countries and several international Establishes and supports protection for a network of protected Flyway Partnership (EAAFP) agencies, supported by ROK government sites for habitat of migrating birds along the Flyway. Supports several task forces including SBS task force

China-Japan Migratory Bird Cooperation between China and Japan Supports protection of migrating bird sites of birds shared between Agreement (CJMBA) the two countries

World Conservation Union Has special commissions to assist with Pushes CBD PoWPA; develops Regional Action Plans and Species (IUCN) Protected Areas and Species Survival Plans

BirdLife International Global agency for studies and protection Marshalls data on endangered birds, publishes regional and of birds. Many country offices in EAAF national directories of Important Bird Areas, undertakes special region. Acts as SSC specialist group for studies birds. Has many local partners Wetlands International Global specialized NGO for wetlands Promotes importance for and supports protection of wetlands (WI) conservation globally. Several national offices within the EAAF region

Worldwide Fund for Nature Global Conservation NGO with many All forms of conservation activity but a long history of supporting (WWF) national programmes within EAAF region wetlands conservation. Manages key site at Maipo Marshes in Hong Kong

Convention of Migrating Worldwide convention Improve all types of faunal migration routes Species

China Australia Migrating Cooperation between Japan and Australia Support protection of sites and study of migrations between the Birds Agreement (CAMBA) two countries including Ramsar Site Towra Point NR.

Asian Development Bank/ Fund development projects in Asia both Many environmental protection projects including wetlands and World Bank and several as loans and grants and technical corridors bilateral aid programmes assistance

Appendix 5. Matrix of issues affecting different countries

Matrix of issues (scored by authors in discussion with national experts)

Territory/importance CHN HKG TAI ROK NOK JAP PHL VNM CAM THL MYS BRN SGP IDA MMR BDH Total of driver

Reclamation for *** *** ** *** ** ** ** * * * *** * ** * 24 urban and ports

Reclamation for * * * ** ** ** * *** * *** 17 forestry or agricultural land

Reclamation for fish * * * * ** * *** ** ** * 16 ponds and salt pans

Coastal protection * * * * * * * ** * * * * 13 engineering

Coastal tourism ** * * * * * ** * ** * * * * 16 development

Demographic ** * * * ** * * ** *** * 15 pressure

Total driver score 10 6 6 8 5 6 7 9 3 9 3 2 7 11 5 6 33% of possible

Responsibility * ** * * ** ** *** ** *** ** *** *** * * ** ** 31 mandates clear

Adequate PA system ** ** ** * * * ** * * * * * * ** * * 21

Strong Ramsar ** *** ** ** ** * ** * ** * * ** * 22 programme

Strong PA legislation * *** ** ** * * ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** ** *** 31 Effective PA */** *** ** ** * *** * * * ** ** ** *** * * ** 28 management

Monitoring migrant ** *** ** *** * *** * ** * ** ** * * * * * 27 birds

Adequate EIA process ** ** ** ** * ** * ** * * ** ** ** * * 24

Integrated planning/ ** ** ** ** * * * ** * * ** * ** ** * ** 25 SEA

Local community * ** ** * ** ** ** * ** * * ** ** ** ** 25 involvement

Public awareness of ** ** ** ** * * * * * * * * * * 18 issue

Total tools in place 16 24 20 18 8 18 15 17 12 16 17 15 15 15 11 16 52% of possible

Appendix 6. Comparative review of PA legislation and management

Country/ Main laws for establishment/management of % intertidal % territory as % coastline as No of coastal Territory Protected Areas habitats lost PA PA Ramsar Sites out (2005)(Chape of identified WCMC) potential sites

China National regulations on establishment of nature reserves c. 45% 15% c.20% 5 out of 53 (1985); Forest Law (1984, revised 1998); Fishery Law (1986); Law on Protection of Wild Animals (1988); Environment Protection Law (1979, revised 1989);

Hong Kong Country Parks Ordinance, 1976 revised 2005; 10-205% 52% c. 26% 1 out of 2 Marine Parks Ordinance, 1995

DPRK Law on Forests, 1992; Law on Prevention of Sea c. 10% 3%, NBSAP <5% 0 out of 23 (not Pollution, 1997 plans for 20% party to Ramsar)

ROK Natural Parks Act, (revised 2001); Natural 60% 7% <5% 0 out of 29 Environment Conservation Act, 1991; Wetland Conservation Act, 1999; Law on Conservation and Management of Marine Ecosystems; plus specific acts for protection of some small islands, main mountain range, cultural and genetic resources.

Japan Nature Conservation Law, 1972; Natural Parks Law, 40% 17% <5% 10 out of 103 1957 (revised 2002); Promotion of Nature Restoration Act, 2003

Taiwan National Parks Law, 1972; Cultural Heritage >10<20% 12% 38% 0 out of 23 Preservation Law, 1982; Wildlife Conservation Law, 1989

Vietnam Forest Law (1962 defines special forests); Decree >10<20% 6.3% <5% 1 out of 14 No 117/2010/ND-CP organization and management of Special forest in Forestry System; Biodiversity Law 2008.

Philippines National Integrated Protected Areas System Act of <10% 19% >10<20% 1 out of 11 1992 (being revised)

Thailand Wild Animal Protection and Preservation Act 1960 >15% 22% >5<10% 3 out of 13 (revised 1992); National Park Act 1961; Conservation of National Environmental Quality Act 1992.

Cambodia Royal Decree 1993; Prime Minister designations ad <5% 24% >10<20% 1 out of 6 hoc.

Malaysia National Parks Act 1980; National Forest Act 1984 <10% 27% <5% 1 out of 17 (Act 313); Fisheries Act 1985 (Act 317), all supported by State level legislation.

Singapore National Parks Act 1990 60% 6.5% 4% 0 out of 1 (not party to Ramsar)

Brunei 1934 Forest Act (revised in 1984); 1978 <10% 59% >5<10% 0 out of 2 (not Wildlife Protection Act party to Ramsar)

Indonesia Forestry Act No. 41/1999 >5<10% 24% >5<10% 1 out of 31

Myanmar 1994 Protection of Wildlife and Protected Areas <5% 5.2% <5% 1 out of 5 Law (being revised) Bangladesh Bangladesh Wildlife Preservation <10% 1.7% <5% 1 out of 3 Act, 1974

Appendix 7. Comparative table of national procedures for EIA /SEA

Main EIA/SEA Coverage Who Public involvement Comments Penalties legislation responsible for EIA Republic of Korea Environment Urban Korea All the projects Responsible Improper implementation may Preservation Act development Environment subject to EIA must administrative agency result in the suspension of 1997; projects, Institute (KEI) be approved through should implement construction, sentence up to EIA Act 1993 industrial site under Ministry a public hearing. consultation results, five years in prison, or fines up constructions, of Environment monitor to 5,000,000 won. energy implementation, and developments assign responsibilities for keeping records of the implementation procedures. Vietnam Decree 175/CP All large-sized or Ministry of Local community Public disclosure Law refers to fees and fines but 18 October high potential Science representatives can required. No follow-up does not specify maximum, 1994 under Law impacts projects, Technology and input opinions monitoring stipulated decided by courts. on of which several Environment Environmental Types are defined (MOSTE) Protection, under the decree revised 2007 Thailand National Projects that will Ministry of Only a general Biodiversity not Fees and penalties to be paid Environmental impact Natural statement in specified. No into Environmental Fund’. Up to Quality Act 1992 environment Resources and technical guidelines information disclosure 5 years in prison, up to 50,000 Environment or follow-up monitoring Baht, 4 times published fees and took over from stipulated. damages including any clean up Ministry of costs. Science and Technology China EIA Law 2003 Should be Ministry of Public consultation is Enforcement weak. Maximum fine is only undertaken Environment mandated with 2 Biodiversity content of US$30,000, way below the cost before any and its weeks for public reports is also poorly of any development development provincial hearings defined. project starts bureaus of Environmental Protection. Indonesia Environmental Projects with Environmental Strict and concrete Alternatives study and Fines imposed by local courts Management impacts on Impact requirements in follow-up monitoring following standards and Act No.23 environment Management regulations. Difficult stipulated in conditions (colour coded) (1997); EIA Law Agency under for public to access regulations. Lack of 2001 MoE. details. NGOs may cross sectoral represent public coordination. Philippines EIA Regulations Projects with Dept. of Strict and concrete Alternatives study and Up to 6 months in prison or up DOA 30/2003 impacts on Environment requirements in follow-up monitoring to 200,000 peso fine or both. environment and Natural regulations with stipulated in Resources particular respect for regulations. Developers indigenous cultural still try to get round communities these regulations Taiwan Environmental All development Environmental Phase II of EIA Developer prepares A range of penalties are defined Impact activities and Protection process involves phase I EI statement for with prison for maximum of 3 Assessment Act constructions for Administration, public notification, review by competent years and fines up to 1.5million (revised 2003) which there is Executive Yuan, public explanation authority. Depending on NT concern of at the central meeting, public review, may be required adverse impact level, local inspections and to move to phase II with on the governments at development of fuller EIA, alternate environment lower levels residents plan. plans, etc. Japan EIA Law 1998 Constructions and Proponent All steps are open to A series of steps are Penalties for non-compliance projects that alter submits EI mandatory public taken depending on the are not specified in the Law. the shape of the statement and review nature of the project, terrain summary to the relevant ministry prefectural and the review governor comments recived from public and related agencies. All relevant authorities must approve the EIA. DPRK Law of A joint report State Not required North Korean has seen Courts can impose fines and Environmental by UNEP and Environmental red tides and withered closures protection 1986 Governmnet of Protection crops, as well as the with DPRK admits Bureau destruction of Enforcement that ecosystems, and water Decree dated environmental pollution, all side- 1995. Specific laws and effects of severe EIA regulations regulations environmental need to be are lacking pollution. formulated or upgraded urgently Malaysia Environmental Section 34A, Ministry of Limited. DG of Specific guidelines are contravention of regulations can Quality Act 1974 requires EIA for Environment department can available for EIA on carry fine up to RM 100,000 developments approve reports Coastal and Land with up to 2 years that have after internal review Reclamation and also imprisonment significant impact with no need for for coastal tourism to the public review. EIA is developments and ports environment now becoming devolved to State Governments Myanmar The need for EIA Projects National Depends on external EIAs are conducted on Legal penalties to be included in laws is undertaken by Commission for agency conducting an ad hoc basis for new law. recognized by international Environmental EIA. Public projects funded by the Myanmar agencies with Affairs (NCEA) consultation international Agenda 21 . mandatory EIA has authority to mandatory. organizations and some New law is in policies require the foreign corporations. draft. commissioning New legislation is being of EIAs. developed. Bangladesh EIA Regulations All construction Developer Citizens may lodge EIA legislation for Appellate body hearing 1992; projects falling prepares report petitions against any industrial projects does petitions may impose fines, Environment under orange and after TOR development. place emphasis on other penalties or order closure Conservation red categories of approved by biodiversity/ecosystems of development. Act (ECA)1995 impacts. Department of Environmental Environmnet Conservation who then must Rules (ECR) approve report 1997 Singapore Environmental Projects Ministry of not required Follow-up monitoring Different fines for different Protection and impacting on Environment stipulated in regulations offences up to S$50,000 and up Management environment and Water to 2 years imprisonment. Act 2000 Resources. NGOs may submit independent EIA Hong Kong (Special Administrative Region of China) EIA Ordinance Policies, plans Department of Strict and concrete Requires alternates Range of fines up to 1998 and projects Environmental requirements in studies and full HK$5,000,000 and or up to 5 Protection . regulations. NGOs disclosure. Rarely years in prison Review panel is show growing effective in halting weak. involvement developments. Brunei Draft law not In principle the not applicable not applicable yet approved Government requires EIA for large and heavy industries Cambodia Sub-decree on Projects Ministry of General statement in No monitoring Penalties determined by court EIA, 1999 impacting on Environment regulations stipulated of law environment

Appendix 8. Recommended scope for Action Plan

Develop an Action Plan for safeguarding the regional tidal zone ‘Mud matters’. Conditions vary from one country to another as shown in the matrix of issues above but considerable cross border collaboration is essential if this programme of actions is to succeed. The programme should distinguish the actions in different countries, the responsibilities for those actions, coordination mechanisms, timeframes and budgets that will be needed. The programme should not be a stand-alone list of actions but should be embedded into national and regional programmes and action plans under the several relevant international programmes and conventions.

Action 1. Increase representation of tidal zone in PA systems

PA systems are developed terrestrially and for marine areas. The tidal zone sometimes falls between these two systems. Several of the key sites identified in this study are not protected or only marginally protected. We may never protect all important migration stop-over sites but we must try to protect the key sites and improve their security for target species. Some sites can be improved for some species by active habitat management. The intertidal zone is essentially dynamic. Shorelines are always changing. Shore biota is quite adaptable. We do not need to ensure that shorelines are immutable, pristine or totally natural. Some less than natural sites such as Maipo in Hong Kong and Gulf of Thailand can still act as important stop-over sites for shorebirds if they provide the right food species and are well protected.

Action 2. Strengthen Ramsar process

Three countries are still not party to the convention. Only a very small percentage of sites identified as having Ramsar potential have been nominated. Countries are strongly urged to use this mechanism more fully to highlight importance, improve funding and management capacity of these sites.

Action 3. Bolster PA legislation

Although all countries of the region have laws to allow gazettement of key biodiversity sites as protected areas, these are often outdated and weak. Laws must be flexible to accommodate boundary revisions that are essential for wetland PAs that are dynamic and move spatially over time or where changing climate or behavior of target species revise species protection needs. Most PA legislation is inflexible regarding the integration and control of human activities that are compatible with or sometimes essential for maintaining target species habitat needs. Legislation should better encourage joint management with local communities. Fishermen are generally more on the conservation side than development camp in cases of coastal reclamation. Legislation rarely provides flexibility for habitat restoration or management. China in particular needs a complete overhaul of PA legislation and regulations.

Action 4. Improve PA management

Existing protected areas are often only weakly protected. Encroachment, pollution, poaching and grazing by domestic animals are common problems. Funding is usually limited and where adequate is often spent in ineffective directions. There are wide areas for improvement in management and protection standards. Several international agencies and programmes are available to provide training and strengthening for all aspects of protective management – Wetlands International, BirdLife International, Ramsar etc.

Action 5. Strengthen biodiversity component of integrated planning, SEA and EIA processes

Most countries nominally have such processes in place but the balance between preserving ecological service functions and undertaking construction development remains highly skewed in favor of physical development. Clearly the mainstreaming of biodiversity concerns remains inadequate. Successful approaches need to be pioneered, highlighted and replicated through the region. A key element to strengthen consideration of biodiversity concerns is to have readily available, easily understood and robust data and information freely accessible during the planning stages. This requires better monitoring, research, data management, data sharing and reporting.

Action 6. Embed managed eco-habitat zones within reclamation plans

As part of mitigation measures in all coastal development projects, there should be standard inclusion of plans to include well protected eco- management zones and monitoring. Most important is to ensure that river-borne silt is still allowed to flow to the sea to enrich those remaining mudflats and sandbars that remain or will form outside reclamation walls. This imperative should be included in EIA and SEA regulations. Guidelines on how to include such areas should be developed and published by IUCN.

Action 7. Strengthen levels of awareness, transparency and public participation

Agencies, projects and individuals concerned must ensure that awareness extends beyond the conservation audience and reaches the public, media, educators, planners and decision makers. A great array of new awareness tools are now available via internet, blogs and cell-phone servers. Key papers and guidelines should be translated and distributed in local language. Public, private and departmental allies need to be cultivated and empowered.

Action 8. Better demonstrate the values and benefits from natural tidal ecosystems

Following the lines of the ‘The Economics of Ecosystems & Biodiversity’ (TEEB) initiative, there is a need for more and better case studies of the economics of maintaining natural estuaries and the scale of losses that are being faced by ill-planned reclamation projects. These need to be scientifically and economically sound but should be well publicized to non-technical audiences in straight forward language.

Action 9. Tighten pollution issues (land, air and marine based sources)

Pollution threats must be traced back to sources and drivers. Tackling such threats will require liaison with other sectors of environment, health and water resources. Ultimately it is human health concerns that are likely to effect change rather than concerns for shorebirds.

Action 10. Improve understanding of bird needs via monitoring and reporting of migratory bird patterns We still have a very incomplete understanding of the needs and limiting factors of our target species. We need a lot more research and monitoring to form a sounder basis for PA selection, habitat management or mitigation measures. Since the Flyway covers many countries it is necessary to improve data sharing, reporting and collaboration in building up such knowledge. Several international conventions, programmes and initiatives also need to work closer together (see appendix 3).

Appendix 9. A selection of case studies in priority areas

Conditions and drivers vary greatly from one country to another. The following case studies reveal contrasting problems at different key sites along EAAFP. Tianjin Land reclamations, China affects Bohai Sea shorebird populations Land rentals in the special economic zone of Tianjin Municipality are so high that although there is plenty of land available it is cheaper and less trouble to reclaim new land from the sea. A huge new economic development complex is being created on such reclaimed lands causing loss of extensive and important shorebird habitats. CCCC Tianjin Dredging Co., Ltd. won the 890 million Yuan contact to construct 46 km of sea walls and fill the area with dredged silt and sand. A rather complicated and expensive process is used to consolidate this new land before building on it. But with no rock for 300m beneath and the potential for such a sand, mud mix to liquefy in the event of an earthquake, the entire project looks expensive, unnecessary, ecologically damaging and in an earthquake zone. Remember that 250,000 people died when the Tangshan earthquake hit Tianjin in 1976. But developers are willing to take the risks and 44 sq km of new industrial land is being created. The extent of civil engineering has changed the sea floor of the Yellow Sea decreasing the size of deep cold trough where fish survived the summer heat. Turbidity and pollution accumulate because the semi-enclosed Bohai Sea has a very slow 7 year replenishment rate. Loss of birds from Tianjin flats have resulted in big increases in birds at adjacent Tangshan whose flats may not be able to sustain its increased populations and is itself threatened by reclamation plans of Caofeidian Yang et al. 2011 .

Gulf of Thailand threatened but salt pans are better than fish ponds (Sripanomyom et al., 2011)

Almost all original mangroves and mudflats of the gulf have been converted into fish ponds, agriculture or salt pans.Teams studying numbers of wintering shorebirds of 35 species at 20 localities around the Gulf of Thailand analysed the influence of landscape characteristics on species richness, abundance, and diversity of shorebirds from October 2006 through to April 2007. Sites with salt-pans present held significantly higher species richness, abundance and diversity of shorebirds. Areas with larger proportions given over to aquaculture tended to have lower species richness, abundance and diversity. Plans to reclaim and develop a 10 km strip along the northern end of the gulf are being voiced as part of electioneering promise.

Issues at key area Jiangsu and Shanghai Coast

Yqncheng Marshes has been a nature reserve since 1983, protecting a total coastline of >250 km, being an important site for shorebirds, Red- crowned cranes and breeding site of endangered Saunders Gull (Scott).

Immediately adjacent to the southern buffer zone of the nature reserve, the unprotected beaches of Rudong have recently been identified as probably the most important site on the entire Chinese coastline as a shorebird stopover, hosting in autumn 2011, the biggest flock of Spoon- billed Sandpipers seen anywhere for 12 years (ref).

Threats: Reclamation, despite the status of NR, has led to rapid loss of intertidal habitats to agricultural, salt pans and mariculture resulting in the almost complete loss of a major breeding site for endangered Saunders Gull; spread of introduced Spartina grass; a wind farm and extensive reclamations behind a 5m wall scheduled at Rudong. A total of 200 wind turbines are planned, with more than half already erected, at a total investment of 2.3 billion RMB to generate a total tax revenue of 40 million RMB/annum. Since The Three gorges Dam, closed in 2003, has resulted in greatly reduced silt flow from the Yangtze estuary which has led to a substantial slowing of coastal accreting (formerly up to up to 200m per year); as sea levels rise erosion of these new lands is likely to result.

Conversion of agriculture from rice to cotton, due to increased economic returns, means that fields no longer provide suitable feeding area for cranes which formerly fed extensively in unprotected rice field stubble outside of the nature reserve. .

Key decision makers: Planners at national, provincial and county levels

Key driver: State plans for development of coastal region, investors in reclamations, chemical factory and wind farms

Banyuasin delta and Indonesia’s transmigration programme

In a programme started in Dutch colonial days and continuing to the present, a total of more than 16million people have been permanently moved from the overcrowded islands of Java and Bali and resettled in less densely populated and less developed Sumatra,, mostly near the coasts. At its peak in the 1980s the programme was funded by World Bank, Asian Development Bank and other international agencies.

Critics blame the programme on ethnic, economic and environmental grounds but certainly the programme has accelerated the rate of deforestation, increased the spread of bush fires (especially in peatlands) and led to the opening up of much of the coastal wetlands of the country. Spontaneous migration of sea-faring people such as the Sulawesi Bugis have also destroyed wide swathes of coasts along eastern Sumatra, even inside major nature reserves such as Kutai and Berbak. Another problem has been the removal of more than 1 billion cubic metres of beach sands each year, sold (often illegally) to Singapore to serve as landfill.

The huge system of beaches, mangroves, freshwater swamps and peat swamps has been 95% destroyed since 1970, leaving the only remaining large protected swamp complex at Sembilang National Park at Banyuasin in South Sumatra province. This site consequently becomes of highlighted importance for waterbirds, but whether current refugial populations can be sustainable in this reduced area is yet to be seen.

Bangladesh reclamation plans

Bangladesh reclaimed 1,000 km 2 of new land in the Meghna estuary by building two dams in 1957 and 1964.The Bangladesh government has now approved an ambitious project under which a series of dams would be built in the Meghna estuary to connect islands and help deposit hundreds of millions of tonnes of sediment, reclaiming 600 km 2 of land from the sea over the next five years. At a cost of only 18 million dollars, the dams will expedite all sedimentations and manage the tidal system. The mighty Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers join in Bangladesh before flowing into the Bay of the Bengal carrying more than one billion tonnes of sediment a year. Small islands will become linked with the mainland as shallow areas in the estuary fill up with sediment. A new seaport is planned. Together with the controversial policy of planting mangroves as soon as new mudbanks form, and the cutting of sihponds, saltpans and hunting of birds by local fishermen Chowdhury et al. 2011 , these major developments will certainly impact the wintering grounds of many important shorebirds including the critically endangered Spoon-billed Sandpiper which is almost entirely dependent on the Ganges Delta. A study by the Dutch-funded Institute of Water Modelling (IWM) claims that the damming process would not affect other parts of the coastline or aggravate erosion of the country’s largest island, Bhola. The country is one of the worse victims of climate change, with the UN’s Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predicting that 17 percent of its land could go under rising sea levels by 2050. Continuing threats to South Korean Yellow Sea coast

Following the great loss of Saemangeum intertidal habitats, other sites along the Koran coast assume greater importance for migrating shorebirds. But these sites are also not safe, despite pledge by Prime Minister Lee Myung- bak at Ramsar COP10 in 2008, that further reclamation projects will be restricted. Following on from an original masterplan developed by the military government in the mid 1980s to reclaim 67% of all ROK estuaries, the current government has a long pipeline of plans in the name of ‘Green Development’. These include several more reclamations and also the development of large-scale tidal energy plants which overlap with important bird areas near Incheon. Step by step, the intertidal habitats are being lost and sometimes it is the high-tide roosts for shorebirds that are the limiting factor. The situation is not helped by the restructuring of the Ministry of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries which opposed further reclamations into a Ministry of Land, Transport and Marine Affairs which supports reclamations; plus the fact that the government publish an overoptimistic estimate of the remaining area of intertidal habitats.

Songdo Shoreline Change: Songdo Intertidal habitat was called “Meon-eoh-geum” = “endlessly far”! Tidal power plant plans overlap 2 important bird areas