BUILDING and FIRE RESEARCH at NBS/NIST 1975-2000 NIST BSS 179 Richard N

BUILDING AND FIRE RESEARCH AT NBS/NIST 1975-2000 NIST BSS 179 Richard N. Wright Building and Fire Research Laboratory

December 2003

U.S. Department of Commerce Donald L. Evans, Secretary Technology Administration Phillip J. Bond, Under Secretary of Commerce for Technology National Institute of Standards and Technology Arden L. Bement, Jr., Director National Institute of Standards and Technology Building Science Series 179 Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Bldg. Sci. Ser. 179, 339 pages (December 2003) CODEN: NBSSES

U.S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON: 2003 ______

For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office Internet: bookstore.gpo.gov - Phone: (202) 512-1800 - Fax: (202) 512-2250 Mail: Stop SSOP, Washington, DC 20402-0001 aABSTRACT

In the last quarter of the 20th Century, building and fire research programs at the National Institute of Standards and Technology, formerly the National Bureau of Standards, provided one of the most significant sources of technology, measurements and standards for the construction and fire safety communities of the world. These communities are of great social and economic importance. The built environment shelters and supports most human activities. Its functionality, safety, environmental quality, aesthetics, and economy are important to everyone’s quality of life and productivity. In the United States, new construction, renovation, operation and maintenance of constructed facilities amount to over 1/8 of the Gross Domestic Product, and the costs of fire protection and losses to unwanted fires exceed $200 billion, annually. This history summarizes the technical accomplishments of these programs and their impacts, the existential and management challenges faced by the programs, and the visions and efforts of the staff.

KEY WORDS: Building and fire research, built environment, codes, earthquakes, economics research, environmental systems, fire-hazard assessment, fire simulations and suppressants, life-cycle cost methods, materials, measurements, refrigerants, smoke detectors, standards, structures, test methods, wind.

iii

REPORT rCONTRIBUTORS

Many persons contributed to the preparation of this history. Without them, this account could not have been possible. The following persons made substantial contributions to this history.

Chapter 1 Richard Wright Chapter 2 John Lyons, Joseph Clark, Robert Levine, and Richard Wright Chapter 3 Richard Wright Chapter 4 Andrew Fowell, Robert Levine, and Richard Wright Chapter 5 Richard Wright Chapter 6 Richard Wright Chapter 7 Belinda Collins and Richard Wright Chapter 8 Kent Reed, William Stone, and Richard Wright Chapter 9 Harold Marshall, Steven Peterson, Robert Chapman, and Barbara Lippiatt Chapter 10 Robert Zarr, Heinz Trechsel, Stanley Liu, Andrew Fowell, Clinton Philips, Cheol Park, Steven Bushby, Robert Dikkers, Hunter Fanney, George Kelly, David Didion, Andrew Persily, and Lawrence Galowin Chapter 11 Joseph Clark, Frederic Clarke, Nora Jason, Harold Nelson, Robert Levine, Richard Bukowski, John Klote, Howard Baum, J. Randall Lawson, Daniel Madrzkowski, David Evans, and William Davis Chapter 12 Robert Levine, Richard Gann, Kenneth Steckler, Thomas Ohlemiller, William Grosshandler, Takashi Kashiwagi, and William Pitts Chapter 13 James Pielert, Jonathan Martin, Walter Rossiter, Mary McKnight, and Geoffrey Frohnsdorff Chapter 14 James Gross, James Pielert, Robert Dikkers, and Richard Wright Chapter 15 Bruce Ellingwood, Nicholas Carino, Emil Simiu, John Gross, and Richard Wright

As with all histories, important facts and key people are inadvertently omitted from the account. For the missing content and failure to recognize human resources during this 25-year History, the author regrets the omissions.

ix Noel Raufaste edited and formatted the History for publication, and worked with contributors to identify text and to prepare the many illustrations. In addition, he made great career contributions to the History. For example, the general interest documents, Project Summaries, and Publications reports that he prepared over the years of the History were vital sources of information for its preparation.

Disclaimer Certain trade names and company products are mentioned in the text or identified in an illustration that helped adequately specify the experimental procedure and equipment used. In no such case does such identification imply recommendation or endorsement by the National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor does it imply that the products are necessarily the best available for that purpose.

x fFOREWORD

In April of 2000 Richard Wright suggested that his colleagues on the staff of the Building and Fire Research Laboratory, current and retired, update the history of the Laboratory. The history of building research would be from 1974 when the last history was produced to 2000. The history of fire research would be from 1968 to 2000. The date 1968 is that of the first of a flurry of legislative actions that ultimately established a separate Fire Research Center (this was the title in the law; NBS always called it CFR) at the National Bureau of Standards. Until 1968 fire research for buildings had been part of the broader program in the Building Research Division. Here we have the result of the efforts of a great many people. Read and enjoy it.

The years 1968 to 1977 or so encompassed the formation and maturation of the independent fire research effort at the Bureau. This was also the time when the consumer movement in the Nation peaked and began to decline, most notably, for CBT and CFR, in terms of appropriated budgets. This lack of budget support was odd in that whenever management needed examples of NBS work done with an impact on society the examples were very often drawn from the building and fire programs.

The budget difficulty became worse for both centers during the Reagan Administration when, at one period of several cycles, the budgets were zeroed out by the Administration. The Congress restored the funds but each time we lost a little more so that at this writing the staff level of the programs is way below what it was in the 1960s.

(However, the Congress is injecting large sums into BFRL, as this is being written, for investigation of the collapse of the World Trade Center in 2001. The nature of this work is not new for the BFRL, only the magnitude of the collapse, and the losses involved.)

Much of the work of the two programs was and is hands-on engineering whether in drafting proposed design standards, developing and proposing methods of test,

v and, often, investigating disasters. In investigations the centers have been expected to analyze their findings and to draw conclusions as to likely causes and to recommend improved practices. These activities placed the two programs in the thick of controversy over the proper design of structures and the best use of materials and systems. Some of the investigations were done in the spotlight of the news media and under the control of the court system. Examples include the, collapse of the Skyline Plaza complex during construction in 1973, the 1975 study of fire safety in the D.C. metropolitan buses and subway cars, the Harbour Cay condominium (Cocoa Beach) collapse during construction in 1981, and the walkway failure in the Hyatt Regency Hotel at Kansas City in 1981. This building was in service at the time of the failure.

NBS through CBT has responsibilities for earthquake hazard mitigation working with three other Federal agencies and the states. The reports of findings from studies of several major quakes brought CBT and NBS before the Congress and into the media frequently and in a very positive light. CBT also has played a significant role in wind hazard studies; e.g., Hurricanes Hugo and Andrew. These activities are primarily the exercise of professional skills and responsibilities and are not primarily research. NBS has been asked to do this work because of its reputation for even-handed, unbiased work.

A particularly interesting project was the study in 1986-87 of the structural integrity of the newly built and unfinished Moscow chancery building of the United States Embassy complex. A team of specialists went to the USSR in the dead of winter at a time when tensions were high between the two countries. The team climbed all over the structure, both inside and out, and concluded that the structural problems could be repaired for a reasonable sum of money. However there were issues with respect to security that held up the repairs.

The work in standards and codes is less dramatic and garners little publicity outside the trade press. But it is this work that ultimately produces changes in design practices and leads to safer more durable structures, products and systems. Sometimes it will take years or even decades to effect a major change and only an organization with the characteristics of NIST has the funding and the patience to follow through on a proposal. Examples in both fire and building work will be found throughout this history. The fire program, for example, struggled for years to limit the use of a horizontal tunnel test to specific constructions. The test had been incorporated by reference into the building codes throughout the country. It took many years of presentations and argument to make the change. Similarly CBT had studied energy use in buildings before the 1973 oil crisis but many years went by before CBT’s conclusions were adopted in the appropriate model codes and standards.

Underlying this work has been a solid program of scientific research. The fire program benefited a very great deal by the Congress’ transfer of the package of National Science Foundation grants in the fire area. These were mostly at universities and the transfer brought to CFR a group of distinguished academics. The best-known fire researcher was Professor Howard Emmons of Harvard whose work on modeling fire in enclosures was seminal. The studies of fire deaths and injuries carried out at Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory provided the basis for NBS’ program on the toxicity of fire gases. The fire program had lacked sufficient research; the transfer from NSF at a stroke provided this necessary ingredient.

A second transforming event was the establishment by management and Congress of what we came to call the “NBS Competence Fund.” In this effort the Bureau was allowed to invest a few millions of dollars a year in projects of scientific research not specified in the appropriation request but decided upon internally. This program was especially beneficial to CBT, which had a small fraction of direct appropriations. Both CBT and CFR benefited. Pay-off from many fundamental programs often takes years. Examples are the fire modeling from first principles by Howard Baum and Ron Rehm; work that was supported early on by the Competence Fund and later was continued by regular funding. This work began in the 1970s and con-

vi tinues to this day. Studies of wind damages and earthquake phenomena have had the same long lives. NBS work on polymer structure vs. thermal stability, originally started in the 1960s in the NBS polymer program, has been extended elegantly in the fire program. CBT carried out fundamental work on details of Portland cement hydration for high-performance concrete. Bruce Ellingwood led a program to introduce into building codes and standards probability-based load criteria for use in structural design. This new concept is now broadly accepted. One last example is Emil Simiu’s studies of chaotic dynamics, work supported in part by Competence funding. This phenomenon is best exemplified by the galloping failure of the Tacoma, Washington Narrows Bridge many years ago. The work indicates the conditions under which this phenomenon is likely to occur and guides the designer away from the danger zone.

The reader who was there during these times will enjoy the refreshing of his or her memories; for those who were not there, this history is full of interesting stories that will increase their appreciation of the role these two programs play in our National life.

John W. Lyons Director (Ret), National Institute of Standards and Technology

vii

CCONTENTS

Abstract ...... iii Foreword ...... v Report Contributors ...... ix Contents ...... xi 1. Introduction ...... 1 1.1 Objectives ...... 1 1.2 Organization ...... 2 1.3 Top Accomplishments ...... 2 1.4 Top Disappointments ...... 3 1.5 Acknowledgements of Staff ...... 4 1.5.1 Support Staff ...... 4 1.5.2 Administrative Staff ...... 6 1.5.3 Technicians ...... 7

2. Center for Fire Research in the 70s ...... 9 2.1 Creation of the Center for Fire Research ...... 9 2.1.1 The Flammable Fabrics Act ...... 10 2.1.2 The Fire Research and Safety Act of 1968 ...... 11 2.1.3 The Ad Hoc Panel on Fire Research at NBS - the National Research Council ...... 11 2.1.4 The Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 ...... 11 2.1.5 A Long-range Plan for NBS Fire Research - Fire Scenarios and Intervention Strategies ...... 13 2.1.6 Technical Challenges for Fire Research ...... 13 2.1.7 Organizing the Research ...... 14 2.1.8 CFR Acquires NSF's Fire Research Program ...... 14 2.1.9 1975 Accomplishments ...... 15 2.2 Events and Progress Throughout the 70s ...... 15

3. Center for Building Technology in the 70s ...... 21 3.1 Background for 1975 ...... 21 3.2 1975 ...... 25 3.3 1976 ...... 27 3.4 1977 ...... 29

xi 3.5 1978 ...... 31 3.6 1979 ...... 32 3.7 1980 ...... 33

4. Center for Fire Research in the 80s ...... 37 4.1 Overview ...... 37 4.2 1981 ...... 38 4.3 1982 ...... 39 4.4 1983 ...... 40 4.5 1984 ...... 41 4.6 1985 ...... 42 4.7 1986 ...... 43 4.8 1987 ...... 44 4.9 1988 ...... 45 4.10 1989 ...... 46 4.11 1990 ...... 47

5. Center for Building Technology in the 80s ...... 51 5.1 Overview ...... 51 5.2 1981 ...... 52 5.3 1982 ...... 54 5.4 1983 ...... 55 5.5 1984 ...... 58 5.6 1985 ...... 59 5.7 1986 ...... 61 5.8 1987 ...... 63 5.9 1988 ...... 64 5.10 1989 ...... 66 5.11 1990 ...... 68

6. Building and Fire Research Laboratory in the 90s ...... 71 6.1 Overview ...... 71 6.2 1991 ...... 72 6.3 1992 ...... 74 6.4 1993 ...... 75 6.5 1994 ...... 77 6.6 1995 ...... 80 6.7 1996 ...... 82 6.8 1997 ...... 84 6.9 1998 ...... 87 6.10 1999 ...... 89 6.11 2000 ...... 91 6.12 Construction and Building Subcommittee, National Science and Technology Council ...... 92

xii 7. Architecture, Environmental Psychology and Acoustics ...... 97 7.1 Stair Safety ...... 98 7.2 Security ...... 98 7.3 Human Response in Fires ...... 98 7.4 Energy Conserving Design ...... 98 7.5 Color and Safety Signs ...... 99 7.6 Lighting ...... 100 7.7 Building for People ...... 101 7.8 Acoustics ...... 101

8. Construction Integration and Automation ...... 103 8.1 Information Exchange Standards for Construction ...... 103 8.2 Construction Site Metrology ...... 105

9. Economics ...... 107 9.1 Overview of Economics Research for Building and Fire Programs ...... 107 9.2 Economics of Energy Conservation ...... 111 9.3 Standard Economic Methods ...... 113 9.4 Cost-Effective Compliance with Life Safety Codes ...... 115 9.5 Economic Impacts of BFRL Research ...... 116 9.6 Applications of the Analytic Hierarchy Process ...... 118 9.7 BEES: Building for Environment and Economic Sustainability ...... 120 9.8 Uniformat II Elemental Classification for Building Specifications, Cost Estimation, and Cost Analysis ...... 121 9.9 Baseline Measures for the National Construction Goals ...... 123 9.10 Bridge LCC ...... 125

10. Environmental Systems ...... 127 10.1 Insulation ...... 127 10.2 Weatherization ...... 129 10.2.1 Criteria for Retrofit Materials and Products for Weatherization of Residences ...... 129 10.2.2 GSA Weatherization Demonstration ...... 130 10.2.3 Criteria for the Installation of Energy Conservation Measures ...... 130 10.3 Moisture ...... 132 10.4 Appliance Test Procedures and Labeling ...... 133 10.5 Total Energy Systems ...... 136 10.6 Building Thermal Environment Analysis ...... 138 10.7 Simulation of Mechanical Systems Performance ...... 142 10.8 Controls and Cybernetic Building Systems ...... 144 10.9 Alternative Refrigerants ...... 150 10.10 Indoor Air Quality ...... 154 10.11 Building Envelope Performance ...... 156 10.12 Performance Criteria and Standards for Solar Energy Systems ...... 157 10.13 Plumbing ...... 163

xiii 11. Fire Safety Engineering ...... 169 11.1 Flammable Fabrics ...... 169 11.2 Fire Scenarios ...... 172 11.3 Fire Research Information Services ...... 173 11.4 Fire Investigations at NIST ...... 175 11.4.1 Introduction ...... 175 11.4.2 Nursing Home Fires ...... 175 11.4.3 Fire Investigation Handbook ...... 176 11.4.4 Advent of Mathematical Post Fire Analysis ...... 176 11.4.4.1 Beverly Hills Supper Club, 165 Fatalities, May 18, 1977 ...... 177 11.4.4.2 MGM Grand Hotel and Casino, Las Vegas, Nevada, 84 Dead, November 21, 1980 . . . .177 11.4.4.3 Hospice of Southern Michigan, 6 Dead, December 1985 ...... 177 11.4.4.4 Dupont Plaza Hotel, Puerto Rico, 90 Dead, December 31, 1988 ...... 178 11.4.4.5 Hillhaven Nursing Home Fire, 13 Dead, October 5, 1989 ...... 178 11.4.4.6 Happy Land Disco, Bronx, New York, 87 Fatalities, March 25, 1990 ...... 179 11.4.4.7 First Interstate Bank Building, 1 Dead, May 4, 1988 ...... 179 11.4.4.8 Oil Fields of Kuwait ...... 179 11.4.4.9 Oakland Hills ...... 180 11.4.4.10 Post-Tsunami Fires, Hokkaido, Japan ...... 180 11.4.4.11 Post-Earthquake Fires, Northridge, CA ...... 180 11.4.4.12 Post-Earthquake Fires, Kobe, Japan ...... 181 11.4.4.13 Cherry Road Fire, Washington, DC, 2 Firefighter Fatalities, May 30, 1999 ...... 182 11.5 Smoke and Fire Detectors ...... 183 11.5.1 Operation Breakthrough ...... 183 11.5.2 Hurricane Agnes ...... 184 11.5.3 UL Standard ...... 184 11.5.4 NFPA Standard ...... 185 11.5.5 Indiana Dunes Tests ...... 186 11.5.6 Regulatory Actions ...... 186 11.5.7 Further Studies ...... 187 11.6 Wood Heating Safety Research ...... 189 11.7 Fire Safety Evaluation Systems ...... 190 11.8 Smoke Management ...... 192 11.9 Software for Fire Hazard Assessment ...... 193 11.10 Large Eddy Simulations of Fires ...... 196 11.10.1 Introduction ...... 196 11.10.2 Fire Plumes ...... 197 11.10.3 Outdoor Fires ...... 198 11.10.4 Industrial Fire Control ...... 199 11.10.5 Acknowledgements ...... 200 11.11 Fire Fighter Equipment ...... 201 11.11.1 Fire Department Ground Ladders ...... 201

xiv 11.11.2 Fire Fighters' Turnout Coats ...... 202 11.11.3 Fire Fighters' Protective Clothing ...... 203 11.12 Fire Sprinklers ...... 205 11.12.1 Introduction ...... 205 11.12.2 Full-scale Fire Suppression Experiments ...... 205 11.12.3 Sprinkler Research Areas ...... 207 11.12.4 Predictive Methods ...... 209 11.12.5 Summary ...... 210 11.13 Oil Spills ...... 213 11.14 Zone Fire Modeling ...... 218 12. Fire Science ...... 221 12.1 Fire Grants ...... 221 12.2 Measuring the Toxicity of Fire Smoke ...... 222 12.3 Measurement of Heat Release Rate ...... 225 12.4 Smoldering Combustion ...... 228 12.5 Advanced Fire Measurements ...... 229 12.6 Fire Safe Materials ...... 231 12.7 Carbon Monoxide Formation in Fires ...... 235 12.8 Less Fire-Prone Cigarettes ...... 238 12.9 Alternative Fire Suppressants ...... 242 12.10 Furniture Flammability ...... 245 13. Materials ...... 247 13.1 Construction Materials Reference Laboratories ...... 247 13.2 Service Life Prediction of Construction Materials ...... 249 13.2.1 Introduction ...... 249 13.2.2 Standard Practice for Development of Accelerated Tests ...... 250 13.2.3 Reliability-Based Approach ...... 251 13.3 Corrosion Resistant Reinforcing Steel ...... 254 13.4 Roofing Research ...... 255 13.5 Lead Hazard Control in Residential Buildings ...... 259 13.6 High Performance Concrete ...... 260 14. Standards and Codes ...... 269 14.1 Housing Standards ...... 269 14.2 Mobile Home Research ...... 271 14.3 Building Rehabilitation Standards ...... 273 14.4 Detention and Correctional Facilities ...... 275 14.5 National Conference of State on Building Codes and Standards ...... 276 14.6 Metrication for Construction ...... 277 14.7 Modeling Standards ...... 280 14.8 Fire Standards ...... 281

xv 15. Structures ...... 283 15.1 Structural Failure Investigations ...... 283 15.1.1 Introduction ...... 283 15.1.2 Skyline Plaza Apartment Tower and Parking Garage ...... 284 15.1.3 Cooling Tower at Willow Island, WV ...... 285 15.1.4 Harbour Cay Condominium ...... 285 15.1.5 Kansas City Hyatt Regency Walkway Collapse ...... 286 15.1.6 Riley Road Interchange Ramp, East Chicago, Indiana ...... 288 15.1.7 Structural Assessment of the New US Embassy Office Building in Moscow ...... 288 15.1.8 L'Ambiance Plaza Building Collapse ...... 290 15.1.9 Ashland Oil Storage Tank Collapse ...... 291 15.2 Disaster Investigations ...... 292 15.2.1 Introduction ...... 292 15.2.2 Wind Investigations ...... 293 15.2.3 Earthquake Investigations ...... 294 15.3 Structural Reliability ...... 296 15.4 The Maturity Method ...... 300 15.5 The Impact Echo Method ...... 302 15.6 Wind Engineering ...... 304 15.6.1 Engineering Micrometeorology ...... 304 15.6.2 Extreme Wind Climatology ...... 304 15.6.3 Bluff Body Aerodynamics and Wind Tunnel Testing Criteria Development ...... 304 15.6.4 Wind Loads on Low-Rise Buildings ...... 304 15.6.5 Structural Dynamics ...... 305 15.6.6 Structural Reliability and Post-Disaster Investigations ...... 305 15.6.7 Glass Behavior Under Fluctuating Wind Loads ...... 306 15.6.8 Development of Criteria on Tornado Wind Speeds and Tornado-Borne Missiles Speeds ...... 306 15.6.9 Development of Performance Criteria Assuring Higher Safety Levels and Lower Costs for Structures Subjected to Wind Loading ...... 306 15.6.10 Education and Practice ...... 306 15.6.11 Awards ...... 306 15.7 Chaotic Dynamics ...... 307 15.8 The National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program ...... 309 15.8.1 Background ...... 309 15.8.2 Establishment of NEHRP ...... 310 15.8.3 Seismic Standards for Buildings ...... 310 15.8.4 Interagency Committee on Seismic Safety in Construction ...... 311 15.8.5 Earthquake Engineering Experimental Facilities ...... 313 15.8.6 Standards for Lifelines ...... 314 15.8.7 NEHRP Management ...... 314 15.9 Earthquake Research ...... 315 15.9.1 Soil Liquefaction ...... 315

xvi 15.9.2 Bridge Column Reinforcing Requirements ...... 316 15.9.3 Precast Concrete Frames ...... 317 15.9.4 Rehabilitation of Welded Steel Moment Frame Connections ...... 318 15.9.5 Test Methods for Passive and Active Seismic Energy Absorption ...... 318

Appendix A. Budget History Fiscal Years 1975-2000 ...... 321 Appendix B. CBT/CFR-BFRL DOC Awards ...... 323

INDEX ...... 329

xvii

11. INTRODUCTION

1.1 OBJECTIVES products, and the effects on society of fire losses and investments in fire safe- Constructed facilities (which include ty. The aspects of performance of con- buildings of all types and their service structed facilities include structural systems, and public works and utilities stability, durability of materials and for transportation, power, communica- equipment, environmental control for tion, water supply, and waste disposal) building occupants, functionality for shelter and support most human activities. They are a principal element of the intended purpose of the facility, the Nation’s wealth, valued at about the costs of construction, operation, $20 trillion in year 2000 dollars, with maintenance and renovation, and all the approximately $1 trillion annually other social and environmental effects. invested in new construction and ren- Therefore, building and fire research ovation amounting to about one-eighth involves physical, engineering, life and of the Gross Domestic Product. Their social sciences. Moreover, this knowl- quality is vital to industrial productivity edge must be expressed in practices and everyone’s quality of life. Their useful to owners, occupants, designers, safety from unwanted fires and other constructors, maintainers of con- natural, accidental and willful hazards structed facilities, and fire services and is critical for life safety, avoidance of building regulatory officials responsible injuries, protection of property, and for public safety. national security. Because of the importance of con- Building and fire research programs structed facilities and fire safety to the seek to provide knowledge bases for Nation, the National Institute of decisions supporting functionality, Standards and Technology (NIST), for- economy and safety at all stages in the merly the National Bureau of life cycle of constructed facilities. The Standards (NBS), has been active in relevant spectrum of knowledge is building and fire research almost from broad, almost unbounded. Fire phe- its founding in 1901 [1, 2]. Building nomena include ignition, growth and and fire research at NBS/NIST have suppression of fires, the effects on been challenged to respond as effec- individuals of fires and combustion tively as possible to these needs with

1 severely constrained human, laboratory (CBT), 1975-1990; the Center for nical accomplishments. Often, pro- and financial resources. This history Fire Research (CFR), 1975-1990; and gram planning and development efforts describes the challenges, opportunities, the Building and Fire Research were frustrated by inability to obtain accomplishments and impacts of the Laboratory, 1991-2000. resources needed to pursue the NBS/NIST programs of building and planned work. In contrast, some very fire research since 1968 for fire 1.2 ORGANIZATION important accomplishments involved research and since 1974 for building little management attention as The following chapters are in two research. It follows from earlier histo- researchers well linked to peers and groups. First the Management chapters ries covering building and fire research customers produced very valuable treat in chronological order the policy through 1968 [2] and building results. A researcher with good reputa- and planning issues affecting the build- research from 1968 through 1974 [3]. tion and ideas could obtain funding ing and fire research programs: 2. NBS/NIST-wide histories [1, 4, 5, 6] from external sources (“soft money”) Center for Fire Research in the 70s, 3. provide selected information on build- to pursue investigations extensive in Center for Building Technology in the ing and fire research and their place in size and duration. In these instances, 70s, 4. Center for Fire Research in the NBS/NIST’s evolving Organic Act management’s role could be limited to 80s, 5. Center for Building Technology (authorizing legislation). assuring that the scope of work was in the 80s, and 6. The Building and appropriate for NBS/NIST and that Fire Research Laboratory. These chap- The objectives of this history are: the quality of work reflected well on ters note accomplishments and awards 1. To provide a convenient reference NBS/NIST. on the principal NBS/NIST pro- that were managerially significant. grams and activities in building and 1.3 TOP ACCOMPLISH- Second, the Technical chapters fire research in the last quarter of MENTS the 20th century. describe the most significant work and 2. To recognize the contributions of its effects. These are organized by This writer’s subjective view of the top building and fire research staff and research areas, ordered alphabetically accomplishments in this period of of collaborators elsewhere. to avoid any inferences of relative building and fire research is provided 3. To help current and future staff importance, and each, because of the to highlight the detailed coverage of understand the background of their inherent continuity of technical work, accomplishments contained in follow- work and to provide perspectives on covers the entire period of this history. ing chapters. All of the top accom- successes and failures both technical These chapters are: 7. Architecture, plishments arose from outstanding and managerial. Psychology, and Acoustics, 8. technical work in the programs. Most 4. To show the societal importance Construction Integration and resulted from world-class scientific and and technical challenge of building Automation, 9. Economics, 10. technical leadership of the fire and and fire research. Environmental Systems, 11. Fire Safety building researchers and skillful collab- 5. To provide perspectives on the Engineering, 12. Fire Science, 13. orations with industry and other feder- needs for and benefits of building Materials, 14. Standards and Codes, al agencies to achieve beneficial imple- and fire research to NIST and high- and 15. Structures. mentations. The encouragement, even er management, industry and insistence, of NBS/NIST management Congress. The management chapters describe the on world-class scientific and technical environment and context for the tech- leadership, and collaborations with The organizational units treated here nical work. There are real differences other NBS/NIST laboratories, played a are the Center for Building Technology between management issues and tech- large role in these accomplishments.

2 1. The wide adoption of residential systems as demands change or bet- pointments focus on managerial issues, smoke detectors in U.S. homes, ter products come into the market- which are covered in chapters 2-6, facilitated and driven by CFR place (section 10.8). rather than on the conduct of research (section 11.5), led to early 6. Reliable and predictable perform- research. accomplishment of CFR’s challenge ance (including functionality, safety 1. Inconsistent alignment of goal to halve fire deaths in a gener- and durability) of materials and sys- CBT/CFR objectives with those of ation. tems based on advanced, proba- NBS/NIST often led to a lack of 2. Fundamental research on the prop- bilistic modeling of environments support of NBS/NIST for erties of refrigerants and fire sup- and resistance (sections 10.7, CBT/CFR initiatives. Principally, pressants, and the performance of 10.11, 11.8, 13.2, 13.6, 15.3, this occurred when NBS/NIST pri- heat pumps, air-conditioners, and 15.6). marily valued advances in measure- fire suppression systems, facilitated 7. Economical fire test methods for ment science and practice, and world leadership of U.S. industry small specimens that relate ration- CBT and CFR were pursuing in developing and marketing alter- ally to the materials’ contributions increasing the usefulness, safety and natives to environmentally harmful to the severity of fires and the toxi- economy of constructed facilities, refrigerants and fire suppressants city of combustion products (sec- and reducing fire losses with what- (sections 10.9 and 12.9). tions 12.2 and 12.3). ever technologies would be most 3. Investigations of the performance 8. Standard life cycle cost economic effective. By the 90s, BFRL man- of structural and fire safety systems methods to guide investments in in important accidents and disas- agement understood and accom- building and fire safety products modated the focus of NIST on ters provided confidence in the and practices (sections 9.3, 9.4 and efficacy of up to date structural and measurements, standards, and tech- 9.6). nologies for support of U.S. eco- fire safety standards and practices, 9. New generation of scientifically- nomic growth, and NIST showed and/or identified needs for their based fire simulations that provide greater respect for potential eco- improvement (sections 11.4, 15.1 the basis for the world’s transition nomic and societal impacts. and 15.2). to performance-based fire stan- 4. Improved test methods for the sea- 2. Partnerships with other federal dards (sections 11.9 and 11.10). sonal efficiency of space heating agencies, which would provide mis- 10.Development with industry of the and cooling equipment, major sion, funding and delivery mecha- concept of sacrificial, energy- appliances, and insulation have pro- nisms for CBT/CFR research, absorbing joint materials to allow vided the basis for national energy became an Institute for Applied pre-cast, pre-stressed, concrete labeling programs that have result- Technology strategy for program frames to be used safely and eco- ed in roughly doubling the efficien- growth in the 60s and was relied nomically for tall buildings in high cy of equipment, appliances and upon throughout the 70s. Indeed, seismic zones (section 15.9). insulation in the marketplace (sec- NBS also relied upon this strategy, tions 10.1 and 10.4). and, except for the initial funding 1.4 TOP DISAPPOINTMENTS 5. Standard information exchange of CFR, was unwilling, through the protocols for building automation Aspirations have been high for building 70s, to request new, directly allow open systems for controls so and fire research, so the top accom- appropriated funding for CBT or that owners can: specify desired plishments can be balanced with top CFR for mandates such as energy performance, not be tied to a sin- disappointments. Since the writer’s conservation and earthquake hazard gle vendor, and update automation role was a manager, the top disap- reduction. This gave other agencies

3 undue control over CBT/CFR pro- 5. Both CBT and CFR appreciated the priated funding to maintain the fire grams and left CBT/CFR vulnerable need for and value of human fac- grants program and to create simi- to other agencies’ retrenchments in tors and architectural research to lar programs in other areas. the 80s. achieve their objectives. But NBS 3. When NBS was pressured by the was reluctant to invest scarce, 1.5 ACKNOWLEDGE- Administration in 1981 to offer directly appropriated funding MENTS OF STAFF cuts in its programs, it offered to where it lacked a track record for eliminate CBT and CFR. The world class results, and patient The contributions of the managerial rationale seemed to be that losses funding from other agencies and research professional staff of CFR, of CBT and CFR would not greatly became scarce in the 80s. CBT and BFRL are cited directly in weaken the remaining parts of Therefore, CBT and CFR terminat- the chapters that follow. It is important NBS, and that CBT and CFR were ed architectural and human factors to acknowledge here, both generally very defensible because of high, research, and BFRL did not find and with specific citations, the great tangible benefits to industry and the resources for renewing such and essential contributions of support the public. Indeed, both centers efforts in the 90s. Architectural and administrative staff and technicians were defended successfully by and human factors research to the laboratory’s accomplishments. industry, and NBS continued to remains important for achieving offer them up for seven more years. BFRL’s objectives, and continues to 1.5.1 SUPPORT STAFF Why change a successful strategy? be lacking. The laboratory’s work has been con- However, the freeze on direct 6. CBT and BFRL sought to support ducted in close collaboration with appropriations and reductions in industry in all important, economi- other federal agencies, industry, stan- support from other federal agencies cally significant areas of building dards and professional organizations, caused severe attenuation of the and construction technology, but universities, and other NBS/NIST programs and the uncertainties led the program constriction of the 80s units. Much of the work has attracted to losses of some of the most pro- required termination of important ductive staff. CBT/CFR productivi- substantial press and public attention. ty remained high through this peri- areas of research: acoustics, electri- The laboratory’s secretaries, adminis- od, but losses of staff and reduc- cal systems, geotechnical engineer- trative assistants and other support tions of program scope had long ing, plumbing, and roofing in addi- staff have performed admirably in pro- term detrimental effects. tion to architecture and human fac- viding friendly and helpful interfaces 4. CFR strove to achieve close collab- tors as noted above. for collaborators and other interested orations with the fire services, and 7. Fire grants to external experts in parties, as well as in supporting pro- both CFR and CBT sought strong universities and industry have conduction of research results. collaborations with consumer tributed greatly to the fire program. organizations. Neither of these col- The nation’s best talent has been Many of the laboratory’s support staff laborations were as fruitful as focused on program objectives and began work with CFR, CBT or BFRL expected. Fire services seemed highly qualified researchers have as young women fresh out of high more attracted to conflicting col- been attracted to work at schools in the small towns and rural laborations with the tobacco indus- CFR/BFRL. However, the fire areas west and north of Gaithersburg. try, and consumer organizations grants program has been attenuated They have been notable for their help- seemed unappreciative of the values severely by budget cuts of the 80s fulness, intelligence, ability to learn of building and fire measurements and inflation, and BFRL has not new skills as office automation tech- and standards. obtained additional, directly appro- nologies have advanced, commitment

4 to their work, and loyalty to the labo- helpfulness, understanding, and calm for fast-paced failure and disaster ratory through good and hard times. under pressure were a constant investigations and in times of finan- The loyalty to and enthusiasm for the resource for CFR, CBT and BFRL. cial stringency. laboratory seem to come both from • Deborah Cramer has been secretary • Carolyn Flood was secretary for the their character and their identification for the chief of the Fire Safety Office of Housing Technology, with the goals of the laboratory. Engineering Division, director of Building Economics and Regulatory Among those meriting specific atten- CFR and deputy director of BFRL. Technology Division, and deputy tion are: She has supported intensive verbal director of CBT. In these roles she • Linda Beavers joined the Building and written information flows and very efficiently handled complex Research Division as a teenager and maintained friendly, cooperative external collaborations, managed grew with it to become secretary to relationships with external and office activities and mentored and the deputy director of CBT in the internal collaborators, organized developed younger staff. 80s. Her team spirit and great per- numerous meetings and conferences, • Barbara Horner joined CBT in 1978 sonal productivity were extremely and maintained contacts with for- and became Secretary of the valuable in the years that CBT’s exis- mer and retired staff members. Building Materials Division in 1981. tence was threatened by the • Gail Crum has provided wonderful She was a highly valued member of Administration. support and institutional memory as the Division management team and • Sheilda Bryner served as secretary of secretary to the founding director of was meticulous in monitoring proj- the Building Environment Division CBT, the founding director of BFRL ect expenditures and solvency, and during the 1990s and did a wonder- and his successor. She is personally producing solvency reports and ful job of supporting the Division productive and develops strong col- effectively worked with international and the Division Chief for some laborations within the laboratory materials experts in providing high major outside responsibilities. The and with other organizations as the quality support services in planning Division was asked to manage a Laboratory conducts leading roles in and organizing conferences where three-year focused program on interagency programs. she received compliments from sen- advanced refrigeration technology • Wanda Eader was a secretary in the ior level researchers and managers. for the new NIST Advanced NBS director’s office before becom- In 1985, Horner was awarded a Technology Program for which she ing secretary to the chief of the CBT Bronze Medal for “outstanding con- took administrative responsibility. In Structures Division in the late 70s tributions to the Building Materials addition, the Division Chief served and early 80s. Her organizational Division and international commit- one year as President of the abilities and skill in dealing with tees and conferences.” American Society of Heating, external and press inquiries were • Laurene Linsenmayer was the pri- Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning extremely valuable to the conduct of mary secretarial support for the Engineers and she managed all high visibility structural failure inves- Office of Applied Economics (OAE) arrangements effortlessly and error- tigations. for 18 years prior to her retirement free for more than 55 of his trips • Nancy Fleegle was a strong producer in 1997. She carried out her normal during that year. in CBT’s word processing center in secretarial duties with great efficien- • Mary Chandler was the secretary for the late 70s and early 80s, and then cy and tact. In addition, she was the founding director of CFR and became secretary to the Structures very skillful in editing and preparing continued as his secretary as he Division for CBT and BFRL. Her reports for publication, and oversaw CFR, CBT, and then BFRL compassion, good cheer and steady extremely helpful in making the as director of NEL and NIST. Her support have been great resources OAE’s Life-Cycle Cost Workshops

5 run smoothly for both our staff and loyalty to her division and great edi- conducted, not always with friendly the many international students tak- torial support for its work. intent, and never were significant ing our classes. Her affable, helpful • Paula Svincek became the Heat problems encountered. Personnel mat- manner won her many friends at all Transfer Group’s secretary in 1996 ters also have been challenging with levels of NIST, while her commit- after providing several years of sup- diverse disciplines represented, many ment to excellence and timeliness port to NIST’s Advanced Technology reductions in force required, and per- earned her the professional respect Program. Mrs. Svincek was largely formance-based adverse actions made of all. responsible for packaging, distribut- when needed. CFR, CBT and BFRL • Katherine Panagos began her career ing, and making available on the have been renowned in NBS/NIST for at NIST as the secretary to the intranet the simulation model excellent and responsive administra- Cement and Concrete Reference MOIST, used to predict moisture tion. Among the key people responsi- Laboratory (CCRL). She later movement within homes. Through ble for this were: became secretary to the her own initiative, she acquired the • Pearl Bowman Kaetzel joined CBT Construction Materials Reference skills and developed the first web from the NBS Budget Office and Laboratory, which consisted of site depicting the research related to became administrative officer for CCRL and the AASHTO Materials building integrated photovoltaics. CBT and an administrative officer Reference Laboratory. She was very Additionally she has embraced and for BFRL. Her technical skill and effective in handling the many facets provided leadership in the imple- knowledge of NBS were great of these NIST Research Associate mentation of office automation resources for CBT, she was adept at Programs requiring close coordina- throughout the Building and Fire problem solving, and her kindness tion with the sponsoring organiza- Research Laboratory. helped all the staff. tions, AASHTO and ASTM. • Jennifer Wright joined the Building • Lynn Castle was administrative offi- • Flora Parsons joined NBS and Research Division as a teenager and cer for the Division of Building served as secretary to both the grew with it to become secretary of Research and the first years of CBT. Computer Integrated Construction the chief of the Building She handled complex financial Group and the Solar Equipment Environment Division before arrangements with sponsoring feder- Group. As the secretarial demands becoming administrative assistant to al agencies, faultlessly tracked the in both of these Groups increased, the chief of the Public and Business flows of funds, and educated novice she worked exclusively for the Solar Affairs Division of NIST. Her pro- managers in fiscal matters. Equipment Group. During her eight ductivity, excellence in collaborations • Karen Perry joined CBT when she years of service, Mrs. Parsons per- completed high school and has and knowledge of the building com- formed in an exemplary manner, grown to become BFRL’s senior munity have been a great resource providing outstanding secretarial and management advisor. Her compe- for BFRL. editorial support. Her productivity tence, excellent interpersonal skills and team spirit greatly enhanced the and unstinting extra efforts in times efforts of the Building Environment 1.5.2 ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF of crisis have been great resources Division. The administration of CFR, CBT and for the laboratory. • Mary Reppert was secretary for the BFRL always has been complicated by • Michael Schmitt was administrative Building Environment Division in the need to manage other federal agen- officer of CBT in years when it the early years of CBT during the cies’ and industry funds as well as operated mostly on external funding height of the energy crisis. She those provided directly by NBS/NIST. and when it was required to make showed inspiring enthusiasm for and Numerous external audits have been substantial reductions in staff and

6 programs. His competence, wisdom edge of electronics greatly assisted contributions he performed testing and fresh ideas made him an effec- the project engineers in designing that provided the foundation for tive member of the Management numerous data acquisition systems drafting test methods to evaluate the Council and caused NEL manage- used to measure the performance of performance of materials used in ment to transfer him to the solar devices. fabricating solar collector systems Manufacturing Engineering • Bill Bailey headed up a team of tech- for residential use that became the Laboratory that had even greater nician specialists to conduct large- technical basis of standards to sup- administrative challenges. scale fire tests, first at the port the Nation’s solar energy pro- • Kathryn Stewart became the found- Connecticut and Van Ness site and gram and the acceptance of solar ing executive officer for BFRL after later at Gaithersburg. He was collector systems. serving CFR as administrative offi- responsible for outfitting and com- • Charles Terlizzi provided the techni- cer. Her administrative skills were missioning Building 205, a special cian support needed to develop test complemented by a concern for facility dedicated to large-scale fire procedures for solar thermal hot people that was very helpful to work. He and his crew performed water systems. Terlizzi conducted BFRL management. this dangerous work flawlessly year numerous experiments to compare • Mike Stogsdill began his long career in and year out. the performance of solar hot water in administration in the fire technol- • Donn Ebberts assisted in the fabri- systems tested under outdoor condi- ogy area, became Administrative cation, testing, and the data reductions, and indoors using a solar and Officer of the CFR when it was tion associated with the develop- thermal simulator. His diligent formed, and later of the National ment of ASHRAE test procedures efforts resulted in an ASHRAE Engineering Laboratory. He has confor liquid and air solar thermal col- Standard that is currently used to tinued to serve with distinction in lectors, thermal storage systems, and rate all solar water heating systems various capacities at NIST to this solar hot water systems. Ebberts sold within the United States. day. assisted in the construction and • Dave Ward provided outstanding instrumentation of a passive solar technician support in the area of 1.5.3 TECHNICIANS energy home at the NBS Annex used refrigerant mixture measurements CFR, CBT and BFRL have been labo- to evaluate various passive solar and in the development of a test rig ratory-based organizations. The quality energy systems. for determining refrigerant flamma- and efficiency of laboratory work have • Frank Rankin was the lead structural bility. been made possible by excellent and technician throughout the years of dedicated technicians. While many are CBT and in the early years of BFRL. References cited for their professional contribu- In field and laboratory studies he 1. Rexmond C. Cochrane, Measures for tions to the research in the chapters developed and mentored young Progress: A History of the National Bureau of that follow, it is appropriate to cite technicians and young engineers Standards, National Bureau of Standards, some outstanding technicians here: with strong attention to safety and 1966. • Jim Allen played an instrumental efficient conduct of research. 2. Paul R. Achenbach, Building Research at role in the testing of solar energy • Willard (Bill) Roberts was a lead the National Bureau of Standards, Building systems. Allen was largely responsi- technician for the calibration, main- Science Series 0, National Bureau of Standards, 1970. ble for setting up the facilities need- tenance, and use of the instruments 3. Neil Gallagher, Building Research at the ed at the NIST Annex to evaluate in the Building Material Division’s National Bureau of Standards 1968-1974, the various components of solar Analytical Laboratory from the mid- Building Science Series 75, National energy systems. His in-depth knowl- 1970s to the mid-90s. Among his Bureau of Standards, 1979.

7 4. David R. Lide, A Century of Excellence in Measurements, Standards and Technology: A Chronicle of Selected NBS/NIST Publications, 1901-2000, Special Publication 958, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2001. 5. Elio Passaglia, A Unique Institution: The National Bureau of Standards, 1950-1969, Special Publication 925, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1999. 6. James F. Schooley, Responding to National Needs: The National Bureau of Standards Becomes the National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1969-1993, Special Publication 955, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2000.

8 2. CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH 2IN THE 70s

2.1 CREATION OF THE something about fire losses in the CENTER FOR FIRE United States. Each called for a major RESEARCH role for the National Bureau of Standards (NBS) in research and tech- Until the latter half of this century, the nology. So why this sudden attention U.S. Congress had not shown much to a problem that had traditionally interest in the unwanted urban fire been left to state and especially local problem. (Unwanted fires denote governments? those caused by accidental, natural and willful hazards, as distinguished from Until the middle of the nineteenth those desired and under control such century protection from the ravages of as a fireplace fire to warm and cheer a fire had been the province of private room.) Then, beginning with passage fire companies and insurance under- of the Flammable Fabrics Act in 1953, writers. As larger fractions of the pop- this changed. During the next two ulations moved into the cities and peo- decades, peaking in the Nixon years ple were more crowded together, fires (1969-75), a number of pieces of leg- became a greater problem. In the big islation were enacted aimed at improv- cities the fire companies were taken ing consumer health and safety, includ- over by the city governments. Well- ing fire safety. Notable among these engineered water systems were placed were the Occupational Health and so as to provide adequate pressure for Safety Act, The Environmental fire fighting, and ordinances were Protection Act, the Consumer Product passed concerning separations or fire Safety Act, and three acts relating to a barriers between buildings. These Federal role in reducing the losses due measures, taken mostly by city govern- to unwanted fire. These three Acts - ments, were directed to preventing the amendments in 1967 to the 1953 conflagrations that could and did Flammable Fabrics Act, the Fire involve large sections of cities - even, Research and Safety Act of 1968 (PL sometimes, entire cities. 90-259), and the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974 Concern gradually shifted to prevent- (PL93-409) constitute a considerable ing the loss of large, individual build- effort on the part of Congress to do ings. Still mostly city governments’

9 work, building codes came into being, specify, according to occupancy and deaths approaching 12,000 and annual tests for fire worthiness were devised location in the building, a particular costs conservatively exceeding $11 bil- and required, organizations such as the duration; e.g., 1/2, 1, 2, or even 4 lion. What had happened? Review of National Fire Protection Association, hour ratings. Thus the lower structural the fire loss data suggested that, to the Underwriters’ Laboratories, the members of a tall office building might make further reductions in our losses, American Society for Testing and be expected to resist fire exposure for we had to shift focus from large com- Materials were established. The NBS 4 hours, giving the fire service time to mercial and multi-occupancy buildings was created in 1901 and one of its gain control without collapse of the to residences and from fire spread to early experiences with fire standards building. By the 1960s this work was ignition. We also had to think of pre- came after the great Baltimore fire of mature and the Nation’s building venting individual life loss. Thus we 1904 in which it was found that fire codes controlled fire safety in large had to look at the products brought hose couplings from different cities buildings very well. Indeed, it was by into the residence and their behavior and towns could not attach to the then possible to say that in the United both as ignition sources and as agents Baltimore Fire Department’s fire hoses States we no longer lost towns and for the growth and spread of fire with- and hydrants. NBS, working in collab- cities or large buildings when they in the space of fire origin. oration with other organizations, creat- were built and maintained according to ed standards for fire hose couplings code. Nearly all conflagrations or large and for many years kept standard arti- building fires causing multiple deaths 2.1.1 THE FLAMMABLE FABRICS ACT facts for adapters for the many differ- and major monetary loss could be ent hydrants in the country. attributed to “out-of-code” construc- One of the early expressions of con- tion or use or to large natural disasters. cern by the Congress was passage of For the first 50 years or so of NBS’ the Flammable Fabrics Act in 1953. history there was a steady progression This seems no longer valid following This Act was directed to removing of field and laboratory work on fire the events of September 11, 2001. The from the market certain textile prod- endurance. Fire endurance denotes the disaster at the World Trade Center in ucts that became known as “torch ability of building components to New York City involved both severe sweaters.” The material was unusually maintain their load bearing and separa- impacts and severe fires ending with combustible and a simple vertical tion functions for prescribed time collapse of both towers. There now is flame exposure (in a voluntary stan- periods when exposed to fire. Burnout concern that then applicable and cur- dard method of test based on work tests were conducted in rooms and rent codes may not require sufficient done at NBS) served as the test. The buildings to measure the temperatures evaluation of beam-column ensembles immediate objective was achieved. By produced in fires and their durations. and beam to column connections. the 1960s, new fabrics and fabric con- Laboratory tests were developed and There also is concern that current structions were on the market and perfected for use in building codes. temperature-time relations for fire studies began to show new problems Many of these were for evaluating pro- testing do not adequately represent all with flammability. In 1967 the longed resistance to the stresses from potential fire exposures. New research Congress amended the Flammable prescribed fire exposures, usually in is expected to improve test methods Fabrics Act and established responsi- the form of standard time-temperature and code requirements. bility among three agencies: the relationships, in a large furnace. The Department of Commerce was to furnaces could be configured to test Still, the fire losses in this country had establish test standards and require- columns, floors, walls roof assemblies become large and politically sensitive. ments, the Department of Health, and ceilings. The code could then America Burning [1] cited annual Education, and Welfare was to investi-

10 gate reports of fire injuries and deaths, 2.1.3 THE AD HOC PANEL ON ad hoc panel was converted to a regu- and the Federal Trade Commission was FIRE RESEARCH AT NBS - lar, recurring panel soon thereafter and to enforce the Act. The Commerce THE NATIONAL reported annually. Secretary assigned the standards devel- RESEARCH COUNCIL opment work to NBS. A Flammable This somewhat fragmented situation 2.1.4 THE FEDERAL FIRE Fabrics Section was set up under caused NBS management to request of PREVENTION AND James Ryan and subsequently an Office the National Research Council (NRC), CONTROL ACT OF 1974 was established under the Institute for an ad hoc Panel on Fire Research spe- This legislation created the National Applied Technology (IAT) at NBS. cially chartered to evaluate fire Fire Prevention and Control research at NBS and to make recom- Administration, the National Fire 2.1.2 THE FIRE RESEARCH mendations on how to improve the Academy, and a Fire Research Center AND SAFETY ACT OF 1968 quality of work product. This panel, at NBS. The intent was to come to In 1968 the Congress expanded its chaired by Professor Howard Emmons grips with the National fire problem concerns to all sources of losses from of Harvard University and made up of and to define a Federal role to work in unwanted fire and enacted the Fire an eclectic mix of professional inter- tandem with the States and municipal- Research and Safety Act. This Act ests drawn from around the country, ities and the various groups in society authorized a new National made an in-depth study of what NBS already at work. Some NBS functions Commission to see why the U.S. had was doing and wrote, in 1972, a for fire fighter’s equipment and train- such high fire losses and what might be detailed review with 34 numbered rec- ing were transferred to the newly cre- done to reduce unwanted fires and to ommendations. The report called for a ated U.S. Fire Administration and the mitigate the effects of those that do careful analysis of the National needs U.S. Fire Academy. The new occur. The legislation further followed by a selection of those chal- Consumer Product Safety Commission enhanced the technical role of the lenges that NBS could appropriately was just getting under way at this time NBS by setting up a second office handle - a comprehensive plan. The and NBS transferred part of the effort called the Office of Fire Technology. report emphasized the need to think on flammable fabrics, retaining the This group was charged with looking at about the fire problem in a fundamen- standards development work but trans- ways to utilize modern technology tal way and urged that fundamental ferring the evaluation of fire data on both in fighting fires and in assisting work at NBS be expanded. It also burns. Thus the area of work for the the fire fighter by improving the tools urged that NBS’ work on fire be tightly NBS was made clear. In fact it was and equipment available. So by the end coordinated. The succeeding 1973 spelled out in more detail than any of the decade NBS found itself with NRC report praised NBS efforts to other part of the Bureau. three essentially independent entities, pull fire research together, urged cre- all looking at some aspect of unwanted ation of a fire dynamics group, worried The Act of 1974 amended the organic fire: the fire section in the Division of about hazards from new materials; e.g., act of the NBS to establish the Fire Building Research, the Office of plastics, and said that the work on Research Center. It authorized a long Flammable Fabrics, and the Office of smoke and toxic gases needed list of research areas that were includ- Fire Technology. The division and both strengthening. The panel felt studies of ed in the organic act by amendment. offices were under the direct supervi- smoke and fire detectors were going These are: sion of the Institute of Applied well. The need for better large-scale “(1) basic and applied research for arriv- Technology. fire test facilities was emphasized. The ing at an understanding of the fun-

11 damental processes underlying all logical, and psychological factors John W. Lyons, a physical chemist, had aspects of fire. Such research shall affecting human victims of fire and been hired in 1973 to head the newly include scientific investigations of - the performance of individual mem- consolidated fire program. He arrived (A) the physics and chemistry of bers of fire services, including - before the legislation was passed and combustion processes; (A) the biological and physiological became the founding director of the (B) the dynamics of flame ignition, effects of toxic substances Center for Fire Research (CFR). Irwin flame spread, and flame extin- encountered in fires; Benjamin, an expert in uses of struc- guishment; (B) the trauma, cardiac conditions, tural steel and the leader of the fire (C) the composition of combustion and other hazards resulting from section within the Center for Building products developed by various exposure to fire; Technology’s (CBT) Structural sources and under various envi- (C) the development of simple and Division, joined CFR to become leader ronmental conditions; reliable tests for determining the of its fire safety engineering work. (D) the early stages of fires in build- cause of death from fires; Benjamin’s personal commitment to ings and other structures, struc- (D) improved methods of providing fire safety, vision, skill in recruiting and tural subsystems and structural first aid to victims of fires; mentoring his staff, insight into the components in all other types of (E) psychological and motivational best opportunities to improve fire safe- fires including, but not limited characteristics of persons who ty, and knowledge of how to get to, forest fires … with the aim improved practices accepted and engage in arson and the predic- of improving early detection applied in the fire safety community tion and cure of such behavior; capability; were key in CFR’s achieving its goal to (F) the conditions of stress encoun- (E) the behavior of fires involving all halve fire losses in a generation. Lyons tered by firefighters, the effects of types of buildings and other hired Robert Levine from NASA to such stress, and the alleviation structures and their contents, … lead CFR’s fire science activities. and reduction of such conditions; and all other types of fires, Levine came to CFR as a leading rock- including forest fires … oil and et scientist. He made strong contribu- blowout fires …; (G) such other biological, psychologi- tions to CFR through his knowledge of (F) the unique fire hazards arising cal, and physiological effects of combustion science and peer scientists from the transportation and use, fire as have significance for pur- worldwide, and his enthusiasm for in industrial and professional pose of control or prevention of good work in both fire science and fire practices, of combustible gases fires; and safety engineering. Frederic Clarke, an and materials; “(3) operation tests, demonstration proj- organic chemist, joined CFR as assis- (G) design concepts for providing ects, and fire investigations in sup- tant to the director. increased fire safety consistent port of the activities set forth in the with habitability, comfort and section. CFR was established on October 29, human impact in buildings and 1974, when President Ford signed the other structures; and “The Secretary [of Commerce] shall insure Federal Fire Prevention and Control (H) such other aspects of the fire that the results and advances … are dis- Act of 1974. NBS had anticipated this process as may be deemed useful seminated broadly. He shall encourage the action and had in place a in pursuing the objectives of the incorporation … in building codes, fire Programmatic Center for Fire fire research program; codes … test methods, fire service operations Research headed by John Lyons and “(2) research into the biological, physio- and training and standards. …” involving 110 federal employees.

12 John Lyons, founding director, Center for Fire Irwin Benjamin, initial leader of Fire Safety Robert Levine, initial leader of Fire Research during 1973 to 1977 when he Engineering. Science. became founding director of NBS’s National Engineering Laboratory. Lyons’ experience in industry, expertise in fire science and its applications, delight in strong technical work, and concern for people provided a strong start for CFR. His talents led to his promotions in 1978 to research staff spent much time meet- the fire losses. The goal for CFR become the founding leader of the National ing together to develop an approach became: Engineering Laboratory, and in 1990 to that took into account what was then To insure the development of the technical become director of the National Institute of known about the etiology of unwanted base for the standards and specifications Standards and Technology until 1993. fires, the sequences by which the fires needed in support of the National goal moved from ignition to growth and to reduce fire losses by 50 percent over 2.1.5 A LONG-RANGE PLAN spread, and the ultimate cause of the the next generation. FOR NBS FIRE losses through death, injury and RESEARCH - FIRE destruction of property [3]. They The CFR staff took it as their respon- SCENARIOS AND called these sequences fire scenarios. INTERVENTION sibility not only to conduct and publish STRATEGIES the technical work but also to see to it The NRC reports had prepared the that the results were widely promulgat- The detailed listing of the 1974 Act way for carrying out the subsequent ed and adopted by the community at would seem to leave nothing to large. There was some concern by chance; it certainly authorized NBS provisions of the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of 1974. some staff that such objectives went staff to study whatever seemed neces- beyond the ability of the staff to con- sary. However the list was only author- The report of the Federal Commission trol outcomes. While this was certainly ized, not mandated. Given the on Fire Prevention and Control (1972) true we felt strongly that the Congress resources then available or likely to be, had declared that it should be possible was funding the work for the change in a host of choices had to be made to to reduce the Nation’s fire losses by fire losses, not for publications, how- plan and execute the actual research half in about 14 years. The CFR plan- program. Soon after the legislation was ners took the 50 percent figure but ever important. signed into law, the director of NBS stretched the timing to some two 2.1.6 TECHNICAL CHAL- requested of the director of the Center decades and then sought to define the LENGES FOR FIRE for Fire Research a detailed long-range technical work that would be needed RESEARCH research plan with a rationale for the to underpin the various interventions proposed work [2]. In response the that would be required in those key A large number of technical challenges managers of CFR and some of the key scenarios that accounted for most of faced CFR.

13 Challenges deemed important by management were: 1. Lack of tests that are scientifically based to meet legal challenges to imposing tests in regulations and codes. For instance, one cannot test at one irradiance if one wants to take into account the heat from the material’s combustion in addition to that task of putting together the new The organization and key people as of from the exposing flame or source; the use Fire Research Center, or in NBS 1975 became: of a simple flame or single exposure is use- custom, the Center for Fire ful only for ignition tests. Research (CFR). The programs 2. Lack of tests at bench scale that correlate involving fire then in the Center Fire Science Division, R. Levine, Chief closely to performance in full-scale fire Project Manager for Arson, B. Levin tests - hence the costly need to “build it for Building Technology were Office of Information and Hazard and burn it.” moved into CFR and combined 3. Lack of mathematical models good to with the remaining parts of the Analysis, B. Buchbinder within 10 percent or so for predicting key flammable fabrics work and the Program for Chemistry, C. Huggett events: e.g., flashover, toxic levels of gases. fire research and safety functions. Program for Toxicology of Combustion Fires are turbulent, reacting, buoyant The several analyses and plans Products, M. Birky flows with low symmetry - no two fires are referred to above led easily to a Program for Physics and Dynamics, the same. new emphasis on the fundamen- J. Rockett 4. Lack of first principles models to provide tals and the creation of the Fire Fire Safety Engineering Division, credibility for simplifying assumptions in Science Division in which were I. Benjamin, Chief zone models. Program for Fire Prevention-Products, 5. Lack of thermo-chemical and thermo- chemistry, physics and dynamics, J. Winger physical data on modern materials and and an office of information and composite structures for input to mathe- hazard analysis. In a short time Program for Fire Control-Construction, matical models. chemistry became chemistry and D. Gross 6. Dearth of information on toxicity of com- toxicology, and a few months Program for Fire Control-Furnishings, bustion products - the predominant cause later this group split into two S. Davis of death in fires: no standard test for toxi- groups emphasizing the growing Program for Fire Detection and Control city, no tie between testing for toxicity and importance placed on the toxici- Systems, R. Bright for ignition, spread, and growth. ty of combustion products. The 7. No reference materials for calibration of engineering-oriented work was instruments. 2.1.8 CFR ACQUIRES NSF’S 8. Lack of understanding of the molecular placed in a Fire Safety FIRE RESEARCH details of combustion such as soot particle Engineering Division with groups formation and its effect on flame radiation on fire prevention - products PROGRAM and heat transfer. (flammable fabrics and related In the late 1960s and early 1970s the 9. Lack of rugged, calibrated instruments for ignition work), fire control in National Science Foundation (NSF) looking into fires, and thermal lag in ther- construction, fire control in fur- program called Research Applied to mocouples. nishings (growth and spread of National Needs was managing a set of fire), fire detection and control research grants awarded primarily to (detectors and sprinklers), and universities, but also to private and 2.1.7 ORGANIZING THE new design concepts. This two-division commercial research institutions with RESEARCH structure worked well for a number of close ties to universities. NSF had After transferring those pieces of the years. There were some permutations about $2 million a year invested in fire work that more properly fit the mis- and the transfer of the National related research. The program was of sions of the Consumer Product Safety Science Foundation’s fire research the highest quality. The Congress Commission and the Fire grants to CFR caused some adjust- decided that a better place for this Administration, there remained the ments. effort was at the CFR; thus in 1975

14 they transferred the authority and in-house and extramural work 2.2 EVENTS AND budget to NBS. This move caused throughout government. In CFR’s PROGRESS some concern at the Bureau. Some experience the mechanism worked THROUGHOUT thought it a poor idea to mix in-house effectively. It was not long before the THE 70S work with management of grants or interactions became very close and we contracts externally. The belief was could consider all of the work - in- In the early 1970s some disastrous that the added management role would house and extramural - as one large fires had been occurring in rooms dilute attention to NBS’ laboratory integrated program. The benefits to lined with fire retardant treated cellu- work and that perhaps both would suf- all were great. lar plastics. These plastic foams had fer. (This argument returned again been deemed to be fire-safe by the both under the Carter Administration, 2.1.9 1975 ACCOMPLISHMENTS bench scale fire tests in use at that when centers for cooperative technolo- time and also by the ASTM E84 tunnel Accomplishments in 1975 included: gy development were proposed to be test that is the standard test for interi- located at NBS with major compo- • The pilot implementation of the or finishing materials. As a result, the nents from the private sector, and later National Fire Data System was com- Products Research Committee (PRC) when the Advanced Technology pleted and turned over to the with John Lyons as its chairman, was Program, the Manufacturing Extension National Fire Prevention and created in 1974 as a free standing Program, and the Baldrige National Control Administration. charitable trust in an agreement to a Quality Award were in fact enacted • A relationship was established consent order signed between the U. and given to NBS to manage.) between flammability limits in pre- S. Federal Trade Commission and 25 However, the choice to accept the NSF mixed and diffusion flames. manufacturers of cellular plastics. grants or not was not NBS’ and we • The capability was developed for went forward with the transfer. The measuring particle size distribution Thus, a large investigation was decision was a good one. and mass concentration in smoke. launched to determine: 1) why the A key decision was to assign the over- • A proposed standard for the flam- existing tests failed; 2) if they could be sight of the external work to the indi- mability of upholstered furniture fixed; and 3) if new tests needed to be vidual research groups in CFR. Thus was developed and recommended to developed for these materials. The the dynamics work at Harvard/ the Consumer Product Safety Products Research Committee mem- Factory Mutual, California Institute of Commission. bers came from industry, testing agen- Technology, Notre Dame etc was • The fire safety of interior compo- cies, government and academia. The closely followed by the fire physics and nents of AM General buses and committee supported relevant research dynamics group at CFR and the toxi- Metro subway cars was evaluated for in a number of organizations including cology work was overseen by the CFR the Washington Metropolitan NBS. The funds were provided by the toxicology group. Recommendations as Transit Authority. cellular plastics industry. to changes in the work or renewals • Reduced scale and analytical model- came from the in-house group leaders. ing techniques were developed and This work showed that thermal radia- This internal management was made tested for predicting fire growth in tion reinforcement by the enclosure possible through the use of cooperative rooms. was a critical factor in the growth of research agreements as opposed to • Recommended performance stan- fire in a room. The building codes now grants or contracts. The cooperative dards for single-station smoke require that cellular plastics be covered agreements had recently been author- detectors were adopted and pub- by safer materials, or pass a standard ized by Congress to enable closer lished by Underwriters’ room fire test with a substantial igni- cooperation and integration between Laboratories, Inc. tion source in one corner. A standard

15 room fire test was developed in the was described as one of the world’s civil engineering department at the foremost collections of fire research University of California on a research documents. grant from CFR. William Parker, the project monitor from CFR, worked Richard Gann’s Program for Chemistry with Brady Williamson at UC on the was seeking a scientifically based suscep- design and incorporation of an oxygen tibility index for spontaneous ignition, consumption system for measuring the and determining the fire potential of heat release rate in the room fire. dielectric fluids that could be substituted Frederic Clarke, 2nd director of the Center for for the environmentally harmful poly- Fire Research. John Lyons, beginning in October chlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) that had 1977, organized and directed the new been banned as insulating fluids for Construction Materials Program pro- National Engineering Laboratory transformers and capacitors by the duced a new heat release rate (NEL). NEL replaced the Institute for Environmental Protection Agency. calorimeter and worked on fire hazards Applied Technology (IAT) as the par- Oxygen depletion by combustion was of insulations in residential occupan- ent organization for CFR and CBT. shown to be a sound quantitative meas- cies for the Department of Energy. Frederic Clarke, who had served as ure of rate of heat release, and mass Lyons’ special assistant for planning spectroscopy was showing valuable capa- Edward Budnick’s Fire Detection and and communications, became acting bilities for studying temperatures and Controls Program worked on test director of CFR and its permanent chemical processes in flames. methods for smoke and fire detectors director in October 1978. Clarke, still and performance of detection systems in his 30s, showed outstanding scien- John Rockett’s Program for Physics in health care facilities and mobile tific and analytical skills, commitment and Dynamics progressed with zone homes. Laboratory studies were con- to CFR’s goal, and strong interpersonal models for the spread and growth of ducted on the performance of sprin- skills. fires and computational fluid dynam- John Rockett, leader of Physics and Dynamics, is performing an experiment The report of the September 1978 ics models for flow to model smoke growth and flow in corridors. Rockett had played a leading Annual Conference on Fire Research phenomena in role in NBS’s fire research since the 60s and contributed strongly to the [4] summarized the major activities fires. James development of CFR. and accomplishments of CFR in fiscal Winger’s Product year 1978. Flammability Program worked Benjamin Buchbinder’s Program for for the Information and Hazard Analysis Department of described, with the example of uphol- Energy to develop stered furniture, how Decision Analysis methods and pro- provided the analytical framework for cedures to assure combining loss and cost estimates for adequate fire safety alternative strategies for addressing par- when wood is used ticular fire problems and selecting the for a fuel in resi- most cost effective strategy. The Fire dences. William Research Information Services (FRIS) Parker’s

16 klers in health care facilities and in the Federal Aviation Administration for alternative strategies for this loss reduc- open stairways. flammability of flight crew uniforms. tion, and to reduce fire as an obstacle to meeting of other national needs. Harold Nelson’s Program for Design The Fire Safety Engineering Division Concepts worked on closing the gap participated with ASTM in the intro- The strategy for CFR was: between scientific data and models and duction of new test methods and in 1. The Center research program will the “use system” of standards and the improvement of existing ones. take several simultaneous codes. Fire safety evaluation systems These included: approaches to reducing fire losses. were under development for health 1. Flooring Radiant Panel E 648 for 2. The Center’s approach to care facilities, group homes and multi- Carpet Flame Spread. improved fire safety is one ground- family housing. 2. Critical Radiant Flux for Flame ed in an understanding of the fun- Spread on loose fill insulation. damentals of fire science. Merrit Birky’s Program for Toxicology 3. Smoldering Ignition test. 3. The Center’s responsibility of Combustion Products drafted, in 4. Mobile Home Project: factors includes the conversion of research consultation with experts from indus- affecting life safety given a fire in a results into implemented fire safety try, government and academia, a test mobile home and mitigation of the measures. method for the identification of mate- worst hazards. rials that produce unusually toxic com- 5. New time-temperature curve for Planning was based on the scenarios bustion products. It involved measur- fire endurance of walls and floor for fire losses [6] that related fire ing the mid-lethal concentration of assemblies in residential occupan- deaths in the U.S. to occupancy, item combustion products for exposed rats. cies. Basement recreation rooms ignited and ignition source. Technical NBS management was very uncom- were especially dangerous because issues were identified to address the fortable with on-site animal testing, of the short time to flashover. scenarios and from these action items but a major goal of this work was to 6. Smoke movement in high-rise were identified for fire research: reduce needs to conduct animal testing buildings. to determine the combustion toxicity 7. The Lateral Ignition and Flame 1. Improved standard test method for of products. Spread Standard Test (LIFT) appa- smoke detectors. ratus to measure ignition flux and 2. More economical design criteria The Third Annual Conference on Fire flame spread. and performance specifications for Research held on August 22-24, 1979, sprinkler operation and installation [5] does not describe management In addition, heat release rate (HRR) to the National Fire Protection issues and cites few major accomplish- was recognized as a most important Association (NFPA). ments. James Winger’s Program for fire property of materials. 3. Design criteria for optimum use of Product Flammability Research report- smoke control/HVAC systems to ed a review of literature, model codes CFR issued its updated Research Plan NFPA and the American Society of and tests for the fire safety of wood in August 1979 [6]. The goal of CFR Heating, Refrigerating and Air- burning appliances in residents and was expressed as: Conditioning Engineers small industries. Standards were rec- The goal of the Nation is to reduce fire (ASHRAE). ommended to the Consumer Product losses by 50 percent by 1995. The goal 4. Take systematic approach to Safety Commission for cigarette igni- of the Center for Fire Research is to pro- achieve given level of fire risk with tion of upholstered furniture and for vide the needed knowledge for making lowest cost combination of fire flammability of general apparel, and to rational and cost-effective choices among protection elements.

17 5. Standard test methods to ASTM ble funding and funding cuts. Yet, this characteristics and chemical com- International, NFPA for flame history will show excellent accom- position on its fire behavior, with a spread and rate of heat release of plishment of the objectives. mechanistic model for radiant interior finishes. ignition developed by 1982. 6. Standard test methods to ASTM, For Existing Resources 6. Develop technical background to NFPA, and Consumer Product 1. To develop a set of performance support measures to reduce the Safety Commission (CPSC) for based design recommendations for likelihood of unwanted ignitions flame spread, rate of heat release of automatic suppression systems, associated with the generation, furnishings. with submission of recommended distribution, and use of electrical 7. Proposed standards to reduce like- design changes for automatic energy and use of heat producing lihood of ignition by electrical and sprinkler systems to the appropri- equipment or processes with rec- heat producing products to ate authorities in 1983. ommendations to reduce ignitions Underwriters Laboratories Inc. 2. Develop performance guidelines from residential electrical power (UL), Factory Mutual, and the for the design of both fire detec- systems in 1983. Institute of Electrical and tion and smoke control systems; 7. To develop a validated, physically Electronics Engineers, Inc (IEEE). including recommendations based predictive method for 8. Recommended practices to assess regarding whether or not to devel- describing the growth of fire in a combustion product toxicity as op a revised full scale protocol for building, with a documented vali- component of life safety hazard. smoke detection by 1980, and the dated room fire model by 1983. 9. Modeling design decisions to min- development of an initial 8. To provide the full-scale fire test imize full-scale assembly testing. Mechanical Engineers Smoke data needed to verify the physical 10.Design and formulation guide for Control Manual based on state of and analytical fire growth models, improving ignition or smolder the art technology by 1981. to support the development of resistance of composite materials. 3. To identify the importance of standard fire test and to assess the 11.Specific structural fire resistance combustion product toxicity as hazards of materials as exemplified requirements based on experimen- part of the overall fire hazard and by the development of a correlated tal evidence. to provide the test methods and reduced scale room fire test by 12.Design requirements based on recommended practices for pre- 1981. actual human behavior and needs. dicting and reducing the hazard, 9. Develop and apply methodology 13.Standard test method for detectors with the development of a toxicity for evaluating alternative strategies to NFPA, UL, which identifies hazard assessment methodology by for reducing fire losses based on detector capability to resist false 1983. cost benefit considerations, with alarms. 4. To develop test methods for the an initial analysis of residential fire 14.Arson detection methods for the fire properties of materials and loss reduction strategies by 1982. National Fire Academy, state arson products which can be related to 10. Synthesize fire research, fire pro- laboratories through US Fire fire hazard; with procedures for tection engineering, and human Administration (USFA). ignitability, flame spread, and rate behavior technology into systemat- of heart release for upholstered ic technically based approaches to The Plan then established the objec- furniture to be completed by fire safety design, with the issuance tives for CFR. The Plan was developed 1983. of initial approaches to compre- just before CFR moved into an 5. To develop the capability to prehensive design evaluation and cost extremely difficult decade with unsta- dict the effects of a fuel’s physical effectiveness systems by 1983.

18 11. Establish by 1983, a battery of 5. Develop, by 1983, the competence References analytical methods and procedures to analyze and identify method- 1. America Burning, Report of the National for use in the field and laboratory ologies for controlling fire losses Commission on Fire Prevention and detection of arson. associated with storage and trans- Control, U.S. Government Printing 12. To transfer information on both portation of hazardous materials. Office, 1973. fire research and the interpretation 2. Frederic B. Clarke and D.W. Raisher, of fire research to various publics: The Department of Commerce provid- Attacking the Fire Problem: A Plan for Action -1976 Edition, NBS Special Publication e.g., designers, fire researchers, ed strong recognition for CFR’s 416, National Bureau of Standards, fire services, and standards organi- accomplishments in its awards of Gold 1976. zations. An example of this trans- and Silver medals: 3. Frederic B. Clarke and J. Ottoson, Fire fer will be the incorporation of the • Gold to Alexander Robertson in Death Scenarios, Fire Journal, 1976. NBS developed Fire Safety 1976 for career accomplishments in 4. Clayton Huggett, editor, Annual Evaluation System into the 1980 improvements of fire safety stan- Conference on Fire Research, NBSIR 78- edition of the Life Safety Code. dards. 1526, National Bureau of Standards, 1978. • Gold to John Lyons in 1977 for 5. Iliana Martinez, editor, The Third Annual For New Resources (which leadership of CFR. Conference on Fire Research, NBSIR 79- were not received) • Silver to Richard Bright in 1976 for 1916, National Bureau of Standards, 1. To publish a home fire safety his work in improving the perform- 1979. design manual and curriculum by ance of residential smoke detectors. 6. Frederic B. Clarke, Director, Long Range 1985. • Silver to John Rockett in 1977 for Plan 1979-1984, Center for Fire Research, August 1979. 2. To develop the instrumental capa- advances in fire modeling. bility and technical competence to • Silver to Clayton Huggett in 1978 define the role(s) of oxygen in the research in flame inhibition. various modes of fire-related com- • Silver to James Winger in 1978 for bustion, with a model of the oxy- research in fabric and furniture gen involvement in oxidative flammability. pyrolysis by 1982. • Silver to Irwin Benjamin in 1979 3. To exploit the mechanics of smoke for the development and adoption and aerosols, and new fire detec- in standards of the Fire Safety tion sensor principles to eliminate Evaluation System. false alarms by 1985. 4. To improve existing knowledge of The National Bureau of Standards the physiological effects of fire and conferred its Rosa Award on Alexander to recommend methods of treat- Robertson in 1978 for development of ment by 1985. standard flammability test methods.

3. CENTER FOR BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 3IN THE 70s

3.1 BACKGROUND FOR effective representation of NBS work 1975 to policy makers and the public.

Fiscal year 1975 began on July 1, NBS’s Institute for Applied Technology 1975, which serves as a convenient (IAT) was the parent unit for CBT and starting point for coverage of building the home for most of the other engi- research in this history. The prior his- neering programs of NBS. IAT’s directory [1] covers building research from tor was F. Karl Willenbrock, an electri- 1968 through 1974. The sections of cal engineer and physicist, who had led this chapter are organized by years, IAT since 1970. Willenbrock was pas- approximately fiscal years, which sionate and inspiring for the potential through fiscal year 1976, began on July of engineering research to improve 1 of the prior calendar year, and there- quality of life, and for strengthening after began on October 1. engineering programs at NBS in both their technical quality and their influ- The Nation was in political turmoil ence on practices and public policy. with President Nixon nearing his resig- James Wright, chemist and founding nation of August 6, 1974. The indus- director of CBT, since February 1974, tries of construction were depressed had been deputy director of IAT. He (volume in constant dollars down 11 complemented Willenbrock’s leader- percent) because of higher interest ship with his own enthusiasm for more rates imposed to curb inflation caused effective programs and strong leader- by increases in energy prices. However, ship in improving management prac- CBT’s building research was growing tices in the Institute. Willenbrock because of increased funding for focused much of his efforts on exter- research for energy conservation and nal representation of the Institute to solar energy. The National Bureau of develop collaborations with leaders in Standards (NBS) had a dynamic young government and industry, but main- director, Richard Roberts, who had tained active interest in good technical been director only since February, ideas within the institute. Wright con- 1973, and emphasized closeness of centrated on addressing organizational NBS programs to their customers and and management problems within the

21 F. Karl Willenbrock, director, Institute for Richard N. Wright, director CBT and BFRL James Wright, founding director of CBT 1972-74 Applied Technology 1970-1976. 1974-1999. and chief of Building Research Division 1967-72 Willenbrock was passionate and inspiring (former CBT); in 1975 he became deputy director, for the potential of engineering research to Institute of Applied Technology. improve quality of life, and for strengthening engineering programs at NBS in both their technical quality and their influence on practices and public policy. building design and urban systems; and public buildings. Thompson’s shall perform research (including research on warmth and kindness built rapport safety factors) in the systems approach to within the Center, Bureau and Institute and improving its working building design and construction, improving among other agencies. relations within NBS, continued a construction and management efficiency, in founder’s interest in the development building materials characteristics, in struc- • In June, 1974, Richard Wright of CBT, and remained active in leader- tural behavior, and in building environmen- became the director of the Center. ship of the International Union of tal systems. Wright, a civil/structural engineer, Testing and Research Laboratories for had been professor of civil engineer- Materials and Structures (RILEM). The Center was organized by divisions, ing at the University of Illinois at which conducted the laboratory work, Urbana-Champaign, and had experi- At its founding in 1972, the mission of and offices, which provided program ence at NBS as chief of the CBT was expressed as: management and some technical work. Structures Section from June 1971 The Center for Building Technology shall These units and their leaders were: to July 1972, and deputy director- consult with industry, government agencies, technical of the Center from July professional associations, labor organiza- • Headquarters was led until February 1972 to August 1973. He was tions, consumers, and such organizations as 1974 by James Wright, with Deputy drawn to CBT by its potential for the National Conference of States on Director Harry Thompson. Wright’s interdisciplinary problem solving Building Codes and Standards in developing enthusiasm for effective programs and research addressing the func- test methods for evaluating the performance and leadership in improving man- tionality, safety and economy of con- of buildings, including their materials and agement practices contributed structed facilities. components, the support and stability char- strongly to CBT and all other units acteristics of their elements and systems, the of IAT. Thompson, an architectural • Office of Building Standards and effects of new design strategies, their fire engineer, had fifteen years of experi- Codes Services led by Gene safety and environmental characteristics, and ence in federal design and construc- Rowland a mechanical engineer who their service and communication systems; tion programs and six years in the had joined NBS after leading the shall formulate performance criteria for Bureau of the Budget dealing with formation of the National

22 James Gross, leader in service to the standards Samuel Kramer, expert in working with federal Paul Reece Achenbach, Chief of the and codes community agencies and Congress. Building Environment Division.

Conference of States on Building Corps of Engineers. Kramer’s intel- 1937. Achenbach worked tirelessly Codes and Standards as the building lectual curiosity, analytical skills, and with quiet passion to gain knowl- official for the State of Wisconsin. interest in people extended to all of edge to improve building environ- Rowland’s enthusiasm, wit and CBT’s programs, and eventually to mental systems and extended his energy focused on improving the all of NBS/NIST as he was promot- leadership to the American Society Nation’s building regulatory system. ed to deputy director of the of Heating Refrigerating and Air- National Engineering Laboratory Conditioning Engineers. • Office of Housing Technology led by and subsequently to deputy director James Gross an architectural engi- of NIST. • Technical Evaluation and Application neer who had joined NBS after Division led by Porter Driscoll an being director of engineering and • Structures, Materials and Safety architect with extensive experience research for Precast Systems, Inc,. Division led by Edward Pfrang a civil in private practice, government and and director of engineering and engineer who joined NBS after fac- industry before joining NBS in technology for the Structural Clay ulty appointments at the universities 1973. Driscoll was eager to make Products Institute. Gross pressed for of Nevada and Delaware, to lead the the Center’s work relevant and use- quality and responsiveness to spon- Structures section and then organize ful to architects. sors in the Center’s work and use- the Office of Housing Technology fulness in practice of the Center’s and develop major programs with For 1974 the Center’s funding was results, and expressed continued the Department of Housing and $9.2 million, $3.4 million directly affection for masonry systems. Urban Development. Pfrang was appropriated and $5.8 million for outstanding for his imagination, sponsored research, and its staffing was • Office of Federal Building forcefulness and comfort with con- 231. Sponsored research funding and Technology led by Samuel Kramer a flict where he showed extraordinary staffing had increased substantially over civil engineer who had joined NBS ability to think on his feet. 1973 driven by needs for research on after four years as an examiner with energy conservation. the Bureau of the Budget and ten • Building Environment Division led years working on design criteria, by Paul Reece Achenbach a mechan- One major accomplishment of 1974 design and construction with the ical engineer who had joined NBS in merits mention to set the stage for this

23 history. In the spring of 1973, the Lyons and Richard Wright for building prior to returning to the U.S. and National Conference of States on and fire research in the United States leading in introduction of systems Building Codes and Standards (NCS- had been and continued to be provid- building. After NBS’s Institute for BCS) requested CBT to develop a ed by consultant William Allen. Allen, Applied Technology was created in technical basis for effective, nationally a British architect, was born and edu- 1964, its director Donald Schon and applicable building code requirements cated in Canada, and joined the British deputy director John Eberhard, him- for energy conservation in buildings of Building Research Station (BRS) in self an innovative architect, sought all types. (Note the major role that 1937 where he became a disciple of Allen as consultant for NBS’s Division CBT’s predecessor, the Building Robert Fitzmaurice, principal author of Building Research. Allen had left Research Division of NBS, had played of the seminal Principles of Modern the Building Research Station in 1961 in the founding of NCSBCS [2].) CBT Building, which was published in to become Principal of the drew upon its long-term research 1938. Architectural Association School and expertise in the prediction and meas- to form Bickerdike, Allen and urement of building thermal perform- Their views were that building prac- Partners, which became a leading ance and lighting to formulate a tech- tices can and should be based on sci- architectural practice in London. The nically and economically effective ence, a real understanding of the phys- relationship with NBS/NIST lasted approach to the design of energy con- ical and human environments and almost thirty years. serving buildings. Shortly after the oil behaviors that influence the usefulness, embargo in December 1973, the NBS safety and economy of constructed Another, related legacy from the 1960s report was available for use. facilities. Professional judgment, cre- had profound influence on manage- ativity and aesthetics are celebrated, ment’s vision for building research at In January 1974, NCSBCS requested too, but supported increasingly in NBS in the 70s. Under the leadership the American Society for Heating, improved knowledge from research. of John Eberhard, as deputy director Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Another important perspective was and director of the Institute for Engineers (ASHRAE) to process the that building and fire research labora- Applied Technology, and James Wright, NBS report as a national consensus tories should be closely linked to lead- director of the Building Research standard. ASHRAE established an ers in practice, including design, con- Division, building and fire research extraordinary effort to analyze and struction, product development and activities in the late 60s were energized refine the NBS report and develop a manufacturing. To be successful and and focused on providing criteria, and national consensus standard, which supported, a laboratory should be and measurement, test and evaluation became ASHRAE 90-75 and the basis should be perceived to be valuable to methods for the performance for the energy conservation building industry. It should anticipate and be approach in building to building stan- codes of the U.S. A thorough descrip- responsive to industry’s greatest needs dards and codes [4]. tion of this effort may be found in the for knowledge, deliver this knowledge NBS/NIST Centennial Publication [3]. in useful form to decision makers, and All disciplines of the Building Research In summary, it showed how effectively assist in resolution of technical policy Division were involved in a major pro- CBT could work with the building issues such as standards, regulations, gram, cosponsored by NBS and the community to meet critical national education, and research priorities. Department of Housing and Urban needs. Development (HUD) to explore the Allen, in turn, as Chief Architect of hypothesis that, if adequate perform- Major influence on the visions of Karl BRS was mentor to U.S. architect Ezra ance standards for low-income housing Willenbrock, James Wright, John Ehrenkrantz, who worked under Allen, could be developed, and if they were

24 he performance approach demands a statement of performance in terms of function. TSince buildings serve people, function is defined by the attributes necessary to serve human requirements. The means of delivering an attribute is left open. It is in this way that the builder or supplier of a building component is invited to innovate. Indeed, the encouragement of innovation is sometimes cited as the reason for the performance approach. In any event, the philosophy of performance begins and ends with - and puts its principal emphasis on - the satisfaction of human needs. September 3, 1974, directed NBS to assist in determining perform- broadly used, an important and funda- significant and continuing improve- ance criteria for solar heating and mental way would be opened to ments in housing technology. cooling systems, establishing test accommodate the introduction of cost- procedures and evaluating perform- reducing innovations into the design of Simultaneously, the Building Research ance of systems demonstrated. housing for low income families. The Division worked with the Public • PL 94-163, Energy Policy and success of this work [5] encouraged Building Service (PBS) of the General Conservation Act directed NBS to the HUD to proceed with Operation Services Administration to apply the develop test procedures for estimat- Breakthrough to encourage manufac- performance concept in the procure- ing annual operating costs and tured housing systems to improve ment of better performing and more measures of energy consumption of housing quality and reduce costs. economical government office build- energy consuming building equip- ings. These were developed for and ment. CBT staff were greatly involved in applied in the procurement of Social • PL 94-385, Energy Conservation Operation Breakthrough in support of Security Administration payment cen- and Production Act directed NBS to HUD in developing performance cri- ters for San Francisco, Philadelphia, develop efficiency improvement tar- teria for the acceptance of innovative and Chicago [7]. gets for household heating and air- housing systems [6], assessing the conditioning equipment, and to compliance of the systems through The focus of CBT on the performance assist in the development of energy analysis and testing, and performing concept continued after these projects conservation performance standards longer range research to improve the for HUD and PBS were completed. for new commercial and residential criteria. The rigorous and systematic The vision of Karl Willenbrock, James buildings. approach developed for the expression Wright, and Richard Wright for CBT and application of performance criteria was for it to be the leading laboratory Another act influencing the CBT pro- set the stage for the national and inter- supplying the performance prediction, gram was P.L. 93-382, The Housing national move to performance based measurement, test and evaluation and Community Development Act of design in the late 20th century. The methods needed by designers, 1974, which charged HUD to develop performance criteria and the responses builders, regulators, manufacturers, the Federal Mobile Home of housing systems manufacturers owners and occupants to achieve the Construction and Safety Standards. advanced practices in residential performance (usefulness, safety and HUD called upon CBT for substantial smoke detectors, design to avoid pro- technical support. The Act also author- economy) for the buildings or building gressive structural collapse, thermal ized the creation of the non-govern- products and services with which they insulation, acoustics, plumbing systems mental National Institute of Building were concerned. and durability. CBT and CFR Sciences (NIBS) to improve the build- researchers developed a strong orienta- ing regulatory environment, facilitate 3.2. 1975 tion towards improved performance in the introduction of new and existing meeting users’ needs for safety, func- The energy crisis of 1973-1974 result- products and technology into the tionality, and durability. While HUD’s ed in several legislative mandates for building process, and disseminate support for Operation Breakthrough CBT: nationally recognized technical and was not sustained sufficiently to greatly • PL 93-409, Solar Heating and regulatory information. NIBS and increase the U.S. market for industri- Cooling Demonstration Act of NBS/NIST have generally found their alized building systems, it did achieve 1974, which became law on roles complementary with NIBS suited

25 to convening all elements of the build- dent trainee in 1957, was outstand- tor of IAT, led the efforts in planning ing community to seek consensus on ingly efficient and congenial in deal- and testifying and were supported by technical policy issues, and NBS/NIST ing with sponsors and researchers to Jack Snell and Reece Achenbach of having the research and laboratory meet commitments on time, on tar- CBT. However, the momentum in the capability to address needs for per- get and within budget. Administration and Congress was to formance prediction, measurement, • Assign Samuel Kramer as acting develop the Nation’s programs in the test and evaluation methods. deputy director with Harry Federal Energy Administration and the Thompson becoming acting chief of Energy Research and Development An immediate response was to reor- the Office of Federal Building Administration. Increased directly ganize CBT to respond effectively to Technology. appropriated funding for NBS was these mandates that drew broadly rejected in the White House Office of upon the technical competences in the The Solar Heating and Cooling Management and Budget citing the divisions. In September 1974 the Demonstration Act gave CBT 120 days rule that the lead agency would “office” (program management) struc- to develop interim performance crite- request the funding for NBS’s support- ture was revised to: ria for heating systems and the ing work. dwellings themselves. The criteria, • Create the Office of Energy needed as the basis for selecting the Snell, Achenbach and colleagues Conservation led by Jack Snell. systems to be demonstrated, were worked extensively in support of plan- Snell, an aeronautical and civil engi- drafted by November 1, 1974, ning of the Federal Energy neer, had joined NBS from a faculty reviewed in an open meeting at NBS Administration and the Energy position at Princeton University in on November 20, 1974, and provided Research and Development 1971, and served successively as to HUD for use in the demonstration Administration to assist these new chief of the Building Service program by the scheduled date of agencies address their responsibilities Systems Section and deputy chief of January 1, 1975. Work was planned for energy conservation in buildings the Building Environment Division. and initiated to produce Intermediate and industry. The first major output Snell’s personal energy, enthusiasm, Minimum Property Standards for Solar was achieved for the program for ener- broad technical competence and Heating and Domestic Hot Water gy conservation in industry: the Energy rapport with both policy and techni- Systems, as a supplement to HUD’s Conservation Program Guide for cal people qualified him well for this Minimum Property Standards, to allow Industry and Commerce [8]. assignment (and many more to federally insured mortgages for come in this history of building and dwellings with solar systems. The CBT Advisory Committee initially fire research). was chartered by the Secretary of • Continue the Office of Building In response to the strong national con- Commerce for a two-year period Standards and Codes Services under cern for energy conservation, NBS and (January 1973 to January 1975) to the leadership of James Gross. Gene the Department of Commerce worked help identify current and emerging Rowland had been called to the par- to obtain a legislative mandate and issues in building design, construction ent Institute for Applied Technology directly appropriated funding for ener- and materials for study by the Center. to lead its Standards Application and gy conservation research. Betsy Its members represented materials Analysis Division. Thomas Faison Ancker-Johnson, Assistant Secretary of manufacture, design, construction, became acting chief of the Office of Commerce for Science and finance and consumer interests, and Housing Technology. Faison, who Technology, Richard Roberts, director the Committee was chaired by Karl joined NBS as an undergraduate stu- of NBS, and Karl Willenbrock, direc- Willenbrock.

26 director Roberts cited Making the Most that provided the basis for national of Your Energy Dollars in Home Heating standards for energy conservation in and Cooling as the Bureau’s most sig- buildings. Jack Snell received the Silver nificant publication of 1975. However, Metal for his leadership of NBS’s ener- the publication created some friction gy conservation program. James with CBT’s sponsors in HUD who Clifton and Robert Mathey received a had commissioned a document of Silver Metal for their study of coatings similar purpose but lesser scope. to prevent corrosion of reinforcing Jack Snell, founder of the Office of Energy Neither agency had informed the bars in concretes exposed to deicing Conservation, possessed energy, enthusiasm, other of its intent until the two docu- salts that led to creation of the epoxy broad technical competence, and rapport with technical and policy leaders that led to success in ments were published. coated reinforcing bar industry. this assignment and to future leadership of CFR and BFRL. Noel Raufaste took on responsibilities Richard Roberts resigned as director of for preparing outreach publications for NBS at the end of FY 1975. Ernest the Center - publications that would Ambler, veteran NBS physicist who This guidance was clear endorsement inform the building community and had been Robert’s deputy, became act- for comprehensive, performance-ori- others interested in the Center’s work ing director and remained “acting” ented planning for the Center’s pro- what it was doing and producing. A until confirmed under President gram. general overview [10], project sum- Carter in 1977. Ambler was dedicated maries [11] and publications listing to hard physical science, a firm and The Building Economics section, the [12] were produced to begin series decisive director for internal affairs, Building Environment Division and that would continue through the 90s. and uncomfortable with personal NBS Public Affairs collaborated to external representation of the Bureau’s investigate the energy savings potentials CBT received strong recognition in interests. and life cycle costs of improvements in Department of Commerce Medal housing, and express the results in a Awards. Paul Reece Achenbach form usable to homeowners (9). NBS received the Gold metal for the study 3.3 1976 P.L. 94-168, The Metric Conversion Act of 1975, became law on December The principal recommendations in its June 17, 1975 report 23, 1975. CBT focused substantial were: efforts on learning from experiences in • That CBT work toward a systematic understanding of the working of the the metrication of the British Nation's building regulatory system; Commonwealth to provide technical • That CBT explore the socio-economic impacts of research output; bases for metrication in U.S. building • That CBT continue to endorse national consensus energy standards based on practices, standards and codes. Hans performance of the building as a whole; Milton, who had led in Australia’s • That CBT identify generally significant environmental factors related to build- metrication of building, came to work ings and their uses, and relate intensities of environmental factors to associated at CBT to show the U.S. how to bene- human responses; fit from the Commonwealth’s experi- • That CBT prepare a state-of-the-art report dealing with applications and ence. The extensive results contributed requirements for further development and research for guidance on future to ASTM standards and the work of construction community activities in support of the performance concept. the U.S. Metric Council. CBT also

27 investigated methods to respond to the Another benefit was the associations that each person had been trained in one-time opportunities for dimension- developed between the Institute’s and school, including graduate school, to al coordination (effective and efficient Center’s management and 40 leaders work alone and be rewarded only for families of product sizes) that would in architectural practice and education, one’s own ideas. Such orientation is arise from “hard” metric conversion and in industry. detrimental to finding and exploiting (to sizes such as 100, 200 and 500 the best ideas of the team. millimeters rather than 101.6, 203.2 The Institute launched a second effort and 508.0 millimeters which corre- in the summer of 1976 to identify the The organizational development was spond to 4, 8, and 20 inches, respec- knowledge-based problems of those facilitated by Paul Buchanan, an ingra- tively). Formal catalog optimization responsible for building design, and to tiating management psychologist who approaches looked very interesting, suggest areas in which the Institute had taught James Wright at the Federal but were not pursued when it became should focus its present and future Executive Institute. Offsite meetings evident that there was not broad efforts in order to improve building were held on September 3-5, 1975, enthusiasm in U.S. industry or society [14]. Francis Ventre, an architectural October 14-16, 1975, and December for metric conversion. The recommen- engineer whose thesis studied the 11-13, 1975. The first two involved dations of the Advisory Committee, effects of the building regulatory sys- the Management Council (headquar- re-chartered for 1975 to 1977, were tem on innovations, and who was on ters executives and division and office decisive in not pursuing work in detail from the Center to the Institute, chiefs) to define our problems and a dimensional coordination. staffed the study for the Institute. The process to resolve them. The latter study was conducted by Ehrenkrantz involved the Management Group The Advisory Committee’s efforts and Associates with involvement by (Management Council plus section from 1975 to 1977 focused principally William Allen, Professor John chiefs from divisions and program on the programs of the Center for Fire Habraken of MIT, and Richard Wright, managers from offices). Research. Porter Driscoll, Robert Wehrli and Robert Hastings of CBT. The study’s At the first offsite, the Management The Center and Institute were much main recommendation was for “the Council agreed to merge the offices of concerned to develop an effective conscious design of a system of inquiry Housing Technology and Federal architectural research effort. For guid- that will better enable CBT to serve Building Technology into a single ance, the Center co-sponsored the the needs of building designers and Office of Housing and Building Architectural Research Roundtable in other members of the building team.” Technology with Harry Thompson as September 1975, with the American acting director. Samuel Kramer contin- Institute of Architects, the Association At the request of the Institute for ued as acting deputy director of the of Collegiate Schools of Architecture Applied Technology’s director, Karl center. and the AIA Research Corporation Willenbrock, following several years of [13]. The Roundtable addressed: initiative by the Institute’s deputy The Management Council identified • The opportunities, problems and director, James Wright, CBT manage- 42 “itches” to be dealt with in the benefits of architectural research; ment undertook a substantial effort in organizational development. • The strategies and methods of archi- organizational development. CBT man- tectural research; agers studied Grid Organizational The general effect of the organizational • The resources needed to perform Development for each to gain under- development was to generate conscious architectural research; standing of team dynamics and the attention to teamwork in the • The delivery and application of influence of one’s own behavior on the Management Council and in the con- architectural research. quality of a team’s work. It seemed duct of multi-unit projects. CBT also

28 developed a Policy, Procedures and His enthusiasm for technical excel- showed the value of prompt reporting Operating Guide to cover predictable lence and for beneficial influence on of structural performance and identifi- needs for collaboration. building practices, while generally dif- cation of important opportunities for ficult to satisfy, had been inspiring to research and improvement of prac- As part of this process, CBT made CBT. tices. more concise its mission statement: “To advance the Nation’s building James Hill received the Department of Richard Wright in 1971 began collabo- technology and facilitate its implemen- Commerce Silver Medal for his rations with the National Science tation for the public benefit.” research to provide consistent test Foundation, the Department of methods for solar collectors. Stephen Housing and Urban Development and In August 1976, IAT decided to move Petersen received the Silver Medal for the White House to develop a multi- energy program management to the his guidance to homeowners on cost agency program on building practices Institute. Jack Snell transferred to the effective investments in energy confor disaster mitigation. Charles Thiel Institute to lead the Institute-wide serving measures in Making the Most of NSF had the initiative and financial program, the CBT Office of Energy of Your Energy Dollars. resources to be “first among equals” in Conservation was abolished, and the the collaborations. program managers concerned with NBS felt staffing and budget pressures energy conservation and solar energy as part of the Ford administration’s Charles Culver in 1972 joined CBT in buildings transferred to the Office efforts to deal with inflation. CBT suc- from a faculty position at Carnegie of Housing and Building Technology. cessfully defended its directly appro- Mellon University to become disaster priated funding for fiscal year 1977 in research coordinator and the manager In February 1976, Reece Achenbach August 1975, received a staff ceiling for the joint NSF/NBS project to work announced his plans to retire in about cut of 11 positions in October 1975, with leaders in research and practice three years and his desire that the and was assigned a $500,000 cut in its to synthesize nationally applicable seis- Center proceed to replace him as directly appropriated funding for fiscal mic design and construction provisions Chief of the Building Environment year 1978 in September 1976. from available knowledge. Culver’s Division. A search committee was energy, efficiency and experience in appointed to identify the best available 3.4 1977 laboratory and analytical research successor recognizing that his leader- helped advance this work. In 1977, ship of the division and profession Earthquake hazard reduction had long Congress developed the Earthquake would be difficult to match. been seen as an important area for Hazards Reduction Act, and in August CBT research. Edward Pfrang organ- 1977 Culver represented NBS on the In September 1976, Karl Willenbrock ized the U.S./Japan Panel on Wind and team developing the Act’s implementa- announced that he would become Seismic Effects in 1968. In 1971, he tion plan in the White House Office of Dean of Engineering at Southern led a significant investigation of the Science and Technology Policy. Methodist University on October 1. San Fernando Earthquake, which Led by Jack Snell, NBS had been working with the Energy Research and The main concerns seemed to be: Development Agency (ERDA) in the • Lack of trust, respect, commitment and responsiveness planning and conduct of energy con- • Poor communications, from overload to lack of feedback servation research. Snell, Achenbach, • Unclear priorities, policies, and strategies and Frank Powell prepared a National

29 Program Plan for Energy Conservation The organizational development pro- Harry Thompson resumed the posi- that was used by ERDA and its succes- gram of the Institute for Applied tion of deputy director of CBT and sor, the Department of Energy, as a Technology reached the stage of team- Samuel Kramer the position of chief of resource in program planning. work among its units to solve an the Office of Housing and Building Development of major programs in the important mutual problem. Given that Technology. National Laboratories required NBS to limitations on numbers of personnel clarify its role as it became just one of were inhibiting the hiring of engineers In September 1977, NBS director the laboratories in an area in which it and scientists to conduct available Ernest Ambler assigned John Lyons, had been predominant. The role work, the team decided to reduce cler- director of the Center for Fire selected by NBS and recognized by ical staffing where it was deemed Research to head the team planning headquarters of ERDA (though never excessive. CBT was identified to the National Engineering Laboratory by the National Laboratories) was per- exceed Institute norms for clerical that would replace the Institute for formance criteria, and evaluation, test staffing and required to make reduc- Applied Technology. Lyons decided and measurement methods. CBT had tions. This was accomplished by organ- that NEL would not use matrix man- proposed a systematic approach, using izing a word processing center to make formal optimization techniques, to more efficient the production of agement so CBT was reorganized to developing the Congressionally man- reports and other voluminous docu- four divisions: Structures and Materials dated energy budget performance ments. The process was painful, cleri- led by Edward Pfrang, Building standards for buildings. It was dis- cal staff were valued members of their Thermal and Service Systems led by missed as too complex and the assign- units, but the resulting word process- Preston McNall, Environmental Design ment given to HUD using the AIA ing center was seen as a model for Research with Thomas Faison acting Research Corporation in April 1977. NBS. director, and Building Economics and Their eventual results were not imple- Regulatory Technology led by James mented since opponents could show Preston McNall was recruited from his Gross. Program management responsi- the lack of sound basis for the recom- position as Director of Engineering for bilities were divided appropriately mendations. The basis for the Nation’s Johnson Controls to replace Reece among division chiefs; the tension energy conservation performance stan- Achenbach as Chief of the Building between offices and divisions was dards remained the component per- Environment Division. McNall’s lead- ended. formance approach developed by CBT ership in ASHRAE and expertise in in 1973 and standardized by the mechanical systems and human com- Department of Commerce Silver American Society of Heating, fort qualified him well to match Medals were received by: Charles Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Achenbach’s stature. Porter Driscoll Culver for management of the devel- Engineers. was reassigned to manage a new Design and Construction Technology opment of tentative provisions for the The initial direct influence of the Applications Program to exploit his development of seismic regulations for Carter administration on NBS was the passion for making knowledge available new buildings, Rosalie Ruegg for requirement to do Zero Base in useful form to designers. Robert development of life cycle cost analysis Budgeting - prioritize all activities and Kapsch, a scholarly and productive civil methods for solar energy systems, and eliminate or justify those lowest in pri- engineer, became acting chief of the James Pielert and James Gross for ana- ority. The process consumed much Technical Evaluation and Application lyzing the performance of mobile time and energy and CBT defended Division. At the request of IAT, which homes and recommending improve- successfully its activities. had not processed the re-assignments, ments in mobile home standards.

30 3.5 1978 its Steering Committee. CBT provided NBS director, Earnest Ambler, initiat- the technical secretariat, which led by ed the NBS Competence Building Public Law 95-124, The Earthquake E.V. Leyendecker of the Structures and Program to provide multi-year Hazards Reduction Act of 1977 was Materials Division, began work on the research support to small teams of approved on October 7, 1977, to assignment to develop seismic design investigators to develop world leader- authorize the National Earthquake and construction standards for consid- ship in technical areas that would be Hazards Reduction Program eration and subsequent application in vital to the future of NBS. Individual (NEHRP). NBS was listed as one of Federal construction by 1980. investigators initiated proposals, the the participating agencies. In April center and laboratory expressed their 1978, the White House requested A cooperative research program was priorities, and the Director made his NBS to budget for its role in the pro- developed with the Public Buildings selections. CBT was interested in many gram. In the Implementation Plan Service of the General Services competence areas, including behavioral issued by the President on June 22, Administration to address its principal science. Its priority proposal in geot- 1978, NBS was assigned to assist in needs for improved building practices. echnical engineering test methods was continuing the development, testing David Dibner, Assistant Commissioner not successful. and improvement of model seismic design and construction provisions for Construction Management, was the champion for PBS and Noel Raufaste CBT conducted a thorough long range suitable for incorporation in local planning process including: codes, standards, and practices, and was the coordinator of research for CBT. • Assessing societal problems and research on performance criteria and trends requiring building research; supporting measurement technology A number of management changes • Assessing technical problems and for earthquake resistant construction. trends to identify the technologies However, NBS did not give priority to resulted from the formation of the National Engineering Laboratory. The needed and the role, considering seeking funding for NEHRP in its fis- other organizations, appropriate for name of the Technical Evaluation and cal year 1980 budget request. CBT, CBT; Application Division (an epitome of with NBS approval, reprogrammed • Defining goals and objectives for bureaucratic meaninglessness fortu- funds from building regulatory tech- CBT’s work over five years. nology to provide research and techni- nately matched by several divisions at the U.S. Army’s Construction cal support for the National The goals selected were: Earthquake Hazard Reduction Engineering Research Laboratory) was 1. Energy Conservation in Buildings; Program. changed to Environmental Design 2. Safety in Construction and Use of Research Division and Francis Ventre Buildings; The Interagency Committee on was selected as its chief. However, 3. More Useful and Economical Seismic Safety in Construction there is reason in bureaucracy. The Buildings. (ICSSC) was established in 1978 to clear name made it a target for those assist the Federal departments and who felt NBS should be limited to The Plan expressed the mission of agencies involved in construction to physical science and hard engineering CBT as: develop and incorporate earthquake research. Robert Kapsch went on to a to increase the usefulness, safety and hazard reduction measures in their Congressional Fellowship. Samuel economy of buildings through the ongoing programs. Richard Wright Kramer became deputy director for advancement of building technology served as Department of Commerce programs of the National Engineering and its application to the improvement representative to ICSSC and served on Laboratory. of building practices.

31 Needs to obtain the majority of fund- of several years of reductions and grams in building technology, fire ing from external sponsors and to con- reprogramming in the CBT program, research, consumer product technolo- duct the work jointly with other organ- NBS management decided to assess gy and manufacturing engineering. He izations complicated the planning and the program to aid in consideration of did not want NEL to be pursuing pro- implementation, but the Plan was valu- further budget actions such as termi- grams with which NBS was uncom- able in focusing CBT’s work. nation, continuation or augmentation. fortable. A panel of eminent scientists reviewed the relevant NEL programs Zero-based budgeting defenses contin- In April 1979, 50 letters were mailed and program plans and recommended ued to consume much management to building community leaders by that NEL develop and maintain com- time. NBS offered to the White NBS Director Ambler, and three let- petence in behavioral research. These House cuts in CBT work in acoustics, ters were sent by Assistant Secretary recommendations were reviewed with materials, and standards and codes. of Commerce for Science and the NBS Executive Board and Assistant Technology Jordan Baruch to his Secretary Jordan Baruch. Their deci- George Kelly received the Department counterparts in the Departments of sion was that NEL and NBS would not of Commerce Silver Medal for his Housing and Urban Development and seek to measure fitness to human use research on test methods for energy Energy and in the Occupational Safety without a new and specific mandate in and Health Administration. Forty-six labeling of heat pumps and air-condi- legislation. Behavioral research should responses were received, which in be only an incidental part of NBS pro- tioners. summary stated: grams that should not be global, soft or unbounded. 3.6 1979 1. The mission and role of CBT are The recommendations of the Advisory appropriate to NBS and for the The National Earthquake Hazards Committee on Building Technology for building community. Reduction Program, with full involve- its 1977 to 1979 term were supportive 2. The CBT program is well oriented, ment of CBT management and in con- of CBT’s engineering research, but not but materials, regulatory technology, sultation with private sector leaders, of behavioral research or strengthened metrication, and building perform- decided to assign the role of develop- funding. In light of the desire of the ance criteria issues need attention. ing and evaluating recommended seis- Administration to reduce numbers of 3. The Program’s delivery system is mic design and construction provisions advisory committees and the availabili- well-oriented toward meeting stan- for buildings to the Building Seismic ty of the National Academies, the dards, codes and industry needs; Safety Council operating under the National Institute of Building Sciences but better mechanisms are needed auspices of the National Institute of and other sources for program guid- to reach designers and builders. Building Sciences. This would assure ance from the private sector, the 4. The NBS/DoC should provide a that federal influence on the provisions Advisory Committee was not re-char- larger proportion of directly-appro- would not be, or perceived to be, tered. priated funding to provide a health- dominant. CBT’s role was to partici- ier environment for the program. pate appropriately in the Council’s Thomas Dillon, deputy director of technical committees and link the NBS, discussed informally with National Engineering Laboratory Council’s work to that of the federal Richard Wright the prospects for Director John Lyons addressed the agencies as secretariat of the NBS’s support of CBT’s long range issue of whether the Laboratory should Interagency Committee on Seismic plan. He doubted that CBT’s plan develop a world-class competence in Safety in Construction. As the research would be supported by NBS. In view behavioral research to support its pro- community met to consider the earth-

32 quake research agenda, the primarily Robert Dikkers received the Construction Productivity Program at academic group preferred that engi- Department of Commerce Silver a level of $100 million annually. neering research be funded through Medal for his work in developing per- the National Science Foundation formance criteria for solar energy sys- Planning of new work in construction rather than NBS. There was the same tems for buildings. productivity involved most of CBT preference of NSF over the U.S. management. They were assisted by Geological Survey for earth science 3.7 1980 John Eberhard who had joined CBT as research, but USGS already had its In November 1979, representatives of a part time consultant after leaving the appropriation for NEHRP. The White the National Construction Industry presidency of the AIA Research House Office of Science and Council, which was composed of 28 Corporation in late 1978 following Technology Policy requested NBS to national trade associations and profes- termination of its project for HUD on budget for increased earthquake engi- sional societies involved in all sectors Building Energy Performance neering research for fiscal year 1981, of construction, met with Standards. CBT took a fresh look at Undersecretary of Commerce Luther but again NBS did not give it priority. research topics for impact on con- Hodges to seek support in: struction productivity: The Federal Trade Commission (FTC) 1. Leveling out extreme cycles in construction that increase costs, became concerned that thick insula- 2. Establishing and maintaining a com- Partial support for construction tions were not correctly labeled for prehensive program of information research centers at universities in the insulating value and that customers for the construction community, fifty states was proposed to assist in might be inequitably treated. 3. Technology for enhancing construc- research and education, and demon- Standard test methods traceable to tion productivity, stration programs were emphasized for NBS were available only for thickness- 4. Revision of government policies, technology transfer. es up to 25 mm; much greater thick- such as regulatory delays, that nesses were in use for energy conser- inhibit productivity, The basis in and growth beyond CBT’s vation. FTC, the insulation industry 5. Adoption of a national energy policy base program can be seen by compar- and NBS agreed that NBS would sensitive to construction’s needs, ing topics from its October 1979 long and accelerate development of a device for range plan: direct measurement of insulating value 6. Encouraging construction and engineering exports. of thick insulations and make calibra- Energy Use in Buildings tion specimens available to industry as Philip Klutznick, formerly a Chicago • Energy conservation in buildings an improved basis for insulation label- developer, had become Secretary of • Building thermal envelope systems ing. The resulting technical work is Commerce in 1979. He sought to be a and insulating materials described in Chapter 10. builder in Commerce, too, and during • Building solar systems technology 1980 in preparation for the fiscal year The Senior Executive Service was 1982 budget, encouraged NBS to pro- Safety in Construction and Use of implemented in 1979 with the pose challenging programs. CBT began Buildings Center’s director, deputy director and by proposing a construction productiv- • Structures and foundations per- division chiefs becoming members, ity initiative at a level of $3.5 million. formance and developing performance agree- The response of Secretary Klutznick • Earthquake hazards reduction ments as basis of pay for performance. was to request definition of a • Building safety

33 Building Productivity and Performance tions for fiscal year 1981 as part of a performance of buildings. Bruce • Building rehabilitation technology transition of NEL and CBT to focus on Ellingwood received the Silver Medal • Building and community acoustics engineering measurements. Award of the Department of • Building service systems perform- Commerce for leading research to for- ance Harry Thompson retired as deputy mulate consistent, reliability-based • Lighting technology director in February. Charles Culver load factors for structural systems • Building economics rejoined CBT from assignments to the using the principal structural materials White House and NEL to become (masonry, concrete, wood and steel). The drive for a Construction deputy director. The Building Thermal Steven Petersen, of the Building Productivity Program ended in the and Service Systems division was divid- Economics Group, was selected for the election of November, 1980, but the ed to form the Building Thermal Presidential Executive Exchange. He work with industry leaders on produc- Performance Division, headed by worked with the Carrier Corporation tivity needs and the research ideas Preston McNall, and the Building to develop techniques for evaluating developed had substantial effects on Equipment Division, headed by James the life cycle costs and benefits of the evolution of CBT’s program. Hill. Hill, a calm, cheerful, efficient innovative, energy-conserving appli- Moreover, it had been transiently and insightful mechanical engineer had ances. refreshing to plan for growth rather led CBT’s solar systems performance than defend against cuts. However, research since the early 1970s. References NEL assigned CBT cuts of 20 posi- 1. Neil Gallagher, editor, Building Research at the National Bureau of Standards, 1968- The Merit Pay system 1974, BSS 75, National Bureau of including performance Standards, 1979. Construction Management Technologies plans and pay for per- 2. Neil Gallagher, editor, Building Research at • Construction project information systems formance was imple- the National Bureau of Standards, 1968- • Evaluation system for computer-aided design and con- mented for NBS super- 1974, BSS 75, National Bureau of struction technologies visors. Much work was Standards, p 23, 1976. • Measurement systems for management for productivity 3. James L. Heldenbrand, “Design and required to develop • Equivalency system for regulatory approvals Evaluation Criteria for Energy appropriate perform- Conservation in New Buildings,” A Construction Site Technologies ance plans, and the sys- Century of Excellence in Measurements, • Construction loading criteria tem functioned well. Standards and Technology, SP 958, • Shoring and scaffolding systems National Institute of Standards and • Materials handling systems William Cullen received Technology, pp 260-265, 2001. 4. James R. Wright, “Performance Criteria • Excavation and soil stabilization the Gold Medal Award in Building,” Scientific American, pp 16- • Concreting operations of the Department of • Quality assurance 25, March 1971. Commerce for his 5. John P. Eberhard, project director, The Performance of Facilities research on perform- Performance Concept: A Study of Its • Roofing evaluation system ance standards for built Application to Housing, NBS Report 9849, • Wall evaluation system up roofing systems. National Bureau of Standards, 1968. • Controls evaluation system Tamami Kusuda received 6. Guide Criteria for the Evaluation of Operation • Lighting evaluation system BREAKTHROUGH Housing Systems, NBS the Gold Medal Award Report 10-200, National Bureau of • Sanitation evaluation system for developing and veri- Standards, 1970. • Accessibility evaluation system fying computer models 7. David B. Hattis and T. E. Ware, The PBS • Facilities productivity evaluation for the dynamic thermal Performance Specification for Office Buildings,

34 James Hill, founding Chief of the Building Equipment Division.

NBS Report 10 527, National Bureau of Information Series 8, National Bureau of Technology Publications 1965-1975, Standards, 1971. Standards, 1975. SP 457, National Bureau of Standards, 8. R. R. Gatts, R.G. Massey, and J.C. 10. Michael Olmert, The Center for Building 1976. Robertson, Energy Conservation Program Technology: A Perspective, SP 439 National 13. The Architectural Research Roundtable, AIA Guide for Industry and Commerce, Bureau of Standards, 1976. Research Corporation, 1976 Handbook 115, National Bureau of 11. Michael Olmert, Building Technology 14. Beyond the Performance Concept, Ezra D. Standards, 1974. Project Summaries, SP 446, National Ehrenkrantz and Associates, P.C., 9. Madeline Jacobs and Stephen Petersen, Bureau of Standards, 1976. NBS GCR 77-107, National Bureau of Making the Most of Your Energy Dollars in 12. Joanne R. Debelius, Steven G. Weber, Standards, 1977. Home Heating and Cooling, Consumer and Kenneth N. DeCorte, Building

4. CENTER FOR FIRE RESEARCH 4IN THE 80s

4.1 OVERVIEW the NBS budget for 1983. In 1983 the Administration again decided to elimi- The decade saw the Center for Fire nate CFR. After widespread private Research survive repeated attempts at sector support accompanied by strong its elimination by the Administration. Congressional support, funding was Subsequent budget reductions resulted approved for fiscal year 1984. in staff reductions and a refocusing of However, Administration efforts to the technical program over the period. eliminate or severely reduce CFR continued for six more years. The 1974 legislation establishing the Accompanying these budget reduction Center for Fire Research and the proposals were proposals to combine National Fire Prevention and Control CFR with the Center for Building Administration (FPCA) in the Technology. 1990 was the last year for Department of Commerce called for separate centers for fire research and directly appropriated funding. In 1978 building technology. Congress author- FPCA became the United States Fire ized their merger in June 1990, and Administration (USFA), which was the successor Building and Fire transferred to the newly formed Research Laboratory began to operate Federal Emergency Management at the start of fiscal year 1991. Administration. At the start of FY 1981 almost 72 per cent of the $5.7 In 1981 CFR had a staff of 100 direct- million appropriation for the Center ed by Fredrick Clarke. In the summer for Fire Research came through USFA of 1981 Fred Clarke and Irwin and the rest came from NBS. Benjamin, chief of the Fire Safety Reimbursable funding totaled $3.1 Engineering Division resigned to form million. In 1982 CFR faced a major a consulting company, Benjamin financial problem caused by FEMA’s Clarke Associates. Clark and Benjamin proposal to eliminate financial support were replaced by Jack Snell and for CFR for the year 1982 and Andrew Fowell respectively. CFR was beyond. After much discussion among then reorganized, with Clayton the agencies, the White House and Huggett continuing as deputy director. with Congress the funding was Robert Levine headed the Office of restored for 1982 and transferred to Fire Research Resources, Richard

37 of solid fuel heaters and chimneys; the National Engineering Laboratory safety guidelines for Navy fire fighter became the new director. Richard trainers; guidelines for combustion of Gann became chief of the new Fire oil spills at sea and the suppression of Research Division. Gann’s insightful oil and gas well fires; and a computer- and incisive research and management ized data base of research documents of programs and people contributed relating to fire. The decade also saw greatly to CFR and BFRL. Andrew the commercialization of the Cone Fowell became Chief of the Fire Safety Clayton Huggett, Deputy Director, CFR Calorimeter, a device developed in the Technology Division. He joined CFR Center for measuring the heat release after serving as chief of the Product of materials. Heat release is a key input Performance Engineering Division in Gann became chief of the Fire to fire growth models. the Center for Consumer Product Measurement and Research Division Technology. He worked very effectively and Andrew Fowell became chief of New legislation included the Cigarette externally to the Center to obtain sup- the Fire Safety Technology Division. By Safety Act of 1984, and the Fire Safe port for research and implementation 1984 the staff had increased to 108 Cigarette Act of 1990. The Center car- of its results. Robert Levine became people, with an additional 22 research ried out a number of fire investigations chief of the Office of Fire Research associates from industry. However, the including the MGM Grand Hotel in Resources, which directed the Fire Grants program. The total staff num- repeated budget reductions reduced Las Vegas, and the DuPont Plaza Hotel bered 100 and funding totaled $8.8 the federal staff to 90 in 1985. Staff in Puerto Rico. remained at about this level for the million. Appropriated funding came rest of the 1980s. from NBS ($1.6 million), and the U.S. 4.2 1981 Fire Administration ($4.1 million). Early in the decade the technical pro- 1981 witnessed a change in manage- Reimbursable funds amounted to $3.1 gram was re directed to address smoke ment and reorganization of the Center million. hazards, fire modeling and fire model for Fire Research. At the beginning of validation, fire growth and extinction, the year Fredrick Clarke was director The scientific and technical work of fire toxicology, and exploratory fire and Clayton Huggett, deputy director. the Center continued to move toward research. The Center continued its fire Huggett was revered as a skillful scien- the prediction of fire growth through research grants program supporting tist and manager. The management fire modeling, the development of research at a number of the country’s team was composed of Richard Gann, accurate test methods for fire data col- top universities and research organiza- head, Exploratory Fire Research, lection and the development of practi- tions. Robert Levin, chief, Fire Research cal tools for use by fire safety engi- Resources Division, Irwin Benjamin, neers. The Department of Commerce Technical products produced by the chief Fire Safety Engineering Division, Silver Medal was awarded to Howard Center included: HAZARD I, a com- and James Winger, chief Fire Baum and Ronald Rehm for outstand- puter program based on zone fire Performance Evaluation Division. At ing progress in developing the large modeling; a smoke control design the end of 1981 Clarke and Benjamin eddy simulation model for fire-driven manual; a fire safety evaluation system resigned to form their own consulting flows. They and their colleagues also to support the National Fire company, Benjamin Clarke Associates. published a number of papers on the Protection Association’s Life Safety Jack Snell, who had been director of development of the method. William Code; a guide for the safe installation the Office of Energy Conservation in Parker published Calculations of the

38 Heat Release Rate by Oxygen and international standardization of Consumption for Various Applications, fire test methods for materials, build- NBSIR 81-2427, which became the ing products and construction assem- basis for the development and world- blies. wide use of the cone calorimeter for measurement of materials’ potential 4.3 1982 contributions to fires. The Fire Safety The new long-range plan for CFR Evaluation System, a cost-effective expressed its goal more succinctly: Richard Gann, Chief, Fire Research Division. approach to achieving fire safety in To provide the scientific and technical basis health care facilities and other occu- for reducing fire losses and the costs of fire pancies, was adopted by the National protection by 50 percent. Fire Protection Association into the Life Safety Code. The system was The technical program strategy was: developed by Harold Nelson. CFR and 1. To promote the continued advance the American Iron and Steel Institute of fire science. constructed a large scale steel building 2. To promote the development and frame, representative of the mid height widespread use of scientifically of a twenty story office building, and based fire protection engineering measured its response to a severe fire. practices. The results were made available for the 3. To provide technical support for testing of computer simulations for timely resolution of major fire-safe- structural fire endurance that would ty issues/problems. become the basis for more rational design of fire resistant steel structures. CFR’s new management faced a major financial problem. The Federal In cooperation with the U.S. Fire Emergency Management Agency (top) Andrew Fowell, Chief of the Fire Safety Administration and the National Fire (FEMA) proposed to eliminate finan- Technology Division. (bottom) Alexander Robertson recipient of Protection Association, CFR investigat- cial support for CFR for fiscal year ASTM's Award of Merit and Rank of Fellow ed the fire at the MGM Grand Hotel 1982 and beyond. in Las Vegas, NV. Deaths remote from the actual fire illustrated the haz- This directly appropriated funding was ard of combustion products and the called for by the 1974 legislation documentation of the fire provided establishing CFR and the National Fire basis for evaluating models for move- Prevention and Control Administration ment of smoke and combustion prod- in the Department of Commerce. ucts in large buildings. When FEMA was founded in 1978, the latter became the U.S. Fire Alexander Robertson received the Administration in FEMA. The funding Award of Merit from ASTM and the was crucial to the CFR program as 72 rank of Fellow in ASTM in recognition percent of its directly appropriated of 25 years of leadership in the devel- funding, and 47 percent of its total opment and advancement of national funding in 1981. After much discus-

39 sion among the agencies, the White 1984, Congress heard from the com- Association, the Mineral Insulation House and with Congress, the funding munities affected by the CFR pro- Manufacturers Association, the was restored for 1982 and transferred grams. Senate hearings were first on National Fire Products Association, the to the NBS budget for 1983 and February 23, 1983. The Senate National Fire Protection Association, beyond. However, relief was short lived received testimony supporting the the National Institute of Building as the Administration decided in the restoration of funding for CFR from Sciences, the Society of the Plastics summer of 1982 to eliminate funding the National Academies’ Evaluation Industry, Sheet Metal and Air-condi- for CFR in fiscal year 1984 and Panels for the National Bureau of tioning Contractors of North beyond. Standards, the Statutory Visiting American, the Society of Fire Committee of the National Bureau of Protection Engineers, the U.S. Technical work continued productively. Standards, the former chairman of the Chamber of Commerce, Underwriters John Klote completed work on the National Fire Prevention and Control Laboratories, the Westmoreland Building Smoke Control Systems Commission, the American Society of County Firemen’s Association, United Design Manual as a joint project Civil Engineers, Factory Mutual McGill and the Wood Heating between CFR and ASHRAE. Research, the Mineral Insulation Alliance. Collaborations with the Office of Manufacturers Association, the Applied Economics in the Center for National Fire Protection Association, The Senate Report [1] recommended: Applied Mathematics led to the incor- the National Institute of Building The administration has proposed the elimi- poration of a cost optimization model Sciences, the Society of Fire Protection nation of CFR. Both the testimony received in the Fire Safety Evaluation System. Engineers, the U.S. Chamber of at the hearing and other communications to The Cone Calorimeter was construct- Commerce, and the Wood Heating the Committee confirm the judgment of the ed. Barbara Levin and colleagues com- Alliance. As a precedent for all follow- Committee that such a step is ill-advised pleted and published the NBS Toxicity ing hearings on the subject, no private and unwarranted. Test Method report based on work sector organizations supported the from 1976-1982. Administration’s proposal. The fire research program is the only Federal research effort aimed at reducing annual fire Harold Nelson received the House hearings were held on March losses, particularly from residential fires. Department of Commerce Silver 22 and 23, 1983. Testimony support- The U.S. continues to be among the leading Medal for the development of the Fire ing continuation of CFR was received nations in incidence of building fires and Safety Evaluation System and James from Allied Tube and Conduit fire-related deaths. Fires in residences Quintiere received the Silver Medal for Corporation, the American Institute of account for 46 percent of the dollar losses leadership in the mathematical model- Architects, the American Iron and and 77 percent of the fire-related deaths. ing of fire growth and spread in build- Steel Institute, the American Society of Results of the research performed at CFR are ings. Daniel Gross received the Ingberg Civil Engineers, the American Society used by designers, builders, standards com- Award of ASTM for his contributions of Heating Refrigerating and Air-con- mittees and state and local codes officials to to fire standards. ditioning Engineers, the Asphalt prevent fires develop efficient fire-control Roofing Manufacturers Association, practices. Through its grants program, CFR 4.4 1983 the Brick Institute of America, the provides the link between university research Carpet and Rug Institute, the Council and the needs of fire technology. This role is The Administration recommended that of American Building Officials, the consistent with the Administration’s policy to CFR be eliminated. In its hearings for General Electric Corporation, the support education and training in the con- reauthorization of NBS for fiscal year Man-Made Fiber Producers text of Federally funded research.

40 The private sector, either in contract research Prevention and Control, which stated that ments. Harold Nelson and colleagues laboratories or in individual corporations, there was no existing organization conduct- issued the Fire Safety Evaluation has neither the incentive nor the resources to ing basic fire research. System for Board and Care Facilities. conduct a comprehensive broad-based fire Thomas Ohlemiller completed a major research program such as exists at NBS. The program’s strategy is to develop the review article on smoldering combus- Private efforts, such as those conducted by technical basis for fire hazard assessment in tion. Bernard McCaffrey received the the Factory Mutual Research Corporation, order to provide the fire community with new Department of Commerce Bronze are mission-oriented and relatively narrow in and improved practices for reducing fire haz- Medal for pioneering research on the scope. Factory Mutual, for example, address- ards. In addition, as an integral part of the processes underlying large fire plume es fire protection and loss reduction in program, $2 million is provided annually to behavior. industrial buildings. Factory Mutual has about 30 universities and organizations for stated that its small effort in fundamental fundamental fire research. These grants cur- 4.5 1984 fire research would probably cease should rently represent the only funding source for The Administration again proposed to CFR be terminated and, in any case, could research through which our Nation’s new eliminate CFR, this time for fiscal year not be expanded. fire scientists are trained. 1985 and beyond. Substantial efforts by the fire community and CFR man- The Committee is not convinced that the The Committee believes that the private sec- private sector would assume the role of car- tor has neither the incentive nor the agement again resulted in restoration rying out primary research in the fire sci- resources to conduct a comprehensive broad- of the budget by Congress. ences. Moreover, the Committee believes that based fire research program such as that a credible, neutral source of information existing at NBS. Furthermore, the In August 1984, CFR and the National such as that found in CFR is essential to Committee believes that research on subjects Fire Protection Association sponsored protect the public interest as well, since the protecting the health and welfare of the the first National Fire Research work performed at CFR affects public health Nations’ citizens is a Federal responsibility Strategy Conference to develop a coor- and safety. and that the Bureau is a source of credible, dinated private and public sector impartial information in an essential area. national strategy for fire research. CFR The House report [2] recommended: The Committee has, therefore, restored fund- was advised to “assume the crucial role The Committee strongly supports the contin- ing for the Center for Fire Research in the of spear-heading and coordinating uation of the Center for Fire Research, pro- sum of $6.4 million for fiscal year 1984. basic engineering and applied fire posed for elimination in the Administration’s research through: independent fiscal year 1984 budget request. This pro- Funding was appropriated for fiscal research within the Center; by provi- gram provides the scientific and technical year 1984 in response to the private sion of grants, fellowships and techni- basis for the reduction of the Nation’s fire sector and Congressional support. cal support to independent researchers losses and the cost of fire protection. However, Administration efforts to and universities and similar institu- eliminate or severely reduce CFR con- tions; and by serving as an objective The National Bureau of Standards has been tinued for six more years. forum for reviewing and coordinating involved in fire research since its inception in the national fire research effort.” 1901, as authorized by the Organic Act. Good technical work continued in The Center for Fire Research was established spite of the budget turmoil. Howard Recognizing that funding would be by the Federal Fire Prevention and Control Baum and Ronald Rehm began tran- constrained for the duration of the Act of 1974 as a direct result of a 1973 sient 3-D computer simulations of Administration, management moved to Report of the National Commission on Fire flows generated by fires in compart- tighten technical objectives, tasks and

41 major staff assignments to fit available Room Fire Modeling led by tribution of furniture and furnish- resources and focus on a central tech- Leonard Cooper with the aim of ings for use in modeling fires and to nical objective: developing a room fire computer provide guidance for less hazardous The central technical objective of the code for use in research and as a composition. Center is to develop means to predict benchmark for fire protection engi- fire safety and to suggest and evaluate neering methods and user-friendly Exploratory Fire Research led by ways to reduce risk and hazards of fire. computer codes. Walter Shaub included the development of fundamental scientific Research priorities included: Fire Growth and Extinction knowledge of the phenomenology, 1.Quantitative tools to estimate the Research, led by James Quintiere, which underlies incomplete combus- hazards of fire such as heat and with the aim of developing funda- tion and materials degradation. smoke toxicity. mental understanding of the elemen- 2.A consistent set of practical models tal processes of fire growth and The first order toxic hazard model was of relevant fire phenomena and their extinction and develop models and completed and published by Bukowski complex interactions. algorithms to characterize their con- in the NFPA Fire Journal. The ISO 3.Data and measurement methods to tribution to fire growth and smoke working group on rate of heat release support fire models. movement. selected CFR-developed cone 4.“Benchmark” fire and smoke models calorimeter for international standardi- to check or qualify simpler engineer- Fire Measurement and Research zation as the technique for heat release ing models. Division also took on four thrusts, rate measurement. William Twilley 5.Practical fire protection engineering namely: received the Department of methodologies and user-friendly Fire Performance and Validation Commerce Bronze Medal for design, application tools. led by Sanford Davis. The goal was construction operation and mainte- to generate the generic methodology nance of flammability apparatuses The Fire Safety Technology Division for testing and assessing the accuracy including the cone calorimeter. took on the following four thrusts: and limitations of fire models and Fire Safety Performance led by measurement methods. The plan 4.6 1985 Harold Nelson involved the develop- was to conduct unique, highly The Administration again proposed to ment of practical engineering meth- instrumented experiments to estab- eliminate CFR, this time for fiscal year ods for fire safety design, perform- lish fire behavior on a realistic scale 1986 and beyond. Substantial efforts ance evaluation and analysis of fire for aiding the understanding of fire by the fire community and CFR man- risk. phenomena. agement again resulted in restoration of the budget by Congress. Smoke Hazards led by Richard Fire Toxicology led by Barbara Bukowski involved the development Levin who was asked to identify and The goal of the Cigarette Fire Safety of research models and associated measure potentially harmful com- Bill, passed by Congress in 1984, was computer codes to predict smoke bustion products and quantify their to reduce the one-third of residential transport and smoke hazard develop- effects on living organisms. fire casualties caused by cigarettes ment in buildings and the establish- dropped inadvertently on upholstered ment of a data base of material Furnishings Flammability led by furniture and bedding. The Bill’s properties, building and people Vytenis Babrauskas involved the objective was the study the feasibility characteristics suitable for use in fire development of quantitative meas- of producing commercially acceptable growth and smoke transport models. ures of the ignitability and fire con- cigarettes with significantly lower

42 (fiscal years 1988 and 1989). The cuts occurred as agreed, but the Administration subsequently reneged on the compromise and proposed large cuts, but not elimination, for the next two budget cycles.

CFR refocused its program to accommodate the cuts. Andrew Fowell moved to deputy director and James Quintiere became chief of the Group photograph of CFR staff taken in 1985. renamed Fire Science and Engineering Division. Its program areas became: propensity to ignite soft furnishing Howard Baum and Ronald Rehm 1. Predicting the burning rate of mate- substrates than the majority of current received the Department of rials. brands. CFR was charged to under- Commerce Gold Medal for their 2. Modeling wall fire growth. stand the mechanism for ignition of unique and highly sophisticated mathe- 3. Development of a first-order sup- soft furnishings by cigarettes with the matical model, which can accurately pression model. objective of finding means to reduce describe the evolution of smoke and 4. Development of a benchmark com- cigarette ignition propensity. gases in rooms or enclosures of various partment fire model. shapes. George Mulholland won the 5. Development and dissemination of a Substantial progress was made on Department of Commerce Bronze comprehensive method for fire haz- improved fire modeling. Walter Jones Medal for his research concerned with ard analysis. and colleagues released a second-gen- the physics and chemistry of smoke 6. Combustion of oil spills on the seas eration model of the transport of com- particle generation and growth, which and suppression of oil/gas well fires. bustion products (FAST V17) in both resulted in clarification of new and 7. In-flight fire and ventilation charac- mainframe and PC compatible ver- fundamentally important information teristics of aircraft cabins, smoke sions. The model includes multiple about the process of soot growth and control in buildings, and analog sim- floors, improved modeling of conduc- coagulation in fire environments. ulation for smoke movement in tion, and a simplified toxicity calcula- buildings and ships. tion. To support the use of computer 4.7 1986 models in fire safety engineering, CFR Objectives for Richard Gann’s Fire established the Fire Simulation The Administration’s budget proposal Measurement and Research Division Laboratory and began conducting for CFR for 1987 and beyond contin- were: short courses in the use of fire simula- ued to call for elimination of CFR. 1. Combustion product prediction. tion programs. However, Congress and the 2. Fire model validation. Administration arrived at a “compro- 3. Fire-safe polymers. Kermit Smyth and colleagues pub- mise” whereby in exchange for a cut of 4. Cigarette safety. lished a landmark paper on the most $0.5 million in directly appropriated detailed and complete chemical struc- funding for CFR the Administration Hazard I, the first version of the haz- ture measurements ever made in any would not seek further reductions for ard assessment methodology, was com- flame [3]. the remainder of the Administration pleted and made fully operational on

43 desktop computers by Richard three of its grants. Its report was Center’s public access computer bul- Bukowski and colleagues. FIRST, the complimentary. letin board also came on line with prototype benchmark compartment access to FIREDOC, and information fire model computer code, was pro- The Center is managed effectively and on the Center’s fire simulation produced by Leonard Cooper and col- efficiently, the Center is unique and grams, conferences, and recent leagues. The cone calorimeter, which technically competent, funding uncer- reports. was adopted by ASTM, was produced tainty is a cause for concern, private by instrument suppliers. Takashi sector interest in fire science is limit- Kermit Smyth and Houston Miller Kashiwagi and colleagues reported on ed, local government could not do the completed studies of soot nucleation the thermal degradation of polymers. Center’s work, OMB’s research paral- in methane/air diffusion flames. lels ours, the Center has limited suc- Fluorescence, multi-photon ionization, Vytenis Babrauskas received the cess in technology transfer, and the Rayleigh-Mie scattering and mass spec- Department of Commerce Bronze extramural grant program is managed troscopy were used to describe chemi- Medal for his research on the measure- effectively. cal structure and the nucleation of ment of heat release from burning soot particles. materials and his development of the The fire hazard assessment method, cone and furniture calorimeters. HAZARD I, began a beta test to be Howard Baum and Ronald Rehm Thomas Ohlemiller received the applied to real problems by volunteer developed a mathematical model of Bronze Medal for his pioneering participants throughout the fire com- combustion in a turbulent eddy based research in understanding the complex munity. CFR-developed quantitative on solutions of the Navier-Stokes physics and chemistry of smoldering modeling tools were used to recon- equations. The technique allowed combustion. struct the conditions that occurred in three-dimensional simulation of physi- the Dupont Plaza Hotel in Puerto cal and chemical processes in turbu- 4.8 1987 Rico, and the results were presented to lent, reacting flows. a Congressional hearing on hotel fire The Administration’s budget proposal safety. Takashi Kashiwagi and Thomas for CFR for fiscal year 1989 called for Ohlemiller studied the gasification of a 40 percent reduction, below the The studies of cigarette ignition PMMA and developed a new model amount for 1987 after the “compro- propensity called for by the Cigarette based on thermally driven rearrange- mise” cut of $500,000, and a merger Fire Safety Act of 1984 were complet- ment of the primary polymer radicals of CFR with the Center for Building ed and reported to Congress. It was which gave better agreement with Technology (CBT). Continued strong shown that thinner cigarettes with less experimental results than previous support from both fire and building tobacco and less porous paper signifi- models and gave consistent values for communities led to rejection of these cantly reduce the chance of igniting degradation kinetic constants. proposals and continued funding for soft furnishings. CFR and CBT, but without restoration Daniel Gross received the Rosa Award of the cuts of $500,000 each that FIREDOC, the Center’s computerized of NBS and the ASTM Award of Merit occurred in 1987 with the “compro- bibliographic database came on line for his contributions to national and mise.” with references, abstracts and key international standardization organiza- words for more than 8,000 of the tions over his career at NBS. Kermit The Office of the Inspector General 30,000 documents in the Fire Smyth received the Condon Award of inspected the Center and reviewed Research Information Service. The NBS for his paper “The Chemistry of

44 the completion in fiscal year 1988 of tion products to cover four principal the cigarette study funded by the gases and exposure times from one Consumer Product Safety minute to sixty minutes. Commission, and limited research funds in many government agencies. In James Quintiere, Robert Levine and response and to focus the program, in- Harold Nelson reconstructed events in house research on human behavior in a two story residential house fire in fire was terminated to free resources Sharon, PA on September 26, 1987, in Daniel Gross researcher and leader of for priority projects. Staff reductions which smoke and heat from a fully standardization efforts. were associated with this move. developed kitchen fire killed three res- Supervisory and research staff were idents on the second floor. The fire Molecular Growth Processes in encouraged to work with colleagues in was reconstructed in the large fire Flames” in Science. Jack Snell received other federal agencies to identify their facility. Data showed that current fire the Gold Medal of the Department of fire research needs and to follow up models underestimated hazard condi- Commerce for technical leadership in with research proposals that would tions, particularly carbon monoxide. fire safety, and Richard Peacock complement CFR’s research per- received the Bronze Medal of the formed with directly appropriated James Quintiere, John Klote and Department of Commerce for his funding. Many of these proposals were Harold Nelson assisted the Los research on the fire safety of solid fuel funded, often as multi-year projects, to Angeles Fire Department and the U.S. heating appliances and chimneys. give good prospects for future funding Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Harold Nelson was the first recipient and staff growth. Firearms in the investigation of the of the Harold E. Nelson Award of the First Interstate Bank Fire. It complete- Society of Fire Protection Engineers. The technology transfer effort headed ly gutted floors 12-15 of a 62-story by James Winger was upgraded to building. CFR modeled effects of 4.9 1988 become an Office of Technology open landscape office spaces, desktop Transfer incorporating the Fire computer equipment, flame projection The Administration’s budget proposal Research Information Service, the from windows, and smoke propagation for CFR for fiscal year 1990 again Simulation Laboratory and the in vertical shafts. called for a merger of CFR with CBT Computer Bulletin Board. and funding both for a total of $5 mil- Mark Nyden produced the first of an lion. Continued strong support from Full-scale building fire tests were felt important series of computer simula- both fire and building communities led to be increasingly important because of tions of heat driven fragmentation of a to rejection of these proposals and the need to verify new generation fire polymeric molecule. This capability led continued funding for CFR and CBT models. Expansion began in fire to better understanding of how more with both centers receiving small exhaust capability in Building 205 to fire-stable polymers can be produced increases in appropriations. gain a calorimeter capable of free burn while preserving salient commercial fires up to 1.5 MW. Planning began for properties. CFR management realized at the start a three-fold increase in the working of the fiscal year that it faced a serious area for Building 205. Richard Gann worked with the U.S. funding shortfall because of the reduc- Air Force and the New Mexico tion of base funding from the “com- Barbara Levin developed the “N” gas Engineering Research Institute to promise” funding for fiscal year 1987, model for toxicity of multiple combus- develop an eight-year, $20 million pro-

45 gram to develop replacements for of $10 million). The fire community 4. Control and extinguish fires. halogenated fire suppression agents. again supported full funding for CFR 5. Locate, protect, and remove occu- These two highly effective agents, and Congress again restored funding pants/people.

(halon 1301, CF3Br, and halon 1211, for the fiscal year 1990 budget. Also,

CF2ClBr) are strong contributors to CFR and CBT directors discussed the Eleven priority projects were estab- depletion of stratospheric ozone and programs with the new Bush lished for the current resources for fis- were being removed from production. Administration officials in the cal year 1990: Replacement agents must quench Department of Commerce and the 1. Hazard II led by Richard Peacock: flames, be non-toxic and non-corro- Office of Management and Budget plan and implement a second-gen- sive, leave no residue and not deplete with the result that the cuts no longer eration hazard methodology by ozone. This began a very significant were proposed for the fiscal year 1991 1992. CFR/BFRL program. budget. 2. Unified Model of Fire Growth and Smoke Transport led by Walter Vytensis Babrauskas and William Jack Snell, recognizing the status of Jones and Glenn Forney: modify Twilley won an R&D 100 Award for CFR (reduced in real funding and the FAST model to incorporate les- development of the Cone Calorimeter. staffing substantially in the 80s with sons learned from the consolidated It measures as a function of radiant remaining resources focused on hazard compartment fire model by 1990. exposure, the time to ignition, amount and risk modeling) and the recom- 3. Toxic Potency Measurement led by and rate of heat release, amount of mendations of the National Research Vytensis Babrauskas: provide an smoke produced, and amounts of sev- Council evaluation panel on CFR, pro- accurate bench scale methodology eral toxic gases from small samples of duced a new long-range plan for CFR. for combustion toxicity measure- materials. Thus, it provides data need- It sought major technical innovations ment by 1991. ed for rational modeling of the contri- or breakthroughs to reduce substan- 4. Furniture Flammability led by tially the losses and cost of fire. An butions of various materials to the William Parker: develop a test and NFPA study estimated these costs as calculation protocol for evaluating development of large-scale fires. Both $48 billion in 1986. Current resources the fire hazard of upholstered fur- ASTM International and the were focused on fire prediction meth- niture by 1992. International Organization for ods and technical advances to reduce 5. Wall Fire Spread led by Henri Standardization (ISO) were developing fire losses and costs by up to 10 per- Mitler: develop a method for pre- standard test methods based on the cent by 2000. An enhanced funding dicting the rate and extent of fire cone calorimeter and two U.S. manu- level was proposed to provide the spread on interior surfaces in a facturers were producing units for the technical basis for reducing fire losses room using the fire properties of market. and costs by 50 percent by 2000- the materials involved by 1992. 2005. 6. Carbon Monoxide Production and 4.10 1989 Prediction led by William Pitts: The Administration’s request to Five objectives were defined: develop a fundamental understand- Congress for the fiscal year 1990 1. Quantify and communicate fire risk ing of the mechanisms of carbon budget, the last prepared by the and hazard. monoxide formation in flames suf- Reagan Administration, again pro- 2. Engineered fire-safe products and ficient to produce an estimation posed to merge CFR and CBT and materials model in 1994. fund the combined center at a level of 3. Sense and communicate risky condi- 7. Burning Rate led by Takashi $5 million (half their combined bases tions. Kashiwagi: develop by 1992 glob-

46 al/detailed models able to predict The California Bulletin 133 room fire first edition of the Handbook of Fire non-flaming gasification rates and test for upholstered furniture was Protection. horizontal burning rates for ther- assessed and a proposal developed for moplastics after understanding the improving the repeatability of ignition 4.11 1990 polymer gasification process and conditions. LAVENT, a program to John Lyons was nominated by energy feedback mechanisms. predict actuation of fire vents, was 8. Fire Suppression led by David developed under sponsorship of the President Bush on November 22, Evans: develop methods for the American Architectural Manufacturing 1989 to become NIST director, was prediction of sprinkler system per- Association using parts of the confirmed by the Senate on February formance by 1995 using measura- Consolidated Compartment Fire 8, 1990, and sworn in on February 9. ble system parameters such as Model. A cone calorimeter was Lyons as founding director of CFR, spray drop size distribution, heat redesigned to allow burning under 1974-1978, and founding director of transfer characteristics, and instal- reduced oxygen conditions. Burning the National Engineering Laboratory, lation geometry. Douglas Fir at 14 percent oxygen which included CBT and CFR, from 9. Turbulent Combustion led by quadrupled CO yields. This suggested 1978-1990, had first hand knowledge Howard Baum: understand and that the much larger yields recorded in of CBT and CFR programs, people predict energy release and fuel under-ventilated burns depend on total and constituents. It was wonderful to consumption in turbulent systems. oxygen available. have understanding leadership at 10. Soot Formation and Evolution led NIST! However, budget deliberations by Kermit Smyth: develop a pre- Richard Gann was named chairman of did not lead to an initiative for fire dictive model for the formation of the Technical Committee of the Halon research for fiscal years 1991 or 1992. soot in flames and evolution of Alternatives Research Consortium, smoke components from flames by which included the Air Force, Navy, It was clear that fiscal year 1990 was 1992. Army, Environmental protection the last for separate centers for build- 11. Engineering Methods led by Agency (EPA), National Aeronautics ing and fire research. Congress author- Harold Nelson: develop the and Space Administration (NASA), ized their merger on July 30, 1990, FPETOOL methodology for prac- DuPont, ICI, National Science the merger was announced to staff on tical fire safety evaluation and inci- Foundation (NSF), Great Lakes August 30, and the successor Building dent reconstruction by 1990. Chemical, Ansul, the Halon Research and Fire Research Laboratory (BFRL) Institute and Factory Mutual. began to operate on October 1, 1990 HAZARD I and eight example applica- (the beginning of fiscal year 1991) tions were released. These became the Harold Nelson received the Gold basis for a course at Worcester Medal of the Department of although the formal reorganization did Polytechnic Institute and were market- Commerce for outstanding contribu- not take place until January 31, 1991. ed by NFPA. An agreement was nego- tions to advancing the science of fire tiated with the National Association of protection. John Klote received the The CFR program in 1990 continued State Fire Marshals and the Fire 1988 ASHRAE Best Paper Award for its focus on the technical bases for Marshals Association of North America “An Overview of Smoke Control advanced fire modeling and the verifi- to put a visiting marshal in the Center Technology.” William Walton cation of the models. Need continued for a year to work on applying new fire received the Director’s Award of the for improvements of the large fire test- protection engineering methods to Society of Fire Protection Engineers ing facility, but funds were not available typical problems. for his work as section editor on the for enlargements or major renovations.

47 CFR commissioned studies of the total tional linkages with users, Jack Snell and cross linking of polymers which costs of fire, fire losses plus costs of was elected to the Board of Directors led to understanding of how less flam- fire protection measures [4], and of the National Fire Protection mable chars are formed. Stimulation of impacts of CFR [5]. The former Association and appointed to its Long char formation was identified as an showed an annual cost exceeding $128 Range Planning Committee, and David important fire retardant mechanism. billion; it neglected all government fire Evans was elected to the Board of losses and fire safety expenditures. The Directors of the Society of Fire William Pitts developed a large-scale latter showed an annual impact of Protection Engineers. apparatus and developed novel tech- $5-9 billion for CFR in reduction of niques to measure the turbulent mix- fire costs and noted virtually every Jack Snell led in the organization of the ing in fire plumes. Unmixedness dom- major contribution from the 70s still Forum for International Cooperation inates the formation of smoke and was providing benefits. These studies on Fire Research, FORUM, comprised toxic combustion products. guided the focus of the fire program in of heads of fire research organizations BFRL. around the world, and became its Harold Nelson was awarded the chairman. At its 1990 meeting, NFPA’s Standards Medal for unselfishly P.L. 101-352, The Fire Safe Cigarette Act FORUM developed a common strategy contributing to the fire protection of 1990, directed that: for fire resistance testing of materials community for over 30 years. Richard “at the request of the Consumer Product and furniture that was based primarily Bukowski, Walter Jones, Richard Safety Commission, the National Institute on technology developed by CFR. Peacock, Cheryl Forney, and Emil of Standards and Technology’s Center for Braun received the Department of Fire Research, shall: (1) develop a stan- In a project jointly supported by U.S. Commerce Silver Medal for producing dard test method to determine cigarette and Canadian agencies, CFR partici- the world’s first fire hazard assessment ignition propensity, (2) compile perform- pated in a mass fire experiment out- methodology. Vytensis Babrauskas was ance data for cigarettes using the standard side of Chapleau, Ontario. The results the first recipient of the Interflam test method developed under paragraph were used to compare predicted fire- (1), and (3) conduct laboratory studies induced wind velocities with measured Award of the International Conference on computer modeling of ignition physics values - important information for on Fire Safety for his leadership in the to develop valid, “user friendly” predictive developing and validating CFR’s large development and implementation of capability.” fire models and for understanding heat release rate measurement. urban conflagrations. Richard Gann was elected chairman of A number of departures and retire- the Technical Advisory Group created Vytensis Babrauskas and colleagues ments of founding staff members in response to the Act, and led the established the first relationship accompanied the merger of CFR. research effort in CFR. between the toxicity of room fire James Quintiere resigned as Chief of smoke and that measured in the com- the Fire Science and Engineering CFR established a memorandum of bustion of small samples. Agreement Division to become Professor of agreement with the National was within a factor of 3, which is Mechanical Engineering at the Association of State Fire Marshals to acceptable for prediction of life safety University of Maryland. Retirements improve mutual understanding of the in building fires. included William Parker, Head of the technical needs of the fire services and Fire Dynamics Group, Sanford Davis, the delivery and implementation of Mark Nyden developed a prototype, ab research chemist, and Maya Paabo, resultant products of CFR. For addi- initio, model of thermal degradation research chemist.

48 References Methane/Air Diffusion Flame as Characterized by Detailed Species 1. National Bureau of Standards Authorization, Profiles,” Combustion and Flame 62:157- Senate Report No. 98-49, Senate 181, 1985. Committee on Commerce, Science and 4. W. P. Meade, A First Pass at Computing the Transportation, March 21, 1983. 2. Authorizing Appropriations to the National Cost of Fire in a Modern Society, The Bureau of Standards for Fiscal Year 1984, Herndom Group, Inc., 209 North House of Representatives Report 98-95, Columbia Street, Chapel Hill, NC House Committee on Science and 27514, March 1991. Technology, May 9, 1983. 5. P. Schaenman, Estimated Impact of the 3. Kermit C. Smyth, J. H. Miller, R. C. Center for Fire Research Program on the Costs Dorfmann, W.G. Mallard, and R. J. of Fire, Tri-Data, 1500 Wilson Boulevard, Santoro, “Soot Inception in a Arlington, VA 22209, January 1991.

5. CENTER FOR BUILDING TECHNOLOGY 5IN THE 80s

5.1 Overview agency funding and Administration requirements for reductions in NBS As Fiscal Year 1981 began on October 1, staffing. The President’s budget pro- 1980, the Center for Building posal for fiscal year 1984, which was Technology (CBT), had a staff of 199 announced in January 1983, called for work years, and was preparing, at the elimination of CBT. The rationale was request of the Secretary of Commerce, that the program was more properly a proposal for a new Construction the role of the private sector and state Productivity Program at a level of $100 and local governments. Although million annually. However, manage- Congress restored funding for fiscal ment of the National Bureau of year 1984, the President continued to Standards (NBS) was concerned about call for elimination of CBT in his the high proportion (about 40 per- budget requests for fiscal years 1985 cent) of CBT’s funding from the through 1987. Congress restored Department of Energy, and requesting funding each year until 1987, when it that the energy work be focused on agreed with the Administration on a measurement. compromise cut of $500,000 in CBT to end the attacks. The Administration As Fiscal Year 1990 ended on reneged on the compromise and pro- September 30, 1990, CBT had a staff posed for fiscal year 1988 to merge of 89 work years, and was about to CBT and the Center for Fire Research become part of the new Building and at a level of one-half of their 1986 Fire Research Laboratory (BFRL) of funding. Congress restored their fund- the National Institute of Standards and ing at the reduced 1987 levels and Technology (NIST) as NBS had been kept the centers independent. The renamed in 1987. Administration proposals for reductions and the Congressional restora- The prospects for major growth of tions continued for fiscal years 1989 building research at NBS ended with and 1990. the results of the Presidential election of 1980. Reductions of about 30 per- CBT survived Administration propos- cent in CBT staff occurred in 1981 to als for its elimination because of strong respond to both reductions in other support before Congress from the pri-

51 vate sector and state and local govern- was high and the evident reason for begun, through reprogramming, in ments. Its work on failure investiga- continued existence of the Center. computer integrated construction and tions, measurements for thermal insu- building control systems. lation, quality assurance for construc- However, staff attitudes were defen- tion materials laboratories, and many sive, and it would require a conscious Even prior to the election of other topics, was cited as evidence that effort to break away from a “bunker November 1980, NBS requested that it fulfilled important needs that could mentality” to take advantage of the five positions be cut in CBT. not otherwise be met. opportunities the 90s offered to NIST Subsequent to the election with the and its Building and Fire Research preparation of the last Carter The proposals for elimination or Laboratory. Administration budget, the assigned reduction allowed neither cost of living cut grew to 20 positions. When the Reagan Administration assigned reduc- increases nor new initiatives for CBT’s 5.2 1981 tions to NBS in February 1981, CBT’s directly appropriated funding, and The National Construction Industry share grew again to 49. Department of other agency funding was constrained Council, an umbrella organization of Energy funding was reduced by 1.3 by similar reductions in other agencies’ trade and professional associations, million dollars; major cuts would have funding. In order to remain effective, was strongly concerned with lagging been required for fiscal solvency alone. CBT responded to the financial con- or declining construction productivity, In total, CBT staff was reduced by straints by narrowing scope as it cut and met with the Undersecretary of about one-third. staff. By 1986, work had been termi- Commerce on November 27, 1979, nated in acoustics, architecture, eco- to request support in technology in CBT decided, with direction from nomics, electrical distribution systems, enhancing construction productivity. NBS and NEL, to reduce its scope so environmental psychology, foundations, In response, CBT focused substantial that the remaining programs would be geotechnical engineering, plumbing, efforts on technologies for improve- strong. The Environmental Design Research and the Building Economics and solar energy. However, other pro- ment of the productivity of construc- and Regulatory Technology divisions grams were increased to respond to tion and of constructed facilities. were abolished. The Building Materials important needs: alternatives to the Ongoing work in lifecycle costs and Division was split from the Structures refrigerants threatening the ozone benefits, rehabilitation standards, and Materials Division to give CBT layer, automatic controls of building plumbing systems performance and four divisions: Structures, Building service systems, computer integrated materials durability supported more Physics, Building Equipment and construction and indoor air quality. productive construction, and Building Materials. Applied Economics acoustics and lighting supported more was transferred, with reduced staff, to Recruiting new staff, whether entry productive buildings. New work was the Center for Applied Mathematics, level or mid-career, was difficult while proposed in computer integrated con- and groups in Architectural Research, the Center was under attack by the struction, building control systems, Building Safety, and Building Administration. Indeed, many valuable productivity measurements, equiva- Rehabilitation Technology ceased to people left either voluntarily or invol- lency systems for regulatory approval, exist. untarily. But, staff morale stayed concreting technologies, excavation, strong; people were proud of their soil stabilization and materials han- Geoffrey Frohnsdorff became chief of work and the public support for it dling. Although new funding was not the Building Materials Division and highlighted by testimony in received for many years, the produc- held this position until his retirement Congressional hearings. Productivity tivity need was strong and work was in 2001. His unrelenting focus was to

52 All was not losses. Appliance efficiency productivity to assist in decision mak- staff and Department of Energy proj- ing, macro measures of productivity to ects were transferred to CBT as the assist in understanding industry trends, Center for Consumer Products extending computer applications to all Technology was eliminated, and the phases of construction decision mak- Construction Materials Reference ing, expediting the regulatory process, Laboratory was transferred to CBT relating occupant/user productivity to from the NEL Office of Engineering building design, and improving knowl- Geoffrey Frohnsdorff, chief CBT Building Materials Standards. edge of the physical properties of Division. buildings. The private sector should It was vital to inform policy makers in take the initiative to formulate and make more predictable the perform- the new Administration of the impor- conduct research, with government ance of building materials over their tance of construction productivity and supporting and conducting some life cycle. He overcame much adversity the need for cooperation between research. in the initial lack of NBS funding for industry and government to achieve it. building materials research by working Charles E. Peck, Executive Vice The Conference gave CBT good guid- patiently and effectively with leaders in President, Owens-Corning Fiberglas ance, industry partners and bases for the scientific community, industry, Corporation, worked with Richard developing its research program, but, NBS and other federal agencies to Wright to organize a Conference on as events would show, did not lead to define and fund needed programs of Research for Building Construction Administration support. In fact, Joseph research. He recruited and developed Productivity on June 2, 1981, with young scientists and engineers to bring sponsorship of the Construction Wright became a leader of the his division to international leadership. Action Council of the Chamber of President’s Office of Management and Commerce of the United States [1]. Budget as it locked into four successive NBS director Ernest Ambler was Keynote speakers were Joseph Wright, years of proposals for the elimination uncomfortable with research in archi- Deputy Secretary of Commerce, and of CBT, and three more for its halving. tectural and behavioral sciences areas John Dunlap of Harvard University. as remote from the physical sciences Technical presentations were made on Important results were achieved in and engineering measurements that he measurement of productivity by pro- spite of the tumult of staff cuts and felt constituted the core of NBS, and fessors Robert Logcher and David reorganization. The innovative One susceptible to imprecision and ques- Kresge of MIT, reduction of construc- Meter Guarded Hotplate went into tionable results that would be harmful tion duration by Joseph Newman of to NBS’ reputation. John Lyons and Tishman Research Corporation, reduc- service to provide reference samples of both James and Richard Wright had tion of risks of failure by Richard thick insulations needed by the insula- supported these areas of work as tion industry to meet Federal Trade important for achieving CBT’s objec- Marshall of CBT, computer-integrated Commission requirements for insula- tives, but management’s direction was construction by professor Steven clear. John Eberhard, as a consultant to Fenves of Carnegie Mellon, and pro- tion labeling. CBT, was very helpful to staff seeking ductivity in the completed building by new jobs, prior to his own move in architect Ezra Ehrenkrantz. The only specific milestone in the July 1981 to become executive direc- President’s plan for the National tor of the National Academies’ Consensus was reached on six primary Earthquake Hazards Reduction Building Research Advisory Board. research topics: micro measures of Program was met when CBT synthe-

53 On July 17, 1981, The Kansas City posed to cut CBT’s directly appropri- Hyatt Regency Hotel skywalks col- ated funding by about 40 percent, but lapsed during a dinner dance killing this cut was not accepted by the 114 participants. Edward Pfrang, chief Secretary of Commerce. Indeed, in of the CBT Structures Division, imme- March, Secretary Baldrige gave diately was sent to Kansas City to Director Ambler an “A” for the begin informally the investigation Bureau’s successful investigation of the needed to understand the physical Kansas City Hyatt Regency skywalks Edward Pfrang, chief CBT Structures Division. causes of the collapse. The official collapse. However, budget pressures request to investigate came from did not end. In July, CBT was visited sized and published the Draft Seismic Senator Thomas Eagleton on July 20, for a day by two mid-level executives Standard for Federal Buildings. The 1981. The skill and celerity with which from industry, who were without Life Cycle Costing Manual for the Pfrang and his colleagues dealt with research experience but, under the Federal Energy Management Program the technical, legal, political and pub- auspices of the Grace Commission, was published to allow federal agencies licity challenges surrounding the inves- were exploring opportunities to reduce to comply with energy conservation tigation probably was the single most the federal government. In September, legislation and Executive Order 11912. important factor in the successful the Grace Commission recommended defense of CBT and the Center for elimination of CBT - its work should Arthur Rubin’s and Jaqueline Elder’s Fire Research against the subsequent be funded by industry and performed hard cover, attractive Building for People Administration efforts to eliminate in universities. The Department of was printed in 1981. It was dedicated these programs. Pfrang was outstand- Commerce’s recommendations for the to Reece Achenbach as “an engineer ing for his imagination, forcefulness, 1984 budget were to eliminate the who designed and created a research and comfort with conflict where he Center for Fire Research and to cut environment which nurtured and fos- showed extraordinary ability to think from CBT’s budget $100,000 that had tered the growth of a new discipline.” on his feet. been devoted to solar energy research. Its purpose was to acquaint the prac- Congress showed direct interest in ticing architect and student to the David Didion received the Silver Medal CBT’s work. In February, the House potential contributions of the social of the Department of Commerce for his research in development of more Science and Technology Committee sciences to the solution of building efficient test methods for the seasonal invited testimony on fire and earth- problems. It focused on the need to efficiency of heat pumps and air-con- quake research for the Federal understand man/environmental rela- ditioners. Edward Prang received the Emergency Management Agency, and tionships rather than making design Silver Medal for his leadership in in August the House invited testimony recommendations or compiling knowl- advancing performance criteria for on structural failures investigations. edge. It was poignant to issue this housing. thoughtful manifesto for man/environ- Charles Thiel, who had been a leader mental research at the time such in planning and implementing the 5.3 1982 research was being eliminated from National Earthquake Hazards NBS programs. But as the work notes, At the beginning of the fiscal year in Reduction Program (NEHRP) in his the research record did not show clear October, as part of a budget reducing work at the National Science cut solutions to man/environmental exercise imposed by the Department Foundation, on detail to the White problems. of Commerce, the NBS Director pro- House, and in the establishment of the

54 Federal Emergency Management Clinton W. Phillips, who had begun of Commerce “to determine whether Agency left the latter agency to join work as a technician with the CBT officials of CBT are managing and the private sector. Richard Wright suc- predecessor organization in the 40s using their resources economically and ceeded Thiel as chairman of the and had risen to lead work on modu- efficiently and whether the officials are Interagency Committee on Seismic lar, integrated utility systems for build- complying with the laws and regula- Safety in Construction and represented ings, was elected President of the tions concerning matters of economy NBS in the planning and management American Society of Heating, and efficiency.” In the Inspector of the NEHRP. Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning General’s report to the President of Engineers. Richard Marshall and the Senate and the Speaker of the Work on the Kansas City Hyatt Edward Pfrang received the Gold House [2] CBT received an extraordi- Regency skywalks collapse was com- Medal of the Department of nary, entirely positive evaluation: pleted. Edward Prang and his col- Commerce for their leadership of the leagues were much involved in dis- investigation of the physical causes of The Inspector General reviewed building seminating the findings and working the collapse of the skywalks of the research activities of the National Bureau with industry to improve quality in Kansas City Hyatt Regency Hotel - the of Standards’ (NBS) Center for Building construction and avoid future failures worst building accident in U.S. history. Technology (CBT) and found that CBT from inadequate design and review of Richard Wright received the Gold test and research projects were effectively design. The Occupational Safety and Medal for his leadership of the meeting user needs. Health Administration in April asked restructuring of CBT without diminu- CBT to investigate the collapse of a tion of the effectiveness of the remain- CBT is a comprehensive building research highway overpass under construction. ing staff. Geoffrey Frohnsdorff received laboratory whose staff produce technical The National Academies’ Evaluation the Silver Medal of the Department of bases for building performance criteria Panel for CBT advised development Commerce for his leadership in the and measurement technology to assess building performance. CBT fills key of guidelines for CBT’s involvement development of national standards for building research roles that would not in disaster and failure investigations blended cements to improve cement otherwise be done. Both government and to avoid excessive involvement in performance and allow recycling of fly industry have benefited from CBT because investigations. ashes and blast furnace slags. H.S. Lew received the Silver Medal for his lead- of its high quality work, technical competence and responsiveness. CBT also is David Didion and his colleagues began ership in national standardization for construction safety. highly respected for its objectivity: unlike studies of the performance of binary most laboratories, CBT is not oriented refrigerant mixtures in the refrigera- 5.4 1983 toward support of a specific industry or tion cycle. This work was motivated by product and thus cannot be accused of desire to improve the efficiency of the 1983 was the first and critical year of having any special ax to grind. refrigeration cycle, but subsequently the Administration’s efforts to obtain became the basis for finding alterna- Congressional approval for the elimi- We found that both government and tives to the refrigerants harming the nation of the Center for Building industry rely on CBT because: ozone layer. The National Academies’ Technology. • It has provided the research necessary Evaluation Panel for CBT suggested to develop new criteria and perform- that the staff return to programs more In November of 1982, CBT was ance standards to reduce product costs closely associated with CBT’s goals, selected by NBS for review by the and improve performance of building but CBT persisted. Inspector General of the Department materials.

55 • It has a leadership role as well as the was contradicted in testimony and National Institute of Building Sciences, resources to serve the various segments statements from the chairman of the the Construction Action Council of of the fragmented building community. National Research Council’s Evaluation the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, and • Its noncompetitive relationship with Panels for NBS, the chairman of the the American Institute of Architects. other Federal agencies and industry Statutory Visiting Committee for NBS, has combined with its technical compe- the Mineral Insulation Manufacturers Letters in support of CBT and CFR tence to help CBT do a commendable Association, the American Society of were provided by: the Statutory job. Civil Engineers, the U.S. Chamber of Visiting Committee for NBS, the Commerce and the National Institute American Association for the We found it particularly interesting and of Building Sciences. The report of the Advancement of Science, the National indicative that not one of the private or Committee [3] stated: Forest Products Association, the university laboratories whose staffs we The Committee believes that research per- American Society of Civil Engineers, interviewed supported the elimination of formed at CBT is vital to public health the Council of American Building CBT - even though this action doubtless and safety, and is worthy of continued Officials, the American Iron and Steel would give them substantial additional support. The Committee intends that Institute, SMACNA, Brick Institute of research contracts. NBS fund CBT at the FY 1983 level. America, the American Society of Heating Refrigerating and Air- We concluded that CBT is an unbiased On March 22 and 23, 1983, the Conditioning Engineers, the United source of building research information Subcommittee on Science, Research McGill Corporation, and the Asphalt and measurement technology which has and Technology of the Committee on Roofing Manufacturers Association. made important contributions to the Science and Technology of the U.S. The restoration of CBT also was Nation as a whole and in particular to House of Representatives held hearings requested by: the American the building industries. The building on authorization of appropriations for Association of State Highway and community has depended on CBT to pro- NBS for fiscal year 1984 (Ninety- Transportation Officials, Professor vide essential building research informa- Eighth Congress, first session). Steven Kendall of the University of tion that would not otherwise be avail- Chairman Walgren, Congressman Colorado, the Atlantic Cement able. We made no recommendations to Reid, and Subcommittee staff had vis- Company, the Illuminating Engineering CBT. ited NBS on February 14, just three Society of North America, Richard days after a major snowstorm, to see Berkely, mayor of Kansas City, MO, On February 22, 1983, the ongoing work and laboratories in CBT, Ernst Fuel and Supply Company, Subcommittee on Science, Technology CFR and the automation program. Kalamazoo Ready-Mix Concrete and Space of the Committee on John Lyons, director of the National Company, the Transit Mix Concrete Commerce, Science and Engineering Laboratory, was tasked to Company, the Material Service Transportation of the United States give the Administration’s rationale for Corporation, the National Concrete Senate held hearings on authorization elimination of CBT, but he also Masonry Association, the National of appropriations for NBS for fiscal described its accomplishments. Gypsum Company and the Conrock year 1984. NBS Director Ernest Testimony for the restoration of funds Company. Ambler dutifully testified for the for CBT and CFR was presented by: Administration “that the private sector Congressman Michael Barnes, who The Report of the Committee [4] and state and local governments should quoted many industry endorsements of stated: support fire and building technology the programs, professor Steven Fenves In the area of building research, NBS research programs.” This perspective of Carnegie Mellon University, the provides a vital role in providing the tech-

56 nical basis for codes and standards which design and automated manufacture Exchange Standard of the American are the heart of our building system in the and construction, National Standards Institute. United States. In addition, the Center • Who builds - roles in the building for Building Research provides a basis for process will change as advanced Cooperative efforts in computer inte- NBS to develop significant expertise in the computation and automation make grated construction were discussed area of building technology and thereby it some skills obsolete and require with other federal agencies and the is able to well serve the needs of the public other new skills. private sector under the auspices of when expert, third party investigations are the National Academies’ Advisory requested following a building failure such Program objectives were grouped in Board on the Built Environment for as the Kansas City Hyatt Regency walk- seven tasks: which John Eberhard was executive way collapse. These investigations, 1. Computer integrated construction director. Richard Wright presented a besides providing local governments and 2. Structural safety keynote address on computers in local officials with a very much needed 3. earthquake hazards reduction buildings, building and building service, also provide NBS with guidance 4. building physics research at the triennial congress of for research efforts. The bill provides a 5. building equipment the International Council for Research minimum of $4.5 million for this center. 6. quality of building materials and Innovation in Building and 7. cement hydration Construction (CIB) formerly the The House floor providing an increase International Council for Building in funding for CBT did not prevail in Computer integrated construction is Research, Studies and Documentation conference with the Senate, but CBT a vision for seamless, automatic, flow in Stockholm. CIB created working was restored in the 1984 budget at the of information among all participants commissions for international collabo- 1983 level of funding. In spite of the throughout the whole life cycle of a ration in integrated computer aided outstanding support from the building constructed facility (planning, design, design and in control of building serv- community, this amounted to a cut in manufacture, construction, opera- ice systems in which CBT researchers the program by the rate of inflation tion, maintenance, renewal and (4.3 percent by the Consumer Price removal). Research in computer inte- played leading roles. Index). grated construction had begun with modeling of standards as networks of CBT’s work continued to be conduct- CBT’s Long Range Plan was updated decision tables, developing computer ed in four divisions: structures, build- and retitled Building Research for the aids to assist in the formulation and ing physics, building equipment and Computer Age. Applications of expression of standards, and tech- building materials. Edward Pfrang left advanced computation to buildings’ niques for interfacing machine repre- leadership of the Structures Division systems and to the building process sentations of standards to programs to become executive director of the were anticipated to change radically: for computer aided design. In 1983, American Society of Civil Engineers; • What we build - buildings will be CBT’s Computer Integrated Charles Culver became chief of the automated to respond to dynamic Construction group began to collabo- Structures Division. Charles Culver’s human needs and environmental rate with the Center for philosophy was “results speak for conditions, Manufacturing Engineering in sup- themselves” in his work as program • How we build - processes of design port of the Architecture, Engineering manager for earthquake hazards reduc- and construction will change to and Construction industries group tion, deputy director of CBT and chief exploit potentials of computer-aided working on the Initial Graphics of the Structures Division.

57 zations and the National Conference it difficult to recruit strong staff. of States on Building Codes and Human and financial resources were Standards testified that these programs focused on the most significant issues are needed and cannot be funded by and best technical opportunities. private industry or state or local gov- Knowledge based expert systems were ernments. Congress concluded [5] identified as the emerging successor to “the research performed at CBT is paper standards as the principal vehicle vital to public health and safety, and is for delivery of CBT research to prac- Charles Culver, chief, Structures Division worthy of continued support.” tice. Training in expert systems was Funding was restored at the 1984 level organized for interested staff and pro- - another cut by the amount of infla- totype expert system projects were Preston McNall left leadership of the tion (3.7 percent). funded in the divisions. Building Physics Division because of illness; Tamami Kusuda became its CBT continued in budget problems. The Interagency Committee on chief. Kusuda had achieved an inter- NBS decided not to propose any budg- Seismic Safety in Construction (with national reputation as the leader in the et increases to the Department of NBS chair and secretariat) decided to computer modeling of the thermal Commerce for CBT for fiscal year proceed with development of a seismic performance of buildings. James Gross 1986. Before the year end, the standard for new federal buildings and became the deputy director of CBT. President’s Office of Management and to draft an executive order for its Budget informed NBS that CBT and implementation in federal and federal- James Gross represented CBT at the CFR again would be proposed for ly assisted new building construction. American Society of Civil Engineer’s elimination in the President’s budget The federal standard would be based Structures Failure Conference which request for fiscal year 1986. on the Recommended Provisions for placed strong emphasis on better Development of Seismic Regulations defining responsibilities during the Additional Congressional hearings on for New Buildings being developed by development, design and construction structural failures resulted in legisla- the Building Seismic Safety Council of projects. Richard Wright was elect- tion authorizing NBS to investigate with financial support from the ed president of CIB for the period important structural failures at its own National Earthquake Hazards 1983-86. He also led the American initiative. For unrelated reasons this Reduction Program (NEHRP), and Society of Civil Engineers’ November legislation was pocket vetoed by the could be used if the voluntary national 1982 Productivity Roundtable and President, but became law subsequently. standards and model building codes September 1983 Productivity Workshop. did not adopt the NEHRP CBT’s strategy from its strategic plan- Recommended Provisions in form and ning was to build its capability in com- 5.5 1984 substance suitable for federal use. puter-integrated construction at the Again, CBT and CFR were proposed same time as it strengthened its labora- CBT added important new laboratory for elimination in the President’s tory-based performance prediction facilities: request for the fiscal year 1985 budget. and measurement programs. However, • Tri-Directional Structural Testing The rationale was that these programs both directly appropriated funding and Facility - a unique computer con- are more properly the role of the pri- sponsored research were essentially trolled apparatus capable of applying vate sector and of state and local gov- static in current dollars and declining loads or displacements in six ernments. Again, private sector organi- in real dollars. Budget problems made degrees of freedom (three transla-

58 tions and three rotations) to large And, NBS had learned that it was safe ther advanced by innovative individuals scale structural components to sim- to offer CBT and CFR for cuts, and and corporate interests. ulate conditions in earthquakes or that the exercise did not require other extreme environments. imperiling other programs. The American Society of Heating, • Universal Testing Machine - added a Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning reaction wall to the 53 MN testing It was tedious to again supply informa- Engineers wrote to the House of machine to allow combinations of tion for testimony to private sector Representatives on March 5, 1985: vertical and lateral loading to large collaborators when Congress seemed The two centers under discussion have specimens. resolute in its support for building and produced research which finds its way • Calibrated Hot Box - for precise fire research, but existence is a serious promptly into the private sector for the measurement of air, heat and mois- business and had to be top in priority. benefit of the general public, business, ture transfer in full scale building Testimony from collaborators was industry and all levels of government. --- wall sections, with doors and win- strong. ASTM stated to the House of More than one-third of the ASHRAE dows, over a wide range of climate Representatives on February 28, 1985: standards are based in whole or in part conditions. The work of the Center for Building on information developed at the Bureau, Technology and the Center for Fire further evidence of government agency-pri- Emil Simiu was named Federal Research are essential to the development vate sector cooperation. Engineer of the Year 1984 by the of consensus standards for many, many National Society of Professional ASTM committees, and this work becomes The American Society of Civil Engineers for his leadership in wind an integral part of probably one of the Engineers wrote to the House of research, contributions to the most important regulatory processes in Representatives on March 6, 1985: improvement of standards for wind America - Building Codes and Life Safety CBT is the only research program that loadings, and co-authorship of the Codes. integrates complex technical issues affect- nation’s leading reference book on ing the vast building industry. Despite the wind engineering. He also received At the same hearing, the National fact that it amounts to about 10 percent the Department of Commerce Silver Institute of Building Sciences testified: of the GNP, and that almost two-thirds of • The Centers for Building Technology and Medal in recognition of these accom- the nation’s wealth is invested in con- Fire Research are essential parts of an structed facilities, the building industry is plishments. overall framework intended to improve the very fragmented. CBT provides a uniform quality of the built environment. --- the base of information, and serves as a uni- 5.6 1985 nation’s construction industry has come fying force for the entire industry. Again, CBT and CFR were proposed to rely on these centers for thorough and Because of the industry’s size and diversi- for elimination in the President’s objective data, and for services available ty, no part of the private sector can dupli- budget request for fiscal year 1986. nowhere else. --- the programs at CBT cate these efforts or adequately distribute Again, the rationale was that these pro- and CFR should be continued and are the findings on its own. This interdiscipli- grams are more properly the role of best supported and fostered by non-pro- nary laboratory also integrates complex the private sector and of state and local prietary interests. --- Our belief is that technical issues in a way that more nar- governments. It seemed that the these centers help stimulate new techno- rowly-focused proprietary research and Administration wanted to show sus- logical developments and speed their use development cannot. tained commitment to reducing the in design and construction practice, as a size of the federal government and result of open public disclosure, where The National Conference of States on required NBS to offer its sacrifice. new information and ideas may be fur- Building Codes and Standards testified

59 at the Senate hearing on March 8, Academies’ National Research Council, 4. Robotics in construction. 1985: requested CBT to initiate a design 5. Information interfaces for integrat- 1. The National Bureau of Standards’ study for a National Earthquake ed computer-aided design, con- Center for Building Technology and Engineering Experimental Facility with struction and operation. Center for Fire Research continue to exploration of research needs for the 6. Technologies for standards and provide the nation’s states and local facility. The goal was to develop a expert systems. governments with invaluable building world class, national user facility to and technological research which the provide the data and understanding The National Academies’ Panel for state and local governments depend necessary for rapid improvements in Building Technology [7] agreed that upon to help them adopt and enforce the design and construction of earth- the strategic direction was sound but modern building and fire codes which quake resistant structures. The study was skeptical about the Center’s ability provide for their public’s health and life was funded by the Federal Emergency to address artificial intelligence and safety in new and existing buildings. Management Agency and the National computer-aided construction processes 2. That the states individually or working Science Foundation. with available resources and did not together cannot and will not be able to want resources diverted from ongoing build, staff, and fund or contract for CBT worked with the Center for programs. The Center persisted in such research should the Centers for Manufacturing Engineering to explore research on measurement and model- Building Technology and Fire Research with owners, designers, contractors ing bases for information technologies cease to operate. and manufacturers the potential and in construction, but had to limit its 3. That even if the states were able to research needs for robotics in con- work in expert systems to exploring build, staff, and fund or contract for struction [6]. Automated construction applications of technologies developed such research, that each state would site metrology was seen as a higher elsewhere. duplicate the research programs of the priority than robotic equipment. The other states in the area of building and value of the metrology would be high Under the direction of Secretary of fire safety, resulting in a large and inex- for locating equipment and materials Commerce Herbert Hoover in the cusable was of taxpayers’ funds. and documenting what actually was 1920s, NBS had undertaken the secre- built, even if there were no automatic tariats of important national voluntary Congress restored funding for CBT equipment to control. standards to assist in their develop- and CFR for fiscal year 1986 and pro- ment and maintenance. One of these vided specific authorization for future The CBT plan for 1986-1990 became American National Standards investigations of structural failures: addressed opportunities and challenges Institute Standard A.58.1 Minimum The National Bureau of Standards, on its for international competitiveness that Design Loads for Buildings and Other own initiative, but only after consultation information technologies bring to the Structures. However, NBS management with local authorities, may initiate and building community. Areas of work now desired to focus its work on conduct investigations to determine the included: measurement technology, rather than causes of structural failures in structures 1. Advanced measurements for build- standards administration. After 60 which are used or occupied by the general ing diagnostics and quality assur- years at NBS, the secretariat of A.58.1 public. ance. was transferred to the American 2. Performance modeling and predic- Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) in The President’s Office of Science and tion technologies. 1984. Bruce Ellingwood, who had Technology Policy, acting upon a rec- 3. Automation of building operating served as the standard’s secretary, and ommendation from the National systems had received the ASCE’s highest award,

60 the Norman Medal, in 1983 for two Civil Engineers, National Conference CBT’s and CFR’s funds for fiscal year papers that he co-authored on proba- of States on Building Codes and 1987 each would be reduced by bility-based limit states design for the Standards, National Institute of $500,000, and there would be no fur- standard, left CBT in 1986 to become Building Sciences, Portland Cement ther cuts proposed for the remaining professor of civil engineering at The Association, National Society of budgets (1988 and 1989) to be pro- Johns Hopkins University. Professional Engineers, and USG posed by the Reagan Administration. Corporation. Additional support for The cuts occurred. However, the Another effect of advancing informa- CBT was received by Congress from Administration subsequently reneged tion technologies was the elimination American Society of Plumbing on the agreement and proceeded to of the Center’s word processing center Engineers Research Foundation, propose additional reductions for fiscal in order to optimize deployment of American Concrete Institute, Ayres years 1988 and 1989. clerical staff. It had been established to Consulting, Carnegie Mellon achieve the same objective in 1977. University, Dow Chemical, ETL The consequences of the cuts included Increasing availability of personal com- Testing Laboratories, Honeywell termination of research in acoustics puters made it possible for manuscript Corporation, Institute of Noise and plumbing and substantial reduc- preparation to be handled principally Control Engineering, Lighting tions of research in lighting. by the researchers and clerical staff in Research and Education Fund the groups. The Structures Division Committee, Mineral Insulation The reductions in directly appropriat- eliminated its Geotechnical Group. Manufacturers Association, National ed funding for 1987 were exacerbated With staff and funding attrition, it was Ready Mixed Concrete Association, by projected reductions in funding infeasible to maintain this competence. National Roofing Contractors from the Department of Energy of 1 Association, New Jersey Institute of million to 1.5 million as energy con- On a higher note, David Didion’s Technology, Ross Meriwether and servation funding would be reduced research on mixed refrigerants showed Associates, and Ryland Group. Also, about 40 percent and solar energy achievement of a 15 percent increase the Congressional Research Service of funding terminated. Therefore, a the Library of Congress prepared a reduction in force of sixteen positions in heat pump capacity at low tempera- report for the House Committee on was decided upon at the end of fiscal tures which promised substantial ener- Science and Technology [8] which year 1986. However, the National gy savings by reducing needs for elec- concluded “Many of CBT’s current Appliance Energy Conservation Act of trical resistance backup heating. functions appears to be consistent with 1986 called for NBS to develop test the Administration’s stated views on procedures for determining the annual 5.7 1986 the proper role of the Federal govern- operating costs and energy consump- Again the Administration proposed ment with respect to both the private tion of eleven specified appliances. The elimination of CBT and CFR in its sector and State and local govern- Act assured continuity of funding from budget request for fiscal year 1987, ment.” the Department of Energy for this and again the building and fire com- work. munities strongly supported the con- The outcome of the budget process, tinuation of the centers. Congress however, was different - a compro- The Continuing Appropriations legisla- received testimony or letters support- mise. To end this cycle of proposed tion for fiscal year 1987 called for ing CBT and CFR from ASTM, eliminations and restorations, the NBS to conduct an independent inves- American Institute of Steel Congress and the President’s Office of tigation of the structural integrity of Construction, American Society of Management and Budget agreed that the new U.S. embassy office building

61 in Moscow. The report, including an such as regulators, of the technical assisted or regulated buildings, and was assessment of the existing structure bases for sound public policy deci- ready for issuance when the Loma and recommendations and cost esti- sions. Prieta earthquake in 1989 demonstrat- mates for correcting any structural • Learning from and applying to U.S. ed its need to policy makers. flaws and construction defects, was practices the accomplishments of required to be transmitted to Congress foreign research and development. James Clifton and Lawrence Kaetzal by April 15, 1987. Funding was pro- The CBT program responded to all produced CBT’s first major expert sys- vided by the Department of State. these issues. tem DURCON (durable concrete) in cooperation with the American At the request of Congressman CBT conducted the first full-scale lab- Concrete Institute Committee on Sherwood Boehlert, NBS, ENR (the oratory test of a bridge column sub- Durability of Concrete. principal weekly journal of the indus- jected to simulated seismic loading. tries of construction), and SUNY-Utica The specimen, fabricated in accord CBT, in cooperation with the Building College of Technology sponsored a with California State specifications, Research Board of the National Roundtable on Construction was 13.7 m tall and weighed more Research Council and the Technology for the 90s. It was the than 200 t. It resisted more than ten International Union of Bricklayers and cover story in the August 4, 1986, cycles of inelastic deformation exceed- United Craftsmen, hosted the CIB ENR. Twenty-five participants, repre- ing six times the yield deformation, 1986 Triennial Congress. Over 500 senting owners, designers, contractors, and showed how seismic resistant con- researchers and practitioners shared regulators, labor, manufacturers, edu- struction could be made more eco- research findings and addressed issues cators and researchers, identified criti- nomical. Project leader William Stone of advancing building technology: for cal technical issues for the industries of and division chief Charles Culver made the computer age, for shelter for the construction: extraordinary efforts to conduct the homeless in developing countries, and • Information interface technologies test on a schedule convenient to a for translating research into practice. supporting the automatic exchange Congressional audience and the test Richard Wright was president of CIB, of information between all partici- received front page coverage in the Noel Raufaste led the organizing com- pants in a construction project and Post. mittee, and James Clifton chaired the conducive to open systems of com- program committee. Richard Wright puting hardware and software for The Interagency Committee on also was elected president of the the participants. Seismic Safety in Construction Liaison Committee of International • Automated communications and (ICSSC), chaired by Richard Wright, Civil Engineering Organizations for control systems for constructed facil- developed the proposed executive 1985-87. Any joy in these recogni- ities (such as “smart houses” and order on seismic safety of federal and tions of CBT’s international leadership “intelligent buildings”) that are reli- federally assisted construction, which was squelched by the simultaneous able, break down gracefully, and are was then approved by the Interagency reductions in loyal and productive staff open for partial upgrading and to Coordinating Committee of the required by CBT’s budget cuts. innovations by small manufacturers. National Earthquake Hazard • Low-risk test beds for innovations Reduction Program and transmitted to E.V. Leyendecker received the Silver such as trials of novel materials and the President’s Office of Management Medal of the Department of systems in the construction pro- and Budget. There it went through Commerce for his technical support of grams of federal agencies. many cycles of review and was reduced the consensus development of • Informing public policy makers, in scope to new federal and federally Recommended Provisions for Seismic

62 Regulations for New Buildings by the building solar program for the DOE ies demonstrated a 32 percent Building Seismic Safety Commission. gave its own work priority over CBT’s. improved efficiency for a heat pump operating at steady state conditions in 5.8 1987 When DOE was established in the 70s, the cooling mode compared to a heat NBS decided against undertaking pro- pump under the same conditions using In its continuing attacks on appropri- gram management for DOE because it R-22 as the working fluid. David ated funding for CBT and CFR, the would be a substantial diversion of Didion received the Gold Medal of the Administration proposed for the fiscal effort from research. Was NBS Department of Commerce and the year 1988 budget to merge the centers wrong? Probably not. While CBT’s Applied Research Award of NBS for and fund the combined center at a research funding from DOE suffered these accomplishments. Moreover, level of $5 million. This would have from preferential funding of their own work began on finding efficient substi- been a fifty percent cut in directly laboratories by program managers at tutes for the refrigerants harmful to appropriated funding. Community national laboratories, program man- the ozone layer. In Indoor Air Quality, support for the centers remained agement would have been a severe dis- CBT developed and verified a model to strong and their funding was author- traction from the NBS mission and an predict indoor contaminant levels as ized and appropriated by Congress at NBS role in program management functions of emission, dilution and the “compromise” level with allowance would have been difficult to maintain intra-building air movement (the first to receive adjustments to base (their in competition with DOE national lab- model not to consider a building as pro rata share of appropriations oratories. one, large, uniform space). intended to cover inflation). Moreover, the Department of Commerce refused Because of the reductions in research Under the leadership of Nicholas to consider a proposal to increase for the Department of Energy, the Carino, CBT completed its study of CBT’s funding for construction Building Physics Division and the the structural integrity of the new U.S. automation for fiscal year 1989 as Building Equipment Division were embassy office building in Moscow, by inconsistent with Administration policy. combined to form the Building the Congressionally imposed deadline Environment Division under the lead- of April 15, 1987, and for about half As a result of reductions in its funding ership of James Hill. Hill superbly of the funding allowed by Congress. for solar energy research, the managed the necessary reductions in The investigation identified important Department of Energy (DOE) elimi- force to retain the most productive nated support of solar energy in build- and promising research staff - for structural defects and defined remedial ings research in CBT. CBT had a which he received the Presidential (of measures to correct them. While strong record of success in solar energy the U.S.) Meritorious Executive Rank important, these structural defects research including test methods for Award in 1988. Tamami Kusuda were modest in scale and fully cor- solar thermal equipment, minimum retired as chief of the Building Physics rectable. There were no perceptible property standards allowing federally Division to complete his career as the disagreements with these recommen- insured mortgages on solar-equipped world’s pioneer in computer methods dations; in the 90s the building was homes, and organization of and contri- for analysis of building thermal per- repaired (with the upper stories, where butions to ASTM and ASHRAE stan- formance. information security concerns were dards programs for solar energy com- greatest, removed and replaced) and ponents and systems. However, the CBT’s work on refrigerant mixtures put into service. Carino received the national laboratory managing the proceeded very well. Laboratory stud- Silver Medal of the Department of

63 Commerce for his leadership of this valuable professional experience for staff though the initiative was led by David investigation. and a distraction from CBT’s research Didion and based on his pioneer work mission. in CBT. Chemical Engineering studied For the Occupational Safety and the thermo-physical properties of Health Administration (OSHA) and Mary McKnight, Jonathan Martin, alternative refrigerants and Building under the leadership of Charles Culver, Edward Embree and Dale Bentz won Technology studied their performance CBT investigated the physical causes of an IR-100 Award for their surface pro- in the refrigeration cycle. the collapse of the L’Ambience Plaza filometer which uses infrared emis- apartment building in Bridgeport, sions to measure surface topography. This was the first initiative increase in Connecticut on April 23, 1987, which Robert Mathey and James Clifton won appropriated funds (beyond adjust- killed 28 construction workers. In the Lindau Award of the American ments to base for inflation) received contrast to earlier CBT structural fail- Concrete Institute for their research by CBT since the fiscal year 1974 ini- ure investigations, there was substantial on epoxy coated reinforcing bars to tiative of $400,000 for energy conser- professional controversy about the improve the service lives of concrete vation. However, a doubling of both CBT findings, but they stood up well slabs exposed to deicing salts. This directly appropriated and other over several years of discussions in work was the basis for the develop- agency funding would have been professional conferences and papers. ment of the epoxy coated reinforcing required to return CBT to its level of OSHA was pleased with the results and industry. effort in fiscal year 1980. CBT since subsequently hired Culver to lead its 1974 annually had developed initia- new Office of Construction Safety. 5.9 1988 tive proposals to respond to needs of In its request to Congress for the fiscal the building community. Among the This was the last of CBT’s investigations year 1989 budget for CBT and CFR, topics were technologies (measure- of construction failures for OSHA. the Administration proposed again to ments and test methods) for: earth- Under Culver’s leadership, OSHA con- merge the centers and fund the com- quake hazard reduction, building ducted its own investigations. These bined center at a level of $5 million. rehabilitation, construction produc- investigations were high risk for NBS. Again, the centers received strong sup- tivity, quality assurance and condition Reports were due for release six months port from the building and fire com- assessment, and computer integrated after the accident to be a basis for munities, and their funding was construction. These did not attract OSHA’s legal actions. Could a sound restored. The budget environment for support of NBS management, in spite determination of the physical cause CBT remained such that no request of industry demands and the impor- always be so quickly accomplished? for increased funding for fiscal year tance of the industries of construction CBT succeeded for the Skyline Plaza 1990 was submitted by NBS to the in the Nation’s economy, CBT’s Tower and Parking Garage in 1973, the Department of Commerce. national and international technical Willow Island Cooling Tower in 1978, leadership, Administration initiatives the Harbour Cay Condominium in However, a budget initiative increase of and potential for Congressional sup- 1981, the Riley Road Interchange $250,000 for fiscal year 1989 was port, seemingly because NBS manage- Ramp in 1982 and the L’Ambience appropriated for research on replacement preferred to try for growth in Plaza Apartment in 1987, and probably ments for the refrigerants that threaten other areas and disciplines. would have continued if requested and the ozone layer. This increase was given proper authority and funding for accomplished by budgeting the pro- The National Science Foundation thorough investigations. The investiga- gram in the for Chemical Engineering, established in February 1988, the tions were important public service, a which received an equal increase, even Center for Advanced Cement-Based

64 Materials at Northwestern University. scope to consider construction con- technical leadership and competi- NBS, University of Illinois at Urbana- tractors and builders as manufacturers tiveness of the U.S. industries of Champaign, University of Michigan even though the National Association construction. and Purdue University were the other of Home Builders, and other construc- 3. Earthquake Hazard Reduction. member institutions. NBS’s participation organizations, expressed interests The first comprised almost 90 per- tion in the planning and conduct of in participating in MEP. cent of the current level of effort. the Center was led by Geoffrey The latter two were developed sep- Frohnsdorff and James Clifton. The Through its participation in and lead- arately because of high demand for Center’s thrust to make concrete a ership of CIB (Richard Wright was its program growth in these areas. well characterized material of pre- past president and Programme dictable performance was based sub- Committee chairman) CBT became David Didion and Mark McLinden stantially on the accomplishments of aware of the importance of the Single published Quest for Alternatives: A NBS’s Cement Hydration Competence European Act calling for the free flow Molecular Approach Demonstrates Tradeoffs Project. The Center’s long- term, fun- of goods and services within the and Alternatives are Inevitable in Seeking damentally-oriented research allowed European Community (EC) by 1992. Refrigerants in the December 1987 NBS and collaborators to make great At CIB’s May 1988 Research ASHRAE Journal, which described the contributions over the following 11 Managers’ Meeting, European mem- systematic, CBT-developed approach years. bers organized the European Network to obtaining energy-efficient alterna- of Building Research Institutes tives to environmentally-harmful NBS became the National Institute of (ENBRI) to participate in programs refrigerants. The paper received Standards and Technology (NIST) on for standards, regulation, certification ASHRAE’s best paper award and the August 23, 1988, when the Omnibus and testing which will make products 1988 NIST Condon Award for exposi- Trade and Competitiveness Act of and services acceptable in all the EC tory excellence. 1988 became effective. The Act pro- countries. These activities were antici- vided for continuity of NBS functions, pated to have substantial effects on The Initial Graphics Exchange such as building and fire research, and U.S. industries of construction since Specification (IGES) Version 4.0 stan- added the Advanced Technology the European standards could be bar- dard was published with a new capa- Program (ATP) to cost share high risk riers to the export of U.S. products bility for exchanging tabular and rela- research with industry, and the and services, and since European firms tional data in addition to graphical Manufacturing Extension Partnership working successfully in the larger data. The capability was developed and (MEP) to assist small and medium European market would be better pre- championed by the IGES sized manufacturing companies. CBT pared to compete in the U.S. market. Architectural, Engineering, and staff were proud of being part of NBS Construction Committee chaired by and many were uncomfortable with In its update for 1989-1993 of its Kent Reed of CBT. the change in name, but both the ATP Long Range Plan, CBT organized its and MEP were seen as opportunities program by three focuses: Emil Simiu was awarded by the NBS to collaborate effectively with the 1. Quality Assurance and Condition Director a competence project on industries of construction. In later Assessment technologies to chaotic structural dynamics to be con- years, many companies developed ATP improve U.S. competitiveness. ducted jointly by CBT and the Center projects with which CBT collaborated. 2. Computer-Integrated Construction for Computing and Applied However, the MEP did not extend its technologies for the long range Mathematics. Avoidance of chaotic

65 response is important for deep-water 1990 budget. Also, CBT and CFR Council, NSF and NBS in 1978, revise compliant structures, flexible space directors discussed the programs with provisions appropriately, and conduct structures and robot arms, and other the new Bush Administration officials trial designs to test their usability, cost non-linear systems. Simiu also was in the Department of Commerce and impact and technical validity. As a result appointed an NBS fellow based on his the Office of Management and Budget of these studies, BSSC published the national and international leadership in with the result that the cuts no longer National Earthquake Hazards Reduction wind engineering and structural were proposed for the fiscal year 1991 Program Recommended Provisions for the Development of Seismic Regulations for New dynamics. budget. Buildings (Recommended Provisions) in 1985, and with further studies published Richard Wright was named Federal The 1989 Panel for Building an updated version in 1988. When he Engineer of the Year 1988 by the Technology of the Board on Assessment became a member of the BSSC Board National Society of Professional of NIST Programs, in December 1988, in 1989, Richard Wright noted that Engineers (NSPE). NSPE cited CBT suggested that CBT prepare a report on there were no ongoing efforts to incor- accomplishments in structural failure the international competitiveness of the porate the Recommended Provisions in investigations, improvements of the U.S. construction industry. The report the national standards and model codes refrigeration cycle and leadership in [9] was published in May 1989, and even though these organizations were international building research organi- used to focus the CBT program and represented on the Board and were involved in the development of the zations. Wright also received the guide collaborations with other organi- Recommended Provisions. The BSSC President’s Meritorious Executive zations. It was presented to: the Sixth and the Federal Emergency Award for leadership of CBT. James Hill International Symposium on Management Agency (FEMA), which also received the President’s Automation and Robotics in had sponsored the BSSC work, agreed Meritorious Executive Award for Construction (sponsored by the that such efforts were appropriate. NBS, achieving outstanding accomplishments Construction Industry Institute), the with FEMA’s approval, reprogrammed in the Building Environment Division at Building Research Board of the funding it had received from FEMA for the same time that it was being substan- National Academies, and the Hearing other technical studies to prepare pro- tially cut in staff. It seems remarkable on R&D in Construction of the House posed changes to the American Society that the President, who sought to elimi- Subcommittee on Science, Research of Civil Engineers’ standard for design nate CBT, also would recognize its man- and Technology. It recommended that loads on buildings and to the Basic Building Code. These proposals were agers for outstanding performance. the U.S. industries of construction work for open systems of technology available when severe losses in the October 17, 1989, Loma Prieta for construction products and services 5.10 1989 California earthquake produced to facilitate innovations. CBT’s role enhanced national concern for seismic The Administration’s request to would be to provide measurement and Congress for the fiscal year 1990 safety and led to timely revisions in the test methods for assurance of quality ASCE standard and in the Basic Building budget, the last prepared by the and acceptance of innovations. Code used in the eastern U.S. and the Reagan Administration, proposed again Standard Building Code used in the to merge CBT and CFR and fund the The Building Seismic Safety Council southeastern U.S. The Uniform Building combined center at a level of $5 mil- (BSSC), since it was organized in 1979, Code used in the western U.S., although lion. The proposal also called for ter- had worked to review the Tentative it used a working stress approach differ- mination of the $250,000 funding for Provisions for the Development of ent from that of the Recommended alternative refrigerants. Congress again Seismic Regulations for Buildings pub- Provisions, also benefited from the BSSC restored the funding for the fiscal year lished by the Applied Technology studies in its revisions.

66 Reorganization of NIST was anticipat- advocacy role in international stan- ed from the time of its creation in dards activities, (2) establishing a 1988, but the NIST Visiting coherent system for acceptance of Committee recommended that reor- innovative building products, and (3) ganization await the appointment of a improvement of the acceptance and new NIST director (Ernest Ambler quality assurance of products for which had become acting Under Secretary there are applicable international stan- for Technology in December 1988 and dards. To advance these objectives, retired from government service in Gross led a task force of the ANSI Hai Sang Lew, chief, Structures Division and leader April 1989.) CBT and CFR manage- Construction Standards Board to plan of numerous post earthquake investigations. ment anticipated that their merger its future functions and activities, led would occur and held joint meetings in development of a five year plan for ASCE’s Codes and Standards program, George Walton completed AIRNET, a fiscal year 1989 to gain mutual famil- computer simulation model for airflows iarity with their programs. participated in a delegation of the Department of Commerce to discuss between rooms and through the enve- testing, certification and conformity lope of a building. It was cited at an In the decade since its founding, the international air infiltration workshop as assessment with the EC Commission, CBT Building Controls program had “the world’s best and fastest ventilation and served on the CIB Board and developed dynamic control system model with a well-defined open struc- Programme Committee. simulation techniques and measure- ture suitable for widespread use.” ment and test methods for sensors and RILEM (the International Union of for control algorithms to support H.S. Lew participated in the U.S. team Testing and Research Laboratories for studying structural performance of open, intelligent, integrated and opti- Materials and Structures) adopted as a buildings in the December 1988 mized building mechanical systems technical recommendation for interna- Armenian earthquake. The earthquake that give customers the reliability and tional standardization the Standard was particularly interesting for U.S. economy resulting from independence Practice for Developing Accelerated practice because of the exposure of from a single manufacturer. In 1989 to Tests to Aid Prediction of the Service modern pre-cast concrete buildings to advance this work, Steven Bushby Life of Building Components and strong shaking. Findings were report- became secretary for ASHRAE Materials. The document was based on ed to Congress and regional conferences on seismic safety and published Standard Project Committee 135 on CBT research and Larry Masters of Energy Monitoring Control System by the Earthquake Engineering CBT led the ASTM and RILEM com- Research Institute. Dr. Lew, who had Message Protocol and chairman of its mittees that developed the ASTM stan- twenty-years experience at NIST as Application Sources Working Group dard and the RILEM technical recom- structural research engineer and group which led in time to national and mendation. leader, became Chief of the Structures international open systems standards Division in December 1988 when for building automation. Nicholas Carino and Mary Sansalone Charles Culver transferred to OSHA to developed the impact echo method for lead its Office of Construction. Under the leadership of CBT deputy flaw detection in reinforced concrete director James Gross, CBT began work structures which was independently Emil Simiu received the Gold Medal of with U.S. standards organizations and assessed as having demonstrated appli- the Department of Commerce for his industry to open global markets to cability to flaw detection in thick and studies of wind and wave effects on off U.S. construction products and servic- layered structures and the best poten- shore structures - knowledge essential es by: (1) developing an active U.S. tial for field use. to oil recovery from deep water sites.

67 5.11 1990 mortgages. Building code organizations There was an effort to replace FEMA welcomed the Order. The work to with USGS as lead agency, in which The Loma Prieta, California earth- develop the NEHRP Recommended NIST did not get involved, and quake of October 17, 1989, (some- Provisions for the Development of which failed in Congress because of times called the World Series earth- Seismic Regulations for New Buildings, FEMA’s strong support by State and quake because it interrupted the start test them in trial designs, and trans- local governments. of a game at San Francisco and showed late them to standards and code lan- fans a real time view of the fires in San guage made the Order feasible, and its With John Lyons’ strong interest in Francisco), had great effects on the existence provided an incentive to NEHRP, NIST endeavored to gain the National Earthquake Hazards State and local governments to adopt lead role in support of the develop- Reduction Program (NEHRP) and and enforce up to date building codes. ment of seismic safety standards and NIST’s work in NEHRP. The ICSSC The sustained financial and political practices, which had been intended for (chaired by Richard Wright and with a support of FEMA deserves primary NBS in the NEHRP authorizing legis- NIST secretariat) immediately dis- credit for the development of the lation, but had been assumed by patched a multi-agency team led by Recommended Provisions and the FEMA when NBS declined to request H.S. Lew to investigate damages to Order. NIST provided sustained tech- funding for the role. FEMA wished to structures and fires. The report made nical support and research, the keep its role in support of develop- substantive recommendations to National Science Foundation provided ment of building standards and prac- improve design and construction prac- the principal structural research sup- tices because its successes were much tices for buildings and lifeline struc- port over many years for the knowl- appreciated in the private and public tures and to mitigate damages to exist- edge base, and the U.S. Geological sectors and within FEMA. Moreover, ing structures in future earthquakes. Survey (USGS)provided the knowledge the seismic standards and practices base for definition of the earthquake community did not support transfer of On January 5, 1990, President Bush hazard. The Order marked a real suc- this role to NIST because it had good issued Executive Order 12699, Seismic cess story for NEHRP. working relations with FEMA, was Safety of Federal and Federally Assisted grateful to FEMA for its sustained sup- or Regulated New Building In October 1989, Congress made a port over ten years, and had no reason Construction, that NIST drafted and supplemental appropriation to support to believe that NIST would provide redrafted through reviews and approval NEHRP studies of the earthquake. better support or management. The by the ICSSC from 1984-86, and by NIST received $2 million available outcome was that FEMA maintained the Federal Emergency Management over two years which it used to hire its role in building standards and prac- Agency (FEMA), the White House and excellent additional staff, including tices with technical support from NIST the federal agencies from 1986-90. Albert Lin, Harry Shenton and Diana and others, and that NIST assumed The Order required that all new build- Todd, and strengthen its research pro- responsibility for development, with ings constructed or lease-constructed gram. However, it was not possible to the community, of seismic safety stan- for federal use must immediately be convert this to an increase in base dards and practices for lifelines (public designed and constructed in accord funding and the financing of the pro- works and utilities). This and the spe- with appropriate seismic standards. By gram became difficult in fiscal year cial funding for investigations of the January 5, 1993, similar requirements 1993. Loma Prieta earthquake gave CBT applied to all federally supported or hope for a strengthened role in regulated new building construction, The enhanced earthquake interests NEHRP. However, over the next sever- e.g., homes financed with FHA or VA led to some tensions in NEHRP. al years, NIST was unable to obtain

68 directly appropriated funding for Cementitious Materials which repre- 3. National Bureau of Standards Authorization, development of seismic safety stan- sent rate controlling processes includ- Senate Report No. 98-49, Senate Committee on Commerce, Science and dards and practices for lifelines and ing diffusion, convection, reaction and Transportation, March 21, 1983. asked that FEMA assume this role, too. sorption involved in corrosion of rein- 4. Authorizing Appropriations to the National forcement, sulfate attack, acid attack Bureau of Standards for Fiscal Year 1984, In cooperation with ENR magazine and leaching. House of Representatives Report 98-95, and the National Institute of Building House Committee on Science and Technology, May 9, 1983. Sciences on February 27, 1990, CBT William Thomas and Douglas Burch 5. National Bureau of Standards Authorization, co-sponsored the “Roundtable on completed experiments to determine Senate Report No. 98-423, Senate International Harmonization of for important building materials the Committee on Commerce, Science and Construction Standards and Practices - moisture transfer properties that are Transportation, 1984. 6. J. M. Evans, editor, Measurement Assets or Liabilities for critical to build up of moisture in and Technology for Automation in Construction Competitiveness” to define private consequent degradation of building and Large Scale Assembly, NBSIR 85-3310, and public sector activities needed for envelopes. This became the basis for National Bureau of Standards, 1985. competitiveness of the industries of the MOIST computer program - a 7. “An Evaluative Report on the Center for construction. It was the basis for a practical means for assessing the vul- Building Technology,” An Evaluative Report on the National Engineering Laboratory, feature article “Standards for a Global nerability of building envelope designs National Academy Press, p56, 1984. Market” in the April 19, 1990 ENR. to moisture. 8. Background Information Related to the CBT also organized and chaired at the Proposed Spin-Off of Selected Programs of the Structures Congress of the ASCE a James Hill was elected to the ASHRAE National Bureau of Standards, Congressional Research Service, Library plenary session and a technical session Board of Directors. Lorraine Freeman of Congress, February 28, 1986. “Prospects for International retired after serving as the CBT direc- 9. Richard N. Wright, Technology for Engineering Practice.” Topics included: tor’s secretary since 1977. Gail Crum Competitiveness of the U.S. Construction Structural Engineering in the succeeded to the position and took Industry, NISTIR 89-4099, National European Community, International charge rapidly and effectively based on Institute of Standards and Technology, 1989. Harmonization of Standards, Evolution her experience as James Wright’s sec- 10. Richard L. Tucker, John W. Fisher, of the U.S. building regulatory system, retary in the Building Research Daniel W. Halpin, R. Nielsen, Boyd C. and International Recognition of Division, CBT, the Institute for Paulson, G.H. Watson, and Richard N. Professional Engineering Credentials. Applied Technology, and the National Wright, Construction Technologies in Japan, Japanese Technology Evaluation Center, CBT also participated in the Japanese Engineering Laboratory. Loyola College in Maryland, June 1991. Technology Evaluation Center’s study of Construction Technologies in Japan References which assessed the relative effective- 1. Louis E. Alfeld, Research for Building ness of Japanese and U.S. construction Construction Productivity - Report on the June research and technology transfer [10]. 2, 1981 Conference, NBS-GCR-81-331, National Bureau of Standards, 1981. 2. Semiannual Report to the Congress, April 1, Edward Garboczi and Dale Bentz pub- 1983-September 30, 1983, Office of the lished Analytical and Numerical Inspector General, Department of Models of Transport in Porous Commerce, 1983.

6. BUILDING AND FIRE RESEARCH 6LABORATORY IN THE 90s

6.1 Overview nation or halving of the programs, and to attract the excellent new staff need- Fiscal year 1991 began auspiciously ed for technical leadership in the 90s with fire research expert (and building and in the 21st century. research supporter) John Lyons the new NIST director, the Administration efforts to eliminate building and fire This chapter describes significant research ended, and a new Building accomplishments and substantial dis- and Fire Research Laboratory (BFRL) appointments. New directly appropri- organized at NIST by merger of the ated funding was received: in 1992 for Centers for Fire Research and Building fire research and for earthquake engi- Technology. neering, in 1993 for green buildings, and in 1994 for high performance Jack Snell, deputy director of BFRL materials research. The White House and former director of CFR, described gave priority to construction and the new organization as “half of a labo- building research in 1994 and CBT ratory” in comparison with the size provided leadership for the multi- and funding of the other new NIST agency coordinated program. These laboratories. BFRL management was and the efforts and ingenuity of staff resolved to correct this situation by led to many significant, high-impact working with leaders of the fire and research results. However, the building communities to produce and Congressional elections of 1994 creat- implement such excellent results, and ed a divided government that was define such national needs and plans unable to focus its attention on needs to respond to them, that BFRL would for and benefits of building and fire attract the resources required to pro- research. In 1991 there were 195 vide the needed performance predic- total staff, this rose 20 percent to tion methods, measurement technolo- reach 216 in 1995, but declined again gies, and technical advances. BFRL to 186 in 2000. To increase effective- management also was resolved to cor- ness with such constrained resources, rect its own “bunker mentality” and BFRL focused most of its resources on that of the staff created by seven years six major products beginning in fiscal of Administration proposals for elimi- year 1998, but continued to give

71 attention to selected other topics likely Andrew Fowell had been deputy direc- 2. Structural Evaluation to become the major products of the tor of CFR and was reassigned as divi- a. Condition assessment 21st century. sion chief to replace James Quintiere b. Structural response control who had moved to the University of c. Failure investigations A series of annual and biannual reports Maryland in 1990. The persons named 3. Building performance provide a good summary of activities above comprised the Management a. Alternative refrigerants and references for this period [1-6]. Council of BFRL. b. Building controls c. Building envelope 6.2 1991 The BFRL program was comprised of d. Computer-integrated construc- The Building and Fire Research three major thrusts, each involving tion Laboratory (BFRL) began operationally multiple divisions, with subelements as e. Indoor air quality on October 1, 1990, and was estab- noted below: f. Lighting lished formally on January 31, 1991. g. Test procedures for major energy Its mission was “increasing the useful- Fire Research appliances ness, safety and economy of construct- 1. Fire risk and hazard prediction ed facilities and reducing the human 2. Fire safety of products and materials The Building Program, comprised of and economic costs of unwanted 3. Advanced technologies for fire and Earthquake Hazard Reduction and fires.” It performed and supported fire risk sensing and control Construction Industry “field, laboratory and analytical Competitiveness, and the Fire Program research on the performance of con- Earthquake Hazard Reduction essentially were continuations of the struction materials, components, sys- work of CBT and CFR. tems and practices, and the fundamen- Construction Industry tal processes underlying the ignition, Competitiveness The Principles and Values of BFRL, as propagation and suppression of fires.” 1. Construction materials discussed with the staff on August 3, It produced “ technologies to predict, a. Service life prediction 1990, were: measure and test the performance of b. Advanced organic materials construction and fire prevention and c. High performance concrete control products and practices.” The d. Quality assurance of construction organization was: materials testing laboratories

Headquarters: Richard Wright, director; Jack Snell, deputy director; James Gross, assistant director; and Kathryn Stewart, executive officer. Structures Division: H.S. Lew, chief Building Materials Division: Geoffrey Frohnsdorff, chief Building Environment Division: James Hill, chief Fire Science and Engineering Division: Andrew Fowell, chief Fire Measurement and Research Division: Richard Gann, chief

72 1. Building and Fire Research programs continue. 2. Excellent public service. 3. Technical excellence in R&D and Technology Transfer 4. Advance fire and building science. 5. Responsive to mandates and public policies 6. Responsive and close to user communities 7. Build a new organization and develop esprit de corps Center showed that the much 8. Open, candid, interactive, enthusiastic and productive people; greater Japanese investments in teamwork and delight in our work. R&D for construction had given them leadership in high perform- 9. Good environment for career development of staff ance construction materials and in 10. Simple, responsive, efficient organizational structure. construction robotics.

Barbara Levin, Vytenis Babrauskas, and There were cultural differences. Fire • A three day workshop, involving 27 colleagues completed a comprehensive staff commonly lunched together com- state fire marshals or chief deputies, methodology, with minimal depend- bining divisions and groups; building was conducted with the National ence on animal testing, for obtaining staff did not. Weekly Fire seminars Association of State Fire Marshals to and using smoke toxicity data for fire shared current research with the whole identify 15 project areas where hazard analysis. It built on two decades Fire staff; building staff would not vol- BFRL research was needed to of research and national and interna- untarily participate in seminars beyond address critical issues affecting the tional collaborations with the National group interests. An open house was Nation’s fire service. Institute of Building Sciences, the held to give staff opportunities to see • A workshop of the International Southwest Research Institute and oth- all the work of the laboratory and Council for Research and Innovation meet each other. Management and staff in Building and Construction (CIB) ers, and became the basis for standards worked hard to make the laboratory was hosted on fire model verifica- of NFPA, ASTM and ISO. seen as a merger, not an acquisition. tion, selection and acceptance for Jack Snell took on double duties to fire safety engineering practice. William Danner and Mark Palmer make the laboratory succeed: he • The newly created Civil Engineering developed the application protocol served as deputy director for the Research Foundation organized and technique for the STEP (Standard for whole laboratory and continued as held, with BFRL support and partic- Exchange of Product Model Data) manager of the Fire Program. The ipation, the Civil Engineering international standard effort. The Management Council assigned its Research Needs Forum, January 28- application protocol provides a com- members responsibility for developing 30, 1991. It attracted community plete and unambiguous characteriza- “big chunks” of funding (multi-year leaders, including the chief engineers tion of the data to be exchanged. The programs of $1 million or more total of the Army, Navy, and Air Force on richness of construction data funding, directly appropriated or fund- the eve of the Kuwait war, and pro- required this technique and it is used ed by other agencies or the private sec- duced recommendations for national internationally for data for all types tor) in contrast to the roughly $100 programs in high performance con- of products. thousand per year projects that were crete and steel, national and interna- best negotiated by group leaders or tional acceptance of innovative prod- Takashi Kashiwagi received the Applied senior researchers and tended to dif- ucts and services, and integrated, Research Award of NIST for his pio- fuse BFRL’s focus. computer-aided engineering design neering studies of the thermal degrada- and construction. tion of PMMA, and the Silver Medal of BFRL reached out to its community to • The report on Construction the Department of Commerce for the gain ideas for, understanding of, and Technologies in Japan by the rational characterization of the phe- collaborators in its work. Japanese Technology Evaluation nomenon of flame spread on materials.

73 6.3 1992 Smoke Dynamics Research, Geoffrey Frohnsdorff led the private George Mulholland, leader sector planning group for the Civil Congress appropriated an increase of Materials Fire Research, Engineering Research Foundation and $409,000 for earthquake engineering Takashi Kashiwagi, leader provided the secretariat for the multi- in 1992, the NIST director transferred Fire Sensing and agency Infrastructure-Construction an additional $200,000 for fire Extinguishment, William Task Group of the President’s Office of research, and earlier funding of Grosshandler, leader Science and Technology Policy that $250,000 for alternative refrigerants prepared the 10 year, $2 billion to and $250,000 for furniture flammabil- Unfortunately, the very promising col- $4 billion, High Performance ity were made part of the BFRL base laborations with the National Construction Materials and Systems funding. Moreover, the President Association of State Fire Marshals program for private and public sector requested funding increases for 1993 came to a halt. Subsequently, a jour- initiatives. of $1 million for earthquake engineer- nalist [7] attributed this to the ing and $300,000 for computer inte- Association’s close links to the tobacco James Gross, working with U.S. stan- grated construction, but proposed cut- industry that opposed BFRL’s research dards organizations, and representing ting BFRL by $350,000 for adminis- on cigarette ignition propensity. the American National Standards trative savings from the reorganization. Institute in the management of con- Richard Gann led the development of struction standards for the BFRL’s strategic plan of November 1, a multi-million dollar, multi-year pro- International Organization for 1991, maintained the program thrusts gram with Air Force funding to devel- Standardization (ISO), arranged for described for 1991, but augmented the op replacements for the halogenated U.S. leadership of ISO standards com- BFRL mission: fire suppressants that will provide safe- mittees for Building Performance, • Increase the usefulness, safety and ty in aircraft and buildings while avoid- Concrete, Timber, Masonry, Structural economy of constructed facilities. ing damage to the environment. The Design Loads, and Building • Improve the productivity and inter- program built upon the experiences of national competitiveness of the con- BFRL and the Center for Chemical Environmental Design. Leadership struction industry. Sciences and Technology in developing opportunities were available because • Reduce the human and economic energy efficient replacements for European interests were focused on costs of unwanted fires. refrigerants that threatened the ozone European standards. U.S. involvement layer. was important to assure that good, up Fire research divisions and groups to date, ISO standards existed when were reorganized to distinguish their In a series of laboratory and mesoscale European standards were completed, roles: experiments, David Evans and his col- without U.S involvement, and pro- • Fire Safety Engineering Division, leagues demonstrated for the Minerals posed for adoption by ISO. Andrew Fowell, chief, had groups: Management Service and the Fire Protection Applications, Environmental Protection Agency that BFRL was hurt and saddened by the Richard Bukowski, leader burning is a rapid and cost effective untimely death of Albert Lin. In his Fire Modeling, Walter Jones, method of removing oil spills from the two years with BFRL, he initiated an leader surface of water. Howard Baum and important and successful program for Large Fire Research, David his colleagues developed a large eddy performance criteria and test methods Evans, leader simulation computer model to under- for seismically base-isolated structures, • Fire Science Division, Richard stand the dynamics of smoke plume and achieved professional recognition Gann, leader, had groups: motion and smoke particle deposition. as coordinator of CIB Working

74 Commission 73, Natural Disasters No later than December 31, 1992, the Lyons was made Acting Reduction, and as editor of the Secretary, acting through the director of Undersecretary of Commerce for newsletter of the Earthquake the Institute, shall report to Congress on Technology, with the understanding Engineering Research Institute. the results of the combination, on efforts that he would not be reappointed as to preserve the integrity of the fire research NIST director. This was the first time John Klote won the 1992 Best Paper and building technology programs, on that an NBS or NIST director had Award from ASHRAE for Design of procedures for receiving advice on fire and been replaced by an incoming admin- Elevator Smoke Control Systems for earthquake research priorities from con- istration, but was expected to become Fire Evacuation with his coauthor stituencies concerned with public safety, a precedent for the future. When the George Tamura of the National and on the relation between the combined new Undersecretary, Mary Good, was Research Council of Canada, and also program at the Institute and the United confirmed, Lyons became a senior sci- received the honor of ASHRAE Fellow. States Fire Administration. entist at NIST until he was appointed Vytenis Babrauskas received the NIST director of the new Army Research Rosa Award for developing and stan- The report to Congress dated Laboratory in late 1993. BFRL appre- dardizing new techniques for measur- December 9, 1992 responded to each ciated and would miss his understanding the fire properties of materials. of the points cited in the Law. The ing, leadership and support. To make a Edward Garboczi received the Report summary stated: place for a political appointee at the L’Hermite Medal from the The combination of the building technol- National Oceanic and Atmospheric International Union of Research and ogy and the fire research programs has Administration, Ray Kammer was reas- Testing Laboratories for Materials and brought both of these programs closer to signed to NIST as deputy director and Structures (RILEM) for his contribu- the Director of NIST, thereby increasing acting director. Samuel Kramer was tions to the understanding of concrete their internal visibility. The increased scale reassigned as assistant director. Arati and other random structures through of the Laboratory relative to either of the Prabhakar from the Defense Advanced the simulation of porous microstruc- original centers has created the opportuni- Research Projects Agency became tures and of transport phenomena. ty for BFRL to conduct outreach activities NIST director on May 28, 1993; she Kermit Smyth received the Silver that neither of the Centers could afford was NIST’s youngest and first female Medal of the Department of previously. The combination has opened director. Prabhakar, who had worked Commerce for pioneering measure- the possibility for a number of important in microelectronics, was open minded ments of the chemical structure of synergistic programs of benefit to both of and decisive on BFRL issues. As she flames. James Hill was elected Vice the communities served, and effected a became familiar with BFRL’s program, President of ASHRAE. modest administrative savings that has she expressed a clear preference for been used to increase technical activities. programs supporting economic growth It is the desire and intent of all concerned 6.4 1993 over those responding to legislative within NIST to continue the development mandates such as fire safety and earth- Section 104(g) of the American of the Building and Fire Research quake hazard reduction. Technology Preeminence Act of 1992 Laboratory. (PL 102-245, February 14, 1992 stated: The President’s requests for increases The fire research and building technology The advent of the Clinton in appropriations for BFRL for 1993 programs of the Institute may be com- Administration in January 1993 were not funded by Congress, but bined for administrative purposes, only, brought promise of doubling NIST’s Congress did provide an increase of and separate accounts for fire research and budget and an unprecedented political $800,000 for green building technolo- building technology shall be maintained. change in NIST’s leadership. John gy (half of which was earmarked for

75 Iowa State University) and NIST equipment manufacturers to 2. Focus on the life cycle construction reprogrammed $400,000 to the earth- understand and respond to their process and integration of its steps. quake program and $200,000 to alter- needs.) Senior architects are partic- 3. Emphasize existing buildings. native refrigerants. ularly vital to BFRL’s mission and 4. Become the national focal point for customers. a database of critical information William Allen continued to advise 4. BFRL’s strategic vision must (for the life cycle construction BFRL with renewed enthusiasm for express its vital and credible role in process). the potential of the new laboratory. a manner inspiring to both cus- 5. Relate directly to customers, inter- Among his major points were: tomers and staff. The understand- mediaries are inadequate. 1. BFRL must be close to and valued ing and enthusiasm of customers, 6. Continue valued work on measure- by customers, not just intermediary and BFRL managers and ment and test methods and data. standards organizations or the researchers can get us great assign- 7. Get a champion in Congress. Washington representatives (lobby- ments and great results. ists) of companies, but leading BFRL has acted on these recommen- architects, engineers, contractors, BFRL tested these ideas with leaders of dations with three exceptions. The regulators and the executives of the industry by convening an ad hoc name change was seen as undesirably manufacturers. working group on May 5-6, 1993. The inhospitable to the fire community, 2. To merit the attention of cus- participants were: Kenneth data is increasingly decentralized with tomers, BFRL must produce valu- Reinschmidt, Vice President, Stone Internet and BFRL has not seen a way able products that respond to their and Webster Engineering to take overall responsibility and gain problems or give them new oppor- Constructors; Dean Stephan, credit for accessibility and quality, and tunities. Our job is not done until President, Pankow Construction; BFRL has yet to find a champion in our products are in beneficial use. Jerome Sincoff, President, HOK Congress. We must participate in the imple- Architects; Steven Mitchell, Chairman, mentation or our efforts may be Lester B. Knight Engineering; Michael A major concern to BFRL and to the wasted. Also, is not measurements Martin, Manager, Consumer and Panel for Building and Fire Research and standards too limiting for the Construction, GE Plastics; Steven was the degradation of a number of scope of BFRL products? Bomba, Vice President, Johnson BFRL’s important research laborato- 3. To define these products, assure Controls; James Nottke, Director, ries. Major problems existed in: the their production and achieve their Technology Acquisition, Dupont; J. environmental controls and instru- acceptance, BFRL must have senior Roger Glunt, Glunt Building Company mentation for the large fire test facility; staff that understand the customers and President, National Association of the operability of the large environ- needs and capabilities - people like Home Builders; Miles Haber, mental chambers for research on heat- William Allen - to assure us we are Monument Construction; Gerald ing, ventilating and air-conditioning doing the right job as well as doing Jones, Director of Codes systems; and the controls and the job right. Generally, these will Administration, Kansas City, MO; and hydraulics of the 53 MN universal not be researchers, but they should Thomas Castino, President, structural testing machine. NIST labo- be understanding of research and Underwriters Laboratories. Their ratories in general were aging and in work well with researchers. (They advice was: need of renovation, but BFRL facilities can be researchers, David Didion, 1. Change the name to Building were not included in NIST renovation for instance, was close to leaders of Systems Laboratory plans for the 20th century.

76 Richard Marshall studied the very lim- George Walton completed CON- ited wind measurements and very TAM93, a multizone airflow and con- extensive wind damages in Hurricane taminant dispersal model with a graph- Andrew of August 24, 1992, and pro- ical user interface to assist designers duced recommendations for improving and researchers understand the effects the wind load provisions of the of materials choices and heating, venti- Manufactured Home Construction and lating and air-conditioning systems Safety Standard (MHCSS) to reduce design and performance on indoor air wind damages to manufactured David Evans, chief, Fire Safety Engineering quality and radon transport. Division. (mobile) homes. These resulted in MHCSS adopting ASCE Standard 7- Nora Jason and colleagues implement- to more than $430 million in 1997. 88, Minimum Design Loads for This is a significant challenge for NIST. Buildings and Other Structures, and in ed on Internet FIREDOC, the auto- It gives us a chance to take control of our improvements to the ASCE standard. mated database of BFRL’s Fire Research Information Services (FRIS), own future as we move away from dependence on other agency funding. Geraldine Cheok, William Stone, and to greatly enhance access for fire pro- Our general strategy is to offset some H.S. Lew, in cooperation with Pankow tection engineers and researchers other agency funding with STRS funds Construction, completed experimental worldwide. and to increase staff by roughly 10 per- studies of hybrid, pre-cast, reinforced cent. We are also considering strategies concrete beam to column connections Mark Nyden and James Brown for greater extramural collaboration with for regions of high seismicity. Design described how computer-aided molec- selected organizations. recommendations were formulated ular design can be used to achieve a and presented to the American new generation of fire resistant polymers. Cross linking can improve func- NIST also was receiving large increases Concrete Institute and to the in funding for the Advanced tional mechanical properties and pro- Structural Engineers Association of Technology Program (ATP) which mote formulation of heat resistant California. By the end of the decade cost-shared high risk industry these became the basis for construc- chars which reduce heat release rates research, and the Manufacturing tion of the tallest reinforced concrete during unwanted combustion. Extension Partnership (MEP) which buildings ever built in California. cost-shared technology transfer centers 6.5 1994 nationwide serving small and medium Lawrence Kaetzel and James Clifton This was a euphoric year for NIST and sized industry. ATP also supported BFRL research in collaboration with developed HWYCON, an expert system BFRL. The perspective was given in ATP grantees. BFRL worked with con- on the durability of concrete for high- Director Prabhakar’s letter of January struction industry groups (most con- ways, to implement the results of NIST 19, 1994, to the National Research tractors are small or medium sized research and the Federal Highway Council’s Panel on Building and Fire manufacturing industry), particularly Administration’s Strategic Highway Research: the National Association of Home Research Program. Over 2,000 copies As you know, President Clinton has pro- Builders, to explore establishment of were distributed to and used by state posed to increase the budget for the NIST one or more technology transfer cen- and local highway departments. laboratories from $193 million in 1993 ters for contractors. However, after

77 supporting studies of the potential for However, the BFRL Management The BFRL program was expressed by construction-oriented centers, MEP Council advised BFRL managers and three themes incorporating eleven pro- decided to focus its resources on dis- staff to maintain good working rela- gram thrusts: crete parts manufacturers. tions with present and potential spon- 1. Advanced Technology for sors of work consistent with the BFRL Constructed Facilities The BFRL director’s report to the Strategic Plan for two good reasons. • High performance construction materials and systems. Panel on April 19, 1994, stated: First, collaborations with other agen- The Building and Fire Research • Construction automation and cies were among the best mechanisms Laboratory has been identified by NIST robotics. management and the Administration as a for implementation of research, and, • Reducing the hazards of natural major player in NIST’s support of U.S. second, expectations for greatly disasters. industry. Our base funding is proposed to increased directly appropriated funding • Affordable housing. increase from $12.1 million in FY 1993 might not be realized. 2. Advanced Fire Safety Technologies to $21.7 million in FY 1995; our total • Performance fire standards • Fire-safe products and materials program was $25 million in FY 1993. NIST defined its mission very simply Major increases came in computer inte- • Advanced technologies for fire grated construction, high performance to incorporate the work of the labora- sensing and suppression construction materials and systems, alter- tories, the Advanced Technology • Large/industrial fires. natives to halon fire suppressants and CFC Program, the Manufacturing Extension 3. Green Building Technologies refrigerants, green building technologies Program and the Baldrige National • Green buildings • Alternate refrigerants and earthquake engineering. Senate- and Quality Award: House-passed reauthorization legislation • Halon alternatives. To promote U.S. economic growth by for NIST calls for establishment of a National Wind Engineering Research pro- working with industry to develop and President Clinton established the gram with NIST as lead agency; this apply technology, measurements and National Science and Technology should lead to new funding for wind engi- standards. Council (NSTC) in 1993 to focus and neering research including aspects of coordinate R&D investments across wind-driven fires. (Editor’s Note - the In its 1994 Strategic Plan, BFRL the federal agencies. With strong sup- Director’s report was based on figures expressed itself as: port from John Gibbons, the inconsistent with the final figures). The national laboratory dedicated to President’s Science Advisor, and Mary Good, Undersecretary of Commerce There were increases of directly appro- the life cycle quality of constructed priated funds for 1994 of $200,000 facilities. for Technology, the Civil Engineering for earthquake engineering, $100,000 BFRL’s mission was expressed to sup- Research Foundation and other industry groups, NSTC established a for alternative refrigerants, $450,000 port that of NIST: Subcommittee on Construction and for high performance construction To enhance the competitiveness of U.S. materials, $950,000 for computer Building (C&B) in April 1994. Richard industry and public safety through per- integrated construction, and $4.5 mil- Wright and Arthur Rosenfeld, scientific lion one-time funding for investiga- formance prediction and measurement advisor the Assistant Secretary of tions related to the Northridge earth- technologies and technical advances that Energy for Conservation and quake of January 17, 1994, improve the life cycle quality of constructed Renewable Energy, were chosen as co- Northridge, California earthquake. facilities. chairmen of C&B. Andrew Fowell

78 accepted the position of Associate 4. 50 percent fewer occupant related evaluation includes suppressant effec- Director of Construction and Building illnesses and injuries tiveness under harsh conditions, com- in BFRL to serve as secretariat of 5. 50 percent less waste and pollution patibility with materials and people, C&B. 6. 50 percent more durability and and environmental cleanliness. The flexibility methods were used to identify an opti- In meetings of the fourteen participat- 7. 50 percent reduction in construc- mum substitute for halon 1301 for ing agencies of C&B, and in meetings tion work illnesses and injuries. certifying the fire suppression system with industry, the vision, mission, and The baseline for each goal was indus- effectiveness for engine nacelles. National Construction Goals of C&B try performance in 1994, and the were established. The vision was: objective was to make available by A series of large-scale crude oil burns • High quality constructed facilities 2003 practices capable of meeting the were completed near Prudhoe Bay, support the competitiveness of U.S. goals. Many initially felt the goals Alaska, in cooperation with Alaska industry and everyone’s quality of were incredible, but only the 7th Clean Seas. Smoke particulate measure- life. came to seem to need revision. It was ments, both close to the fire and several • U.S. industry leads in quality and insufficiently challenging. Even in kilometers downwind, were made to economy in the global market for 1994, the best construction projects assess the impact of the burns and eval- construction products and services. and firms, such as the members of uate BFRL’s Large Eddy Simulation • The construction industry and con- the Construction Industry Institute, (LES) model of the fire plume flow. structed facilities are energy effi- had injury rates of 1/7 the industry Alaska adopted the model as part of its cient, environmentally benign, safe average. approval process for intentional burning and healthful, properly responsive to of oil spills. Calculations using worst human needs, and sustainable in use David Evans became chief of the Fire case atmospheric conditions indicate of resources. Safety Engineering Division. In addi- that ambient air quality standards are • Natural and manmade hazards do tion to his vigorous leadership of not exceeded beyond 5 km from a not create disasters. BFRL’s studies for burning oil spills burn. This distance has been adopted in and for advances in simulation and burning guidelines throughout the U.S. The mission of C&B was to enhance modeling of fire phenomena, Evans A new computer model, called LEAK, the competitiveness of U.S. industry, became president of the Society of was developed to predict the shift in public and worker safety and environ- Fire Protection Engineers. composition of zeotropic refrigerant mental quality through research and mixtures during slow or fast leaks to development, in cooperation with U.S. The enthusiastic response of the indus- assure that new refrigerant mixtures try and agencies to the C&B program industry, labor and academia to do not leak flammable vapors. improve the life-cycle performance led to the President giving top-six pri- and economy of constructed facilities. ority to C&B funding for his fiscal year BFRL led the reconnaissance team of 1996 Budget Request to Congress. the Interagency Committee on Seismic The National Construction Goals Never before, to the knowledge of the were: members of C&B, had an administra- Safety in Construction investigating the 1. 50 percent reduction in project tion given top priority to research for January 17, 1994 Northridge delivery time construction. California earthquake, and issued the 2. 50 percent reduction in operation, report Performance of Structures, maintenance and energy costs A landmark report was completed on Lifelines and Fire Protection Systems 3. 30 percent increase in productivity methodologies to evaluate fire suppres- in the 1994 Northridge Earthquake. A and comfort sants for in-flight fire in aircraft. The number of projects were initiated with

79 $4.5 million supplemental funding to Building Environment Division, helped corporated in BFRL. An example gain knowledge for improvement of organize a focused, five year, $50 mil- accomplishment in fiscal year 1995, construction and fire safety practices. lion program on Advanced Vapor was the release by Stephen Weber and These projects were performed in Compression Refrigeration Systems for Barbara Lippiatt of ALARM 1.0, cooperation with industry and univer- the refrigeration industry. Its goals Decision Support Software for Cost- sities and included research in repair were to increase system efficiency, Effective Compliance with Fire Safety and strengthening of welded steel reduce noise levels and reduce compo- Codes. The optimization method was moment connections, performance of nent sizes, each by 25 percent, and to field tested in nearly 100 hospitals lifeline systems, mitigation of large- prevent refrigerant leaks. with cost savings averaging between 30 scale fires and the performance of fire percent and 35 percent of the cost of suppression on large-scale fires in The Congressional elections of traditional code compliance strategies. neighborhoods. November 1994, led to Republican majorities in the House and Senate BFRL revised its program strategy to support the program of the James Hill received the Gold Medal of that were not simply in opposition to Subcommittee on Construction and the Department of Commerce for out- the Democratic administration, but Building (C&B) of the National standing management of the Building sought major changes in government. Science and Technology Council and Environment Division. Richard Gann Bills were introduced to eliminate the its National Construction Goals. received the Silver Medal of the Department of Commerce (H.R. Although Congress had not supported Department of Commerce for leading 1756, The Department of Commerce the President’s request of new funding fundamental and important studies of Dismantling Act) and the Advanced for fiscal year 1996, C&B retained high the ignition propensity of cigarettes Technology Program was particularly attacked as welfare for industry. In priority in the Administration. The under careful and hostile scrutiny by BFRL program had three thrusts and the tobacco industry. this atmosphere, the $6 million construction and building initiative pro- eight major products: posed by the President for BFRL was 6.6 1995 High Performance Construction dropped by Congress without any Materials and Systems BFRL and NIST peaked early in 1995. direct attention. • Performance standard for dwellings Budget increases for fiscal year 1995 • Integrated knowledge system for included: green building technology The Office of Applied Economics high performance concrete $0.45 million, halon replacements returned to BFRL after a fourteen year Automation of Facilities and $0.45 million, and high performance organizational stay in the Computing Processes construction materials and systems $ 2 and Applied Mathematics Laboratory • Building automation control million. NIST funded a new compe- (CAML). Harold Marshall led the • Automated condition assessment tence project on high heat flux meas- Office from its founding as the • PlantSTEP urements led by William Grosshandler Building Economics Section in CBT in Loss Reduction of BFRL and conducted jointly with 1973, through its stay in CAML, and • Fire simulator the Physics Laboratory and the again in BFRL. Although the Office • Wind engineering standards Chemical Science and Technology had worked with the other NIST labo- • Lifeline seismic standards Laboratory. ratories, the Advanced Technology Program and the Manufacturing Could BFRL take advantage of the James Hill, in a dual role as program Extension Partnership, it maintained Administration’s priority for the C&B manager for the Advanced Technology close professional and program rela- program and the strong industry inter- Program and as chief of BFRL’s tions with BFRL and readily was rein- est it created? BFRL had the strong

80 researchers, experts in transfer of researchers and support staff to results to practice, and record of sig- explore feelings about an alignment nificant accomplishments needed for initiative: credibility, but management felt it 1. Why is this a problem and why needed to be focused on appropriate should BFRL address it now? contributions to accomplishment of 2. What are the barriers/impediments the National Construction Goals if to a more complete organizational these were to be the basis for growth alignment? of BFRL. This was an extraordinary 3. How can we make this initiative Charles Yancey, structural research engineer and opportunity to become more than successful? chairman of NIST's Diversity Board. “half of a laboratory.” 4. Where are the best opportunities? He found significant doubt and cyni- Structural Research Engineer in BFRL BFRL management knew an extraordi- cism about the prospects for the initia- nary effort would be required to align tive. It would require real commitment since 1970, in 1994 became chairman the staff, in spirit and in practice. by Richard Wright and Jack Snell and of NIST’s Diversity Board which Survival of individuals and groups engagement of a majority of BFRL’s advised NIST’s management on its through the reductions of the 80s had employees. diversity programs. BFRL created its depended largely on their abilities to Diversity Plan in March 1995 with provide sound, measurement-oriented The name of the initiative was changed thrusts for: work palatable to NBS/NIST manage- to “BFRL Success” to make the pur- 1. Development of candidates for ment, to attract funding from other pose clear. The Management Council employment agencies through personal contacts, and staff were informed: 2. Recruitment of staff and collaborate with industry and 1. We need to develop a strategy to 3. Development and retention of staff. standards organizations for implemen- assure the success and survival of tation of results. How many program BFRL. The present political envi- James Hill led an ad hoc committee to ronment is perilous, but provides themes had been used over the years review the plan and recommend opportunities we need to seize to to exploit transient initiatives of actions BFRL should take to further its assure our future. administrations and concerns of indus- Diversity goals. As a result, BFRL try (housing, rehabilitation, energy 2. We identified six keys to success: formed a Diversity Committee, subse- conservation, solar energy, workplace • Administration (White House, quently chaired by Kathy Butler and and consumer safety, disaster mitiga- Commerce, NIST) support tion, productivity, competitiveness, • Congressional support then by Nelson Bryner, which became etc.) and yielded little in terms of last- • Industry support the prototype for diversity committees ing new resources and program growth • OA funding of NIST laboratories and led to NIST in quality and quantity? Staff had rea- • Significant accomplishments awards for their leadership. son to be cynical. • Active participation and commitment of the entire laboratory. On December 1, 1994, the President Doug Brookman was engaged as facili- signed Executive Order 12941, tator for what was named originally an Diversity in the workforce had become Seismic Safety of Existing Federally “Alignment” initiative. He met with an important objective for the Owned or Leased Buildings. The members of the Management Council, Administration and NIST. Charles Executive Order implemented the and representative group leaders, Yancey, an African American and Standards of Seismic Safety for

81 Existing Federally Owned or Leased of ASTM for technical leadership in William Pitts led a team providing the Buildings. The Executive Order and the initiation and development of first understanding of the mechanisms the Standards were drafted by the international standards for construc- leading to high concentrations of CO Interagency Committee on Seismic tion materials and systems. Mary and extensive smoke-induced deaths Safety in Construction (ICSSC) which McKnight received the ASTM Award from flashed-over enclosure fires. The represented 30 federal agencies. BFRL of Merit and honorary title of Fellow results were incorporated into an algo- provided the chairman (Richard for administrative and technical leader- rithm which defined the amounts of Wright), chairman of the ship of Committee E06 in the devel- CO generated for a given fire scenario, Subcommittee on Building Standards opment of standards for the abatement and showed that small scale toxicity (H.S. Lew) and secretariat (Diana of hazards from lead paint in buildings. tests are not adequate for characteriz- Todd) for ICSSC. ICSSC had prepared ing the toxicity of smoke from real the proposed executive order prior to Piotr Domanski developed CYCLE_D, fires. the Northridge Earthquake of January a model for simulating vapor compres- 17, 1994, to be ready for considera- sion refrigeration cycles in preliminary Richard Gann led the team that pro- tion when earthquake hazards again refrigerant screening, system design, vided the technical basis for the selec- received high level attention. education and training. It could simu- tion of HFC-125 as the substitute for late systems using up to 38 different halon 1301 for suppressing in-flight air The January 17, 1995, earthquake refrigerants and refrigeration mixtures craft fires. Research included the which struck Kobe, Japan killed more with up to five components. It was dynamics of fire suppressant release, than 6,000 people, injured more than published as Data Base 49 of the NIST two-phase pipe flow, and the character 30,000 and caused economic losses of Office of Standard Reference Data and of the spray. The results were adopted $200 billion. H.S. Lew and Riley distributed initially to over 60 cus- by the Boeing Company for the 777 Chung of BFRL led a team, with mem- tomers. Also, the NIST Slichter Award airplane and by the U.S. Navy. bers from other federal agencies, aca- was won by David Didion, Piotr William Grosshandler received the demia and industry, to study seismolo- Domanski and Mark Kedzierski for Silver Medal of the Department of gy, geology, and geotechnical effects, as their work in finding alternatives to Commerce for his technical leadership well as the performance of buildings, the refrigerants banned from produc- of this work. lifelines and fire safety systems. Key tion to protect the atmosphere. findings of the investigation included David Evans received the Silver Medal needs for research and improvements BACnet, a data communication pro- of the Department of Commerce for in practices to achieve earthquake haz- tocol for building automation and leadership of analytical, laboratory and ard reduction in the U.S. The study control network, was approved as field studies of burning oil spills as a was conducted under the auspices of ASHRAE Standard 135-1995. Steven means to minimize environmental the U.S./Japan Panel on Wind and Bushby was a major contributor to damage. Seismic Effects, for which BFRL pro- the standardization and then organ- vided the U.S.-side chairman (Richard ized a consortium of 17 partners to 6.7 1996 Wright) and secretariat (Noel assist members in developing prod- Raufaste). ucts conforming to the standard and The flow of new directly appropriated to develop conformance testing tools funding ended with fiscal year 1995. Geoffrey Frohnsdorff received the and procedures for an industry-run None was received for 1996 and, in William T. Cavanaugh Memorial Award certification program. spite of continued Administration pri-

82 ority for construction, no initiatives more days after funding was restored. The National Conference of States on received support for 1997. However, NIST cancelled its assessment panel Building Codes and Standards brought Mary McKnight of BFRL led a team meetings for 1996 to give staff more together about forty private sector including researchers from the Physics, opportunity to catch up on research. organizations, with support from the Manufacturing Engineering and Many BFRL staff had continued to NSTC Subcommittee on Construction Information Technology Laboratories work at home during the shutdown; by and Building, to explore streamlining which was awarded a five-year NIST year’s end there was no detectable loss the building regulatory system. competence project on color appear- of accomplishments from the shut- Streamlining would involve coordina- ance. The objective was to develop down. tion and cooperation among the many models and measurement methods for local, state and federal regulatory predicting the appearance of coated The Administration continued to give authorities responsible for approving objects. priority to construction and building aspects of each construction project. research. Meetings were held with It was anticipated that the time and Degradation of BFRL facilities industry sectors (housing convened cost involved in getting regulatory remained a major issue. Failure of the with the National Association of approvals could be halved without any smoke cleaning system for the large Homebuilders, commercial and insti- relaxation of safety or environmental fire test facility caused its shut down. tutional convened with the National protections. The efficiency of fire research was Institute of Building Sciences, public much inhibited by the extra expense works convened with the American The BFRL program continued to focus and staff time required to conduct Public Works Association, and indus- on major products. The more general tests in others’ facilities - some as far trial convened with the Construction Computer Integrated Knowledge away as Japan. Funding from the Industry Institute) to identify each System replaced the Integrated Department of Energy was obtained to sector’s priorities among the National Knowledge System for High renew a portion of the environmental Performance Concrete, and William Construction Goals and to explore laboratories. BFRL cosponsored with Stone’s Real Time Construction Site opportunities for joint programs. the National Science Foundation a Metrology was added. study of national needs for large scale NIST’s Manufacturing Extension structural experimental facilities for In light of NIST’s focus of its Partnership (MEP) funded, with earthquake engineering and other pur- resources on economic growth and poses. One issue was whether BFRL’s technical support from Shyam Sunder international competitiveness, BFRL large scale structural testing facility of BFRL, a study by the National negotiated with FEMA to transfer to should be renovated to become a Association of Home Builders FEMA the responsibility for support of national user facility. Still, NIST’s plan Research Center of the potential for development of seismic safety stan- for renewal of facilities provided noth- one or more technology transfer cen- dards for lifelines. It seemed impossi- ing for BFRL in the 20th century. ters for home builders [8]. Industry ble to obtain the necessary funding interest was high but MEP, in the through the NIST budget and FEMA The budget stalemate between end, did not find justification for could build upon its successful pro- Congress and the Administration extending its mission from small and gram for development of seismic stan- caused a three week shutdown of medium size manufacturers, in gen- dards and practices for buildings. NIST and other agencies beginning in eral, to home builders and to their FEMA and NIST cosponsored the mid-December 1995. A severe snow- suppliers, which are dominantly large Lifeline Policy Makers Workshop in storm kept NIST shut down for several manufacturers. January 1997. FEMA then supported

83 the organization by the American based design of fire safety systems realized from implementation of the Society of Civil Engineers of the and were used world wide in fire BACnet communication protocol for American Lifelines Alliance to facilitate safety engineering practice and building automation. the development of guidelines and education. national consensus documents for Noel Raufaste led the work to produce improving the performance of utility 4. Kent Reed’s and Mark Palmer’s BFRL’s Video, Your Partner in Building and transportation lifelines subjected leadership of the production of the that received a 2nd place Telly Award to natural hazards. Application Protocol 227, Plant for production excellence and the Spatial Configuration for automatic prestigious Crystal Award of The results of BFRL research cited at exchange of information in process Excellence from a Communications the NIST Director’s program review plant design. The PlantSTEP con- Awards competition. This award is included: sortium was formed with owners, presented to entrants whose ability to engineering construction firms and communicate elevates them above the 1. Dale Bentz’s and Edward CAD systems vendors to advance best in the field. Garboczi’s work on modeling the automatic exchange of information chloride diffusivity of concrete to in process plant design, construc- William Pitts received the Silver Medal allow service life prediction for tion, operations and maintenance. of the Department of Commerce for structures exposed to chlorides. his research that identified the impor- James Hill became President of the tant mechanisms for production of 2. Steven Bushby’s advancement of American Society of Heating, life-threatening carbon monoxide in standard communication protocols Ventilating and Air-Conditioning fires. for building automation and con- Engineers (ASHRAE) for 1996-1997 trol systems from the 1995 in recognition of his personal leader- 6.8 1997 ASHRAE standard to status as an ship in ASHRAE programs. He and ANSI standard and a European many other BFRL staff have participat- This first year of the second Clinton pre-standard and to consideration ed for years in cooperative ASHRAE- Administration saw major changes in as an ISO standard. A consortium NIST efforts to improve knowledge, the leadership of NIST, the of 18 companies began developing standards and practices and the Department of Commerce and the protocols for conformance testing, national and international competitive- White House Office of Science and and research began on extension to ness of U.S. products and services. Technology Policy. William Daley electrical load management, fire became Secretary of Commerce and detection and suppression, and The White House presented a called Ray Kammer from his position access and security systems. “Hammer Award” for the BACnet as Deputy Director of NIST to become Bushby received the Slichter Award demonstration project at the Phillip Acting Assistant Secretary for of NIST for this work. Burton Federal Office Building in San Administration. Robert Hebner, a Francisco. BFRL worked with the career NIST researcher and manager, 3. Walter Jones’ and colleagues devel- General Services Administration, the was called upon to become Acting opment of CFAST and FASTlite as Department of Energy, the Federal Deputy Director of NIST from his practical methods for modeling the Energy Management Program, and the permanent position as Deputy fire performance of building Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory in this Director of the Electronics and designs. These methods provided demonstration of the performance Electrical Engineering Laboratory. the technical basis for performance improvements and cost savings to be Arati Prabhakar resigned as Director of

84 NIST for a position in industry, and PATH. BFRL did receive substantial and acronym in an early meeting of the Hebner served as Acting Director until funding from HUD for technical sup- agencies involved, represented NIST in Ray Kammer was nominated and con- port of PATH. the White House team that worked firmed as NIST Director. Neil Lane with industry to develop the program, moved from Director of the National James Gross retired as Assistant and worked with HUD and BFRL Science Foundation to become the Director of BFRL. Since 1971 he had managers to develop the technical sup- President’s Science Advisor and been a leader for NBS/NIST in devel- port BFRL would provide to HUD for Director of the Office of Science and oping funding for and conducting PATH. Technology Policy (OSTP) replacing housing technology and in building John Gibbons. Mary Good resigned as standards and codes programs. He was BFRL joined the Construction Undersecretary for Technology of the recognized for these accomplishments Industry Institute (CII) in fiscal year Department of Commerce; her deputy by the Department of Commerce 1995 because its goals were consistent Gary Bachula then served as Acting Silver Medal, the Conference of States with the National Construction Goals Undersecretary. Award of the National Conference of and because collaborations with CII States on Building Codes and offered unparalleled opportunities to The Construction and Building Standards, the Award of Merit and of work directly with leading executives Subcommittee of the National Science Honorary Fellow from ASTM, and the from major owners of constructed and Technology Council continued to President’s Award of the American facilities (such as Dupont and General receive Administration priority. The Society of Civil Engineers. As Deputy Motors) and major engineering con- Partnership for Advancement of Director of CBT in the 1980s he was a struction firms (such as Bechtel and Technology in Housing (PATH) was great source of strength in mobilizing Fluor-Daniel). CII declined to partici- developed with active support in the support of industry for the survival of pate in any program to realize the White House contributing to the building and fire research at NBS, and National Construction Goals because it enlistment of leaders of the housing in managing for continuing productivi- did not want to be directed by the fed- industry and its suppliers. PATH was ty while dealing with decreasing fund- eral government or report on its work designed to bring together government ing and reductions in staff. He was to the federal government, but it wel- and industry to develop, demonstrate many times helpful to a division chief comed the collaboration of BFRL and and deploy housing technologies, when tight funding required develop- other federal agencies in its own pro- designs, and practices that could sig- ment and implementation of a “sol- grams. Richard Wright and Jack Snell nificantly improve the quality of hous- vency plan” including lending staff to became members of CII’s Board of ing without raising the cost of con- other organizations or assisting in their Advisors, Wright served on the struction. The Department of Housing work, reducing expenditures to those Strategic Planning Committee and and Urban Development (HUD) and essential, developing new sources of Snell on the Breakthrough Research the Department of Energy became co- funding and reductions in force. Committee, Robert Chapman on the leaders for PATH. NIST was recog- Benchmarking and Metrics nized as a key technical participant and Joel Zingeser joined BFRL as manager Committee, and William Stone on supported by OSTP for a fiscal year of standards and codes services. project committees concerned with 1999 budget increase for PATH. Building on his background with the automation and metrology in con- However, NIST gave higher priority to housing industry and applying his struction. a Climate Change initiative, which was strong teambuilding skills, he played a not funded by Congress, while HUD major role in the development of CII since 1983 had focused on devel- succeeded in gaining new funding for PATH. Indeed, he coined the name opment of best practices for design

85 and construction and had demonstrat- Disaster mitigation again ed the value of their application for became an element of safety, and for schedule and cost con- BFRL’s Success Strategy trol in its Benchmarking and Metrics and BFRL participated in Summary for 1997. However, CII felt activities of the National best practice efforts might be Disaster Reduction approaching diminishing returns and Subcommittee of the decided to explore larger scale, break- National Science and through programs capable of produc- Technology Council: ing major improvements in quality, • National Mitigation safety and economy. The May 1997 Strategy Strategic Plan of CII identified Fully • US/Japan Earthquake Integrated and Automated Project Mitigation Partnership Processes (FIAPP) as a trend that will • US/Japan Earthquake revolutionize construction. FIAPP Policy Symposium meant the fully automated, one-time • Lifeline Policy Makers’ data entry, seamless integration of the Workshop project life-cycle work processes • Wind Peril Workshop (from project inception through ongoing operation), including automated The focus on major prod- knowledge-based decision making, use ucts was strengthened to of institutionalized intelligence and almost 2/3 of BFRL’s common databases. The Breakthrough directly appropriated fund- Research Committee began work on ing. The major products Greg Linteris, fire research engineer and NIST's first development of a FIAPP program for became: astronaut, is performing materials and combustion sci- CII with BFRL as an active participant. • Partnership for high performance ence research in the orbiting STS-94 Microgravity Space Science Laboratory. concrete technology NIST’s Visiting Committee on • Performance standard system for Advanced Technology advised NIST in dwellings those times of difficult budgeting to • Fire-Safe Polymers/Composites Richard Gann headed a task force that provide closure in its mission state- • Fire Safety Performance Evaluation included BFRL’s NIST fellows (Emil ments - to show the consequences of System Simiu, David Didion, and Howard not properly funding a mission. • Computer-Integrated Construction Baum) and some of its liveliest Consequently, BFRL added the word Environment younger researchers (Edward Garboczi, assure to its mission: • Cybernetic Building Systems Anthony Hamins and William Pitts) to To enhance the competitiveness of U.S. identify topics likely to become the industry and public safety through per- In addition to major products, with ruling technologies in ten or so years. formance prediction methods, measure- their 3 year to 5 year time frame for BFRL planned to invest 10 percent to ment technologies, and technical advances results and 5 year to 10 year time 15 percent of its directly appropriated needed to assure improvement of the life frame for impacts, it was essential to funding and focus its recruitment in cycle quality and economy of constructed prepare for the principal issues and preparing for leadership in the most facilities. major products of future years. important of these topics.

86 Gregory Linteris was NIST’s first mixture design, curing and environ- in a timely fashion.” This focused the astronaut with two space flights (STS- mental exposure. “best in the world” concept for pro- 83 in April and STS-94 in July) in the grams by defining the nature of their Microgravity Science Laboratory William Stone and Geraldine Cheok objectives. Mission. The first flight was curtailed received the Structural Engineering after a few days because of mechanical Award of the American Concrete BFRL’s 1998 Strategic Plan focused on problems, but because of the impor- Institute for their paper Performance its six major products and four addi- tance of the mission it flew again in of Hybrid Moment Resisting Precast tional objectives for measurements and July. Linteris conducted highly success- Beam-Column Concrete Connections standards with potential for best in the ful studies of soot formation, spherical Subject to Cyclic Loading which pro- world status: flame structures, and combustion of vided the basis for building code • Service life of building materials atomized fuels. acceptance of seismically resistant • Metrology for sustainable develop- multi-story precast concrete framed ment Barbara Lippiatt developed and beta- buildings. • Earthquake, fire and wind engineer- tested a powerful technique for assessing ing the environmental and economic 6.9 1998 • Advanced fire measurements and performance of building products NIST director Ray Kammer and the fire fighting technologies called BEES (Building for Laboratory Council, which was com- Environmental and Economic prised of the directors of NIST labora- The major budget increase for NIST Sustainability) to help manufacturers tories, gave substantial attention to laboratories for fiscal year 1998, was demonstrate the sustainability of their “best in the world” programs of NIST. $3.8 million in wind engineering - but products and to help owners, design- Presentations were made to NIST staff it was earmarked for Texas Tech ers, and builders make economical and on the “best in the world” programs, University by Senator Kay Bailey sustainable choices. and the question was asked implicitly, Hutchinson who served on the why should we have programs where Appropriations Committee. It dis- Douglas Burch released an enhanced we are not best in the world or striving placed NIST’s priorities for initiatives version of MOIST, a computer program to become that? BFRL’s major prod- and made duplicative NIST’s own fis- that predicts the transfer of heat and ucts aimed squarely at best in the cal year 1999 proposal for increased moisture in walls, flat roof and cathe- world. But programs, such as BFRL’s funding for wind engineering at NIST. dral ceilings. MOIST determined role in the National Earthquake BFRL was assigned to work with Texas whether ventilation strategies achieved Hazards Reduction Program, where it Tech to define a strong program of acceptable moisture performance to was useful but not even best in the research. This was done dutifully and prevent build up of moisture and result- program, became candidates for well; sufficiently well that by fiscal year ant degradation in walls or roofs, or the restructuring or reprogramming. The 2001, NIST was able to share in the growth of mold on interior surfaces. Laboratory Council defined the goal of appropriation and strengthen its wind NIST’s laboratories’ research as research. Edward Garboczi and Dale Bentz pro- “research planned and implemented in duced a pioneering “electronic mono- cooperation with industry that antici- Substantial efforts were made to obtain graph” available on Internet to predict pates and addresses the most impor- budget initiatives for fiscal year 2000. concrete properties as a function on tant measurement and standards needs Three led in BFRL were submitted by

87 NIST to the Department of keeping a near-level effort for BFRL in fires and reduce costs of retrofits to Commerce: the initiative for PATH the tight budget environment after the environmentally friendly systems. (partnership for advancing technology mid term elections of 1994. “Success” • Life cycle cost assessment of high in housing); an initiative for PAIR was a success in maintaining a healthy performance concrete for highway (partnership for the advancement of BFRL, but failed to achieve laboratory bridges shows state highway engi- infrastructure and its renewal) based growth. neers how to achieve annual savings on work with the federal agencies in of $700 million. the Subcommittee on Construction In its program review for the NIST and Building and with industry; and a Executive Board, BFRL cited a number The Industrial Fire Simulation System, Disaster Mitigation initiative based on of $100 million scale impacts of its developed by David Evans and col- collaboration with NOAA and other program: leagues, showed the capability to bureaus of the Department of • Guidelines for the Seismic model the interactions of sprinklers, Commerce. All fared well enough to Rehabilitation of Welded Steel draft curtains and vents in a simulation be included in a Livable Communities Frames, developed with the of a warehouse fire. The simulation proposal by the President’s Office of American Institute of Steel capability is very valuable for design of Science and Technology Policy in Construction, to make cost effec- fire safety systems since a single full December 1998. However, none tive multi-billion dollars in rehabili- scale test, covering only one set of vari- became part of the President’s propos- tations. ables, costs about $50,000. al for his 2000 budget. • Expert System for Highway Concrete to guide materials selec- William Stone and colleagues demon- tion and repair techniques for the One great highlight of fiscal year 1998 strated BFRL’s National Construction multi-billion dollar highway pave- was that BFRL received funding to Automation Testbed that combined ment market. build the smoke abatement system for real time construction site metrology • Alternate Refrigeration Systems to the fire laboratory from NIST’s and virtual reality simulations to allow increase U.S. markets for environ- appropriation for renewal of facilities. construction automation hardware and mentally friendly refrigerants and Finally, in 2001, BFRL was again able equipment and to reduce energy software to evaluated for on site per- to conduct medium and large scale fire costs. formance. Wireless real time metrolo- tests in its own laboratory. • Building Automation Protocol to gy and simulation capabilities will sup- increase market for U.S. products, port automation and remote control BFRL’s Success Strategy was cited by and to save in installation, opera- for safety and productivity in construc- NIST director Ray Kammer as proba- tion and maintenance costs. tion. bly “best in NIST” for reallocation of • Moisture modeling to save over resources. In addition to the major $100 million annually in energy Robert Chapman and Roderick products, the remainder of BFRL’s costs of wet insulation and in repairs Rennison published the first two stud- directly appropriated funds were allo- of degradation caused by wet insula- ies of baseline and progress measure- cated systematically using the tion. ments for the National Construction Analytical Hierarchy Process standard- • Fire Modeling to save construction Goals. These studies described data ized for ASTM by BFRL’s own Office and rehabilitation costs by allowing sources, data classifications and hierar- of Applied Economics. The Success performance based design of fire chies, and the metrics for the baselines Strategy received support from NIST, safety systems. and progress for the goals on project the Assessment Panel for BFRL, and • Environmentally friendly fire sup- delivery time and on life cycle opera- BFRL staff, but it succeeded at best at pressant systems to prevent airplane tion, maintenance and energy costs.

88 to the modeling of the Jack Snell’s work over two years with microstructure and properties the Breakthrough Research Committee of concrete. of the Construction Industry Institute (CII) led to the organization of the 6.10 1999 FIATECH (Fully-Integrated and Automated Project Process Systems Richard Wright retired as and Technologies) Consortium. FIAT- director of BFRL at the end ECH brought major owners of con- of January 1999. Jack Snell structed facilities, engineering con- succeeded him as BFRL struction firms, and suppliers of infor- director and James Hill suc- mation technology hardware and soft- S. Shyam Sunder, chief, Structures Division ceeded Snell as deputy direc- ware into a collaborative effort with tor. Wright retired pleased with the BFRL to reduce project delivery time accomplishments of CBT/BFRL’s and cost. The focus was on seamless researchers and managers, often under They defined an approach applicable integration of project information adverse circumstances, in his years as to all of the goals. through the whole life cycle and by director, and regretful that BFRL had bringing real-time wireless data from not achieved the scope, size and fund- S. Shyam Sunder became Chief of the the construction site into project man- Structures Division. Sunder joined ing needed to meet the measurement agement information systems. Richard BFRL in 1994 as Manager of the High and standards needs of the construc- Jackson retired as director of NIST’s Performance Construction Materials tion and fire safety communities. This Manufacturing Engineering Laboratory and Systems Program after 14 years on history overall tells the story of the to lead the FIATECH Consortium. the Civil Engineering faculty of MIT, accomplishments and frustrations in The BFRL major product Computer- and served in the Office of the NIST some detail. Integrated Construction Environment Director as program analyst and senior evolved into Construction Integration program analyst from June 1996 to The year was tight financially without and Automation Technologies (CON- December 1997. H.S. Lew, who served new directly appropriated funding and SIAT) to align itself with a major as division chief from 1989 to 1997, other federal agencies also limited in theme of FIATECH. continued as senior research structural their funding for BFRL. BFRL had engineer with major responsibilities in focused directly appropriated funding The Cybernetic Building Systems earthquake engineering and national increasingly on new areas such as major product aimed at performance and international standardization. FIATECH and Cybernetic Building measurement and evaluation tools and Systems. BFRL developed a marketing open systems protocols for integrated, Richard Marshall received the first program for its managers and senior intelligent building service systems Walter P. Moore Award of the researchers to improve prospects for providing optimal control, fault detec- American Society of Civil Engineers funding from other federal agencies tion and diagnostics for energy man- for his career contributions to wind and the private sector. NIST director agement, real-time purchase of elec- engineering standards - a most timely Ray Kammer also made central alloca- tricity, fire and security, transportation, recognition as Marshall entered the tion funding available to support earth- and aggregation of sets of buildings. final stages of a mortal illness. Dale quake, fire, and wind engineering tem- BFRL works with industry, building Bentz received the L’Hermite Award of porarily because initiatives were not professionals, ASHRAE and trade RILEM for his seminal contributions funded by Congress. organizations, university researchers

89 and other government agencies to pre- interdisciplinary teams in understand- pare a Virtual Cybernetic Building ing the mechanisms of fire suppression Testbed and conduct a full-scale and in expanding capabilities for cali- demonstration of a Cybernetic bration of heat flux measuring devices. Building System in a government office building complex. George Kelly became chief of the Building Environment Division. Kelly Jeffrey Gilman and Takashi Kashiwagi joined NBS in 1970 and led devel- demonstrated that polymer-clay opment of work in building George Kelly, chief, Building Environment Division. nanocomposites fulfill requirements automation and control systems as for high-performance additive type leader of the Mechanical Systems flame retardant systems for polymers. and Controls Group since 1980. His General Services Administration which Flammability is reduced while improv- quiet manner hides great technical was an important source of funds for ing other properties of the polymer. A insight and imagination and unstinting CBT and CFR in the 80s. consortium of eight companies and efforts to meeting commitments on three government agencies has been time, target and budget. Raufaste also led CBT’s and BFRL’s formed to study the nanocomposites’ efforts to communicate effectively with flame retardant mechanism. Noel Raufaste retired from BFRL as the building and fire communities at Manager, Cooperative Research large - supplementing the traditional Richard Gann stepped aside from Programs, at the end of December communication of researchers with Chief of the Fire Science Division, a 1998 to become Managing Director, their peers and the direct users of their position he had held since 1982, to Technical and International Activities, research in standardization and similar focus on leading the interagency effort for the American Society of Civil activities. He designed and developed to remove dependence on ozone- Engineers. Raufaste joined CBT’s project summaries, reports on publica- depleting halon fire suppressants, Office of Federal Building guidance to U.S. manufacturers in Technology in 1972 to develop, Noel Raufaste, lead BFRL's cooperative research exporting to countries with diverse oversee and participate in research programs for a quarter century. fire test requirements, and developing projects for federal agencies. He a scientifically sound basis for deter- continued these efforts throughout mining when and how to include the his years with CBT and BFRL, and sublethal effects of smoke in fire safety represented CBT/BFRL in the decisions. National Science and Technology Council’s Subcommittee on Natural William Grosshandler, who joined Disaster Reduction, the Federal BFRL in 1991 as Leader of the Fire Facilities Council of the National Sensing and Extinguishment Group Research Council, for which he served after three years as Director of the on the Program Committee and as Thermal Systems Program of the Vice Chair, and on the Consultative National Science Foundation, became Council of the National Institute of chief of the Fire Science Division. At Building Sciences, which he chaired BFRL Grosshandler enthusiastically for a term. He developed a major and efficiently led highly successful cooperative research program with the

90 tions, newsletters and videos to inform Vision: The source of critical tools - met- At the end of the year, the Fire Safety and attract potential collaborators in rics, models and knowledge - used Engineering Division and the Fire and users of CBT/BFRL research. A to advance the communities we Science Division were merged into the number of these products received serve. Fire Research Division with William national awards for their quality. Grosshandler as chief. This provided a The assessment showed that NIST, single focal point at NIST for fire He coordinated CBT’s international through BFRL, has growing opportuni- research and recognized the attrition activities during the early and mid ties and is driving major changes while of fire research funding and staff since 1970s and later coordinated collabora- facing shrinking resources. The out- the Center for Fire Research was tions with several European building comes envisioned were: organized in 1974. However, the quality and impact of BFRL’s fire research and fire research laboratories He • Innovative Materials: enable the next continue to grow as shown by the served as the U.S. side Secretary generation materials for construc- descriptions herein of the work. General for the U.S./Japan Panel on tion and building products. Wind and Seismic Effects from 1985- • Enhanced Building Performance: 1999, organized and coordinated its Another evidence in 2000 of the suc- provide means to assure that build- highly productive technical commit- cess of BFRL fire research was the ings work better throughout their tees, and arranged funding for its work election of Howard Baum to the useful lives. by U.S. agencies. For a quarter centu- National Academy of Engineering in ry, Raufaste worked effectively with • Fire Loss Reduction: enable engi- recognition of his research on fluid foreign science diplomats from about neered fire safety for people, prod- mechanics of fire, turbulent combus- 20 foreign embassies in Washington, ucts, facilities, and first responders. tion and the development of efficient DC to help them learn about large eddy simulation methods for tur- NBS/NIST research and to gain access The shrinking resources were a serious bulent combustion. Baum joined NBS to foreign research. In addition, he problem. BFRL management was in 1975, received with Ronald Rehm provided staff support for the program required to announce a reduction in one of the first competence project awards in 1978 for the beginning of planning activities of CBT/BFRL. His force affecting a number of its most the large eddy simulation method and enthusiasm and unstinting efforts renowned and productive researchers was selected as NIST Fellow in 1983. earned the respect of colleagues in to show NIST management that with- His influence on fire research and BFRL and collaborating organizations. out additional resources BFRL could not respond to new demands and practice extends far beyond his own work. Baum delights in collaboration 6.11 2000 opportunities without terminating established and productive work. NIST with and development of young BFRL initiated this last year of the responded with reallocation of researchers to become independent 20th century with a self assessment resources that allowed cancellation of leaders in fire science and engineering. and action plan following the criteria the reduction in force. of the Malcolm Baldrige National The work of Howard Baum and col- Quality Award. The resulting mission Moreover, BFRL succeeded in gaining leagues in collaboration with industry and vision became: new funding in wind engineering and was made available to fire protection technologies for fire fighter safety engineers, designers and investigators Mission: Meet the ongoing measurement through Congressional appropriation with release of the Fire Dynamics and standards infrastructure needs for fiscal year 2001 that put BFRL on Simulator (www.fire.nist.gov). The of the Building and Fire Safety a sound financial basis for the begin- NIST Fire Dynamics Simulator con- Communities. ning of the new century. sists of two programs, FDS and

91 Smokeview. The NIST Fire Dynamics The work of Jonathan Martin and col- 6.12 CONSTRUCTION Simulator predicts smoke and/or air leagues enabled reliability-based pre- AND BUILDING flow movement caused by fire, wind, dictions of the service lives of poly- SUBCOMMITTEE, ventilation systems etc. Smokeview meric materials. Outdoor exposures NATIONAL SCIENCE visualizes the predictions generated by are characterized by time series of NIST FDS. FDS, solves a form of the temperature, moisture and ultra-violet AND TECHNOLOGY Navier-Stokes equations appropriate exposure; laboratory and field studies COUNCIL for low-speed, thermally-driven flows define mechanisms of degradation and This section is included as a manage- of smoke and hot gases generated in a formulate cumulative damage models ment topic in building and fire fire. Kevin McGrattin and Glenn which then are used for rational, prob- research history because it was a major Forney received the Department of abilistic predictions of service life. concern of BFRL management and Commerce Silver Medal in 2001 in concerned program development recognition of this work. The work of John Gross, in coopera- rather than technical work. tion with the American Institute of David Didion was awarded the first Steel Construction (AISC) and several At its beginning, the Clinton Gustov Lorentzen Prize of the leading universities, to develop guid- Administration gave priority to eco- International Institute of Refrigeration ance for the rehabilitation of welded nomic growth [9], and particularly to for his pioneering work in refrigeration steel moment frames to improve their technologies for economic growth research and in the search for alterna- seismic resistance, was published as [10]. President Clinton established the tives to CFC refrigerants. Didion AISC Design Guide 12, Modification National Science and Technology joined NBS in 1971 and decided after of Existing Welded Steel Moment Council (NSTC) by Executive Order a year in the NBS Director’s Office in Frame Connections for Seismic on November 23, 1993, to coordinate 1972-73 to focus on technical work Resistance. In 2002, John Gross science, space and technology policies rather than management. However, his received the Department of across the federal government. The great effectiveness in working with Commerce Bronze medal for this work President chaired NSTC; members leaders of industry and other agencies, and the American Society of Civil included the Vice President, the in developing young researchers Engineers (ASCE) Raymond C. Reese Assistant to the President for Science including part time teaching of gradu- Research prize for a related paper. and Technology, Cabinet Secretaries ate courses and supervision of theses, and Agency Heads with significant sci- in conceiving and conducting innova- The work of William Stone and col- ence and technology responsibilities, tive research programs to produce leagues in cooperation with Pankow and other White House officials. Mary changes in practice, and in candid Construction to develop hybrid con- Good, Undersecretary of Commerce assessments of managerial fads and ini- nections for precast concrete frame for Technology, chaired the NSTC’s tiatives extended his influence far systems was implemented in the build- Committee on Civilian Industrial beyond his own, very influential work. ing authorities’ approval for construc- Technology (CCIT) which was charged He conceived and initiated highly suc- tion of the tallest reinforced concrete to collaborate with industry to cessful CBT/BFRL research in building in California - a 39 story enhance the international competitive- mechanical systems and controls as apartment in San Francisco. Stone, ness of U.S. industry through federal well as initiating and leading his prize Geraldine Cheok, and H.S. Lew technology policies and programs. winning research on alternative refrig- received the Department of erants and on refrigeration cycles to Commerce Silver Medal for this work BFRL’s mission already was well increase their efficiency. in 2001. aligned with the thrusts of NSTC and

92 CCIT: to enhance the competitiveness for C&B to OSTP. The Civil Mission of U.S. industry and public safety Engineering Research Foundation Enhance the competitiveness of U.S. through performance prediction and (CERF), led by Harvey Bernstein, industry, public safety and environmental measurement technologies and techni- expressed interest in convening private quality through research and development, cal advances that improve the life cycle sector interests to participate in the in cooperation with U.S. industry, labor quality of constructed facilities. At its C&B program. A planning group and academia, for improvement of the life meeting of December 7, 1993, CCIT including representatives of the cycle performance of constructed facilities. discussed establishing a Subcommittee Department of Defense, Housing and on Construction and Building (C&B). Urban Development, and National Goals, which came to be known as the Richard Wright worked with Mary Science Foundation met on March 2, National Construction Goals, were Good and with Henry Kelly and 1994, and additional inputs were made quantitative to show policy mak- Cynthia Arnold-McKenna of the obtained from the Environmental ers in industry and government the President’s Office of Science and Protection Agency, Federal Highway importance of the program. Technology Policy (OSTP) to organize Administration, and Health and 1. 50 percent reduction in project C&B. Kelly in 1988, while with the Human Services. A proposed Program delivery time. Office of Technology Assessment, had Description for C&B was submitted to 2. 50 percent reduction in operation worked with Arthur Rosenfeld, CCIT on March 7, and CCIT estab- and maintenance. Director of the Center for Building lished the subcommittee on March 18, 3. 30 percent increase in productivity Science of the Lawrence Berkeley 1994. and comfort. Laboratory (LBL), to outline proposed 4. 50 percent fewer occupant related National Institutes for the Built C&B met on March 25, to agree on its illnesses and injuries. Environment, modeled on the vision, mission and goals [11]. 5. 50 percent less waste and pollution. National Institutes of Health. At the 6. 50 percent more durability and suggestion of OSTP, Wright and Vision flexibility. Rosenfeld became co-chairmen of • High quality constructed facilities 7. 50 percent reduction in construc- C&B. Rosenfeld, originally a nuclear support the competitiveness of U.S. tion related illnesses and injuries. physicist, applied his drive and imagi- industry and everyone’s quality of The baseline for the goals was current nation to energy conservation technol- life. construction practices, and the target ogy and policy following the energy • U.S. industry leads in quality and was to have technologies and practices crisis of 1973 and led the development economy in the global market for capable of meeting the goals available of LBL’s major energy conservation construction products and services. to the industry by 2003. program. • The construction industry and constructed facilities are energy effi- On April 5, 1994, CERF convened a Rosenfeld immediately arranged sub- cient, environmentally benign, safe broadly based focus group of industry stantial funding from the Department and healthful, and sustainable in use leaders to discuss the C&B program. of Energy for C&B to match that pro- of resources. The program and goals were endorsed vided by BFRL. Andrew Fowell of • Natural and manmade hazards do enthusiastically [12]. NIST accepted the secretariat of C&B. not cause disasters. Thomas Anderson, a Fluor Daniel • Intelligent renewal, a process that On May 6, 1994, Leon Panetta, executive on an AAAS fellowship to cost effectively uses limited econom- Director of the Office of Management RAND Corporation’s Critical ic, material and human resources, is and Budget, and John Gibbons, Technologies Institute, provided liaison applied to rebuilding America. Director of the Office of Science and

93 Technology Policy, issued FY 1996 Wonderful! For the first time in the The Administration’s loss of both Research and Development Priorities experience of any of the veteran feder- houses of Congress in the 1994 elec- to the heads of executive departments al officials serving on C&B, an admin- tions made the Administration’s budg- and agencies. Three of the seven cited istration had given top priority to et priorities for FY 1996 irrelevant to priorities for research related to the research to improve construction and Congress. C&B received sustained pri- program of C&B: constructed facilities. C&B proceeded ority in the Administration [17] and • Construction and Building. to define a program of research to focused its efforts on developing col- Activities that support the residen- meet its goals [13], and to develop laborations with industry that would tial/commercial building construc- partnerships with the private sector to be attractive of Congressional support tion industry and its suppliers in the fund and conduct the needed research, [18]. C&B studied existing federal development of advanced technolo- development and demonstration [14, research supporting the industries of gies aimed at increasing the produc- 15, 16]. The agencies participating in construction and showed that it tivity of construction, improving C&B planning and program develop- amounted to $500 million per year product quality (including energy ment were the departments of [19]. Focusing and coordinating feder- efficiency and improved air quality), Agriculture, Commerce, Defense, al R&D for construction, in coopera- use of renewable resources, and Energy, Health and Human Services, tion with industry, to address the Interior, Labor, Transportation, and increased worker health and safety. National Construction Goals clearly Veterans Affairs, and the Focus areas will include the develop- was of important public interest. A Environmental Protection Agency, ment and demonstration of systems Collaborations Workshop [20] was for constructed facilities exploiting General Services Administration, conducted to make industry organiza- advanced construction materials; National Aeronautics and Space tions aware of the mechanisms existing advanced design, modeling and engi- Administration, and National Science for collaborative research with the fed- neering tools for concurrent engi- Foundation. eral agencies. neering design and life-cycle monitoring and maintenance; automated Because the different sectors of the The Residential Sector, led by Liza construction methods; and industries of construction had distinct Bowles, president of the National improved building systems such as needs and priorities, the development sensors and control, fire safety sys- of collaborations with industry were Association of Homebuilders Research tems, advanced glazing, and lighting divided into four sectors with an Foundation, moved vigorously to systems. appropriate private sector organization define a program meeting its priority • Materials Technology. Emphasis will coordinating each sector’s efforts: goals [21]. In December of 1996, be placed on materials processing 1. Residential, coordinated by the Rosenfeld and Wright agreed with for specific industry sectors, in par- National Association of Mary Good, Undersecretary of ticular automotive, electronics, con- Homebuilders Research Commerce for Technology, and Henry struction, environmental technolo- Foundation. Kelly, of the Office of Science and gies, and aeronautics. 2. Commercial and Institutional, Technology Policy (OSTP), to organize • Physical Infrastructure for coordinated by the National a major program with the residential Transportation. Activities will Institute of Building Sciences, industry. David Engel of Housing and include improved materials, moni- 3. Industrial, coordinated by the Urban Development (HUD), John toring instruments, tools, construc- Construction Industry Institute. Talbott of the Department of Energy tion methods, and design concepts 4. Public Works, coordinated by the (DoE), Joel Zingeser of BFRL, and for the construction and renewal of American Public Works Mark Bernstein of OSTP led the effort the physical infrastructure. Association. to organize the Partnership for

94 Advancing Technology for Housing and its FIATECH Consortium resulted References (PATH). Bernstein used effectively the from these collaborations. 1. Noel. J. Raufaste, NIST Building and Fire leverage of “calling from the White Research Laboratory - Collaborating with our Customers, NIST Special Publication 838- House” to attract participation of From the beginnings of its interactions 3, National Institute of Standards and industry leaders, and Engel, Talbott with industry [12], C&B was told that Technology, 1993. and Zingeser, built on their agencies’ barriers to innovation in construction 2. Andrew J. Fowell, Building and Fire extensive experiences in collaborations practices and products were severe dis- Research Laboratory Accomplishments 1995- with industry and Congress to develop incentives to increased private sector 1996, NIST Special Publication 838-11, the program. PATH was announced by investments in research. Among prin- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1997. President Clinton on May 1998 [22], cipal barriers were 1) the multiple 3. Andrew J. Fowell, Building and Fire and HUD received an increase of $10 approvals of innovative products Research Laboratory - Activities, million for PATH in its FY 1999 budg- required by federal agencies and the Accomplishments & Recognitions 1997, et to reverse a 25 year decline in regulatory authorities of state and local NIST Special Publication 838-14, HUD’s funding for housing technolo- governments, and 2) the multiple, National Institute of Standards and gy. NIST proposed budget increases uncoordinated reviews and approvals Technology, 1998. 4. Noel J. Raufaste, Building and Fire for PATH for both FY 1999 and FY imposed upon construction projects Research Laboratory - Activities, 2000, but did not give either sufficient by the regulatory authorities of federal, Accomplishments, & Recognitions 1998, priority with the White House to make state and local governments. To NIST Special Publication 838-15, it part of the President’s Budget address the first barrier, C&B agencies National Institute of Standards and Proposal to Congress. However, HUD supported the formation of nationally Technology, 1999. allocated a substantial portion of its recognized evaluation centers: for 5. Andrew J. Fowell, Building and Fire Research Laboratory- Activities, budget for PATH to BFRL for techni- building products by the International Accomplishments & Recognitions 1999, cal support. Code Council and CERF, and for high- NIST Special Publication 838-16, way, environmental and civil engineer- National Institute of Standards and The Construction Industry Institute ing products by CERF. To address the Technology, 2000. (CII) informed C&B that it would not second barrier, C&B funded the 6. Andrew J. Fowell, Building and Fire Research Laboratory- Activities, collaborate formally with C&B, but National Conference of States on Accomplishments & Recognitions 2000- would welcome participation of federal Building Codes and Standards (NCS- 2001, NIST Special Publication 838-16, agencies in its programs addressing its BCS) to develop a program for National Institute of Standards and goals (which were consistent with Streamlining the Building Regulatory Technology, 2002. those of C&B). BFRL became a mem- Process [24]. The Streamlining pro- 7. David Shaffer, “Tobacco, fire groups ber of CII, as representing the gram identified, and made available linked,” Pioneer Press, July 13, 1998. 8. S. Shyam Sunder, David C. Cranmer, Department of Commerce, and a nationally, best practices used success- and Richard E. Korchak, “Manufacturing number of other C&B agencies already fully in various localities [25]. Because Extension Partnerships for the were CII members. CII sponsored a of the potential for information tech- Construction Industry,” Construction workshop [23] to explore research nologies for efficient sharing of infor- Business Review, pp 1-6, 1996. needs and opportunities with C&B, mation by project proponents and reg- 9. A Vision of Change for America, Executive and made a commitment to “break- ulatory authorities, the Streamlining Office of the President, February 17, 1993. 10. Technology for America’s Economic Growth, A through research” in its strategic plan. Project has evolved into NCSBCS’s New Direction to Build Economic Strength, CII’s program in Fully Integrated and National Alliance for Building Executive Office of the President, Automated Project Processes (FIAPP) Regulatory Reform. February 22, 1993.

95 11. Richard N. Wright, Arthur H. 16. Richard N. Wright, “Government and 21. Action Plans for Achieving High-Priority Rosenfeld, and Andrew J. Fowell, Industry Working Together,” Construction Construction Goals in the Residential Sector, Program of the Subcommittee on Construction Business Review, pp 44-49, NAHB Research Center, Inc., March and Building, NISTIR 5443, National January/February 1995. 1997. Institute of Standards and Technology, 17. Richard N. Wright, Arthur H. 22. Jack E. Snell, Arthur H. Rosenfeld, 1994. Rosenfeld, and Andrew J. Fowell, Andrew J. Fowell, and Richard N. 12. Innovation in the U.S. Construction Industry: Construction and Building: Federal Research Wright, Construction and Building: An Essential Component for America’s and Development in Support of the U.S. Interagency Program for Technical Economic Prosperity and Well-Being, Civil Construction Industry, National Science Advancement in Construction and Building, Engineering Research Foundation, April and Technology Council, 1995. National Science and Technology 28, 1994. 18. Richard N. Wright, Arthur H. Council, 1999. 13. Richard N. Wright, Arthur H. Rosenfeld, and Andrew J. Fowell, 23. Construction Industry/Federal Agency Research Rosenfeld, and Andrew J. Fowell, Workshop, June 18, 1997, Construction National Planning for Construction and Rationale and Preliminary Plan for Federal Industry Institute, Austin, TX. Building R&D, NISTIR 5759, National Research for Construction and Building, 24. Robert Wible and M. Cote, Annual Institute of Standards and Technology, NISTIR 5536, National Institute of Progress Report for Streamlining the Nation’s 1995. Standards and Technology, 1994. Building Regulatory Process Project, National 14. Andrew J. Fowell, White Papers Prepared for 19. S. McGaraghan, Summary of Federal Conference of States on Building Codes and the White House - Construction Industry Construction and Building R&D in 1994, Standards, NISTIR-GCR-98-741, Workshop on National Construction Goals, NISTIR 5849, National Institute of National Institute of Standards and NISTIR 5610, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1996. Technology 1997. Standards and Technology, 1994. 20. Civil Engineering Research Foundation, 25. Innovation in the Construction Industry and 15. Carl Magnell, National Construction Goals: Report on the Construction Industry the Building Regulatory Process, National A Construction Industry Perspective, Civil Collaborations Workshop, NIST-GCR-97- Conference of States on Building Codes Engineering Research Foundation, 711, National Institute of Standards and and Standards, 1999. January 1995. Technology, 1997.

96 7. ARCHITECTURE, ENVIRONMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY, 7AND ACOUSTICS

From the time in the late 60s when Quantitative knowledge of how the John Eberhard and James Wright built environment affects human began to rebuild the Division of health, safety and behavior is essential Building Research, Architectural to providing functional, safe and eco- Research and Environmental nomical constructed facilities. Psychology were seen as important Architects are responsible for many or program and growth areas. CBT was most of the early decisions affecting formed in 1972 with an Architectural the usefulness, safety and economy of Research Section in its Technical buildings. CBT should work closely Evaluation and Applications Division with architects to identify and provide and a Sensory Environment Section in the measurements, performance pre- its Building Environment Division. diction methods and standards they Most Acoustics research had been need. Throughout the 70s these areas transferred to the Engineering received very little directly appropriat- Mechanics Division, but this returned ed funding and CBT received no sup- to CBT in 1978 with the establish- port from NBS for initiatives to ment of the National Engineering increase their funding. Nevertheless, Laboratory and the elimination of the CBT and its staff members were rec- Engineering Mechanics Division. ognized well in the architectural and Eberhard was a strong advocate for environmental psychology communi- advancing NBS’s building technology ties for their leadership in research. program and worked hard to understand users needs for technologies. He However, when the Reagan said, “We don’t produce cities as Administration imposed staffing cuts on abstract things, but as places people NBS in the 80s, NBS felt it should can use. Yet even today (late 60s) we focus its limited personnel resources on don’t know how to relate the human measurement-oriented physical sciences to their environment (in urban areas).” and engineering. CBT was directed by NBS management to eliminate its work CBT management continued to believe in architectural research, environmental in the importance of this work. psychology and psychoacoustics.

97 Stahl. The team made extensive video 7.3 HUMAN RESPONSE studies of how people used stairs and IN FIRES the apparent causes for accidents and near accidents. The user’s approach Frederick Stahl, in support of the and orientation to the stairway was Center for Fire Research’s research to found critical to safety: the beginning quantify fire hazards, developed, and of the stair should be clearly defined verified through observations of and distractions to the user’s attention human behavior, a computer program John P. Eberhard, director, Institute for Applied minimized. Stairs should be regular; BFIRES for simulation of human Technology 1966-1970. the user expects tread height and movements during building fires [6,7]. depth to remain the same and is likely The model postulates that people con- to be tripped up by changes. This, struct their emergency responses and 7.1 STAIR SAFETY other CBT safety research, and behavioral decisions dynamically in Stair safety was a major topic in archi- research elsewhere was prepared for response to what they observe them- tectural research [1,2]. Within CBT, dissemination to architects and selves and observe others doing. This the research was led by John Archea builders under a contract from CBT work was incorporated in HAZARD, with collaborations from Belinda [3], although the original CBT reports CFR’s computer program for predict- Collins, Steven Margulis, and Frederick continue to be requested to this day. ing the hazards produced by fire sce- The model building code organization, narios, and is used in its successors. Building Officials and Code John Archea videotaping persons ascending and descending stairs to evaluate possible barriers to Administrators, International, cited 7.4 ENERGY CONSERVING slips and falls. this research as a major contribution DESIGN to stair safety [4], and the results were incorporated in the 1982 edition of One of the first issues for energy con- Architectural Graphic Standards. In servation in buildings was building January 1981, Progressive fenestration - or windows. In the Architecture, awarded a research prize early 70s,the bulk of buildings used to CBT and BOSTI (Buffalo single-glazed, transparent materials, Organization for Social and which allowed for significant energy Technological Innovations) for the losses in terms of excessive heat gain Home Safety Guidelines for Architects during the day, and heat loss at night. and Builders. To solve the problem, some designers and engineers suggested reducing or 7.2 SECURITY eliminating windows. Others suggested analyzing all aspects of windows, John Stroik led CBT’s research on including the positive lighting benefits burglar resistance of doors and provided by daylighting, more creative ASTM’s development of security stan- use of heat gains and losses, and con- dards for doors [5]. Criteria were sideration of any psychological benefits established by analysis of available data to building occupants. on burglars’ methods, duplication of the attacks, and measurements of The Center for Building Technology effects of the duplicated attacks. convened a multidisciplinary group to

98 7.5 COLOR AND SAFETY SIGNS Kenneth Kelly continued and completed Dean Judd’s many years of research at NBS to characterize color and issued the Universal Color Language and Color Names Dictionary [13].

During the late 1970s researchers became aware of the importance and effectiveness of both symbols and col- S. Robert Hastings and an assistant are dis- ors in communicating important safe- cussing methods to minimize unwanted solar Standards put the results on the desks ty-related information. The Center for heat gain. of architectural designers while NBS’s Building Technology responded by thermal load determination programs directing resources toward research by CBT’s Tamami Kusuda, enabled into the understandability of pictorial, evaluate all aspects of window per- engineers to make the necessary ther- formance. The group consisted of an mal calculations and tradeoffs easily safety symbols [14]. Research was con- architect, an economist, a psychologist, and accurately. ducted in support of programs at the and a thermal engineer. Belinda Occupational Safety and Health Collins led the team. Collins, an envi- S. Robert Hastings provided architec- Administration (OSHA), National ronmental psychologist, led interdisci- tural expertise to a variety of CBT pro- Institute of Occupational Safety and plinary studies of energy conservation grams for energy conservation and Health (NIOSH), and the Bureau of in buildings and color rendering of solar energy. His “typical houses” for Mines (BOM). In addition, CBT lighting for safety symbols. Its publica- assessment of energy conservation and researchers, including Belinda Collins, tions [8, 9, 10] stimulated much solar energy options have been used Brian Pierman, and Neil Lerner greater national consideration of the extensively by researchers and practi- worked with industry, which wanted to benefits of daylighting, building orien- tioners, worldwide [11]. develop voluntary consensus standards tation, usable solar gains, life cycle for safety symbols to be used on costs, and psychological responses. Edward Arens, an architect expert in equipment and in facilities. Following wind and other environmental effects the initial research into symbols, As a result of the NBS research, build- on people, collaborated with Preston Belinda Collins and her colleagues also ing codes were modified to include the McNall of the Building Environment investigated the role of both color and opportunity for daylight tradeoffs, lighting spectrum to determine if safe- solar and multi-layer glazing, solar Division and researchers from the J. B. ty colors could be detected and identi- controls, and utilization of beneficial Pierce Foundation to update the “bio- solar heat gains, while minimizing climatic” chart describing comfort as a fied accurately under the newer, more unwanted heat loss. Building design function of clothing, activity level and efficient light sources being used in became more flexible by allowing the thermal environment [12]. This industrial and agricultural facilities architects and designers to use building information was valued by researchers [15]. Next, Jim Worthey and Belinda site and location more effectively, while and designers dealing with the broader Collins extended these procedures to continuing to meet occupant needs. range of thermal environment encoun- an evaluation of the visibility of dis- Applications in Architectural Graphic tered with passive solar energy systems. eases, defects and contamination in

99 the NFPA Committee on conserving lighting standards, Life Safety Symbols, which Yonemura received the Presidential developed a standard for Award of the Illuminating Engineering life-safety symbols. That Society of North America in 1981. committee also relied on Arthur Rubin led the work of CBT the NBS research on the researchers with the lighting commu- visibility and understand- nity to define the research, standardi- CBT’s illumination test facility is used to develop ability of an exit symbol - zation and education efforts needed to illumination/color criteria. The research facility provided a basis to better understand the interac- which eventually became an ISO sym- improve lighting practices [19]; for tions between the occupants and the illumina- bol. In addition, OSHA referenced the these efforts he received the tion/daylighting systems of a building. It pro- NBS research in the Code of Federal Presidential Award of the Illuminating vides a realistic environment for studying color rendering (distortion) of energy-efficient lighting Regulations. Finally, USDA issued reg- Engineering Society on North America systems. ulations setting minimum color ren- in 1982. Also, Richard Wright served dering guidelines for meat and poultry as chairman of the Board of Directors meat and poultry under different light processing facilities based on the NIST sources [16]. Finally, Belinda Collins research on detectability of defects and disease under different, energy-effi- Steven Treado, mechanical engineer, is exchang- and her colleagues conducted investi- ing experimental luminaries in research to devel- gations into the visibility of exit signs, cient light sources. op and verify models for the interaction between lighting and HVAC systems. Lighting quantity symbols, and exit directional indicators Belinda Collins received the Bronze and quality affect safety, productivity, and the in clear and smoky conditions, again to performance of HVAC systems. Medal Award of the Department of verify the understandability and visibil- Commerce in 1984 for her work on ity of different proposed standards for illumination engineering and safety exit symbols and indicators [17]. The symbols. team involved research psychologists and safety engineers who conducted research in a variety of field condi- 7.6 LIGHTING tions, including actual industrial facili- Gary Yonemura [18] questioned the ties, meat and poultry processing facil- accepted psychophysical basis for light- ities, and mine sites, as well as in labo- ing standards - the ability to just per- ratory conditions. ceive an object (threshold visibility) does improve with increased illumina- The data developed by CBT researchers tion and led to the view “more light were used as input into the set of gives better sight.” However, few visual ANSI Accredited Committee Z535 tasks are carried out at threshold con- Standards for Safety Signs and Colors. ditions. For normal, suprathreshold In particular, Z535.3, 1979, Safety levels of illumination, Yonemura’s work Color Code for Marking Physical showed a definite maximum in visibili- Hazards, relied heavily on the NBS ty; for greater or lesser luminance findings for the understandability of more contrast being required for sub- symbols in both workplaces and mines. jectively equal visibility. In recognition At the same time, NBS also chaired of this work and its influence on energy

100 of the Illuminating Engineering Research Institute and its successor the Lighting Research Institute from 1980-1983.

7.7 BUILDING FOR PEOPLE Arthur Rubin and Jacqueline Elder capped many years of work with publication of the hardcover, well illustrated book Building for People [20]. It is a thoughtful manifesto for the potential contributions of the social sciences to the solution of building design prob- Simone Yaniv making adjustment to test equip- lems. It received the 1981 Blue Pencil of building designs. Collaboration in ment in NBS Anechoic Chamber. Publication Award from National development of highway and building Association of Government noise criteria [22, 23, 24, 25] contin- Communicators. However, because its ued for several years led by Daniel References Flynn of the Center for Mechanical 1. D. H. Carson, John C. Archea, Stephen intended audience of architects and T. Margulis, and F. E. Carson, Safety on architectural students generally seek Engineering and Process Technology (a former member of the Division of Stairs, Building Science Series 108, actual rather than potential contribu- National Bureau of Standards, 1978. tions to such solutions, the book’s Building Research) and Simone Yaniv 2. John C. Archea, Belinda L. Collins, and impact on practice seemed modest. In of CBT. Results were used in ASTM Frederick I. Stahl, Guidelines for Stair application of this work, in January standards. Safety, Building Science Series 120, National Bureau of Standards, 1979. 1982, a CBT-sponsored post occupan- John Molino, Neil Lerner and col- 3. D. Alessi and Michael Brill, Home Safety cy evaluation of a federal office build- leagues who joined CBT from the Guidelines for Architects and Builders, NBS- ing by the University of Michigan’s Engineering Mechanics Division [26] GCR 78-156, National Bureau of Institute of Social Research won a continued and reported psychoacoustic Standards, 1978. Progressive Architecture Award. 4. “What Can We Do to Improve Stair studies of the aversive effects of corona Safety?” Building Standards, May/June and noise from electrical power transmis- July/August, 1984. 7.8 ACOUSTICS sion lines. Thomas Bartel used the 5. John S. Stroik, Physical Security of Door CBT reverberation chamber to study Acoustics researchers in the Assemblies and Components, NILECJ-STD- the effects of edges on the acoustical 0306.00, National Institute of Law Engineering Mechanics Division and absorption of materials [27]. This Enforcement and Criminal Justice, Law architectural researcher Robert Wehrli work received the “best paper” cita- Enforcement Assistance Administration, of CBT collaborated to produce a tion of the Technical Committee on U.S. Department of Justice, May 1976. design guide for reducing transporta- Architectural Acoustics of the 6. Frederick I. Stahl, A Computer Simulation of Human Behavior in Building Fires, NBSIR tion noise in and around buildings Acoustical Society of America. Simone [21]. It presented a unified procedure 78-1514, National Bureau of Standards, Yaniv received the Bronze Medal 1978. for selection of noise criteria, predic- Award of the Department of 7. Frederick I. Stahl, Final Report on the tion of exterior and interior noise lev- Commerce in 1986 for her work in “BFIRES/Version 1” Computer Simulation els, and the evaluation of the adequacy characterizing semi-reverberant spaces. of Emergency Egress Behavior During Fires:

101 Calibration and Analysis, NBSIR 79-1713, 15. Belinda L. Collins, “Safety Color 22. Daniel R. Flynn, C. R. Voorhees, and National Bureau of Standards, 1979. Appearance Under Different Simone L. Yaniv, Highway Noise Criteria 8. Belinda L. Collins, Windows and People: A Illuminants”, Journal of the Illuminating Study: Traffic Noise Data Base, TN 1113-1, Literature Survey of the Psychological Reaction Engineering Society, 16, pp 21-38, 1987. National Bureau of Standards, 1980. to Environments With and Without Windows, 16. Belinda L. Collins, and J. A. Worthey, 23. P. R. Donovan, Daniel R. Flynn, and Building Science Series 70, National “Lighting for Meat and Poultry Simone L. Yaniv, Highway Noise Criteria Bureau of Standards, 1975. Study: Outdoor/Indoor Noise Isolation, TN Inspection”, Journal of the Illuminating 9. Belinda L. Collins, Window Management: 1113-2, National Bureau of Standards, Engineering Society, 15, pp 21-28, 1985. An Overview, ASHRAE Transactions, v85, 1980. 17. Belinda L. Collins, Visibility of Exit Signs Part 2, June 1979. 24. Daniel R. Flynn, and Simone L. Yaniv, 10. S. Robert Hastings and Robert and Directional Indicators, Journal of the Highway Noise Criteria Study: Relations Crenshaw, Window Design Strategies to Illuminating Engineering Society, 20, Among Frequency Rating Procedures, TN Conserve Energy, Building Science Series 117-133, 1991. 1113-3, National Bureau of Standards, 104, National Bureau of Standards, 18. Garry T. Yonemura and Y. Kohayakawa, 1983. 1977. A New Look at the Research Basis for 25. Simone L. Yaniv and Daniel R. Flynn, 11. S. Robert Hastings, Three Proposed Typical Lighting Level Recommendations, Building Noise Criteria for Buildings: A Critical Review, House Designs, NBSIR 77-1309, National Bureau of Standards, 1977. Science Series 82, National Bureau of Special Publication 499, National 12. Edward Arens, R. Gonzales, L. Bergland, Standards, 1976. Bureau of Standards, 1978. Preston E. McNall, and L. Zeren, “A 19. Arthur I. Rubin, editor, Lighting Issues in 26. J.A. Molino, G.A. Zerdy, N.D. Lerner, New Bioclimatic Chart for Passive Solar the 1980s, SP 587, National Bureau of and D.L. Harwood, Psychoacoustic Design”, Proceedings of the American Society Standards, 1980. Evaluation of Transmission Line Audible of the International Solar Energy Society, 20. Arthur I. Rubin and Jacqueline Elder, Noise: Building Attenuation Effects, Methodology Comparison, and Field Study University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Building for People - Behavioral Research Feasibility, DOE/RA/29323-1, U.S. pp 1202-1206, October 1980. Approaches and Directions, Special 13. Kenneth L. Kelly and Deane B. Judd, Department of Energy, 1979. Publication 474, National Bureau of COLOR - Universal Language and Dictionary 27. Thomas W. Bartel, “Effect of Absorber of Names, Special Publication 440, Standards, 1980. Geometry on Apparent Absorption National Bureau of Standards, 1976. 21. David S. Pallett, Robert Wehrli, R.D. Coefficients as Measured in a 14. Belinda L. Collins, The Development and Kilmer, and T.L. Quindry, Design Guide Reverberation Chamber”, Journal of the Evaluation of Effective Symbol Signs, for Reducing Transportation Noise in and Acoustical Society of America, V69, n4, Building Science Series 141, National around Buildings, Building Science Series April 1981. Bureau of Standards, 1982. 84, National Bureau of Standards, 1978.

102 8. CONSTRUCTION INTEGRATION AND 8AUTOMATION

8.1 INFORMATION brilliant and essential concept. Only n EXCHANGE translators to and from the neutral STANDARDS FOR form are required to interchange CONSTRUCTION information among n dissimilar systems, rather than the n times (n-1) In 1983 Samuel Kramer, Deputy translators required for direct inter- Director of the National Engineering change between each pair of systems. Laboratory (NEL), asked CBT to A new system can be introduced with involve its new Computer Integrated the development of only one neutral- Construction Group in the work to language translator, rather than n create the Initial Graphics Exchange direct translators. In addition, the Standard (IGES) of the American developers of a proprietary system do National Standards Institute (ANSI). not need to reveal anything about their This request came on the heels of data management practices to their strong building industry expressions of competitors or users. Furthermore, its need for data exchange standards in the carefully prepared neutral inter- such forums as the First and Second change language can serve as an initial Congresses on Computers/Graphics in or default data structure in the devel- the Building Process cosponsored by opment of proprietary or open system the Advisory Board on the Built software. Finally, the neutral inter- Environment of the National Research change language provides a natural Council and the National Computer archiving format for data that may Graphics Association. need to be reused long after the origi- nating system is retired. IGES was intended to provide a neutral (non-proprietary) interchange lan- The IGES effort took off with the guage for the description of products stimulation of Air Force, Navy, and (initially machine parts) for the auto- NASA management when NBS agreed matic exchange of information to champion it as chair and coordina- between dissimilar computer systems tor. The IGES approach was based on used in design and manufacturing. The technology developed in government neutral interchange language was a and industry projects in the late

103 1970s, including work in one of CBT, was a challenging year to begin a chairman, each with a co-chairman Director Ambler’s first competence new program thrust. Funds were elected from industry, of the AEC projects in 1978. Bradford Smith of reprogrammed within CBT and aug- Committee of IGES/PDES. This com- the Center for Manufacturing mented with NEL reserve. Staffing was mittee had a strong influence on the Engineering headed the IGES even more difficult with new skills formation of its AEC counterpart in Committee that soon became the needed while a CBT cutting staff was the emerging international standardi- IGES/PDES Organization. unattractive to recruits. Frederick zation effort known familiarly as the Stahl, who had founded the Computer Standard for the Exchange of Product CBT management was eager to partici- Integrated Construction Group, Model Data (STEP) and formally as pate in IGES. Automatic exchange of departed CBT for work in industry. ISO 10303—Product Data information between dissimilar sys- Kent Reed, a Ph.D. physicist, who Representation and Exchange—that is tems was essential to the effective joined CBT in 1981 to work in solar the international analogue of PDES. exploitation of information technology energy but had great interest in com- Reed took over the editorship of IGES in the construction industry and the puter systems, undertook leadership of during the balloting of IGES V4.0 [1] whole life cycle of constructed facili- the group. Reed exemplified the and served as IGES Editor for three ties. Many distinct organizations are NBS/NIST concept “if you have a consecutive versions. During this time involved in the life cycle of a con- challenging new problem, give it to a numerous capabilities essential for the structed facility; owner, designers physicist.” Mark Palmer, an architect AEC industry were added as new (architect, structural engineer, and engineer experienced in commer- capabilities or explicated as informa- mechanical engineer, etc.), contractors cial, institutional, and residential tive appendices. Reed also served as (general, site work, concrete, mechani- building projects, with an advanced the NBS/NIST representative to the cal systems, etc.), regulators, financers degree in Computer Aided Design U.S. Technical Advisory Group to ISO (construction loans and long term from the Mechanical Engineering TC184/SC4 (External Representation finance), occupants, maintainers, reha- Department of MIT, and infectious of Product Definition Data). Palmer bilitators, etc. Generally, the team of organizations involved in a specific enthusiasm for knowledge of and prac- chaired the Application Validation project never has worked together tice in building, joined the Group in Methodology Committee of before and never will work together 1985. William Danner, a Ph.D. psy- IGES/PDES and also served on the again. It is infeasible for all involved chophysicist who had retrained himself U.S. Technical Advisory Group. organizations to acquire and use com- as an acoustician in response to NBS puter hardware and software from the program changes, joined the group in AEC information exchange is techni- same vendor, or to maintain such 1985 to exploit his capabilities in cally more challenging than that for most manufacturing [2]. A product, hardware and software for the 50 year computer simulation and computer for instance a door, carries much more life typical of a constructed facility. aided design. James Barnett, physicist and software engineer, was a founding information that its dimensions, infor- The alternative to automatic exchange mation such as acoustical properties, and continuing member of the group. of information between dissimilar thermal properties, fire resistance, computer systems is to accept the security capabilities, appearance, etc. costs, delays, and mistakes involved in The Group promptly organized and Danner, Palmer, and colleagues in the manual transfer of data from one com- led the Architecture, Engineering, and IGES/PDES Organization and ISO puter’s output to another’s input. Construction (AEC) effort of IGES TC184/SC4 developed the data mod- and its successor the Product Data eling concept [3] and the Application 1983, the beginning of the Exchange Specification of ANSI. First Protocol [4] approach for its imple- Administration’s efforts to eliminate Stahl and then Reed served as co- mentation to meet these AEC needs.

104 With support from the U.S. Navy William Danner and Mark Palmer Configuration Application Protocol, Version (exchange of piping systems informa- received the Bronze Medal Award of 1.0, NISTIR 96-5812, National Institute tion is as important for ships as it is the Department of Commerce in 1993 of Standards and Technology, 1996. for chemical plants and buildings), for their contributions to the interna- 8.2 CONSTRUCTION SITE BFRL led the development of the first tional standards for automatic METROLOGY IGES application protocol [5]. BFRL exchange of design and construction led the development of the STEP AP information. Kent Reed received the In the mid 1980s, CBT and the methodology and the corresponding Silver Medal Award of the Department Robotics Systems Division of the Guidelines [6] by which ISO applies of Commerce in 1994 jointly with two Center for Manufacturing Engineering this methodology in the development colleagues in other NIST laboratories of NBS, led by James Albus, became of STEP. To sustain this methodology, for their contributions to the initial aware of large Japanese investments in Palmer served as the first AP release of ISO 10303, STEP. research for automation in construc- Coordinator for ISO TC184/SC4. tion and decided to determine what References research the U.S. should perform to The PlantSTEP Consortium was 1. B. Smith, G. R. Rinaudot, Kent A. Reed, retain technical leadership for compet- formed in 1995 by leading process T. Wright, The Initial Graphic Exchange itiveness in construction. A workshop plant owners, contractors, software Specification (IGES) Version 4.0, NBSIR of fifty technical experts from universi- 88-3813, National Bureau of Standards, suppliers, and BFRL to advance infor- 1988. ties and the industries of automation mation exchange standardization. 2. Mark E. Palmer, The Current Ability of the and construction was convened in BFRL also worked with pdXi (Process Architecture, Engineering and Construction February 1985 [1] to determine needs Data Exchange Institute of AIChE), Industry to Exchange CAD Data Sets and priorities for research in measure- PIEBASE (Process Industry Executive Digitally, NBSIR 86-3476, National ment technologies for automation in for Achieving Business Advantage Bureau of Standards, 1986. construction and large-scale assembly Using Standards for Data Exchange), 3. William F. Danner, A Proposed Integration (such as ship building). Top priority Framework for STEP (Standard for the NIDDESC (U.S. Navy-Industry Digital Exchange of Product Model Data), NISTIR research on construction metrology Data Exchange Standards Committee), 90-4295, National Institute of Standards was determined to be justified for pro- and the International Alliance for and Technology, 1990. ductivity in construction even without Interoperability, advancing contribu- 4. Randy J. Harrison and Mark E. Palmer, automated equipment on the con- tions to STEP and other data exchange Guidelines for the Specification and Validation struction site and also to be essential standards. BFRL contributed to a of IGES Application Protocols, NISTIR 88- for integrated automation of construc- 3846, National Institute of Standards number of STEP Application Protocol tion site activities: and Technology, 1989. projects relevant to the AEC industry. 5. Mark E. Palmer and Kent A. Reed, 3D 1. Computerized data bases, particu- In particular, BFRL led the develop- Piping IGES Application Protocol Version 1.0, larly an as-built data system includ- ment of STEP AP227, Plant Spatial NISTIR 90-4420, National Institute of ing standardized data elements and Configuration [7]. Standards and Technology, 1990. interfaces. 6. Mark E. Palmer, M.E. Gilbert, and J. M. 2. Automated systems for inventory BFRL also has been especially involved Anderson, Guidelines for the Development management, particularly on-site and Approval of STEP Application Protocols, in developing methods for validating part labeling and tracking of mate- NISTIR 5110, National Institute of draft specifications and for testing Standards and Technology, 1993. rials handling equipment. translators for conformance to STEP 7. W. Burkett, D. Craig, S. Kline, Mark 3. On-site metrology to measure the standards. Palmer and J. Skeels, Plant Spatial characteristics of construction as

105 actually built to feed an as-built equipment and resources using real- References data base with data on position, time data from the site [3]. The 1. John M. Evans, editor, Measurement dimensions and quality control. National Construction Automation Technology for Automation in Construction Testbed was established to assist con- and Large Scale Assembly, NBSIR 85-3310, National Bureau of Standards, 1985. CBT’s Computer Integrated tractors and manufacturers of sensors, 2. William C. Stone, Real-Time GPS and Construction group led by Kent Reed controls and equipment in developing Non-Line-Of-Sight Metrology, NISTIR addressed the standardization of data and evaluating products for construc- 5856, National Institute of Standards and interfaces needed for automatic tion site automation. and Technology, 1996. exchange of information between the 3. William C. Stone, Kent A. Reed, P. information systems of construction Auto-registered Lidar range sensing Chang, Lawrence E. Pfeffer, and Adam S. Jacoff, NIST Research Toward Construction project participants. William Stone, systems integrated with wireless com- Site Integration and Automation, Journal of structural engineer and underwater munications, high speed networking, Aerospace Engineering, v12, n2, April explorer, built upon both sets of temporal project databases, web-based 1999. interests and skills to champion data analysis and 3D user interfaces 4. William C. Stone, Geraldine S. Cheok, CBT/BFRL efforts in construction site have been demonstrated for on-site and Robert R. Lipman, Automated metrology. The publications referenced and remote control of earthworking Earthmoving Status Determination, in the following describe the technolo- operations [4,5]. Conference on Robotics for Challenging Environments, American Society of Civil gies and the software produced to Engineers, February 2000. improve real time construction site BFRL has worked with the 5. Geraldine C. Cheok, William C. Stone, metrology. Construction Industry Institute to Robert R. Lipman, Christopher J. establish the FIATECH consortium to Witzgall, and Javier Bernal, Laser Pulse-synthesized, base-band electro conduct research and development in Scanning for Construction Metrology, magnetic signals were used to measure partnership with construction equip- Robotics and Remote Systems, American Nuclear Society, March 2001. distances to targets through solid walls ment suppliers, information technolo- 6. Robert E. Chapman, Benefits and Costs of [2]. Accuracy to 10 mm was achieved gy suppliers, owners of constructed Research: A Case Study of Construction when obstacles were well characterized facilities and contractors for fully inte- Systems Integration and Automation (the dual problem solved was non- grated and automated project process- Technologies in Industrial Facilities, NISTIR destructive characterization of the es. BFRL’s construction site metrology 6501, National Institute of Standards obstacles). efforts are a key element of FIATECH. and Technology, 2000. BFRL’s prospective assessment of the A prototype world model of a con- benefits of its construction metrology struction site was developed to research [6] indicates potential cost demonstrate the feasibility of real-time savings of five times BFRL’s investment remote control of construction opera- for applications in industrial constructions with a simulation tracking both tion projects alone.

106 99. ECONOMICS

9.1 OVERVIEW OF The OAE has provided economic ECONOMICS products and services through research RESEARCH FOR and consulting to industry and govern- BUILDING AND FIRE ment agencies in support of productivity enhancement, economic growth, PROGRAMS and international competitiveness, The goal of the Office of Applied with a focus on improving the life- Economics (OAE), of the Building and cycle quality and economy of con- Fire Research Laboratory, has been to structed facilities. The focus of OAE’s bring state-of-the-art economic deci- research and technical assistance is sion tools and data to decision makers microeconomic analysis. The OAE in a form that they can understand and provides information to decision mak- use. The focus has been on delivering ers in the public and private sectors useful economics research that would who are faced with choices among new provide the maximum impact for the technologies and policies. available research budget. Several strategic principles were followed: (1) The OAE staff have competence in conduct research in areas of high economics, financial analysis, opera- national interest (e.g., energy econom- tions research, cost engineering, and ics starting in the 1970s); (2) transfer software development. Benefit-cost research findings and tools to users in analysis, life-cycle costing, multicriteria the building community via multiple decision analysis, risk analysis, linear routes-through professional societies programming, statistical modeling, and and standards organizations (e.g., econometrics are techniques the OAE American Society for Testing and has used in evaluating new technolo- Materials (ASTM)), training, and pub- gies, processes, governmental pro- lishing; and (3) adapt the format of grams, legislation, and codes and stan- OAE products to the technology and dards to determine efficient alterna- customer attitudes in the current mar- tives. Research areas include energy ket (e.g., switching over time from conservation in buildings, fire safety, technical reports to user-friendly, deci- automation, seismic design, and build- sion-support software). ing economics. Products include

107 for Building ated money through NIST and in part Technology (CBT). from other government agencies that The establishment enter into agreements with OAE for of a separate research services. While virtually all of building econom- OAE funds come from Federal ics group, howev- sources, in some years as much as 85 er, came with the percent has come from non-NIST hiring of econo- agencies. mist Harold Office of Applied Economics, October 2001 Marshall as Group Examples of other agency sponsors of Leader in 1973. Over the next 27- OAE work are the Department of years, the group varied in size, increas- Energy, Public Health Service, General reports and articles on research finding to 20 persons prior to the Reagan Services Administration, National ings; standard methods and guidelines administration personnel cuts, and Institute of Justice, Environmental for making economic evaluations; becoming stable in recent years at Protection Agency, and the audiovisuals that teach and illustrate about 10-12 permanent employees. Department of Housing and Urban methods in practice; training pro- The group used two strategies to Development. The OAE also provides grams; and decision-support software attract and retain productive employ- economic support for other major with documentation. ees. It organized the group by disci- operating units within NIST, the two pline to encourage economists to join largest efforts being for the Advanced During the period 1967-1973, several and stay with the research team, and it Technology Program and the economists and cost engineers sup- provided research opportunities in Manufacturing Extension Partnership ported various programs in the Center areas of national importance that Program. excited employees about the chance to Harold Marshall, leader, Office of Applied do meaningful work. All work done by the OAE is in the Economics. public domain. While some private The name of the group changed from sector clients want proprietary control Building Economics to Office of over their research, and are therefore Applied Economics (OAE), and the reluctant to fund OAE research direct- group moved in 1981 to the ly, OAE does collaborate with private Computing and Applied Mathematics interests in identifying industry needs Laboratory for a 14-year period. While and in creating research agendas. In the OAE had the charter to work in addition, since many of the products any industrial sector, the staff’s expert- are economic evaluation methods and ise and client history continued to user-friendly software, non-govern- focus research on the building industry ment, as well as government, organiza- area. The group returned to the tions benefit directly from OAE Building and Fire Research Laboratory research. in 1995. The OAE has collaborated with Funds for the operation of the OAE researchers from every Office and come in part from Federally appropri- Group within BFRL. Economists typi-

108 cally work with professionals from policy from promoting Btu budgets try, academia, and government users other disciplines, so it was natural to exclusively to seeking economically of OAE products. capitalize on multidisciplinary, and efficient levels of energy conservation ultimately interdisciplinary, arrange- investment. His BLCC 4.0 computer Cost-Effective Compliance ments to treat building industry prob- program for evaluating energy conser- with Life Safety Codes–The Life lems from multiple perspectives. This vation investments has been used Safety Code for fire protection in ability to work with other disciplines nationwide. For 20 years, Harold buildings is a prescriptive code that made it possible for the OAE to find Marshall, Rosalie Ruegg, and Stephen specifies solutions. It allows, however, other agency clients to support OAE Petersen developed and taught life- for equivalent solutions to be substitut- research consistent with the BFRL and cycle cost workshops and produced ed. In 1978, NIST fire researchers NIST missions. Moreover, the collabo- reports in support of DOE’s energy Harold Nelson and A. J. Shibe devel- ration required of other agency work conservation program. Sieglinde oped a system of assigning points that has helped focus OAE efforts on areas Fuller and Amy Rushing continue that would help the designer choose equiv- of high national interest that offer sig- tradition today; in 2000 an enhanced, alent, alternative building solutions to nificant research payoffs. graphical version of BLCC was com- the prescribed solution for health care pleted and has become the premier occupancies. Robert Chapman and Overviews of Major Projects life-cycle costing software in energy William Hall, in 1982, developed soft- Nine major projects epitomize OAE’s conservation. ware that allowed the user to find responsiveness to significant economic many alternatives close to the least- measurement needs of the building Standard Economic Methods in cost solution that would satisfy the community. Following is a brief Building Economics–This project code requirements. Stephen Weber overview of each of the nine projects started with BFRL’s suggestion to and Barbara Lippiatt, in 1994, that describes project accomplishments ASTM’s Building Performance and enhanced the software, now called and identifies the principal investiga- Constructions Committee that a new ALARM, to greatly facilitate its appli- tors. In the sections that follow the subcommittee called Building cation. Stephen Weber and Laura overviews are more detailed descrip- Economics be established. Harold Schultz extended ALARM to make it tions of each of the nine projects. Marshall became the first chairman in applicable to correction and detention 1979 and remains so today. For 20 facilities. Conservative estimates of the Economics of Energy years this subcommittee has helped cost savings from applying ALARM to Conservation–The energy crisis in shape the research agenda for the the design of military hospitals over a the 1970s spurred the OAE to address OAE and provided a forum for pre- 10-year period exceed $100 million. the problem of how to measure and senting to the building industry OAE evaluate the appropriate level of invest- research results. Robert Chapman, Economic Impacts of BFRL ment in energy conservation in build- Harold Marshall, Stephen Petersen, Research–NIST and other research ings. Scarcity and rising prices of ener- and Rosalie Ruegg made substantial institutions need quantitative measures gy forced the world to revise tradition- contributions to economic measure- of research impacts to efficiently allo- al approaches to construction, mainte- ment by drafting for and guiding cate their budgets among competing nance, and operation of buildings. through the ASTM balloting process research projects and to evaluate the Stephen Petersen’s pathbreaking report 13 standard economic methods, success of past projects. Harold on retrofitting existing housing for guides, and adjuncts based on their Marshall and Rosalie Ruegg published energy conservation redirected the research. The subcommittee continues the first such impact study in CBT in U.S. Department of Energy’s (DOE’s) today to be an excellent link to indus- 1979. Four subsequent reports,

109 authored by Robert Chapman, Stephen Barbara Lippiatt, is a cradle-to-grave embraced widely in the United States Weber, and Sieglinde Fuller, were pub- life-cycle assessment tool that helps by the Construction Specifications lished between 1996 and 2000. Robert users measure and evaluate the envi- Institute, the Design-Build Institute of Chapman’s application of these meth- ronmental and economic performance America, R.S. Means Company, Inc., ods to the estimation of cost savings to of building products over their life- Whitestone Research, and government the public from BFRL investments in times. A traditional life-cycle cost agencies responsible for constructing cybernetic building systems, for exam- comparison of products may reveal the buildings. Since elemental cost esti- ple, showed cost savings of almost most cost-effective choice, but it fails mates are faster and less costly to eight dollars for every dollar of BFRL to account for related environmental make, UNIFORMAT II is making pos- investment. In addition to showing sig- impacts such as resource depletion, sible cost savings from informed design nificant net dollar impacts from select- global warming, and acid rain. BEES tradeoffs early in the planning process ed NIST research projects, this series fills this gap by providing the develop- when the greatest savings from design of reports provided (1) a standard er, owner, manufacturer, and architect choices are possible. framework for categorizing research with software for measuring and com- benefits and costs and (2) standard paring both environmental and eco- Baselines and Measures for the methods for measuring and evaluating nomic performance of building prod- National Construction those benefits and costs. ucts using a single performance score. Goals–The Subcommittee on Two hundred building products can Construction and Building of the Applications of the Analytical now be evaluated with the software, National Science and Technology Hierarchy Process (AHP)–The and additional products continue to be Council developed seven National AHP is a method that considers non- added. Construction Goals at its founding in financial characteristics and economic 1994. The goals were intended to measures in evaluating investments. UNIFORMAT II Elemental attract the support and cooperation of Economists in OAE have applied the Classification for Building policy makers in federal agencies and AHP method to decisions in automat- Specifications, Cost Estimating, in the private sector to the subcom- and Cost Analysis–Building ele- ed manufacturing, fire sprinklers in mittee’s efforts to focus and coordi- ments are major components, com- residences, green-building investments nate federal R&D, to enhance the (BEES), and in the choices of building mon to all buildings, that perform a competitiveness of U.S. industry, and design and location. Robert Chapman given function regardless of design to promote public safety and environ- and Harold Marshall worked with specifications, construction, method, mental quality through research and ASTM and Expert Choice, Inc. to pro- or materials. Examples of elements are development to improve the life-cycle duce an AHP software product that foundations, exterior walls, and light- performance of constructed facilities. supports ASTM standard methods for ing. A standard elemental classifica- Robert Chapman drew upon his expe- economic evaluation. For fiscal years tion of buildings is needed to provide a rience assisting the Construction FY 1998-2000, BFRL management consistent reference for the descrip- Industry Institute to establish baselines used the AHP with a series of resource tion, economic analysis, and manage- and measures for progress on its relat- allocation models developed by Robert ment of buildings during all phases of ed goals to define baselines and meas- Chapman to rate budget proposals and their life cycle. Harold Marshall, in ures for the National Construction to allocate the BFRL research budget. collaboration with consultants Robert Goals. Charette and Brian Bowen, developed BEES: Building for a standard set of elements called UNI- BridgeLCC–BridgeLCC, developed Environmental and Economic FORMAT II. It became an ASTM stan- by Mark Ehlen, is a user-friendly, life- Sustainability–BEES, developed by dard classification and has been cycle costing software tool. It is used

110 to evaluate the economic performance of new/alternative construction materials as compared with conventional materials in the construction of bridges. While the tool is specially tailored to compare new and conventional bridge materials, such as high-performance concrete vs. conventional concrete, it can also be used to compare alternative conventional materials and for the analysis of civil infrastruc- BLCC version 5.1, and the discount factors annual supplement to the software. ture other than bridges. servation in buildings. The National specific energy prices, climate factors, 9.2 ECONOMICS OF Energy Conservation Policy Act, signed heating and cooling equipment effi- ENERGY by President Carter in 1978, called ciencies, and retrofit costs. This CONSERVATION upon the Secretary of The Department report, with an initial dissemination of The energy crisis of the early 1970s of Energy (DOE), in consultation with over 1,000 copies, showed energy pol- focused the attention of the building NBS, “...to (1) establish practical and icy makers that significantly larger community on the high consumption effective methods for estimating and investments in energy conservation of energy rather than on simply pro- comparing life-cycle costs for Federal (than had been made up to that time viding adequate cooling and heating, buildings, and (2) develop and pre- in most housing units) were cost effec- lighting, water heating, and other ener- scribe the procedures to be followed in tive based on a life-cycle cost analysis. gy-related building services. Energy applying and implementing the meth- shortages, increasing energy prices, and ods so established.” Making the Most of Your Energy Dollars, a significant media coverage encouraged consumer-oriented pamphlet [2] by conservation nationwide. Government The first challenge was how to pro- Madeleine Jacobs and Petersen, was and private sector facility managers as vide useful, unbiased, information to adapted from the BSS 64 report. The well as homeowners needed guidance building owners, the building trades, pamphlet, with a distribution of over a regarding what conservation invest- and government agencies on the eco- half-million copies, helped homeown- ments were economically justified nomic tradeoffs between energy con- ers determine the best combination of given higher energy costs and forecasts servation and energy consumption in energy conservation improvements for of more increases to come. When the the design and retrofit of new and their home’s unique design, climate, Building Economics Group (the fore- existing buildings. and fuel costs so as to provide the runner of the Office of Applied highest, long-run, net savings in home Economics) was established in BFRL Stephen Petersen’s BSS 64 report heating and cooling costs. in 1973, its first major undertaking Retrofitting Existing Housing for Energy was to take a leadership role under the Conservation [1] provided specific Petersen’s Building Life-Cycle Cost sponsorship of DOE in working with guidelines for determining economi- (BLCC) computer program [3], researchers from other disciplines to cally optimal retrofit strategies for expanding on the economic methodol- measure the life-cycle net savings from installing insulation and storm win- ogy used in BSS 64, helped owners alternative approaches to energy con- dows in existing houses based on site- and managers of all building types

111 make more cost-effective choices relat- In the early 1990’s, DOE added vation and renewable energy. The first ed to energy conservation and energy renewable energy projects and water standard published by the ASTM’s use in buildings. The BLCC computer conservation to its portfolio of conser- Building Economics Subcommittee program, ultimately adopted by ASTM vation strategies. The economics was the Life-Cycle Cost standard. It as a product in their software series, group at the OAE adapted its life-cycle was drafted by OAE staff in response implemented the life-cycle cost meth- cost methods, software, and instruc- to the subcommittee’s plea for a way ods introduced in BSS 64. The DOE, tional materials to accommodate new of evaluating energy conservation along with a number of public and pri- legislation and user requirements. investments. vate sector software vendors, distributed annually up to 5,000 copies of Another significant effort for DOE pro- A major impact of economics work in the software. The Java version, BLCC vided by the economics group was the energy conservation was a shift in phi- 5.1, is now available directly on the teaching of 2-3 day life-cycle cost losophy from merely minimizing build- internet. (LCC) workshops around the U.S. and ing energy consumption to optimizing abroad. In support of those workshops, on economic grounds the level of Petersen’s Zip-Code Insulation Harold Marshall, Rosalie Ruegg, and energy conservation investment and Program [4] provided specific recom- Stephen Petersen developed reports, energy consumption. The public policy mendations for insulation levels in workbooks, case studies, and three result was a shift from codes and stan- instructional videos for helping govern- houses based on local energy prices dards based solely on energy budgets ment facility planners and private con- and climate factors (keyed to Postal to a more flexible policy that takes into sultants evaluate the cost effectiveness account the dollar cost of energy. Zip Codes) for the entire country. of alternative energy-conservation NBS Director Richard Roberts, in his investments and policies [7]. In recent annual “state of the NBS” address in A second challenge was to redirect years, Sieglinde Fuller and Amy DOE away from promoting BTU ener- Rushing continue to support DOE with 1975, declared the CIS pamphlet on gy budgets to seeking economically reports, workshops, and a BLCC soft- Energy Dollars to be the outstanding efficient levels of energy conservation. ware product programmed in Java [8]. NBS publication for the year because it BSS 64 made it clear that overinvest- successfully addressed the energy crisis ment as well as underinvestment in OAE workshops, taught in person in the large stock of U.S. housing. It energy conservation was economically around the world and via teleconfer- received the Society for Technical Communication Award for “outstand- inefficient. encing, have presented to users these methodologies, tools, and data for ing government publication” in 1976. In the late 1970s, solar economics evaluating energy conservation investments to well over 2000 seminar Stephen Petersen (1976) and Rosalie became a part of the group’s research. attendees over the last 20 years. The Ruegg (1977) each received the Rosalie Ruegg, and Jeanne Powell pub- internet makes OAE products even Department of Commerce Silver lished reports [5,6] on the economic more accessible. Medal Award for their outstanding evaluation of solar heating and cooling work in the economics of energy con- technologies for home and commercial OAE participation in ASTM has been servation. In 1998 Sieglinde Fuller was environments. OAE’s solar work was particularly effective in transmitting selected by DOE as an “Energy well received and widely used during standard economic methods and soft- Champion” for the Department of the period when alternative energy ware to the building community con- Commerce for her work in developing sources were explored intensely. cerned with energy and water conser- and updating the life-cycle cost

112 methodology and software for the Java format, E-Publication National Institute roles in writing and shepherding suc- Federal Energy Management Program. of Standards and Technology, 2000. cessfully 16 standards and two software products through the ASTM stan- NIST has become the de facto authori- 9.3 STANDARD dardization process. ASTM has pub- ty in software (BLCC), Life-Cycle Cost ECONOMIC lished all of the economics standards training, and methods for economic METHODS in a compilation of building economics analysis of energy conservation invest- standards [1]. BFRL management tar- ments, as indicated by the widespread The building community needs stan- geted ASTM as the organization for adoption of OAE products by dard methods for evaluating the eco- development of the economic stan- ASHRAE, ASTM, private companies, nomic performance of investments in dards because it had the consensus the federal government, numerous buildings and building systems. For balloting process important in creating state governments, and other coun- example, typical decisions facing widespread acceptance and it dominat- tries, such as Canada and Australia. investors are whether to accept or ed the standards field (current mem- reject a building investment, what bership includes 32,000 members References design or size to choose for a building from over 100 countries). BFRL pro- 1. Steven R. Petersen, Retrofitting Existing system, and how to establish priority posed an ASTM subcommittee on Housing for Energy Conservation: An among investment choices when budg- Building Economics and succeeded in Economic Analysis, BSS 64, National ets are limited. Users of economic having it formally established in 1979. Bureau of Standards, 1974. methods want to know that the meth- Harold Marshall was named the origi- 2. Madeline Jacobs and Steven R. Petersen, ods have been tested, approved, and Making the Most of Your Energy Dollars, CIS nal chairman and remains so today. accepted in the standards process by 8, National Bureau of Standards, 1975. 3. Steven R. Petersen, BLCC-The original all stakeholders in the building indus- BFRL economists wrote NIST reports NIST Building Life-Cycle Cost Computer try. While sophisticated economic that were the bases for standard meth- Program, National Bureau of Standards, methods are needed to guide these ods on life-cycle cost [2], benefit-to- 1985. users towards cost-effective building cost and savings-to-investment ratios 4. ZIP--The Zip Code Insulation Program, choices, the methods must be under- [3], internal rates of return [4], net NISTIR 88-3801, originally published by standable to the non-economists who Oak Ridge National Laboratory in 1989. benefits [4], multi-attribute decision 5. Rosalie T. Ruegg, Solar Heating and typically use them. Thus two major analysis [5], and payback [6]. They Cooling in Buildings: Methods of Economic challenges in implementing standard wrote two guides: one recommending Evaluation, NBSIR 75-712, National economic methods are (1) developing techniques for treating uncertainty and Bureau of Standards, 1975. technically sound methods in a format risk [7], and one to help users match 6. Jeanne W. Powell, An Economic Model for that building professionals can under- technically appropriate economic Passive Solar Designs in Commercial stand and (2) educating industry rep- Environments, NBS BSS 119, National methods with the different types of Bureau of Standards, 1980. resentatives on the standards commit- design and system decisions that 7. Harold Marshall and Rosalie T. Ruegg, tee so that they will endorse and adopt require economic analysis [8]. They Audiovisual Series of 3 tapes on Least- the recommended standard methods. wrote a standard classification of Cost Energy Decisions for Buildings--Life- building elements [9, 10] to facilitate Cycle Costing (1990), Uncertainty and Risk Harold E. Marshall, Rosalie T. Ruegg, cost analysis and the electronic track- (1992), and Choosing Economic Evaluation Stephen R. Petersen, and Robert E. ing of buildings. Finally, ASTM based Methods (1993), National Institute of Standards and Technology. Chapman of the Office of Applied its Life-Cycle Cost and Analytical 8. Sieglinde K. Fuller and Amy Rushing, Economics in BFRL played major Hierarchy Process software products Revised BLCC Computer Program written in authorship, educational, and leadership on BFRL work [11].

113 The ASTM Subcommittee on Building methods and supporting them through Buildings and Building Systems, NBSIR 80- Economics has been the preeminent the ASTM standards process. 2040, National Bureau of Standards, forum for BFRL’s Office of Applied 1980. 3. Harold E. Marshall and Rosalie T. Economics to identify industry’s eco- 1. Consumers (private and public) Ruegg, Recommended Practice for Measuring nomic measurement needs, to create save money by purchasing building Benefit/Cost and Savings-to-Investment Ratios collaboratively with industry the stan- products (roofs, heating and cool- for Buildings and Building Systems, NBSIR dard measurement practices to answer ing equipment, multiple-pane glaz- 81-2397, National Bureau of Standards, those needs, and to implement stan- ing) that are life-cycle cost effec- 1981. 4. Harold E. Marshall, Recommended Practice dard measurement practices through tive. 2. Manufacturers can increase profits for Measuring Net Benefits and Internal Rates the voluntary consensus standards of Return for Investments in Buildings and process. Users of such standards by designing and offering for sale Building Systems, NBSIR 83-2657, include manufacturers and producers; building products that are most National Bureau of Standards, 1983. federal, state, and local government cost effective for their customers. 5. Gregory A. Norris and Harold E. Marshall, Multiattribute Decision Analysis agencies; builders; building code bod- 3. While the standards focus on buildings and building components, Method for Evaluating Buildings and Building ies; architectural and engineering they have also been used widely to Systems, NISTIR 5663, National Institute firms; consumer groups; trade associa- of Standards and Technology, 1995. reduce life-cycle costs in nonbuild- tions; research groups; consulting 6. Harold E. Marshall, Recommended Practice ing investments. Economic evalua- firms; and universities. Examples of for Measuring Simple and Discounted Payback tion algorithms in commercial for Investments in Buildings and Building specific applications of the standards spreadsheet software that are based Systems, NBSIR 84-2850, National are (1) manufacturers using the Life- on the standard economic meth- Bureau of Standards, 1984. Cycle Cost Standard Practice to cus- ods, for example, help their users 7. Harold E. Marshall, Techniques for Treating tomize energy-conservation products achieve life-cycle savings when Uncertainty and Risk, NIST SP 757, National Institute of Standards and to economically efficient performance choosing among investment alter- levels (e.g., insulation batt resistance Technology, 1988. natives. 8. Harold E. Marshall, Least-Cost Energy levels and heat pump efficiencies); (2) Decisions for Buildings—Part III: Choosing building owners and designers using Harold Marshall received the Economic Evaluation Methods Video Training the UNIFORMAT II Elemental Department of Commerce Silver Workbook, NISTIR 5604, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Classification Standard as the basis for Medal Award in 1978 for his leader- bidding, tracking, and analyzing costs 1995. ship in developing the building eco- 9. Harold E. Marshall and Robert Charette, in all phases of the building’s life cycle; nomics program and pioneering the UNIFORMAT II Elemental Classification for and (3) federal and state governments development of standard methods in Building Specifications, Cost Estimating, and using the Savings-to-Investment Ratio building economics. Cost Analysis, NISTIR 6389, National and Adjusted Internal Rate of Return Institute of Standards and Technology, 1999. to choose among multiple building References 10. Brian Bowen, Robert P. Charette, and investment options when the available 1. ASTM Standards on Building Economics, Harold E. Marshall, UNIFORMAT II—A budget is insufficient to fund all eco- BLDGEC99, American Society for Recommended Classification for Building nomically feasible projects. Testing and Materials, West Elements and Related Sitework, NIST SP Conshohocken, PA, 1999. (Compilation 841, National Institute of Standards and of all ASTM standards on building eco- Reduced life-cycle cost for any given Technology, 1992. nomics) 11. Robert E. Chapman and Harold E. level of building performance is the 2. Rosalie T. Ruegg, Stephen, R. Petersen, Marshall, Users Guide to AHP/Expert Choice significant impact resulting from BFRL and Harold E. Marshall, Recommended for ASTM Building Evaluation, #MNL29, developing economic measurement Practice for Measuring Life-Cycle Costs of ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 1998.

114 9.4 COST-EFFECTIVE first FSES [1], a flexible alternative to ly produced about five to fifteen con- COMPLIANCE WITH the prescriptive provisions of the LSC sistent strategies for the entire build- LIFE SAFETY CODES for health care facilities. Application of ing. To facilitate comparisons, the costs this alternative was initially made pos- of all alternatives are compared to and Although the Life Safety Code (LSC) sible by language in the code allowing ranked against the costs of prescriptive for fire protection in buildings pub- for equivalent solutions. Later the compliance. Robert Chapman received lished by the National Fire Protection 1981 edition of the LSC formally the NIST Bronze Medal Award in Association (NFPA) is primarily a pre- adopted the FSES for health care facil- 1982 for this work. scriptive code specifying explicitly ities as an explicit part of the LSC. All defined solutions to assure compliance, editions since then have included the In 1994 Stephen Weber and Barbara a special provision of the code has long original FSES as well as others devel- Lippiatt [4] updated the cost data and allowed for substitution of equivalent oped for a wide variety of building cost algorithms, incorporated the solutions. In the late 1970s, Center for types, including offices and prisons. changes in the point scores, and intro- Fire Research (CFR) scientists worked duced new interdependent footnotes with a panel of fire safety experts using Optimization based on the FSES scor- in the 1994 edition of the LSC. They the Delphi method to develop a point ing table of alternative safety states for also developed a menu-driven user scoring system to assure that proposed each safety parameter is most directly interface for ALARM to assist users in safety improvements would provide a formulated as a zero-one integer pro- preparing data files for the optimizer. level of safety equivalent to the pre- gramming problem [2]. In 1982, scriptive code. This system was called Robert Chapman and William Hall From 1998 to 2000, the National the Fire Safety Evaluation System developed an alternative formulation Institute of Justice funded Stephen (FSES) and was first developed for [3] based on solving the linear pro- Weber and Laura Schultz to extend the health care facilities. The flexibility of gramming relaxation of the zero-one Alarm technology to cover the FSES the FSES made possible major cost problem for the FSES of the 1981 edi- for Correction and Detention facilities. savings when achieving compliance tion of the LSC. The software exploit- They incorporated a new optimization with the LSC. Because the FSES offers ed the “staircase” structure of the model using zero-one integer pro- so many qualifying solutions, however, problem, a structure, which guaran- gramming to directly find the least- the most cost-effective solutions can- teed that almost all variables in the cost solution without the need to inte- not be found by simple trial and error. solution would take on values of one gerize the floating point solution of the What was needed was a method for or zero, and the advanced starting fea- simplex method [5]. They also devel- finding a practical set of low-cost, safe- ture of the revised simplex algorithm. oped an explicit Boolean model of all ty-equivalent solutions from which A post processor was used to select a of the interdependencies in the foot- facility managers could choose. The single state when the solution fell notes and integrated it into the integer objective of this research was to devel- between two states and to address any programming model. This model has op systematic procedures for finding interdependencies caused by the foot- the advantage of finding the true cost low-cost, safety-equivalent solutions notes to the FSES scoring table. The minimizing solution, taking into compliant with the LSC for various software, now called ALARM, con- account all interdependencies, with a building occupancies and to incorpo- tained a procedure for systematically single optimization run without any rate those procedures into software. finding many alternative, near least- post processing. They then developed cost solutions and then organizing ALARM 2.0, a 32-bit Windows soft- In 1978 Harold Nelson and A. J. Shibe them to ensure design compatibility ware program with a user interface of CFR led the effort to develop the across fire zones. The procedure usual- that intuitively leads the user through

115 References 1. Harold E. Nelson and A. J. Shibe, A System for Fire Safety Evaluation of Health Care Facilities, NBSIR 78-1555, National Bureau of Standards, 1980. 2. Robert E. Chapman, “Cost-Effective Methods for Achieving Compliance with Firesafety Codes,” Fire Journal, Vol. 123, September, pp. 30-39, 1979. 3. Robert E. Chapman and William G. Hall, “Code Compliance at Lower Costs: A Mathematical Programming Approach,” Fire Technology, Vol. 18, No. ALARM 2.0 User Manual, screen shot, and software CD. 1, February, pp. 77-89, 1982. 4. Stephen F. Weber and Barbara C. Lippiatt, “Cost-Effective Compliance the FSES process. The interface graph- The NIST Office of Applied with Fire Safety Codes,” Fire Technology, ically presents the main FSES scoring Economics has published a detailed Vol. 32, Nov/Dec, Number 4, pp. 291- table with all the safety parameters and study of the economic impacts of this 296, 1996. safety states and uses pop-up menus research in the hospital sector [6]. The 5. Stephen F. Weber and Laura I. Schultz, and color coding to guide the user in software and manual entitled, Alarm 2.0 economists based their impact esti- Users Manual: Minimizing Compliance Costs identifying current safety states, con- mates on the 86 military hospitals ana- of the Life Safety Code for Prisons, NISTIR sidering possible safety improvements, lyzed by PHS from 1985 to 1995, 6807, National Institute of Standards entering quantity data, and optimizing expert judgments of the use of the and Technology, 2001. costs. The beta version of ALARM 2.0 6. Robert E. Chapman and Stephen F. FSES for each type of hospital, and was released in 2001. Weber, Benefits and Costs of Research: A national statistics on the number of Case Study of the Fire Safety Evaluation The original version of the cost mini- hospitals and beds in each type. The System, NISTIR 5863, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1996. mizer was used extensively by the U.S. average cost savings of the optimized Public Health Service (PHS). Between FSES solution found by the software 9.5 ECONOMIC IMPACTS 1985 and 1995, fire safety engineers compared with the prescriptive solu- OF BFRL RESEARCH of the PHS conducted on-site surveys tion was about $2,200 per bed. Using A formal resource allocation process of 89 hospitals (53 Air Force, 33 a conservative twenty-year study peri- for funding future research is needed Army, one Indian Health Service, and od (1975-1995) and a thorough sensi- in both the public and private sectors. two community hospitals). They tivity analysis, the economists found applied the cost minimizer software to Research managers need guidelines for that the present value of the net sav- all of these hospitals and used the research planning so that they can ings in hospitals from the FSES and results to prepare recommendations maximize the payoffs from their limit- for safety improvements to the facility the cost minimization software ranged ed resources. Furthermore, quantita- managers. The Alarm 1.0 software was from $119 million to $1,335 million. tive descriptions of research impacts published in 1994 and widely distrib- Large savings for FSES applications in have become a basic requirement in uted by the NFPA through their One- prisons and commercial office facilities many organizations for evaluating Stop Data Shop. are anticipated in the future. budget requests. Economic impact

116 studies help management set priorities economic impact assessments are BFRL’s research is having a lasting and define new research opportunities. summarized in a structured format, impact on the construction industry. By revealing the “voice of the cus- which ASTM has adopted as a stan- Without BFRL’s customer-focused tomer,” such studies strengthen BFRL’s dard format. research, promising technologies ties to industry and identify opportu- would not have moved into the com- nities for leveraging its federal research Two of the four economic impact mercial marketplace as quickly as key investments. Improved methods for studies deal with past BFRL research construction industry stakeholders measuring economic impacts are efforts for which a well-defined stream desired. The four recent reports doc- essential for BFRL to select the “best” of benefits had been historically docu- ument reductions in time-to-market among competing research programs, mented. These studies generated confor a variety of promising technologies to evaluate the cost effectiveness of siderable interest from NIST senior of at least two years in all cases. The existing research programs, and to management on how to apply the same timelier introduction of new and inno- defend or terminate programs on the approach to ongoing and planned vative technologies into the construc- basis of their economic impact. research efforts. The two most recently tion industry has resulted in hundreds published economic impact studies, of millions of dollars of cost savings to BFRL has long recognized the value of and those planned for the future, are construction industry stakeholders. For example: measuring the impacts of its research prospective in that the bulk of the programs. A seminal study by Harold impacts will occur in the future. These 1. Products and services based on Marshall and Rosalie Ruegg in 1979 studies are designed to help BFRL BFRL’s cybernetic building systems [1] demonstrated that even modest shape its research efforts to better research efforts within BFRL are capa- (CBS) research efforts are expected serve its constituency and to move its to result in cost savings in excess of ble of producing significant impacts. research results towards the market- More recently, BFRL has committed to $1.1 billion to owners, managers, place. and occupants of office buildings. a formal program for evaluating the BFRL’s role in moving these prod- impacts of not only past research The four recent economic impact ucts and services into the commer- efforts but also ongoing and planned studies have documented BFRL’s role cial marketplace in a timelier man- research efforts as well. in some of the most significant ner is valued at approximately $90 research challenges facing the con- million. These expected gains are a A series of four reports published struction industry: energy conserva- direct result of the public sector’s between 1996 and 2000 by Robert tion standards, fire safety in healthcare CBS-related research investment of Chapman, Stephen Weber, and facilities, building automation and con- approximately $11.5 million. In Sieglinde Fuller [2, 3, 4, 5] illustrate trol functions, and construction sys- this case, every public dollar invest- how to apply standardized methods to tems integration and automation tech- ed in BFRL’s CBS-related research evaluate and compare the economic nologies. BFRL has successfully is expected to generate $7.90 in impacts of alternative research invest- employed professional societies, stan- cost savings to the public. ments. The standardized methods dards and codes organizations, and 2. BFRL’s research on construction employed in these reports make use of public-private partnerships to move its systems integration and automation standard practices published by research from the laboratory to a mul- technologies (CONSIAT) will gen- ASTM. In addition, the results of the titude of users. erate substantial cost savings to

117 industrial facility owners and man- but that are not readily expressed in invest in a sprinkler system. The study agers and to contractors engaged in monetary terms. To choose the best included recommendations for devel- the construction of those facilities. means for achieving the desired out- oping customized decision-support The present value of these cost sav- come or goal when non-financial char- software to meet the special needs of ings is expected to be approximate- acteristics are important, decision homeowner decisions. The AHP appli- ly $150 million. These cost savings makers need a method that accounts cation to fire protection systems was measure the value of BFRL’s contri- for these characteristics when choosing met with interest by builders, munici- bution for its CONSIAT-related among investment alternatives. A class palities, and fire research labs in the investment costs of approximately of methods that accommodates non- U.S., England, and Australia, whose $30 million. financial characteristics is multi-attrib- task it is to promote the implementa- ute decision analysis (MADA). The tion of fire protection measures. References analytical hierarchy process (AHP) is a 1. Harold E. Marshall and Rosalie T. MADA method that considers non- Stephen Weber and Barbara Lippiatt Ruegg, Efficient Allocation of Research Funds: financial characteristics, in addition to developed the AutoMan software [2, Economic Evaluation Methods with Case common economic evaluation meas- 3] designed to support multi-criteria Studies in Building Technology, NBS Special decisions about automated manufac- Publication 558, National Bureau of ures, when evaluating investment alter- Standards, 1979. natives against a stated goal. In the turing investments. The program per- 2. Robert E. Chapman and Sieglinde K. context of the AHP, non-financial mits users to combine quantitative and Fuller, Benefits and Costs of Research: Two characteristics, economic evaluation qualitative criteria in evaluating invest- Case Studies in Building Technology, NISTIR measures, and other key factors are ment alternatives. Quantitative criteria 5840, National Institute of Standards could include such traditional financial and Technology, 1996. referred to as criteria. For complex 3. Robert E. Chapman and Stephen F. decision problems, the criteria are measures as Life-Cycle Cost and Net Weber, Benefits and Costs of Research: A divided into their constituent parts, Present Value as well as such engineer- Case Study of the Fire Safety Evaluation referred to as sub-criteria. ing performance measures as through- System, NISTIR 5863, National Institute put and setup time. Qualitative criteria of Standards and Technology, 1996. could include criteria requiring judg- 4. Robert E. Chapman, Benefits and Costs of Economists in the Office of Applied Research: A Case Study of Cybernetic Building Economics have produced innovative ments like flexibility and product qual- Systems, NISTIR 6303, National Institute AHP applications for a broad class of ity. AutoMan includes a graphical sys- of Standards and Technology, 1999. users in the construction industry, the tem for conducting sensitivity analysis 5. Robert E. Chapman, Benefits and Costs of research community, and in so users can easily visualize how results Research: A Case Study of Construction vary as criteria weights are changed. Systems Integration and Automation manufacturing. Technologies in Industrial Facilities, NISTIR For two years, AutoMan made the 6501, National Institute of Standards Sieglinde Fuller explored the use of NTIS list of Best-Selling Software from and Technology, 2000. the AHP [1] by integrating quantifiable the U.S. Government. AutoMan also and qualitative variables to arrive at a made the bestseller list of the Defense 9.6 APPLICATIONS OF preference ordering of fire protection Technical Information Center, which THE ANALYTICAL systems in residential dwellings. The began distributing AutoMan 2.0 in HIERARCHY AHP hierarchy was structured to allow June 1992. The Institute for PROCESS homeowners to include their personal Management Accountants widely dis- risk attitudes and risk exposures, com- tributed AutoMan 2.0. The DoD Many research and building investment pared with an ‘average’ level of fire risk Director for Defense Information alternatives differ in characteristics that as indicated by U.S. fire statistics, adopted AutoMan as a tool for invest- decision makers consider important when deciding whether or not to ment decisions on information sys-

118 tems. The software company, Foresight agement to rate and produce budget References Science and Technology, signed a allocations for BFRL projects in FY 1. Sieglinde K. Fuller, Risk Exposure and Risk CRADA with NIST to incorporate 1998, FY 1999, and FY 2000. Attitude of Homeowners in Fire Protection AutoMan decision technology into an Evaluation criteria and sub-criteria that Investment Decisions, NISTIR 4212, expert system for automation planning. were deemed important by BFRL’s National Institute of Standards and Management Council and Management Technology, 1989. In 1995, Gregory Norris and Harold Group were used with the models and 2. Stephen F. Weber, and Barbara C. Marshall published a technical report were described in white papers. The Lippiatt, AutoMan 2.0: Decision Support Software for Automated Manufacturing that reviewed 14 classes of methods NIST Visiting Committee recognized Investments: User Manual, NISTIR 4543, for performing MADA [4]. The report BFRL’s use of AHP-based resource allo- National Institute of Standards and summarizes each method’s usefulness cation models as an exemplary process Technology, 1991. for screening, ranking, and choosing that offers potential for significant and 3. Stephen F. Webber, “A Modified Analytic among projects; its data input require- sustained performance improvements. Hierarchy Process for Automated ments; and its method for scoring BFRL Director Jack Snell described the Manufacturing Decisions,” Interfaces, Vol. project alternatives. The section of the process to several other NIST 23, Number 4, pp. 75-84, July-August 1993. report dealing with the AHP was used Laboratory Directors and their manage- 4. Gregory A. Norris and Harold E. as the basis for ASTM Standard ment teams, recommending its use as a Marshall, Multiattribute Decision Analysis Practice E 1765. contribution towards NIST compliance Method for Evaluating Buildings and Building with the Government Performance and Systems, NISTIR 5663, National Institute Harold Marshall and Robert Chapman, Results Act. of Standards and Technology, 1995. in collaboration with ASTM and Expert Choice, Inc., produced a software product [5], which contains a The User's Guide to the Expert Choice Software was authored by Robert Chapman and Harold Marshall. comprehensive list of building-related attributes. These attributes are drawn from standards produced by ASTM Subcommittees E06.25, Whole Buildings and Facilities, and E06.81, Building Economics. Marshall and Chapman revised ASTM’s AHP Standard Practice E 1765 to incorporate enhancements resulting from the production of an ASTM-supported, AHP-based software product. The revisions promoted a broader use of both ASTM Standard Practice E 1765 and the software product.

Robert Chapman, Karthy Kasi, and Julia Rhoten employed the AHP to produce a series of resource allocation models that were used by BFRL man-

119 5. Robert E. Chapman, Harold E. Marshall, al, life-cycle approach [1, 2]. It is rela- lyzed, including raw materials acquisi- and Ernest H. Forman, “User’s Guide tively straightforward to select prod- tion, product manufacture, transporta- to AHP/Expert Choice® for ASTM ucts based on minimum life-cycle eco- tion, installation, operation and main- Building Evaluation,” MNL 29, American Society for Testing and Materials, West nomic impacts because building prod- tenance, and ultimately recycling and Conshohocken, PA, 1998. ucts are bought and sold in the mar- waste management. An analysis that ketplace. But how do we include life- excludes any of these stages is limited 9.7 BEES: BUILDING FOR cycle environmental impacts in our because it ignores the full range of ENVIRONMENTAL purchase decisions? Environmental upstream and downstream impacts of impacts such as global warming, water AND ECONOMIC stage-specific processes. LCA thus pollution, and resource depletion are broadens the environmental discussion SUSTAINABILITY for the most part economic externali- by accounting for shifts of environ- The building industry needs a tool to ties. That is, their costs are not reflect- mental problems from one life-cycle measure and balance the environmen- ed in the market prices of the products stage to another, or one environmental tal and economic performance of that generated the impacts. Moreover, medium (land, air, water) to another. building products, covering multiple even if there were a mandate today to The benefit of the LCA approach is in environmental and economic impacts include environmental “costs” in mar- implementing a trade-off analysis to over the entire life of the product. ket prices, it would be nearly impossi- achieve a genuine reduction in overall Many product claims and strategies are ble to do so due to difficulties in environmental impact, rather than a now based on a single life-cycle stage assessing these impacts in economic simple shift of impact. or a single impact. A product is terms. How do you put a price on claimed to be green simply because it clean air and clean water? What is the Economic performance is separately has recycled content, or cost-effective value of human life? Economists have measured using ASTM standard E 917 simply because it has a low first cost. debated these questions for decades, life-cycle cost (LCC) approach. The These single-attribute claims may be and consensus does not appear likely. environmental and economic perform- misleading because they ignore the ance measures are then synthesized possibility that other life-cycle stages, While environmental performance into an overall performance measure or other environmental impacts, may cannot be measured on a monetary using ASTM standard E 1765 for yield offsetting impacts. For example, scale, it can be quantified using the Multi-attribute Decision Analysis. For the recycled content product may have evolving, multi-disciplinary approach the entire BEES analysis, building a high embodied energy content, lead- known as environmental life-cycle products are defined and classified ing to resource depletion, global assessment (LCA). The BEES method- based on UNIFORMAT II, the ASTM warming, and acid rain impacts during ology measures environmental per- E 1557 standard classification for the raw materials acquisition, manu- formance using an LCA approach, fol- building elements. facturing, and transportation life-cycle lowing guidance in the International stages. Or the low-first-cost product Standards Organization 14040 series The BEES approach is applied to 200 may have a short, maintenance-inten- of standards for LCA. LCA is a “cra- building products in the Windows- sive life, leading to a high life-cycle dle-to-grave,” systems approach for based decision support software, BEES cost. measuring environmental perform- 3.0 [3]. It evaluates generic products ance. The approach is based on the for 23 building elements, including The BEES methodology, first devel- belief that all stages in the life of a framing, exterior and interior wall fin- oped by Barbara Lippiatt in the sum- product generate environmental ishes, wall and roof sheathing, ceiling mer of 1994, takes a multidimension- impacts and must therefore be ana- and wall insulation, and roof and floor

120 References 1. Barbara C. Lippiatt, BEES: Balancing Environmental and Economic Performance, The Construction Specifier, Vol. 51, pp. 35-42, 1998. 2. Barbara C. Lippiatt, “Selecting Cost- Effective Green Building Products: BEES Approach,” Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Vol. 125, pp. Barbara Lippiatt, developer of BEES. 448-455, 1999. 3. Barbara C. Lippiatt, BEES 3.0: Building ® for Environmental and Economic Sustainability Technical Manual and User Guide, NISTIR 6916, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2002.

9.8 UNIFORMAT II BEES and its logo are registered trademarks. ELEMENTAL CLASSIFICATION coverings. Each product category con- scores and may test the sensitivity of FOR BUILDING tains detailed performance data for the overall scores to different sets of SPECIFICATIONS, competing products. For example, the relative importance weights. COST ESTIMATION, “floor covering” category surveys cork AND COST ANALYSIS flooring, ceramic tile, linoleum, vinyl In the first week after BEES 3.0 was tile, and different types of carpets, released, over 1,000 copies were The building community needs a clas- marble, and terrazzo. Environmental requested. Users represent a broad sification framework to provide a con- performance data are collected under spectrum on interests including sistent reference for the description, contract by Environmental Strategies design, construction, manufacturing, economic analysis, and management of and Solutions, Inc. and research, Federal/state/local govern- buildings during all phases of their life PricewaterhouseCoopers. ment, and education. BEES is promi- cycle. This includes planning, pro- nently listed and described as a key gramming, design, construction, oper- The environmental impact analysis tool for carrying out Executive Order ation, and disposal. An elemental clas- measures the product’s impact on 13101, “Greening the Federal sification best meets these needs. global warming, acidification, eutroph- Government” in the Final Guidance Elements are major components, com- ication (the unwanted addition of min- issued by the EPA Environmentally mon to all buildings, that usually per- eral nutrients to the soil and water), Preferable Purchasing Program. This form a given function regardless of indoor air quality, fossil fuel depletion, guidance document applies to the design specification, construction habitat alteration, criteria air pollu- $200 billion in annual Federal pur- method, or materials. Examples of ele- tants, water intake, ozone depletion, chases. In addition, BEES is currently ments are foundations, exterior walls, smog, and ecological toxicity. The taught at the University of Michigan, sprinkler systems, and lighting. The BEES user specifies the relative impor- University of Florida, Georgia Tech, need for an elemental classification is tance weights used to combine envi- Texas A&M, Air Force Institute, and in most apparent in the economic evalua- ronmental and economic performance Korea, Saudi Arabia, and Indonesia. tion of building alternatives at the

121 design stage. Cost estimates based on balloting process important in creating R. S. Means, Department of Defense, lists of products and materials are time widespread acceptance, a standing GSA, and the American Association of consuming and costly in early design. committee on building economics with Cost Engineers were invited to the Yet it is in the early stages of design interest in the standard, and a ASTM work sessions to ensure that the that economic analysis is most helpful prospective customer base of 32,000 standard met their needs. CSI became in establishing economically efficient members from over 100 countries. the secretariat to the ASTM task choices among building alternatives. Group on UNIFORMAT II to ensure An elemental classification can provide The authors call their three-level hier- that CSI’s forthcoming UniFormat™ needed cost information in the most archical format UNIFORMAT II. It is would be compatible with ASTM’s cost-effective manner. based in part on a 1973 elemental UNIFORMAT II. classification developed for the General The major challenge to implementing Services Administration (GSA) and the The ASTM UNIFORMAT II standard an elemental format for building evalu- American Institute of Architects (AIA), classification has been adopted by the ations is to move the industry beyond in part on formats used by U.S. U.S. State Department for embassy the traditional practice of estimating defense agencies, and in part on the bids worldwide; Whitestone Research costs of alternative designs via detailed team’s judgment as to what kind of in its Building Maintenance and Repair quantity takeoffs of all materials and classification is needed in the modern Cost Manuals; Hydro Quebec for the tasks associated with construction. For electronic era. The team’s initial NIST condition assessment of its 700 build- example, MasterFormat 95™, a classi- report [1] became the basis for ings; state governments such as Kansas fication published by the Construction ASTM’s UNIFORMAT II standard and Massachusetts for building budget- Specifications Institute (CSI), is based classification, E 1557 [2] first issued in ing and programming; R. S. Means for on products and materials. While this 1993. Representatives from CSI, AIA, Structuring its Assemblies Cost Data is a logical format when preparing detailed cost estimates of the final UNIFORMAT II, co-authored by Harold Marshall, was adopted as an ASTM standard. design choice, it is time consuming and costly to apply early in the design process when establishing economically efficient choices among building alternatives. An alternative format is needed that is elemental-based and widely accepted in the construction industry.

Robert Charette, a Value Engineering Specialist in Canada, Harold Marshall of the Office of Applied Economics in BFRL, and Brian Bowen of Hanscomb Ltd. teamed up to develop an elemental classification of building elements for ASTM’s consideration as a standard classification. ASTM was chosen as the organization for delivery of the new format because it has the consensus

122 (in 2002); and by software products 3. All stakeholders in the constructing federal technology policy and dealing with costs of construction- tion process will share better infor- coordinating R&D strategies across a NIST’s Building for Environmental mation, generated at lower cost, broad cross-section of public and pri- and Economic Sustainability (BEES), because data are linked to a com- vate interests. It has established nine NIST’s BridgeLCC, and HPT- mon, standardized structure. research and development committees, Buildwrite’s Schematic Phase 4. Using a standardized format for including the Committee on Elemental Project Template. The GSA collecting and analyzing historical Technology, to collaborate with the has adopted a slightly modified version data for use in budgeting and esti- private sector in developing a compre- for cost estimates of U. S. government mating future projects will save hensive national technology policy. The office buildings. CSI and the Design- time and produce better estimates. purpose of the Committee on Build Institute of America have devel- 5. Tracking building condition assess- Technology is to enhance the interna- oped jointly a software product for ments will help facility managers tional competitiveness of U.S. industry design-build estimating called be more efficient in maintaining through federal technology policies PerSpective™ that is based on a slight- buildings. and programs. The Subcommittee on ly modified UNIFORMAT II and 6. Making performance specifications Construction and Building of the CSI’s UniFormat™ hardcopy and soft- in standard elemental terms pro- Committee on Technology coordinates ware versions are generally consistent motes the use of design-build con- and defines priorities for federal with UNIFORMAT II. tracts by making them more research, development, and deploy- understandable to the participating ment related to the industries that Adoption of UNIFORMAT II is reduc- parties. produce, operate, and maintain con- ing life-cycle costs in all phases of the structed facilities, including buildings building life cycle. And as owners and References and infrastructure. builders use commercial cost databas- 1. Brian Bowen, R. P. Charette, and Harold es, e.g., from R. S. Means, that are E. Marshall, UNIFORMAT II-A The mission of the Subcommittee on structured according to UNIFORMAT Recommended Classification for Building Construction and Building-in coopera- II, these cost reductions will magnify. Elements and Related Sitework, NIST tion with U.S. industry, labor, and aca- Special Publication 841, National Some specific benefits from UNIFOR- demia-is to enhance the competitive- MAT II are as follows: Institute of Standards and Technology, 1992. ness of U.S. industry and promote public safety and environmental quality 1. Elemental cost estimates are faster 2. Standard Classification for Building Elements through research and development, and less costly to generate than and Related Sitework-UNIFORMAT II, and to improve the life-cycle perform- detailed estimates. This yields sav- ASTM E 1557, American Society for ings in preparing the estimates and Testing and Materials, West ance of constructed facilities. To encourages the consideration of Conshohocken, PA, 1997. accomplish its mission, the design tradeoffs early in the design Subcommittee on Construction and process, when the greatest savings 9.9 BASELINE MEASURES Building has established seven National are possible from efficient design FOR THE NATIONAL Construction Goals in collaboration choices. CONSTRUCTION with a broad cross-section of the con- 2. Data entered in a consistent for- GOALS struction industry. The goals are mat will never have to be reentered focused on the four major sectors of again, allowing cradle-to-grave The National Science and Technology the construction industry-residential, electronic tracking of the building Council, a cabinet-level group chaired commercial/institutional, industrial, and its components. by the president, is charged with set- and public works.

123 Data describing current practices of project costs. During the initial plan- facility. In some cases, OM&E costs the U.S. construction industry are ning, design, procurement, construc- over the life of a facility exceed its first needed to establish baselines against tion, and start-up process, the needs of cost. However, because reductions in which the industry can measure its the client are not being met. OM&E costs are often associated with progress towards achieving the seven Furthermore, the client’s needs evolve increased first costs, facility owners National Construction Goals. The over time, so a facility long in delivery and managers may under-invest in seven National Construction Goals are may be uncompetitive or partially cost-saving technologies. Furthermore, concerned with: (1) reductions in the unsuitable when finally finished. Delays undue attention on minimizing first delivery time of constructed facilities; almost always translate into increased costs may result in a facility which is (2) reductions in operations, mainte- project costs due to inflationary expensive to operate and maintain, nance, and energy costs; (3) increases effects, higher financial holding costs, wastes energy resources, is inflexible, in occupant productivity and comfort; and reduced productivity. and rapidly becomes obsolete. Finally, (4) reductions in occupant-related ill- Furthermore, the investments in pro- because OM&E costs tend to increase nesses and injuries; (5) reductions in ducing the facility cannot be recouped more rapidly than the general rate of waste and pollution; (6) increases in until the facility is operational. inflation, facility owners and operators the durability and flexibility of con- Owners, users, designers, and con- are often forced to reallocate funds to structed facilities; and (7) reductions structors are among the groups who cover OM&E costs. Reductions in in construction worker illnesses and will benefit from technologies and OM&E costs produce two types of injuries. practices that reduce delivery time. benefits. First, constructed facilities become more affordable because facili- Goals 1, 2, and 7 were identified as The report describes how a well- ty owners and operators are making the highest priority National defined set of metrics is used to devel- more cost-effective choices among Construction Goals by the construc- op the baseline measures and measures investments (e.g., design configuration industry. Robert Chapman and of progress. Two data classification tions) that affect life-cycle costs. Roderick Rennison, a visiting schemes are used to construct data Second, these same facilities better researcher from the UK firm of WS hierarchies from which key metrics are conserve scarce energy resources. Atkins PLC, with funding from the derived and used to develop baseline Subcommittee on Construction and measures for the residential sector and Like the delivery time report, this Building, produced three reports that three non-residential sectors-commer- report describes how a well-defined set provide baseline measures and charac- cial/institutional, industrial, and public of metrics is used to develop the base- terize current industry performance works. These measures are based pri- line measures and measures of for Goals 1, 2, and 7. Industry per- marily on aggregated, project-level data progress. Two data classification formance in 1994 was used as the ref- made available by the Construction schemes are used to construct data erence point from which the values of Industry Institute. A discontinued data hierarchies from which key metrics are the baseline measures are calculated. series published by the U.S. Bureau of derived and used to develop the base- the Census is included as a reference line measures for each of four con- Delivery time is defined as the elapsed point and for purposes of comparison. struction industry sectors: residential time from the decision to construct a sector, commercial/institutional sector, new facility until its readiness for serv- The report [2] on operations, mainte- industrial sector, and public works sec- ice. The report [1] on delivery time nance, and energy (OM&E) costs tor. The overview of each sector exam- explains how delivery time issues affect shows that OM&E is a major factor in ines sector size, changes in the sector, both industrial competitiveness and the life-cycle costs of a constructed and key sector characteristics. Detailed

124 measures, which are based on data 9.10 BRIDGE LCC published by the Bureau of Labor Engineers, designers, and builders Statistics. The data cover both nonfatal construction worker illnesses and need a user-friendly software tool to injuries and construction-related fatali- compare the life-cycle cost of new and ties. The report introduces the concept alternative construction materials with of a safety practice and gives several conventional materials. Mark Ehlen examples of safety practices currently and Harold Marshall developed the in use within the construction indus- theoretical basis for such a tool in a try. An analysis of the impact of safety 1996 report [1] on the economics of practice use on reducing nonfatal con- new technology materials. BridgeLCC struction worker illnesses and injuries [2] was developed in 1999 by Mark is based on data provided to NIST by Ehlen to provide this type of decision NISTIR 6189, co-authored by Robert Chapman. the Construction Industry Institute. support in software form. Even though The report concludes with a discussion the software was specially tailored to baseline measures examine operations, of why the aggressive use of safety compare new and conventional bridge maintenance, and energy categories practices is a key instrument for materials, it can be used in comparing separately. The key OM&E baseline achieving the 50 percent reduction in alternative conventional materials and measures for each sector are summa- construction worker illnesses and for the analysis of civil infrastructures rized in tabular form at the end of that injuries set forth in National other than bridges. sector’s chapter. Construction Goal 7. The first step of a BridgeLCC analysis The third report [3] is on health and References is for the user to determine construc- 1. Robert E. Chapman and Roderick safety issues. It shows that health and tion, maintenance, and disposal costs safety exert a major effect on the com- Rennison, An Approach for Measuring Reductions in Delivery Time: Baseline for the alternatives being evaluated. petitiveness of the U.S. construction Measures of Construction Industry Practices for The user enters this information into industry. Construction workers die as the National Construction Goals, NISTIR BridgeLCC and the software calculates a result of work-related trauma at a 6189, National Institute of Standards life-cycle costs. Graphs of life-cycle rate higher than all other industries and Technology, 1998. costs by bearer, life-cycle period, and except mining and agriculture. 2. Robert E. Chapman and Roderick project component can be displayed. Construction workers also experience Rennison, An Approach for Measuring This allows for a comprehensive a higher incidence of lost workday Reductions in Operations, Maintenance and Energy Costs: Baseline Measures of injuries than workers in other indus- assessment of the advantages and dis- Construction Industry Practices for the advantages, in life-cycle cost terms, of tries do. Although the construction National Construction Goals, NISTIR 6185, workforce represents less than five National Institute of Standards and each alternative. If one or more costs percent of the nation’s workforce, it is Technology, 1998. are highly uncertain, individual costs estimated that the construction indus- 3. Robert E. Chapman, An Approach for can be assigned probability distribu- try pays about 15 percent of the Measuring Reductions in Construction Worker tions and Monte Carlo simulations Illnesses and Injuries: Baseline Measures of nation’s workers’ compensation. performed to examine the likelihood Construction Industry Practices for the National Construction Goals, NISTIR 6473, that one of the alternative structures The report describes a well-defined set National Institute of Standards and will be cost effective over the range of of metrics used to develop baseline Technology, 2000. possible cost outcomes.

125 BridgeLCC, version 1.0, helps designers evaluate the cost-effectiveness of new construction materials such as high-performance steel and fiber-reinforced-polymer composites.

BridgeLCC 1.0 was released in May References 1999. The program had registered 1. Mark A. Ehlen and Harold E. Marshall, users in approximately 40 states and Economics of New-Technology Materials: A 16 countries. Mark Ehlen received the Case Study of FRP Bridge Decking, NISTIR 5864, National Institute of Standards Department of Commerce Bronze and Technology, 1996. Medal Award in 2000 for his develop- 2. Mark A. Ehlen, BridgeLCC 1.0 Users ment of BridgeLCC. Manual, NISTIR 6298, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1999. BridgeLCC 2.0, by Amy Rushing and Mark Ehlen, is an expanded version of the software. It includes improved Monte Carlo simulation capability, context-sensitive help, a concrete service life prediction tool, and the addition of a Terrorist Risk Management module. BridgeLCC 2.0 is available for download under “software” at http://www.bfrl.nist.gov/oae/oae.html.

126 10. ENVIRONMENTAL 10SYSTEMS

10.1 INSULATION Robinson, leader of NBS’s insulation metrology research in the 50s and 60s, Accurate knowledge of the insulating had developed an innovative measure- properties of building materials is ment approach applicable to large important to thermal comfort, energy thickness [3] - the line heat source efficiency, and fire endurance for guarded hotplate. A prototype appara- buildings. Development of measure- tus was completed in 1978 and deter- ment methods for the properties of mined to perform as predicted [4]. thermal insulation has been an early and continuing concern for NBS and By the mid 70s the Federal Trade NIST. This section describes the work Commission (FTC) was pressing the conducted in CBT and BFRL from insulation industry to justify its label- 1975 through 2000 based substantially ing of the insulation value of thick on accounts prepared by Robert Zarr insulations. Frank Powell represented who has led CBT/BFRL’s work since CBT effectively in interactions with the mid 1980s [1, 2]. industry, FTC, and the Department of Energy (DOE), and led the planning of The energy crisis of the 70s made eco- development of a One Meter Line- nomical insulations much thicker than Heat-Source apparatus capable of the 25 mm thickness that could be direct measurements of insulating measured by then-available standard value at arbitrary orientations and apparatuses. Because of the complexity thickness up to 380 mm [5]. With of heat flow through insulating materi- encouragement from industry, FTC als, involving conduction, convection and DOE, CBT organized a team led and radiation, heat flow varies with by Robert Jones, who was appreciated orientation and non-linearly with for his ability to achieve team results thickness. Because heat flow is small on schedule and within budget, to through large thicknesses of high-qual- construct the apparatus, which was put ity insulations, it is very challenging to into service in 1980. Mahn-Hee measure the heat actually flowing Hahn, who also had guided the early through and not that flowing around design of the prototype apparatus a the specimen. Fortunately, Henry decade earlier, championed the techni-

127 Heat transfer measurements also were the thermal resistance of advanced needed on complex, compound walls insulation materials [11]. The proce- to verify computational models. Reese dures used to determine the thermal Achenbach, in a final performance of resistance of advanced insulation pan- his long, significant career at NBS, led els from calorimetric results were veri- in the design and construction of a fied by measurements with the guard- large, calibrated hot box capable of ed hot plate for extruded polystyrene measuring heat, air and moisture specimens. The measurements agreed Robert Zarr, research mechanical engineer insert- transfer for room-sized (3 m by 4.5 m) to within 3 percent over a mean tem- ing an insulation sample in NIST’s Line Heat specimens for transient heat, moisture perature range of 280 K to 295 K. Source Guarded Hot Plate, a large-capacity and pressure conditions on both sides device for measuring the thermal resistance of In the 90s, requests from the insulation and other low-density materials up to (to represent internal and external American Society of Heating, 380 mm thick and 1 m in diameter. The Hot conditions) [8]. The design and con- Plate provides calibrated specimens for guarded struction of the calibrated hot box was Refrigerating, and Air Conditioning hot plates in other laboratories. funded by the DOE through its Oak (ASHRAE) prompted BFRL to address Ridge National Laboratory. Significant missing references for the thermal and vapor transmission data in their hand- cal design and construction for the tests were conducted of super-insulat- book. Over the decades, BFRL had apparatus. The apparatus immediately ed wood framed walls [9], and innova- accumulated a valuable and compre- was used to supply reference samples for tive masonry walls [10]. calibration of industry’s heat flow hensive collection of guarded hot plate meters to allow industry to comply with In the 90s, attention turned to meas- data on a variety of insulating and the FTC’s order for performing insula- urement needs for advanced insulation building materials. In response, BFRL tion measurements at representative technologies being developed to and NIST’s Office of Standard thickness [6]. Jones received the reduce the energy consumption associ- Reference Data developed a new Department of Commerce Bronze ated with refrigerators, freezers, and online database [12] that contained Medal Award and the NBS the transport of refrigerated products. over 2000 of the NBS guarded hot Measurement Service Award in 1981 for Among the insulation concepts being plate measurements from 1932 to his efforts and those of his team. This explored are powder, foam, glass-fiber- 1983. The database reconstructs one effective response of CBT to an impor- filled evacuated panels, and low-con- of the original reference authorities for tant national need was very valuable ductivity gas-filled panels. These the handbook data on design heat when the elimination of CBT was pro- advanced insulation panels offer the transmission coefficients for insulating posed by the President in 1983. potential for significant reductions in and building materials, and currently Representatives of the U.S. Chamber of energy consumption and greater flexi- receives about 5000 requests a month Commerce testified to Congress [7] that bility in product design. Unfortunately, from the public. the improved insulation measurements the equipment used to determine the made possible by the one meter appara- thermal resistance of traditional build- References tus saved U.S. consumers $90 million ing insulation materials was not well 1. Robert R. Zarr, “The Testing of Thermal annually in insulation costs. The appara- suited for measuring the thermal Insulators,” A Century of Excellence in Measurements, Standards, and Technology, A tus continues to provide NIST-traceable resistance of advanced insulation pan- Chronicle of Selected NBS/NIST Publications standards to industry through the devel- els. A team led by Hunter Fanney 1901-2000, SP 958, David R. Lide, opment of thermal insulation NIST developed a calorimetric apparatus and Editor, National Institute of Standards Standard Reference Materials (SRMs). computational procedures to measure and Technology, pp 10-13, 2001.

128 2. Robert R. Zarr, “A History of Testing Block Wall,” ASHRAE Transactions, v95, The three components of Heat Insulators at the National Institute pp 398-404, 1989. Weatherization were: of Standards and Technology,” ASHRAE 11. M.W. Ellis, A. Hunter Fanney, and M.W. 1. Criteria for Retrofit Materials and Transactions, v 107, pt 2, 2001. Davis, “Calibration of a Calorimeter for 3. Mahn-Hee Hahn, H.E. Robinson, and Thermal Resistance Measurements of Products for Weatherization of D.R. Flynn, Robinson Line Heat Source Advanced Insulation Panels,” HVAC&R Residences. Guarded Hot Plate Apparatus, STP 544, R. Research, Vol. 6, No. 3, 1-12, July 2000. 2. CSA Weatherization P. Tye, Editor, ASTM, pp 167-192, 12. Robert R. Zarr, G.R. Dalton, and S.M. Demonstration - Optimal 1974. Fioravante, Development of a NIST Weatherization of Low-Income 4. M.C.I. Siu and C. Bulik, “National Standard Reference Database for Bureau of Standards Line-Heat-Source Thermal Conductivity of Building Housing In The USA Guarded Hot Plate Apparatus,” Review of Materials, Thermal Conductivity 3. Criteria for the Installation of Scientific Instruments, v 52, pp 1709-1716, 25/Thermal Expansion 13, C. Uher and Energy Conservation Measures 1981. D. Morelli, Editors, pp 259-265, 1999 5. Frank J. Powell and Brian J. Rennex, (see also, http://srdata.nist.gov/insulation/). 10.2.1 CRITERIA FOR RETRO- “The NBS Line-Heat-Source Guarded FIT MATERIALS AND Hot Plate for Thick Materials,” Thermal 10.2 WEATHERIZATION Performance of Exterior Envelopes of Buildings PRODUCTS FOR II, SP 38, American Society of Heating, Between 1975 and 1982, NBS under- WEATHERIZATION OF Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning took three significant efforts in support RESIDENCES Engineers, pp 657-672, 1983. of Congressional mandates to assist Although started in anticipation of 6. Trade Regulation Rule: Labeling and Advertising of Home Insulation, Federal home owners in making their houses energy conservation tax credits, this Trade Commission, 16 CFR part 460, v more energy efficient. These mandates work was completed in support of the 45, 1980. were driven by the realization that resi- Department of Energy’s program to 7. National Bureau of Standards Authorization, dences consumed approximately 22 assist low income home owners. The Senate Report No. 98-49, Senate percent of total U.S. Energy use , that, intent was to establish guidelines for Committee on Commerce, Science and for the foreseeable future, much of the the selection of materials that can be Transportation, March 21, 1983. current residential stock will remain expected to provide energy savings 8. Paul R. Achenbach, “Design of a Calibrated Hot Box for Measuring the occupied. Weatherization applied the when correctly installed in residences. Heat, Air, and Moisture Transfer of results of building energy conservation The first goal was to establish the types Composite Building Walls,” Thermal research to support other agencies in of measures that would provide signifi- Performance of Exterior Envelopes of Buildings their mandate to assist in the cost cant energy savings. Materials that I, American Society of Heating, effective weatherization of homes. provide primarily other benefits, such Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Weatherization also provided the ener- as a more pleasing interior (such as Engineers, pp 308-324, 1981. 9. Robert R. Zarr, Douglas M. Burch, gy conservation in buildings program carpets) or enhanced privacy (such as Thomas K. Faison, and C.E. Arnold, with feedback and identified research curtains and drapes) were excluded, “Thermal Resistance Measurements of needs and opportunities that would although it was recognized that such Well-Insulated and Super-Insulated not have been recognized otherwise. measures also might provide energy Residential Walls Using a Calibrated Hot Heinz Trechsel led the Weatherization savings. The second effort was to Box,” ASHRAE Transactions, v92, pp 604- Program for NBS with outstanding develop specific criteria to be met by 619,1986. attention to high quality, timely and each of the generic measures. The 10. Douglas M. Burch, B.A. Licitra, D.F. Ebberts, and Robert R. Zarr, “Thermal useful results, responsiveness to spon- measures selected were: thermal insu- Insulation Measurements and sors and external collaborators, and lation, storm windows and doors, Calculations of an Insulated Concrete interdisciplinary teamwork. caulks and sealants, weatherstripping,

129 vapor barriers, and clock thermostats. plan, the demonstration/experiment sonnel trained by NBS for the pur- The recommended criteria were based was carried out in 16 locations cover- pose. Overall, an average of $1,610 on thermal performance, fire safety, ing all major climatic areas of the USA, was expended for each house. Payback structural integrity, durability, quality, of which 12 submitted data: Tacoma, periods through fuel savings averaged 8 conformance to building codes, and WA; Oakland, CA; Colorado Springs, years and savings in fuel consumption ease of installation. Specific criteria CO; Fargo, ND; Minneapolis, MN; averaged 31 percent. included conformance to Nationally Chicago, IL; St Louis, MO; Atlanta, recognized standards, such as Federal GA; Charleston, SC; Washington, DC; The project leader was Richard Standards and standards promulgated Easton, PA; and Portland, ME. Crenshaw. In addition to the authors by voluntary consensus organizations, of the publications referenced, such as ASTM International. For some In each location, from four Scheryle Schroyer, Judy Calabrese, and products, where recognized standards (Washington, DC) to 19 (St. Louis, Lawrence Kaetzel were computer con- did not exist, it was determined that MO) houses were included in the sam- sultants to the project. Steve Weber, simple availability of commercial prod- ple, for a total of 183 houses, of which Kimberly Barnes, Barbara Lippiatt, ucts was a sufficient requirement. The 141 were experimentally retrofitted Michael Boehm, Ann Hillstrom, and criteria developed by this effort [1,2,3] for optimal weatherization, and 41 Phil Chen assisted with economic also were used as a basis for selecting served as control houses. The houses analysis. Richard Grot received the retrofit measures to be included in the ranged in age from 10 years to 80 Bronze Medal Award of the CSA Weatherization Demonstration. years, with a median age of about 45 Department of Commerce in 1980 for years. The sample included detached development of the field measurement 10.2.2 CSA WEATHERIZATION and row-type attached one to three techniques. DEMONSTRATION story frame and masonry houses. To qualify, all houses had to be in reason- The project spawned some 15 techni- In 1976, the Community Services ably good repair. cal reports on demonstration planning, Administration approached NBS with a results, economic analysis, and on field request for assistance in determining The weatherization measures consid- measurement techniques. References the optimal cost savings achievable ered were: sealing of cracks and holes, [4,5,6] provide a broad overview of through weatherization of low income window and door treatments, roof and the project, its planning, and its housing to better allocate its resources. wall insulation, basement wall and results. The goal was to determine which floor insulation, and mechanical weatherization measures are the most options, heating and hot water systems 10.2.3 CRITERIA FOR THE cost effective, and what level of fund- improvements. The measures were INSTALLATION OF ing for each residence would provide selected for each house based on eco- ENERGY an optimal rate of return in terms of nomic cost/benefit analysis. CONSERVATION energy savings. MEASURES The installation of the various meas- In 1979, in response to the National In response, NBS developed an experi- ures was done either by contractor’s Energy Conservation and Policy Act mental and demonstration plan for personnel or by persons trained under (NECPA), the Department of Energy conducting field measurements before the Comprehensive Employment and established the Residential and after retrofit of selected housing Training Act (CETA). All metering and Conservation Service program (RCS). units. A pilot plan was tested in a data collection was done by local RCS required large utility companies Portland, Maine. After finalizing the Community Action Agency (CAA) per- and participating heating oil suppliers

130 to offer auditing services to their resi- would hardly want to be in the busi- opment of installation practices: dential customers to encourage the ness of periodic updating the stan- • Robert Hastings contributed much installation of energy conserving and dards, as would be required for them in the area of replacement thermal renewable resource measures, to assist to remain current. Some of the stan- windows and storm windows, their customers in selecting appropri- dards originally established for the • Reece Achenbach, Frank Powell, ate cost-effective energy conservation RCS program and included in the Bradley Peavy, and Doug Burch in measures, and to aid in contracting for publications listed below were with- the area of thermal insulations, the procurement and installation of drawn by DOE in 1981, but it is a • Larry Galowin and Robert selected measures. NECPA also pro- measure of success that many RCS Beausoliel provided expertise on the vided for DOE to establish material Installation Standards for thermal effect of thermal insulation on elec- and installation standards to assure the insulation and those for storm win- trical wiring. effective and safe installation of energy dows and doors eventually were con- conservation measures. NBS assisted verted into ASTM standards by the References DOE in the development of the respective committees, mostly with 1. Walter J. Rossiter, Jr. and Robert G required installation standards. only minor changes. Mathey, Eds., Recommended Criteria for Materials and Products Eligible for Tax Credit, NBSIR 75-795, National Bureau of NBS had primary responsible for The ASTM Standards based on the Standards, 1975. preparing the installation standards for RCS Installation Standards were: 2. Walter J. Rossiter Jr. and Robert G. thermal insulations, caulks and C 1015 Installation of Cellulosic Mathey, Eds., Criteria for Retrofit Materials sealants, storm windows and doors. and Mineral Fiber Loose- and Products for Weatherization of Residences, Installation standards for insulating Fill Thermal Insulation; NBS Technical Note 982, National Bureau of Standards, 1978. domestic hot water heaters, replace- C 1049 Installation of Granular 3. Walter J. Rossiter, Jr. and Robert G. ment of oil burners, automatic vent Loose-Fill Thermal Mathey, Eds., Weatherization of Residences: dampers, and intermittent pilot igni- Insulation; Criteria for Materials and Products, Editors, tion systems were prepared by others. C 1320 Installation of Mineral NBS Technical Note 1201, National In developing the installation stan- Fiber Batt and Blanket Bureau of Standards, 1984. dards, NBS needed to address several Thermal Insulation for 4. Richard W. Crenshaw, Roy E. Clark, Robert E. Chapman, Richard A. Grot, technical and safety issues, primarily Light Frame McClure, Godette, CSA Weatherization control of condensation in walls and Construction; Demonstration Project Plan, NBSIR 79- attics retrofitted with insulation and C 1158 Installation and use of 1706, National Bureau of Standards, potential fire hazards from electrical Radiant Barrier Systems 1979. wiring surrounded by thermal insula- (RBS) in Building 5. Stephen T. Margulis, and Roy E. Clark, tion and from recessed and surface Construction. Nontechnical Summary of the Final Report “Optimal Weatherization of Low- mounted lighting fixtures. Income Housing in the United States: A The project leader was Heinz Trechsel. Research Demonstration Project, NBSIR 82- As format, DOE and NBS chose that He received the Bronze Medal Award 2539, National Bureau of Standards, of ASTM standards. Not only did this of the Department of Commerce in 1982. provide a proven format, but it also 1981 for these and other contributions 6. Richard W. Crenshaw and Roy E. Clark, Optimal Weatherization of Low-Income eased the eventual conversion of the to residential energy conservation. In Housing in the U.S.: A Research standards into voluntary consensus addition to the authors of the publica- Demonstration Project, Building Science standards. This was determined to be tions referenced [7, 8], the following Series 144, National Bureau of desirable as a long-term strategy; DOE contributed significantly to the devel- Standards, 1982.

131 7. Heinz R. Trechsel and Shelia J. Launey, layered walls. They deter- Criteria for the Installation of Energy mined that it would be Conservation Measures, Special Publication necessary to develop meas- 606, National Bureau of Standards, 1981. urements for diffusion 8. Philip W. Thor and Neil Gallagher, The coefficients for various wall Residential Conservation Service Inspectors materials and to measure Guide, SERI/SP-722-1289, GPO 830- the thermal conductivity Douglas Burch, mechanical engineer, co-developer of the CBT 722, 1981. of various materials as MOIST Program, with William Thomas of Virginia Polytechnic affected by moisture con- Institute and State University testing the software to predict 10.3 MOISTURE tent, as well as to develop moisture accumulation in walls and ceilings. Moisture accumulation in or on build- and verify a computer ing walls and roofs creates substantial model for heat and mois- Subsequent research extended MOIST problems: reduction of insulations ture transfer in multi-layer walls and to deal with transient interior temper- effectiveness, mold and mildew on roofs. Sponsorship for the work was atures and humidity, and to provide a interior surfaces, and rotting or corro- provided by NBS, the Department of user-friendlier program for designers, sion of wall or roof materials. Walls Energy, and the Department of builders and investigators of moisture and roofs are complex, multi-layered Housing and Urban Development problems [8]. systems, with differing heat and mois- (HUD). ture storage and transfer properties for In 2001, ASTM published a docu- the various layers. The computer modeling proceeded ment [9] that included MOIST on an well and the MOIST program was accompanying CD ROM. This com- The energy impact associated with made generally available [1], but bination of materials offered a basic moisture accumulating within the extensive research and testing were understanding of the mechanisms building envelope is enormous. The required to define the materials prop- involved in moisture movement, con- impact associated with just low-slope erties needed for general use [2,3,4]. densation, and accumulation. The roofs and residential walls is approxi- Version 2.0 of MOIST [5] was made inclusion of MOIST allowed analysis mately $200 million per year at an available incorporating these materials to be conducted on building walls assumed oil price of $20 per barrel. properties. An immediate area of and roofs. The total economic impact is antici- application, conducted for HUD with pated to be much greater since the the Forest Products Laboratory, was to The U.S. Department of Energy’s impact of moisture in crawl spaces, address moisture problems commonly Office of Energy Efficiency and conventional attic, and commercial encountered in manufactured homes Renewable Energy has widely dissemi- walls, is not included in this estimate. in both cold and warm climates [6]. nated the MOIST program by means These studies led to improvements in of their Building In the mid 80s, Douglas Burch of CBT the HUD standard for manufactured Energy Software web site and guest researcher William Thomas, homes. The research also addressed http://www.eren.doe.gov/buildings/tool professor of Mechanical Engineering at the severe problems encountered with s_directory/software/moist.htm [10]. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State mold and mildew in air conditioned This site emphasizes the use of renew- University, began to address the prob- buildings in hot and humid climates able energy and achieving energy effi- lem of predicting the combined flow [7] and recommended avoidance of ciency through proper building enve- of heat and moisture through multi- interior vapor barriers. lope design and the judicious selection

132 of space conditioning equipment. and Humid Climates, ASHRAE industries as the uniform test proce- MOIST is included within their web Transactions, Symposia, Vol. 99, No. 2, dure for the measurement and report- site as one of the programs available to 1993. ing of the energy efficiency or energy 8. Douglas M. Burch and J. Chi, MOIST: A analyze the performance of building consumption. The Federal Trade PC Program for Predicting Heat and Moisture envelopes. Transfer In Building Envelopes, Version 3.0, Commission (FTC) was tasked with NIST Special Publication 917, National the administration of the labeling of References Institute of Standards and Technology, the energy efficiency/consumption of 1. Douglas M. Burch, William C. Thomas, 1997. the covered products to provide infor- L.R. Mathena, R. A. Licitra, and D.B. 9. Heinz R. Trechsel, Editor, Manual 40, mation to and encourage consumers in Ward, “Transient Moisture and Heat Moisture Analysis and Condensation Control the purchase the more energy efficient Transfer in Multi-Layer Non-Isothermal in Building Envelopes, ASTM, 2001. appliances. Walls - Comparison of Measured and 10. U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Predicted Results,” Proceedings, Thermal Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of http://www.eren.doe.gov/buildings/tools_ At the beginning of the appliance ener- Buildings IV, American Society of directory/ software/moist.htm, February gy efficiency program, DOE decided Heating, Refrigerating and Air- 13, 2001. that providing information to con- Conditioning Engineers, 1990. sumers on the relative energy con- 2. Douglas M. Burch, William C. Thomas, and A. Hunter Fanney, “Water Vapor 10.4 APPLIANCE TEST sumption of different models, would Permeability of Common Building PROCEDURES AND be more acceptable than direct regula- Materials,” ASHRAE Transactions, V 98, tion by setting maximum energy con- LABELING Part 2, 1992. sumption for various appliances. This 3. R.F. Richards, Douglas M. Burch, and Following the nationwide gasoline approach would allow competition William C. Thomas, Water Vapor Sorption shortage in the early 1970s, the U.S. between manufacturers on the basis of Measurement of Common Building Materials, ASHRAE Transactions, V 98, Part 2, Congress enacted the Energy Policy energy consumption. In addition to 1992. and Conservation Act (EPCA, Public the development of the test methods 4. R.F. Richards, “Measurements of Law 94-163). The energy used by for the covered appliances, NBS also Moisture Diffusivity of Porous Building household appliances was considered a was asked to design labels that would Materials,” Proceedings, Thermal major factor in the national energy provide information on the annual Performance of the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings V, American Society of Heating, conservation effort. The law was sub- energy consumption at the point of Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning sequently amended three times, in sale. The label was bright yellow and Engineers, 1992. 1978, 1987 and 1988. The 1987 named the EnergyGuide. In addition 5. Douglas M. Burch and William C. amendment, the National Appliance to the annual cost of energy, the label Thomas, MOIST: A PC Program for Predicting Energy Conservation Act of 1987 showed where the particular model Heat and Moisture Transfer In Building (NAECA), established the mandated was positioned in the range of compet- Envelopes, Version 2.0, NIST Special Publication 853, National Institute of energy conservation standards for the itive products. Purchasers were able to Standards and Technology, 1993. covered appliances. Under the law, make decisions on the payback time 6. Douglas M. Burch and Anton TenWolde, DOE was required to establish energy for any added cost for appliances that “Computer Analysis of Moisture conservation standards with respect to used less energy, and were able to Accumulation in the Walls of minimum efficiency and/or maximum compare different fuels. The FTC Manufactured Housing,” ASHRAE energy use for all covered residential Transactions, Symposia, Vol. 99, No. 2, issued guidelines for the label in a rule 1993. products. NBS was required to assist promulgated in 1979. In 1994, the 7. Douglas M. Burch, Analysis of Moisture DOE to develop the test procedures FTC issued a final rule that revised the Accumulation in Walls Subjected to Hot that would be used by the appliance EnergyGuide labels. Rather than the

133 tively straightforward for the so This cyclic operation causes significant called “white” appliances of the energy losses or inefficiencies associat- covered products, those used ed with the warm up and cool down of for cooking, cleaning, refriger- the heating equipment such as fur- ating food, etc. For those appli- naces and boilers, or migration of ances, the performance and refrigerant in the cooling equipment annual cost of operation are such as air-conditioner and heat pump. primarily dependent on the use In addition, these appliances do not pattern or schedule. Once have a constant year-round daily use normal use patterns/schedules pattern but rather depend primarily on were known, the existing the outside weather conditions. industry steady state test Therefore, steady state tests were method for the appliance could deemed not a sufficient procedure for NBS developed test method for appliances’ energy con- be combined with the specific the determination of the annual energy consumption. As a result, NBS staff sumption that were used by the Federal Trade Commission daily use pattern/schedule to developed new procedures to deter- as Energy Guide appliance labels as illustrated for determine the performance Furnace-Natural Gas appliance. mine a seasonal (heating or cooling) and annual cost of operation. efficiency for this type of equipment Industry experts were helpful that includes both steady state and average annual operating cost that may in explaining normal use patterns, cycling tests coupled with calculation change from year to year depending on but surveys were also used. In some procedures that account for the chang- fuel cost, the labels now contain the instances it was necessary to observe ing weather conditions throughout the annual energy use (in kWh) as the main people using appliances to establish heating and cooling seasons. The comparative indicator. The 1987 use pattern. For example, most users resulting seasonal efficiency descriptors amendment requires that as the technol- could not say how many times they were the Annual Fuel Utilization ogy to improve the equipment efficiency opened an oven door to check while Efficiency (AFUE) for furnaces and advances, DOE periodically re-evaluate cooking a meal, which burners they boilers, and the Seasonal Energy the standards, and, after public hearings, used on the range top, or which size Efficiency Ratio (SEER) for air-condi- establish new minimum standards pots they used on each burner. To tioners and the SEER and Heating solve these problems a kitchen was Season Performance Factor (HSPF) for The challenge to NBS was to develop a set up with one way mirrors in a test heat pumps. The average annual energy test method for each appliance that house known as the Bowman House, consumption of these appliances on would measure annual energy con- on NBS grounds, and volunteers were the basis of these energy efficiency sumption under normal use conditions recruited to cook meals while being descriptors was then calculated for the and provide the information to pur- monitored by NBS staff. yellow labels. chasers in a meaningful way. This not only involved the development of a At the time of the enactment of EPCA, After the initial tasks of development standard, repeatable method of meas- steady state tests were used in the of the appliance test methods and uring energy use, but also determina- industry for central space heating and labels, NBS concentrated on the tion of normal use patterns for each cooling equipment. However, in actual improvement of the test procedures specific appliance. The development of operation, the equipment cycles on for the covered appliances to account a standard test method was compara- and off frequently throughout the day. for the advances in the energy efficien-

134 cy design features spurred by the ener- and FTC, and listed on the appliance handling the work on furnaces and cen- gy conservation efforts. Revised and labels as specified in the FTC’s Federal tral air conditioners. The human factors additional test procedures were devel- Trade Commission, Energy Guide (16 aspects including label design, user sur- oped or under study for [1] condens- CFR Part 305). veys, and cooking studies were the ing and modulating furnaces and boil- responsibility of the CCPT’s Consumer ers, [2] variable-speed compressor and Residential equipment accounts for 20 Sciences Division headed by Mel mix-matched systems in cooling sys- percent of U.S national energy con- Myerson, appliance test methods were tems, [3] heat pump water heaters and sumption. The test procedures, the developed by CCPT’s Product improved procedure for the first hour labeling program, and the required Performance Engineering Division head- rating of storage water heaters, [4] mandatory minimum standards stimu- ed by Andrew Fowell, and the home standardized load sample cloth and lated competition, and have resulted in heating and cooling product test meth- multiple load control feature in cloth substantial improvement in equipment ods were developed by CBT’s Building washers, [5] dishwashers employing efficiency by manufacturers. The main Environment Division headed by Preston adaptive control and soil/particle sen- impact on the public of the appliance McNall. Key people in the early part of sors for performance and energy effi- labeling program is the visibility of the the program included Charles “Chuck” ciency, [6] test procedures for fluores- “energy labels” affixed to appliances in Howard, Ken Yee, Charles Gordon, cence lamp ballast, and [7] test proce- stores, and the fact that many pur- Escher Kweller, Robert Wise, James dures for plumbing fixtures. chasers are influenced by the informa- Harris, Alan Davies, King Mon Tu, tion on the label. The American George Kelly, Joseph Chi, Walter Parken, Many reports were provided to the Council for an Energy Efficiency Mark Kuklewicz, William Mulroy, and Department of Energy including rec- Economy (ACEEE) reported average James Hill. In 1981 CCPT was disband- ommended label design, test methods, efficiency increase from 1972 to 1987 ed and the appliance program was and the results of surveys. References of 96 percent for refrigerator-freezers, absorbed by CBT. Staff of CBT (now [1-10] are the principal reports and 35 percent for central air conditioners BFRL) who continued the work in the publications, and [11] is a description and heat pumps, 30 percent for room appliance program include Escher of the outstanding technical work in air conditioners, and 18 percent for Kweller, Hunter Fanney, Brian the NBS/NIST Centennial Publication. gas furnaces. The energy cost saving Dougherty, Stanley Liu, William Healy, makes it worthwhile to replace an old and Stuart Dols in water heaters, Esher NBS provided information to DOE to refrigerator (1970s) even though it Kweller, George Kelly, Cheol Park, enable it to hold public hearings on may be working. EPCA has been Stanley Liu, and James Barnett in fur- the test procedures, which after incor- amended by the Energy Policy Act of naces and boilers, David Didion, Piotr porating public comments as appropri- 1992, P.L. 102-486, to cover certain Domanski, Walter Parken, William ate, were then adopted by DOE as commercial equipment and NIST is Mulroy and Brian Dougherty in air con- final rules for the covered products. assisting the Department of Energy to ditioners and heat pumps, James Kao, They were published as the federal develop energy efficiency test methods Natascha Castro, and Andrew Persily in rules in the Codes of Federal for commercial water heaters, fur- clothes washers, Natascha Castro in dish- Regulations, No. 10, Part 430, Subpart naces, boilers, air conditioners and washers, Steve Nabinger in Kitchen B, Test Procedures, Appendix A heat pumps. range and ovens, and Steve Treado in flu- through Appendix P. The energy effi- orescent lamp ballasts, plumbing fixtures ciency and annual energy consumption Initially the appliance program at NBS and sampling procedure in performance values for the covered appliances were was lead by the Center for Consumer testing and enforcement for all covered reported by the manufacturers to DOE Product Technology (CCPT) with CBT appliances.

135 George Kelly and David Didion 6. Piotr A. Domanski, Recommended Procedure and/or cooling, the overall efficiency received Department of Commerce for Rating and Testing of Variable Speed Air typically can be 60 percent or higher, Silver Medal Awards in 1978 and Source Unitary Air Conditioner and Heat Pumps, ideally as much as 85 percent. NISTIR 88-3781, National Institute of 1981, respectively, for their research Standards and Technology, 1988. on test methods for accurate and effi- 7. Piotr A. Domanski, Rating Procedure for Total Energy has other names, such as cient energy labeling of heat pumps Mixed Air Source Unitary Air Conditioner and cogenerated heat and power, combined and air-conditioners. Warren Hurley Heat Pumps Operating in the Cooling Mode - heat and power, integrated energy, dis- received the Bronze Medal Award of Revision 1, NISTIR 89-4120, National trict energy, etc. It is not a new con- the Department of Commerce in Institute of Standards and Technology, cept. In the early 1900s electric power 1989. 1982 for development of data acquisi- plants (typically coal-fired plants pro- 8. Piotr A. Domanski, Rating Procedure for tion methods for appliance testing. Mixed Air Source Unitary Air Conditioner and ducing steam to run turbine-driven Brian Dougherty received the Bronze Heat Pumps Operating in the Heating Mode, generators) were smaller and usually Medal Award in 1999 for updating NISTIR 90-4298, National Institute of located close to the buildings they test methods for heat pumps and air- Standards and Technology, 1990. served. It was relatively easy to pipe conditioners. 9. A. Hunter Fanney, “The Measured heat recovered from the turbine Performance of Residential Water exhaust steam to nearby buildings or Heaters Using Existing and Proposed References Department of Energy Test Procedures,” homes. As the utility plants grew larger 1. George E. Kelly, Joseph Chi, and Mark ASHRAE Transaction, V.96, 1990. and tended to locate more remotely, E. Kuklewicz, Recommended Testing and 10. Code of Federal Regulations, 10 CFR Part the piping of recovered heat was less Calculation Procedures for Determining the 430, Appendix A through Appendix P, of practical so the cogeneration of heat Seasonal Performance of Residential Central Subpart B, Test Procedures, Energy Furnaces and Boilers, NBSIR 78-1843, and power by most of these utilities Conservation Program for Consumer gradually disappeared. National Bureau of Standards, 1978. Products, January 1, 2000. 2. David A. Didion and George E. Kelly, 11. James E. Hill, “Methods for Testing and “New Testing and Rating Procedures for Rating the Performance of Heating and In the 1960s and early 1970s, the nat- Determining the Seasonal Performance Air Conditioning Systems,” A Century of ural gas industry promoted natural of Heat Pumps,” ASHRAE J., V21, 9, pp Excellence in Measurements, Standards and gas-engine-driven total energy systems 40-44, 1979. Technology, A Chronicle of Selected NBS/NIST for supplying electric power and heat- 3. George E. Kelly and Mark E. Kuklewicz, Publications 1901-2000, Special ing to one or more buildings. 500 or Recommended Testing and Calculation Publication 958, National Institute of more of these systems were installed Procedures for Estimating the Seasonal Standards and Technology, pp 270-274, Performance of Residential Condensing 2001. by 1971. The electric capacity ranged Furnaces and Boilers, NBSIR 80-2110, from less than one to about 3 MWe, National Bureau of Standards, 1981. 10.5 TOTAL ENERGY with most in the lower range below 2 4. George E. Kelly and William H. Parken, MWe. Many of these were hastily Method of Testing, Rating, and Estimating SYSTEMS the Seasonal Performance of Central Air conceived, poorly matched to site Conditioners and Heat Pumps Operating in Total Energy is a name given to the needs, and not maintained properly. As the Cooling Mode, NBSIR 77-1271, concept of recovering the waste energy the energy crisis eased many were dis- National Bureau of Standards, 1978. from generation of electricity for use continued. 5. William H. Parken, George E. Kelly, and in heating and/or cooling. The best David A. Didion, Method of Testing, efficiency for generating electricity is HUD in the 1970s, was in the final Rating, and Estimating the Heating Seasonal Performance of Heat Pumps, NBSIR 80- about 40 percent. By using the waste phase of their ‘Operation 2002, National Bureau of Standards, energy from electricity generation to Breakthrough’ program (development 1980. provide usable energy for heating of performance-based building design)

136 and wanted to demonstrate that the concept of total energy, properly designed, installed and maintained, would make a valuable contribution to the reduction of energy use for multiple-building installations. HUD requested NBS/CBT to determine feasibility of installing total energy at one of the ‘Operation Breakthrough’ building demonstration sites. Because of its energy conservation potential, CBT This Jersey City, NJ apartment building site of the mid 1970s featured use of prefabricated modules for had been studying total energy and, in medium-rise construction and an on-site energy cogeneration plant. NBS monitored the energy flow response to HUD’s request, recom- from the plant’s electricity generated site recovery system including recovering heat from diesel generators that contributed to heating the building units. HUD was interested to know if the cogeneration design mended the ‘Operation Breakthrough’ was energy efficient and worthy of replication. residential apartment building project site in Jersey City, NJ - Summit Plaza - for the ‘installation, evaluation, and power, heating and cooling for Systems (MIUS) program to study and field study for the demonstration total Summit Plaza [1]. encourage not only integration of elec- energy system. The site used off-site tric power and heating/cooling to fabricated modules that were stacked CBT designed, installed and operated reduce construction cost and energy to form the buildings. Heating and air an extensive data acquisition and eval- use in buildings and communities, but conditioning utilities for the buildings uation system for the total energy plant also the overall economics, institution- were generated in a small power plant and developed the computer-based al factors relative to integration of util- located within the apartment complex. data reduction processes needed for ities, including in addition to alterna- Heat generated by the diesel engines performance analysis and reporting. tive energy systems, potable water, liq- was recovered and used to offset the Full-time automatic data acquisition uid waste treatment and solid waste energy needed to supply the apart- and processing was on-line from April management systems. ments’ heating and air conditioning 1975 through December 1977 and needs. CBT instrumented the power selected data were collected and moni- HUD requested CBT and several other plant and each apartment building to tored, manually or automatically, from agencies, including, principally, the monitor energy generation and use. December 1973 through October Energy Research and Development HUD was interested to know if the 1978. A complete description of the Administration, the Environmental cogeneration design was energy effi- Jersey City total energy plant, its func- Protection Agency, Oak Ridge National cient and worthy of replication. tional and energy performance, and Laboratory, and the National noise, emissions, and air quality per- Aeronautics and Space Administration, CBT prepared the performance formance, is presented in a NBS to conduct specific MIUS studies. specification for the total energy report authored by C. Warren Hurley, CBT was requested to provide coordi- installation at the site. Installation of et al [1]. nated technical review for the report- the total energy plant was started in ing of all of these studies. The MIUS 1971 and went on line serving the Concurrent with interest in total ener- reports from all program participants, site in December 1973. The plant is gy and its demonstration, HUD estab- including those on total energy, totaled still operating supplying electric lished their Modular Integrated Utility 213 publications [2, 3]. CBT pro-

137 duced 35 technical reports; 19 total investors, consultants, and contractors energy-related publications and 16 concerned with Integrated Energy reports of MIUS-related studies such Systems (IES). The meetings, with typ- as economic objectives, waste water ical attendance of 50-75, were first management, institutional factors, held at NBS, then at the Department comparison of MIUS with 5 alternative of Commerce, and finally at the U. S. systems, evaluation and performance Conference of Mayors headquarters in guidelines [4], and usage of electricity Washington, D. C. in non-industrial applications. Clinton Phillips served as President of the American When the National Engineering Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air- CBT, at the request of HUD and the Laboratory was organized in 1978, the Conditioning Engineers 1982-1983. Energy Research and Development Total Energy Program was transferred with key personnel to the Center for Administration (ERDA), participated Report); NBSIR 82-2474, National in the organization, in 1974, of the Mechanical Engineering and Process Bureau of Standards, 1982 MIUS Study Group of the North Technology, but continued to involve 2. John D. Ryan and Brian Reznek, Editors, many CBT staff. NBS participation in Atlantic Treaty Organization’s Abstracted Reports and Articles of the HUD HUD’s total energy program, its Committee on Challenges to Modern Modular Integrated Utility Systems (MIUS) MIUS program and the DOE IES pro- Program, Special Publication 489, Society. CBT organized and conducted gram, concluded in 1983. Throughout National Bureau of Standards, 1977 the international meetings of this study its history, NBS’ Total Energy Program 3. Moris H. Nimmo and Brian Reznek, group, consisting of about 35 technical was led by Clinton W. Phillips whose Editors- Abstracted Reports and Articles of representatives from seven countries, enthusiasm and warmth achieved out- the HUD Modular Integrated Utility Systems in Belgium (1975), The Netherlands standing collaborations within NBS, (MIUS) Program; Supplement, Special Publication 489 Supplement 1, National (1975), France (1976), Germany nationally and internationally. Phillips Bureau of Standards, 1982. (1976), and Italy (1977). The study began work as a technician with a CBT 4. D. J. Mitchell, Performance Guidelines for group mission was to exchange techni- predecessor organization in the 40s, Modular Integrated Utility System, NBSIR cal data on implementation of MIUS rose to lead work on modular, inte- 78-1395, National Bureau of Standards, systems in the several countries and grated utility systems for buildings, and 1978. included development of an interna- was elected president of the American 5. Moris H. Nimmo and Clinton W. tional projects ‘catalog’, a glossary of Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Phillips, Committee on the Challenges of MIUS terms, sharing of MIUS feasibil- Air-Conditioning Engineers in 1982. Modern Society: Rational Use of Energy He inspired colleagues with his enthu- Study - MIUS Project Final Report, NBSIR ity computer programs, and several 78-1468-1 (Vol. 1) and NBSIR 78- member-contributed papers [5]. siasm for his and their work and his many charitable activities. 1468-2 (Vol. 2), National Bureau of Standards, 1978. Beginning in 1975 at HUD’s request John Ryan received the Department of and subsequently supported by ERDA, Commerce Bronze Medal Award in 10.6 BUILDING and later by the Buildings and 1975 for his contributions to perform- THERMAL Communities Office of the ance analysis of total energy systems. ENVIRONMENT Department of Energy, CBT organized ANALYSES and conducted monthly technical References exchange meetings from 1977 to 1983 1. C. Warren Hurley, John D. Ryan, and Before the 1970s, building environ- for Federal, state, county and city gov- Clinton W. Phillips, Performance Analysis of mental engineering was mostly repre- ernment agencies, city planners, the Jersey City Total Energy Plant (Final sented by HVAC (heating, ventilating

138 and air conditioning) engineers whose Through these activities he had devel- The program originally developed for a main interest was to design and select oped efficient computer programs for one-room building was called the heating and cooling equipment under a several types of advanced computer NBSLD [11], the accuracy and relia- set of design conditions (mainly out- programs involving complex Bessel bility of which were validated concur- door temperature and humidity) functions. rently with many different types of through the so called “catalogue engi- buildings whose thermal and energy neering.” Very few of the HVAC engi- Tamami Kusuda extended the fallout performance were carefully measured neers had any interest in, or were shelter thermal environment calcula- mostly under the leadership of Frank capable of predicting or evaluating the tion program into an hour by hour Powell and Douglas Burch [12 - 15] performance of heating and cooling building thermal environment calcula- (some buildings were tested inside the equipment and systems, which they tion program in order to evaluate the large environmental chamber). These had designed or selected, under off- performance of the Operation measurements on test buildings design conditions, which constitute a Breakthrough buildings of the included an inside-out construction majority of the operating hours of Department of Housing and Urban (insulation placed outside of building HVAC systems and equipment. There Development. In this effort, he incor- walls), a log- cabin, a mobile home, were in fact no methodologies for esti- porated the thermal response factor massive masonry wall buildings, attic mating the performance of building method developed by Stephenson and ventilation homes, different types of indoor environment, HVAC equipment Mitalas [2] to deal with transient heat passive solar houses, houses with a and systems under off-design condi- conduction and storage in the multi- whole-house fan, daylight utilization tions, since performance prediction layered building envelope in lieu of systems, thermostat setback opera- required different and more complex finite difference calculations, which tions, and large office buildings (e.g. mathematical approaches. Computers took up a large segment of the pre- the GSA Manchester demonstration were also expensive and not many cious computer memory and involved building [16]). Approaches and sub- were found in HVAC engineers’ lengthy computation time. Eventually, routines used by NBSLD stimulated offices. this computer program was expanded many young researchers and new to include detailed heat balance calcu- research programs, and formed the Because of advanced computer facili- lation algorithms [3] to address the starting point for the energy calcula- ties as well as the programming and radiative heat exchange among interior tion algorithms recommended by the mathematical talents available at NBS, surfaces of the room; the Goff and ASHRAE Task Group on Energy some CBT researchers were very active Gratch formulation of psychrometric Requirements [17] as well as similar in the use of computers for analyzing data [4]; solar heat gain calculation activities in many parts of the world. various aspects of environmental engi- procedures developed by Stephenson It laid the foundation for more sophis- neering for buildings, especially build- [5]; cloud cover modifier by ticated and well-known building ener- ing heat transfer problems. Bradley Kimura/Stephenson; a comprehensive gy simulation programs, such as DOE- Peavy [1], for example, was active in shadow program of Terry Sun [6]; an 2 [18], BLAST [19], TARP [20], etc., developing advanced mathematical infiltration routine based on that followed. These programs played techniques to deal with complex heat Achenbach/Coblenz equation [7] (later an important role in the USA when conduction problems involving the replaced by the Sherman/Grimsrud the country was developing building prediction of temperature in deep equation [8]); the thermal comfort energy standards, during the aftermath underground fallout shelters under the equations of Fanger [9]; and ground of oil crisis of early 1970s, under the sponsorship of the Office of Civil contact heat transfer based on thermal leadership of NBS, DOE, and Defense (the predecessor of FEMA). response factors [10]. ASHRAE.

139 Kusuda’s contribution during history of building performance simu- this period was recognized by lation activities as well as its future the 1980 Gold Medal of the prospects. Department of Commerce, the distinguished Fellow In 1995, IBPSA gave its Award for award of ASHRAE in l985, as Distinguished Service to Building well as by an ASHRAE sympo- Simulation to George Walton for his sium paper of 2000 held in sustained contributions to the building Cincinnati entitled “The Role simulation field. His work in building of the National Institute of heat transfer and network analysis has Standards and Technology in resulted in simulation programs used Development of Energy worldwide including TARP, AIRNET Calculation Programs” by and CONTAM. Walton received the NBS Building Science Series 69, NBSLD. Professor Eugene Stamper Bronze Medal Award of the Tamami Kusuda developed a dynamic computer [21] of the New Jersey Institute of Department of Commerce in 1983 in calculation program called the National Bureau Technology, who headed the ASHRAE earlier recognition of this work. Also, of Standards Load Determination Program Technical Committee on Energy Douglas Burch received the Bronze (NBSLD) that provided hourly weather data cov- Calculations. Medal in 1980 for his work on attic ering all seasons of the year in any location and insulation and attic ventilation. the dynamic profile of hourly energy required by Recognizing the need for assessing the a proposed building design for a full year. use of computers for building environ- One interesting application of NBSLD mental analyses, Achenbach and was the introduction of the predicted Kusuda organized the first internation- building habitability index (PIHI) as an Tamami Kusuda, pioneer for thermal environ- al symposium on the use of computers integrated evaluation criterion for mental analysis. for environmental engineering related building performance. The PIHI con- to buildings [22] in1971 that attracted cept was developed by James Hill and over 400 enthusiastic building environ- Tamami Kusuda in l975 [24] in which mental engineers from all over the the simulated hourly energy consump- world. This symposium was followed tion, comfort index, and system eco- in Paris (1974), Banff (1978), Tokyo nomic factors were weighted (in accor- (1983), and in Seattle (1985), before dance with specific application it was taken over by the IBPSA requirements) and algebraically (International Building Performance summed-up to arrive at an index for Simulation Association). IBPSA con- determining building air conditioning tinues to conduct international sym- needs. This PIHI concept can be posia biennially ever since, and recog- extended to include the energy per- nized Kusuda with its distinguished formance of other building elements service award at its1993 meeting held such as lighting, acoustics, moisture in Adelaide, Australia. In its 1999 condensation, plumbing, etc. Kyoto, Japan, meeting of IBPSA, Kusuda was invited as the keynote Kusuda also worked on and published speaker [23] to talk about the early several papers on various subjects

140 including the dynamic characteristics 4. J. A. Goff and G. Gratch, National Institute of Standards and of air infiltration [25], room air con- “Thermodynamic Properties of Moist Technology, 1982. vection calculations based on the Air,” ASHRAE Transactions, pp 125-164, 15. Tamami Kusuda, E.T. Pierce, and John 1945. W. Bean, “Comparison of Calculated numerical solution of turbulent 5. K. Kimura and D.G. Stephenson, “Solar Hourly Cooling Load and Attic Navier-Stokes equations [26], heat Radiation on Cloudy Days,” ASHRAE Temperature with Measured Data for a transfer of underground heat and Transactions, Vol. 75, Pt 1, pp 227-233, Houston Test House,” ASHRAE chilled water systems [27], slab-on- 1969. Transactions, Vol. 85, Pt 1, ASHRAE, grade heat transfer [28], and daylight- 6. T. Sun, “Shadow Area Equations for Atlanta, GA, 1981. ing calculations [29]. The paper on the Window Overhang and Side Fins and 16. Tamami Kusuda, James E. Hill, Stanley the Application in Computer T. Liu, James P. Barnett, and John W. dynamic characteristics of air infiltra- Calculation,” ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. Bean, Pre-Design Analysis of Energy tion mentioned above was published 74, Pt. 1, 1968. Conservation Options for a Multi-Story jointly with James Hill and won 7. C. W. Coblentz and Paul R. Achenbach, Demonstration Office Building, Building ASHRAE’s best technical paper award “Field Measurement of Air Infiltration in Science Series 78, National Bureau of of 1975. The concept explored in the Ten Electrically Heated Houses,” Standards, 1975. paper was later investigated further by ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 69, pp 3 58-3 17. ASHRAE Task Group on Energy John Klote [30] in his 1985 doctoral 65, 1963. Requirements, Procedure for Determining 8. M. H. Sherman and D. T., Grimsrud, Heating and Cooling Loads for Computerized thesis at George Washington University “Infiltration-Pressurization Correlation: Energy Calculations: Algorithms for Building at which Kusuda served as an adjutant Simplified Physical Modeling,” ASHRAE Heat Transfer Subroutines, American professor. Transactions, 86 (2): 778, 1980. Society of Heating, Refrigerating and 9. P. O. Fanger, Thermal Comfort Analysis and Air-Conditioning Engineers, New York, 1975. The building environment simulation Applications for Environmental Engineering, 18. “DOE-2 Reference Manual, Version work started by Kusuda has been ably 1st ed. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1970. 10. Tamami Kusuda, “Thermal Response 2.1A Report,” Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory succeeded by other NIST researchers Factors for Multilayer Structures of Report 8706 Rev. 2, 1981. including George Walton, Stephen Various Heat Conduction Systems,” 19. D. Hittle and B. Sliwinski, “CERL Thermal Loads Analysis and Systems Treado, George Kelly, Cheol Park, and ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 75, Pt 1, pp Simulation Program Volume 2: Program 250-269, 1969. others in advanced building environ- Reference Manual,” CERL Interim Report 11. Tamami Kusuda, NBSLD, The Computer mental simulation, the details of which E-81, US Army Construction Program, for Heating and Cooling Loads for Engineering Research Laboratory, are given in other sections of this report. Buildings, BSS 69, National Bureau of Champaign, Illinois, 1975. Standards, 1976. 20. George N. Walton, Thermal Analysis References 12. Bradley A. Peavy, Frank J. Powell, and Research Program Reference Manual, NBSIR 1. Bradley A. Peavy, “Analytical Studies of Douglas M. Burch, Dynamic Thermal 83-2655, National Institute of Standards Probe Conduction Errors in Ground Performance of an Experimental Masonry and Technology, 1983. Temperature Measurements,” Journal of Building, BSS 45, National Bureau of 21. Eugene Stamper, “The Role of the Research, National Bureau of Standards Standards, 1973. National Institute of Standards and (1) S 72C, No.4, pp 243-247, 1968. 13. Bradley A. Peavy, Frank J. Powell, Technology in Development of Energy 2. D. G. Stephenson and G. P. Mitalas, Douglas M. Burch, and Charles M. Calculation Program,” ASHRAE “Calculation of Heat Conduction Hunt, Comparison of Measured and Transactions (Cincinnati Meeting), 9-3, Transfer Functions for Multilayer Slabs,” Computer Predicted Thermal Performance of a 2001. ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 77, Pt II, 1971. Four Bedroom Wood-Fame Town House, BSS 22. Tamami Kusuda (Ed), Proceedings of The 3. Tamami Kusuda, “Fundamentals of 57, National Bureau of Standards, 1975. First Symposium on the Use of Computers for Building Heat Transfer,” NBS Journal of 14. Douglas M. Burch, et al. A Field Study of Environmental Engineering Related to Research, Vol. 82, No. 2, National Bureau the Effect of Wall Mass on the Heating and Buildings, BSS 39, National Bureau of of Standards, 1977. Cooling Loads of Residential Buildings, Standards, 1971.

141 23. Tamami Kusuda, “Early History and and the mechanical systems within archical, modular approach. The simu- Future Prospects of Building System them. These dynamics take place on a lation of an entire building/HVAC/con- Simulation,” Proceedings of International time scale on the order of seconds for trol system involves the simultaneous Building Performance Simulation Association (IBPSA), Kyoto, 1999. control actions involving local control solution of a large number of nonlinear 24. James E. Hill, Tamami Kusuda, and loops to a time scale on the order of algebraic and differential equations Stanley T. Liu: A Proposed Concept for minutes for changes in zone conditions over large time periods using time Determining the Need for Air Conditioning steps on the order of seconds or small- Based on Building Thermal Response and In an effort to understand dynamic er. The modular approach is based Human Comfort, BSS 71 and NBS Report interaction between building systems, upon the methodology used in the 10815, National Bureau of Standards, 1975. initial development of a non-propri- TRNSYS program. Variable time step 25. James E. Hill and Tamami Kusuda, etary building system simulation com- and variable order integration tech- “Dynamic Characteristics of Air puter program was begun at NBS in niques are also used for reducing the Infiltration,” ASHRAE Transactions, 1982. That program is called HVAC- amount of computation time required Vol.81, Part 1, ASHRAE, New York, NY, SIM+, which stands for HVAC for dynamic simulation. Stiff ordinary pp168-185, 1975. SIMulation PLUS other systems. The differential equations are solved using a 26. T. Kurabuchi, and Tamami Kusuda, “Numerical Prediction for Indoor Air work built upon CBT’s pioneering solving method based upon the famous Movement,” ASHRAE Journal, Vol. 29, work in the 60s and early 70s for the Gear algorithm. No. 12, ASHRAE Atlanta, Atlanta, GA, National Bureau of Standards Load 1987. Determination Program [1]. The HVACSIM+ program consisted of 27. Tamami Kusuda, Heat Transfer Analysis of a main simulation routine, a library of Underground Heat and Chilled Water HVACSIM+ [2-7] employs advanced HVAC system component models, a Distribution Systems, NBSIR 81-2378, National Bureau of Standards, 1981. equation solving techniques and a hier- building shell model, an interactive 28. Tamami Kusuda and O. Piet, Annual Variation of Temperature Field and Heat An air-handling unit with a room simulated by HVACSIM+ program. Transfer under Slab-On Grade Floor Heat Loss Calculations, BSS 156, National Bureau of Standards, 1983. 29. Garry Gillette and Tamami Kusuda, “Daylighting Computational Procedure for DOE-2 and Other Dynamic Building Energy Analysis Programs,” IES Journal, New York, NY, 1982. 30. John Klote, Pulsatile Infiltration, PhD thesis at the George Washington University, Washington, DC, 1985.

10.7 SIMULATION OF MECHANICAL SYSTEMS PERFORMANCE The HVAC simulation work within BFRL has focused on understanding the dynamic performance of buildings

142 front end program, and post process- nents of the AHU to maintain the sup- Systems (CBS). The Virtual Cybernetic ing routines. Most of the programs ply air temperature at a set point value. Building Testbed (VCBT) is a project were written in Fortran 77, with the Advanced control logic was compared within CBS. Experiences obtained Fortran 90 code used for some specific with a traditional approach using from previous emulator projects have routines. HVACSIM+ to simulate the AHU been incorporated in to the VCBT components and the control logic. work. In the VCBT, the building and The program HVACSIM+ is intended the HVAC system are simulated using as a tool for conducting analytical As a part of a joint research effort con- HVACSIM+, which communicates research on building systems and sub- ducted by participants of the Internal with actual controllers supplied by dif- systems and not as software which can Energy Agency (IEA) Annex17 com- ferent manufacturers. A fire simula- be easily used by the general public. mittee, NIST developed an “emulation model is used to simulate the However, the simulation techniques, tor.” A building emulator is analogues development of fire within one of the equation solving routines, and compo- to a flight simulator in the aircraft building zones and the spread of nent models contained in HVACSIM+ industry. Just as a flight simulator sim- smoke through open doorways. should facilitate the development of ulates an airplane in real time, a build- such application programs for the gen- ing emulator simulated a building, the Besides being used within BFRL for eral public by government laboratories, weather, the HVAC system, and the various projects, the HVACSIM+ pro- universities, or the private sector. heating/cooling plant in real time. Real gram was used in the International EMCS control hardware was connect- Energy Agency (IEA) Annexes 17 and The HVACSIM+ dynamic ed to a computer via a data acquisition 25 and with the debugging of con- building/HVAC/Control systems simu- system. The building system was simu- troller performance and control strate- lation program was used in a number lated using HVACSIM+. The EMCS gy development by industry. Other of projects. Some of them are briefly then controlled the simulated system researchers outside of U.S. have also described below. as if it were an actual building. The participated in upgrades to HVAC- emulator also evaluated the EMCS’s SIM+. Many universities in different A large office building system, which performance in terms of the energy countries have used the HVACSIM+ includes the HVAC systems, building consumed, degree of comfort main- program as a teaching tool for graduate system controls, and building shell, tained in the simulated space, and and undergraduate students. was simulated using the HVACSIM+ accuracy of control [9-11]. program. The building used for simu- George Kelly conceived of the idea to lation was the NIST Administration Participants of IEA Annex 25 commit- develop a program for simulating building. EMCS (Energy Management tee for real time simulation of HVAC building/HVAC/control system dynam- and Control System) control schemes, systems for building optimization, fault ics. C. Ray Hill initially developed the such as start/stop control and night- detection, and diagnosis used the main part of the HVACSIM+ program time purging, were evaluated [8]. HVACSIM+ program in joint exercis- while he was at NIST as a research es to evaluate their fault detection associate. Daniel Clark developed most An advanced air-handling unit (AHU) methodologies. NIST distributed the of the HVAC system component mod- sequencing control algorithm was also program and data for the exercises. els. Cheol Park contributed to the simulated (12) and evaluated. AHU building shell model development, controllers commonly use simple One of several “major products” cur- improved the main program, and sequencing logic to determine the rently under development within maintained and distributed HVAC- most economic way to use the compo- BFRL is called Cybernetic Building SIM+. Bob May developed the inter-

143 active front-end program and David Building/HVAC/Control Systems cation protocol for exchanging infor- Harris did most of the programming. Simulation Program,” Proceedings of the mation between building management Outside of NIST, Philip Haves, when 1st Annual Building Energy Simulation Conf., and control systems and pioneering the Seattle, WA, August 21-22, 1985. he was at the Loughborough University concept of Cybernetic Building 7. Cheol Park, Daniel R. Clark, and George in England, participated in the E. Kelly, HVACSIM+ Building Systems and Systems for improved productivity, improvement of HVACSIM+ and on Equipment Simulation Program: Building life-cycle cost savings, energy conserva- the development of the emulator Loads Calculation, NBSIR 86-3331, tion, improved occupant satisfaction, described above. Many other people National Bureau of Standards, 1986. and U.S. market leadership. have also been involved in develop- 8. Cheol Park, Steven T. Bushby, and ment HVACSIM+, building emula- George E. Kelly, “Simulation of a Large During the past twenty-five years, our tors, and experimental works on the Office Building System Using the understanding of buildings and how to HVACSIM+ Program,” ASHRAE Trans., verification of HVACSIM+ and its operate them has undergone a gradual V. 95, Pt.1, 1989. component models. 9. George E. Kelly, Cheol Park, and James evolution involving a shift away from P. Barnett, “Using Emulators/Tester for considering buildings as static units to References Commissioning EMCS Software, considering them as dynamic, integrat- 1. George Walton, “Computer Program for Operator Training, Algorithm ed, and distributed systems. During Heating and Cooling Loads in Development, and Tuning Local Control this same period, rapid advances in Buildings,” A Century of Excellence in Loops,” ASHRAE Trans., V. 97, Pt. 1, technology (such as inexpensive micro- Measurements, Standards, and Technology, A 1991. processors, large scale integrated cir- Chronicle of Selected NBS/NIST Publications 10. R. Kohonen, et al., “Synthesis Report 1901-2000, Special Publication 958, Development of Emulation Methods,” cuits, and new approaches to telecom- National Institute of Standards and IEA Annex 17, 1993. munications) has made it possible to Technology, pp 266-269, 2001. 11. G. M. Decious, Cheol Park, and George develop Building Control Systems that 2. George E. Kelly, Cheol Park, David R. E. Kelly, “A Low-Cost Building/HVAC not only can account for dynamic Clark, and William B. May, “HVAC- Emulator,” Heating/Piping/Airconditioning, interactions to optimize performance SIM+, A Dynamic January 1997. but promise to be extremely cost Building/HVAC/Control System 12. J. E. Seem, Cheol Park, and John M. effective due to their ability to be inte- Simulation,” Proc. of Workshop on HVAC House, “A New Sequencing Control Controls Modeling and Simulation, Georgia Strategy for Air-Handling Units,” grated with other building services. In Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, Feb. J. HVAC&R Research, ASHRAE, Vol. 5, this rapidly changing environment, the 2-3, 1984. No.1, 35-58, 1999. Building Controls Program within 3. C. Ray Hill, “Simulation of a Multizone CBT/BFRL has worked to: 1) docu- Air Handler,” ASHRAE Trans., V91, Pt. 1, 10.8 CONTROLS AND ment the current state-of-the-art in 1985. the design, control, and operation of 4. Daniel R. Clark, HVACSIM+ Building CYBERNETIC Systems and Equipment Simulation Program BUILDING SYSTEMS building service systems, 2) promote Reference Manual, NBSIR 84-2996, improved building services through the National Bureau of Standards, 1985. Building controls research at NIST has evaluation, development, and applica- 5. Daniel R. Clark and William B. May, focused on improving and lowering the tion of advanced concepts and tech- HVACSIM+ Building Systems and cost of buildings services by fostering nologies, 3) develop system design and Equipment Simulation Program-Users Guide, the development and use of more performance evaluation techniques, NBSIR 85-3243, National Bureau of intelligent, integrated, and optimized Standards, 1985. such as advanced simulation models, 6. Cheol Park, Daniel R. Clark, and mechanical systems and controls. Key emulators, and test procedures, 4) George E. Kelly, “An Overview of HVAC- aspects of this effort have been the promote the development of stan- SIM+, A Dynamic development of a standard communi- dards, protocols, and guidelines, and

144 5) assist in technology transfer through Research on EMCS Algorithms was The first meeting of SPC 135P publications, conferences, workshops, centered on the development and veri- occurred in June of 1987. In August of and demonstration projects. fication of an adaptive algorithm for 1991 the first public review draft of local loop control and various public the proposed BACnet standard was In the late 1970s, BFRL was involved domain application algorithms. The published for comment [6]. A revised with two field evaluation projects: the latter covered economizer algorithms, version of the draft standard was pub- Jersey City Total Energy Site [1] and demand limiting algorithms, scheduled lished for a second public review in Norris Cotton Federal Office Building start/stop and duty cycling, optimal March of 1994. Modifications were [2]. In 1980, the Mechanical Systems start/stop, and algorithms for a variety made and a third, and final, public and Controls Group was formed. One of reset control strategies. Work also review version was published for com- of the early projects of this Group was involved the investigation of the per- ment in March of 1995. The final to evaluate the energy saving potential formance of EMCS instrumentation, draft version was approved for publica- of the most commonly employed steam flow measuring systems, and tion as an ASHRAE standard in June HVAC control strategies using BLAST hygrometers; the development of pro- of 1995, eight and a half years after 2. Different control strategies were cedures and recommendations for the the formal standardization process was studied for a variety of HVAC systems on?site calibration of temperature, begun. BACnet was approved by the in a small office building, a large retail flow and humidity measurement sys- American National Standards Institute store, a large office building, and an tems; and evaluating and documenting (ANSI) as a national standard in the effect of EMSC sensor errors on education building in different regions December, 1995. Since 1995 BACnet building energy consumption [4]. has been maintained and enhanced by of the country [3]. ASHRAE Standing Standards Project During the 1980s, manufacturers were Committee 135 (SSPC 135). BACnet A Building Management and Controls developing proprietary communication has been translated into Chinese, Laboratory was developed. It involved protocols for their EMCS that made Japanese, and Korean. It has been the design, building, and installation of expansion and upgrading of these sys- adopted as a Korean national standard a distributed Energy Management and tems both difficult and expensive. As a and a European Community pre- Control System (EMCS) to control result of these problems, ASHRAE standard. It has also been proposed as and monitor a large air handler in the began in January 1987 to develop an an ISO standard. CBT building, an HVAC/Controls test industry standard communication proto- facility in the laboratory, and the 11- col for building automation and control In 1996, the Phillip Burton Federal story NIST Administration Building. systems. Standard Project Committee Building and U.S. Courthouse located The Laboratory was used to study 135P (SPC 135P) was formed to at 450 Golden Gate Avenue in San direct digital control, control dynam- accomplish this task and NIST played a Francisco was selected as the site for ics, and to verify and refine dynamic key role in the effort [5]. The member- the world’s first large-scale commercial models for HVAC system components. ship of SPC 135P was selected to pro- demonstration of the BACnet stan- Research involved the evaluation of vide a broad and balanced representation dard. The site, a 22-story 130,000 m2 different building/HVAC control of the building control industry. The office building, is the second largest strategies, the verification and refine- individuals came from manufacturers, office building in San Francisco and ment of control algorithms, and the consulting engineering firms, universi- the largest Federal office building west development of guidelines for the ties, and governmental agencies from of the Mississippi River. It was selected operation of different building systems. Canada and the United States. for this demonstration, in part,

145 the BACnet Manufacturers Association (BMA) in 2000. The BMA is an industry run organization whose purpose is to encourage the successful use of BACnet in building automation and control systems through interoperability testing, educational programs, and promotional activities.

While BACnet was being developed, Cover images of the English, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean versions of the BACnet Standard the Mechanical Systems and Controls Group was also involved in three successive International Energy Agency because it had little pre-existing EMCS gration of the central plant controls (IEA) Annexes. Annex 17, which was controls and recent renovations have with the existing BACnet control sys- entitled “Building Energy Management made it comparable to typical com- tem. The fire alarm system was also Systems (BEMS) Evaluation and mercial office buildings. The EMCS integrated with the HVAC controls Emulation Techniques,” ran from retrofit also represented a significant through an BACnet gateway. At the February 1988 until February 1993 energy-efficiency opportunity for the present time, the BACnet demonstra- [9]. It focused on the use of simulation building with projected annual utility tion project is being expanded to and emulation for evaluating BEMS savings of over $500,000. The project include linking eleven federal office performance. Subtask A used simula- tested multiple EMCS-manufacturers’ buildings located in California, tion to assess the “a priori” energy sav- equipment in one facility and their Arizona, and Nevada together with a ings achievable through the use of ability to cooperatively monitor and regional operations control center in building energy management systems control building systems by utilizing the Philip Burton Federal Building. (BEMS). Subtask B involved experi- the BACnet standard. In addition, This regional operations center will be ments on heating and cooling coils to extensive energy monitoring instru- used to monitor and supervise energy develop and validate dynamic coil mentation, an operator workstation conservation measures and to improve models. Other work has included network, and communications equip- operations and maintenance activities. experimental validation of a methodol- ment were incorporated into the EMS It will also serve as a research and ogy for determining control strategies design to facilitate future energy demonstration platform for developing for a heating system. Subtask C, which assessment and research activity within automated commissioning procedures, was led by Finland and the United the building [7]. automated fault detection and diagnos- Kingdom, involved the analysis and tics, and utility/building control system development of Emulators for BEMS. Contract awards for the first two interactions. The concept of BEMS Emulators was BACnet compliant vendors were made In 1993, a BACnet Interoperability based upon research conducted at in August 1996. Associated construc- Testing Consortium was formed to NIST several years previously. This tion activities were completed in develop test methods and software Subtask involved construction of actual January 1998, and the project tools to automate the compliance test- emulators by the participating coun- remained on schedule and on budget. ing of BACnet systems [8]. Originally tries, carrying out various emulation A follow-on project involved an exten- consisting of 12 members, it grew to exercises, and developing a BEMS test- sive central plant renovation and inte- 23 members before being replaced by ing methodology using Emulators and

146 completing a “round robin” testing program using different Emulators and BEMS systems. Emulators were developed by the U.S., United Kingdom, Belgium, Finland, The Netherlands, and France and exercises involving commercially available BEMS were conducted in each country. Guidelines for selecting and evaluating BEMS and for building emulators were also developed based upon experience and knowledge gained from the joint exercises. Steven Bushby, leader, Mechanical Systems and Control Group, checks wiring connections for controllers Annex 25, entitled Real Time in the BACnetTM Virtual Building. Simulation of HVAC-systems for Building Optimization, Fault 1996 until September 2000. The main Building Systems (CBS). The objec- Detection, and Diagnostics (BOFD), objective of this Annex was to work tives of this Major Product were to ran from April 1991 until April 1996. with control manufacturers, industrial develop, test, integrate, and demon- Its objectives were to evaluate alterna- partners, and/or building owners and strate open Cybernetic Building tive model identification methods, operators to demonstrate the benefits Systems for improved productivity, life determining which real time simula- of fault detection and diagnostics in cycle cost savings, energy conservation, tion models are most suitable for real building applications. The fault improved occupant satisfaction, and BOFD-systems, performing qualitative detection and diagnostic (FDD) meth- market leadership. This work was to availability analyses on various HVAC ods developed in Annex 25 were com- be carried out in close cooperation systems to determine the likelihood of bined into robust FDD systems and with the U.S. building industry, indus- different faults, developing a database incorporated into either stand-alone trial partners, building owners/opera- on the most important problems and PC based supervisors or into outsta- tors, and newly developing service diagnostic procedures, and demon- tions of a future generation of “smart” companies. strating the implementation of BOFD building control systems. NIST activi- concepts through joint exercises. NIST ties in Annex 34 were primarily The word “cybernetics” comes from led the Annex activities related to air- focused on field tests of a rule-based the Greek work “steersman” and is handling units and performed detailed tool for detecting faults in AHUs that defined as the science of control and comparison of techniques for classify- underscored the prevalence of control communication of complex systems. ing AHU operations (i.e., normal, performance problems in buildings. Unlike the field of artificial intelli- faulty, and type of fault). gence, AI, which tends to focus on In the fall of 1998, several of the proj- how information is stored and manip- Annex 34, Computer-aided Evaluation ects in the Mechanical Systems and ulated, cybernetics takes the “con- of HVAC System Performance: The Controls Group, along with two proj- structivist” point of view that informa- Practical Application of Fault ects in the Fire Safety and Fire Science tion (and intelligence) is the attribute Detection and Diagnosis Techniques In Divisions, were combined in to a of system interactions (communica- Real Buildings, ran from September Major Product called Cybernetic tions) and is not a commodity that is

147 stored in a computer. In the field of framework for control decision HVAC/distribution, and the zones cybernetics, “intelligence” is deter- making, advanced operating strate- of a commercial building through mined by the “observed conversations” gies for single and aggregated utilization of existing and new sim- (i.e., interactions) among the various buildings, automated commission- ulation models and validate this components making up the (cybernet- ing, and the application of fire new simulation program through ic) system. In other words, if a com- modeling to a cybernetic building both laboratory and field studies. plex system “looks, acts, and is response to fires; 9. Develop a Consortium consisting observed communicating intelligent 3. Develop advanced measurement of manufacturers and service information” it is “intelligent,” regard- technologies, including smart providers interested in producing, less of how the information is stored multi-functional sensors. testing, demonstrating, and selling and manipulated internally. 4. Develop performance evaluation Cybernetic Building Systems; and tools for protocol compliance test- 10.Conduct a full scale demonstration A Cybernetic Building System involves ing, real time monitoring, and the of a Cybernetic Building System in energy management, fire detection, evaluation and documentation of a government owned office build- security, and transport systems, energy interactions among cybernetic ing complex consisting of five or providers, one or more utilities, an building systems; more buildings in the southwest aggregator, and numerous service 5. Develop a standard-based program region of the country. This will providers, and information handling infrastructure supporting the involve the integration of energy and complex control at many different design, analysis, specification, pro- management, fire detection, smoke levels. curement, installation, operation, control, smart fire panels, multi- and maintenance or heating, venti- functional sensors, building trans- The BFRL is currently working with lation, air-conditioning, and refrig- port, fault detection and diagnosis, industry, building professionals, eration (HVAC/R) systems; aggregation of multiple building ASHRAE and Trade Organizations, 6. Construct a Virtual Cybernetic loads, and real time communica- university researchers, and other gov- Building System in the laboratory tion with energy providers, the util- ernment agencies to develop and to facilitate the development and ity, an aggregator, and numerous demonstrate CBS. The work involves evaluation of new products and sys- service providers. the following tasks and will include a tems by manufacturers (including full scale demonstration of one or BACnet speaking EMCS, stand Work conducted under the Cybernetic more Cybernetic Building Systems: alone/integrated FDD systems, Building Systems Program will improve 1. Develop standard communication intelligent fire panels, and smart productivity, life cycle cost savings, protocols which facilitate the open sensors) and external service energy conservation, occupant satisfac- exchange of information among providers; tion, and will increase U.S. market energy providers, utilities, EMCS, 7. Develop a CBS Product Data leadership through the commercial fire detection and smoke control Model (PDM) capable of accurately application of tested, integrated, and systems, security systems, elevator describing, in a standard format, a open Cybernetic Building Systems and controls, building operators, build- building(s), its mechanical systems concepts. Based upon an very conser- ing occupants, and (newly develop- and controls, the desired operating vative FY 99 impact assessment done ing) service provider companies; strategies, and the internal/external by BFRL’s Office of Applied 2. Develop enabling technologies, services provided. Economics [10], this work is expected such as fault detection and diagnos- 8. Conduct basic research on the to result in a nationwide present value tic (FDD) methods, a hierarchical dynamic interactions of a fire, cost savings of $1.1 billion and a

148 return-on-investment benefit of $7.90 later Chairman of the SSPC 135 com- Engineering Division; Bill for each $1 spent on BFRL’s CBS- mittee that was formed to maintain Grosshandler and Tom Cleary from related research. the standard after it was adopted. He the Fire Science Division; and Robert also created the BACnet Chapman from BFRL’s Office of C. Warren Hurley, William Rippey, Interoperability Testing Consortium Applied Economics. In February Robert May and others were involved and was instrumental in the creation 1999, Steven Bushby became the new in the Jersey City Total Energy Site and of the BACnet Manufacturers Leader of the Mechanical Systems and the Norris Cotton Federal Office Association. Controls Group, while George Kelly Building studies, respectively. George became the Chief of the Building Kelly became the first Leader of the George Kelly was the leader of the Environment Division and continued Mechanical Systems and Controls U.S. teams that participated in IEA as Project Manager of the CBS Major Group in the summer of 1980. James Annexes 17 and 25, while John House Product development effort. Kao and Walter Parken used BLAST to was the U.S. team leader in Annex 34. study different control strategies in George Kelly, Robert May, Cheol Park, Steven Bushby received the four commercial buildings. Robert and Gaylon Decious developed the Department of Commerce Bronze May, C. Warren Hurley, and Bent building/HVAC emulator concept and Medal Award in 1992, and the NIST Borresen from the University of participated in the “round robin” Slichter Award in 1996 for his contri- Trondheim, Norway developed and emulator exercises conducted by butions to BACnet. Steven Bushby and used the Building Management and Annex 17 participants. Won-Yong Lee other project team members received Controls Laboratory. from the Korean Institute of Energy the Vice Presidents “Hammer Award” Research, John House, Cheol Park, for the 450 Golden Gate Project. Steven Bushby evaluated the applica- and George Kelly were involved in the tion of direct digital control in NIST’s development and evaluation of differ- References 1. C. Warren Hurley, “Engineering Data eleven story Administration Building. ent fault detection and diagnostic Collected During the Operation of a James Kao developed design criteria (FDD) methods in Annex 25. John Total Energy Plant,” ASHRAE Trans., V. and guidelines for direct digital control House, Natascha Castro, and John 90, Pt. 2, (KC-84-13-1), 1984. based building automation systems. Seem from Johnson Controls, Inc. 2. James E. Hill, W.B. May, T. E. Alexander David, Robert May, and demonstrated the application of differ- Richtmyer, J. Elder, R.L. Tibbott, Garry ent FDD methods in real building T. Yonemura, Charles M. Hunt, P.T. Cheol Park developed public domain Chen, Performance of the Norris Cotton algorithms for adaptive control and applications as a part of the Annex 34 Federal Office Building for the First 3 Years of various energy management strategies. activities. Operation, Building Science Series 133, James Kao and Warren Hurley defined National Bureau of Standards, 1981. the characteristics and expected per- In the fall of 1998, George Kelly pro- 3. James Kao, “Control Strategies and formance of EMCS Sensors. James posed the CBS concept as a Major Building Energy Consumption,” ASHRAE Trans., V. 91, Pt. 2, (HI-85-15-3), 1985. Kao did a study on the effect of EMCS Product within BFRL. People who 4. James Kao, E. Pierce, “Sensor Errors - sensor errors on building energy con- have worked on the CBS Major Project Their Effects on Building Energy sumption. From 1987 on, Steven include George Kelly, Steven Bushby, Consumption,” ASHRAE Journal, 1983. Bushby single handedly led the effort John House, Natascha Castro, Jeanne 5. Steven T. Bushby, M. Newman, to develop the BACnet communication Palmer, Cheol Park, and Mike Galler “Standardizing EMCS Communication Protocols,” ASHRAE Journal, pp 33-36, protocol. He was secretary of from the Building Environment 1989. ASHRAE SPC 135 committee that Division; William Davis and Glenn 6. Steven T. Bushby, H.M. Newman, “The developed the BACnet standard and Forney from the Fire Safety BACnet Communication Protocol for

149 Building Automation Systems,” ASHRAE ing proposals for advanced energy Journal, pp 14-21, 1991. conservation concepts. 7. Steven T. Bushby, M. A. Applebaum, “450 Golden Gate Project BACnet’s™ First Large- Scale Test,” AHSRAE Journal, David Didion, the group leader, pp 23-30, 1998. thought that an appropriate program 8. Steven T. Bushby, “Testing the would have to be both fundamental Conformance and Interoperability of and practical. The first because it was BACnet Systems,” ASHRAE Journal, pp in keeping with Laboratory’s mission 45-49, Nov. 1996. to lead the industry into new areas David Didion, leader, Thermal Machinery Group 9. H. Peitsman, C. Park, S. Wang, P. Haves, and world leader for environmentally benign S. Karki, “The Reproducibility of Tests without competing with their own refrigeration technology. on Energy Management and Control research organizations. The second Systems Using Building Emulators,” because any success would have to be ASHRAE Trans., V. 100, Pt. 1, pp 1455- reasonably close to current system selecting an appropriate equation-of- 1464, No. 9-23-1, 1994. designs, if the industry was to accept state that could be used in the modifi- 10. Robert E. Chapman, Benefits and Costs of it. The idea of using refrigerant mix- cation of the Group’s vapor compres- Research: A Case Study of Cybernetic Building tures as a working fluid was not new. Systems, NISTIR 6303, National Institute sion cycle model. This model had been of Standards and Technology, 1999. The original idea was conceived by under development by Piotr Domanski Lorentz, in 1894, and ever since for the DoE efficiency labeling pro- 10.9 ALTERNATIVE Europeans had written about its theo- gram. The fact that this model was retical advantages and performed an based on first principles, as opposed to REFRIGERANTS occasional experiment in one machine the Industrial type which is usually an The NIST refrigerants program began or another. Also, in 1981, General empirically based component perform- in 1981 as an outgrowth of the Electric was researching the use of ance model, made it amendable to Thermal Machinery Group’s research mixture in home refrigerators and such a radical conversion. It was also into methods of improving residential DuPont was also exploring candidate obvious that a parallel study into the heat pump performance. For the pre- zeotropic (a.k.a. nonazeotropic) mix- convection coefficient degradation, vious five years the Group’s main pro- tures with an appropriate temperature that mixtures were known to have, grammatic focus was on a U.S. glide for use in air conditioners. would have to be conducted. This was Department of Energy sponsored However, there was no record of any because the possibility existed that the effort to develop performance test systematic quantitative study as to the theoretical thermodynamic benefits procedures for residential heating and potential improvement that mixtures that the Lorentz cycle offered would cooling appliances. Since energy con- could do for refrigeration systems. be offset by the poorer heat transfer in servation was still a national priority, the mixture two phase flow. heat pumps were selected, from Even at the proposal writing stage, it among all residential heating systems was obvious that the success of such a The EPRI proposal constituted the ini- because their current production program would depend strongly on tiation of the NIST refrigeration pro- model performance was furthest from our knowledge of the thermodynamic gram. It stated that based on the NIST ideal and they appeared to have the properties of possible mixtures. For expertise in heat pump evaluation and largest market growth. Coincidentally this reason a physical chemist, Graham thermodynamic equations-of-state, at this time the relatively new indus- Morrison, from the NIST’s along with its laboratory facilities sup- trial agency, The Electric Power Thermophysics Division was asked to porting both, that NIST would begin Research Institute (EPRI), was invit- join the program for the purpose of to investigate the potential of the

150 Lorentz concept for improving heat normal boiling points of the compo- ative to the weighted average of the pump performance. NIST would share nents [1]. The practical ramification of components’ coefficients. The degra- equally in the funding of the effort and this non-linearity was a pinch-point dation was caused by a lack of the take the most fundamental approach between the refrigerant mixture and higher pressure component at the two possible; that is, to attribute causes of the secondary heat transfer fluid in phase interface, whether it be at a system performance differences back either the evaporator or the condenser nucleate bubble or the liquid-vapor to fluid and/or cycle properties, wher- was likely to occur with insignificant boundary of annular flow. Although ever possible. heat transfer down stream of the the number of different mixtures pinch point. A solution to this prob- measured was limited, Morrison con- Selecting a zeotropic mixture whose lem was determined to be the interjec- cluded that the magnitude of the temperature glide (i.e., the difference tion of a third component whose nor- degradation may be a function of the between its dew and bubble points) mal boiling point is between the other difference in molecular size of the can match the sensible fluids tempera- two. components. This evaporative flow ture gradient is the very essence of the work was taken over by a new full-time Lorentz Cycle’s performance merits. In parallel with the above thermody- addition to the Group, Mark In order to determine the maximum namic work, a two phase heat transfer Kedzierski, at about the time the entire system performance benefits it was laboratory was created and developed program was to change its objective necessary to construct heat exchangers for the specific purpose of explaining due to the advent of the ozone crisis. that were grossly oversized and purely and quantifying the degradation of the One of his first assignments was to counter-flow. This experimental work zeotrope’s heat transfer coefficient rel- review the past two phase flow work was done in the first of several newly constructed vapor compression rigs Mark Kedzierski, mechanical engineer, investigating the fundamental properties of pool boiling of alter- called breadboard heat pumps because native refrigerants. the four thermally important components (i.e., evaporator, compressor, condenser, expansion device) were spread out so that instrumentation accuracy was not compromised.

Tests of different mixtures soon began to demonstrate that the binary zeotropes’ temperature gradients were typically nonlinear. About this time Mark McLinden, a Chemical Engineer, joined the Group. He provided a quantitative explanation that the enthalpy of phase change was a function of composition, which of course was changing during the evaporation and condensation processes. And that the degree of non-linearity was somewhat a function of the differences in

151 we had been doing and make qualita- from the acknowledgement that chlo- Montreal Protocol, which called for tive conclusions [2]. rine was degrading the earth’s ozone the eventual phase out of all HCFCs. layer. Very little was known about The 1997 conference was entitled Early in the program a third laboratory chlorine-free refrigerants because the Refrigerants for the 21st Century, and path was initiated. Zeotropic mixture CFCs were the most stable and the over half of the sixteen invited papers drop-in tests were conducted in sever- best performers. By 1987, NIST were on the natural refrigerants; that al commercial heat pumps. It was real- researchers were in a truly unique is, ammonia. carbon dioxide, air, ized that it was unlikely that the full position in their knowledge of how water, hydrocarbons. performance benefits could be seen in fluid properties effect the basic refrig- a unit, since the Lorentz cycle’s smaller eration cycle performance. Realizing One of the most significant accom- average temperature difference the need for the industry’s engineers plishments during this phase of the between the refrigerant and the sec- to understand the fundamentals of program was that of Piotr Domanski’s ondary heat transfer fluid necessarily using different refrigerants, McLinden continuing modifications to the com- requires a larger heat exchanger sur- and Didion wrote a seminal paper on puter simulation model (CYCLE-11) face. So the indoor coil was replaced the halogen family refrigerants [3]. to handle the ever-changing data-base with one that had several banks of coils This paper established NIST as an [4] that NIST’s Thermophysics to approximate a cross-counter flow authority on the subject and paved the Division was developing in the form condition between the zeotropic phase way for a decade of funding from gov- that is now called REFPROP [5]. As change glide and that of the moist air ernment and industry. these developments occurred the stream. Although the efficiency never model was shared with selected reached that for the original refriger- ASHRAE immediately recognized the industries. This enabled NIST to have ant, this work did provide some practi- impact of this ozone/refrigerants issue a better understanding of industry cal estimates of component sizes need- and offered to play an important cen- needs while not having the huge bur- ed, particularly for cooling and dehu- tral role, as did ARI, for inter-industry den of support documentation and midification purposes. Included in this communication. A series of special making it user-friendly in a Windows phase of the program was an investiga- conferences were held with NIST and format. However, due to public tion to explore the possibility of the Herrick Labs of Purdue University, requests, a simplified version called improving performance through the in alternate years. The first was at CYCLE D was developed in a use of multistage distillation. This NIST where the Building Environment Windows format and issued for sale work showed the cost effectiveness of Division hosted an invited speakers through NIST’s Standard Reference developing a heat pump that could conference of thirteen papers on the Database 49 [6]. This program enables essentially operate on one composition alternative refrigerants. It was titled the user to compare fundamental cycle in the cooling mode and a significantly “CFCS: Today’s Options - Tomorrows performances among virtually any different one in the heating mode. Solutions.” Its was subtitled ASHRAE’s working fluid, single component or 1989 CFC Technology Conference mixture, that is contained within REF- Not since the 1930s, when the halo- indicating how intimately CFCs were PROP. Further developments to gens were introduced to the industry intertwined with the very concept of a CYCLE-11 allowed simulations with as a stable, safe (i.e., nonflammable refrigerant. The second counter-flow, cross-flow and parallel- and nontoxic) efficient family of refrig- ASHRAE/NIST refrigerants confer- flow heat exchangers with considera- erants, had there been proposed such a ence, in 1993, was “R-22/R-502 tion of the refrigerant circuitry design widespread change in the industry’s Alternatives.” This subject was in and its impact on pressure drop and working fluids as that which resulted response to the 1992 revisions to the heat transfer coefficient.

152 Flammable HFCs were being intro- ing/condensation rig to meet these as obtained by electric heating. This duced into different zeotropes. It was needs. These were both significant casts a shadow on the use of electric necessary to mix non-flammable undertakings due to the unique rig heating as a valid test method for boil- refrigerants with them such that the designs and consequently required sev- ing. Kedzierski parametrically investi- mixture was non-flammable under all eral years to build. An existing quartz gated the influence of lubricant viscosi- feasible conditions. All of these devel- tube rig was modified and operated so ty, miscibility and composition with opments were taking place at the same that some experimental results could specially designed lubricant. A model time ASHRAE was wrestling with how be made available to industry while was derived to predict the influence of to determine flammability. McLinden construction was underway. High- each lubricant property on the heat and Didion worked with ASHRAE speed films at 6000 frames per second transfer performance [9]. In general, it SSPC34 to determine how to measure were taken of the low quality refriger- is possible to attain 100 percent flammability and to define the most ant flowing in the tube. The refriger- enhancement relative to the pure flammable composition likely to occur ant/lubricant boiling was dramatically refrigerant heat flux with a small quan- in the field. The committee decided different from the pure refrigerant tity of high viscosity lubricant that is that would be a series of five slow boiling [8]. Rather than relatively large partially miscible in the refrigerant. leaks of 20 percent of the original discrete bubbles characterized by pure quantity with subsequent recharges of refrigerants, the refrigerant/lubricant The profound contributions of this the original composition. Establishing boiled in a misty cloud of micro bub- work to the world’s knowledge of this composition experimentally bles. The lubricant caused the bubbles refrigeration technology, protection of turned out to be a procedure that to be much smaller and more numer- the environment, and competitiveness took several days. Realizing ous than the pure refrigerant bubbles. of U.S. industry have been recognized REFPROP’s ability to predict the The lubricant effect on bubble size, by use of the results by industry and composition of a mixture at any given bubble frequency, and the site density by numerous awards. These include thermodynamic state, NIST developed were quantified with the high-speed the Department of Commerce Gold a quasi-steady state computer simula- films. These data not only helped Medal for Didion in 1987, NIST tion procedure to act as an alternative industry to redesign surfaces for the Condon Award for Didion and McLinden in 1988, the NIST Applied to the tedious experimental proce- new refrigerants, but also were indis- Research Award for Didion in 1987, dure. The result was NIST Standard pensable for the understanding of the the Department of Commerce Bronze Reference Database 73 REFLEAK [7] influence of lubricant on boiling. Medal Award for Domanski in 1991, that can predict the composition the NIST Slichter Award for Didion, change of any mixture that can be cre- The uniqueness of the pool-boiling rig Kedzierski and Domanski in 1995, ated in REFPROP up to five recharge was that it was designed specifically to the Department of Commerce Bronze cycles and for either isothermal (slow) obtain measurements with low uncer- Medal Award for Kedzierski in 1995, or adiabatic (fast) leaks. tainties with fluid heating. For exam- the first Lorentzen Prize of the ple, the rig had the unique capability International Institute of Another critical need of industry was of using either electric heating or fluid Refrigeration for Didion in 1999, and to understand and measure the heat heating for the same test section inde- the Hall Gold Medal from the United transfer characteristics of alternative pendent of the data acquisition Kingdom’s Institute of Refrigeration and mixed refrigerants with lubricants. method. A comparison of several for Didion in 2001. Mark Kedzierski, soon after his arrival, enhancements showed that the heat began simultaneous construction on a flux obtained by fluid heating can be as It is difficult to note all of the contrib- pool boiling and on a convective boil- much as 30 percent greater than that utors who were involved in the pro-

153 gram over twenty years. However there Reference Database 23, National Institute indoors, these measures could increase are a few who made especially signifi- of Standards and Technology, 1989. indoor contaminant levels to the point cant contributions through dedicated 6. Piotr A. Domanski, David A. Didion, that occupant health and comfort may and J. Chi, “CYCLE_D: NIST Vapor service, unusual talent or both. Two Compression Cycle Design Program, be compromised. were full time employees, William Version 1.0,” NIST Standard Reference Mulroy and Peter Rothfleisch, and one Database 29, National Institute of Some of the earliest NBS work in this was a guest worker from Seoul Standards and Technology, 1995. area was done by Tamami Kusuda [1] National University, Min Soo Kim. 7. David A. Didion, and M. S. Kim, in an effort to look for ways to reduce “REFLEAK: NIST Lead/Recharge ventilation rates and the associated Simulation Program for Refrigerant This summary of CBT and BFRL energy consumption while still main- Mixtures, Version 2.0 User’s Guide,” work in alternative refrigerants has NIST Standard Reference Database 73, taining acceptable indoor air quality been excerpted from more compre- 1999. through the use of occupant-generat- hensive papers published by ASHRAE 8. Mark A. Kedzierski and David A. Didion, ed carbon dioxide levels to control [10, 11]. “Visualization of Nucleate Flow Boiling the ventilation system. Most of the for a R22/R114 Mixture and Their other work at NBS over the next 5 to References Components,” Experimental Heat Transfer. 10 years focused on the development Vol. 3, pp 447-463, 1990. 1. William Mulroy, Piotr A. Domanski, and 9. Mark A. Kedzierski, “The Effect of and application of tracer gas methods David A. Didion, “Glide Matching with Lubricant Concentration, Miscibility and to determine ventilation rates in Binary and Ternary Zeotropic Viscosity on R134a Pool Boiling,” buildings. However, a major program Refrigerant Mixtures, Part 1, an International Journal of Refrigeration, Vol. to develop predictive models for Experimental Study,” International Journal 24, No. 4, 2001. of Refrigeration, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp 220- building airflow and contaminant lev- 10. David A. Didion, “The History of els was initiated in the early 1980s 225, 1994. NIST’s Refrigerants Program: I. 2. Mark A. Kedzierski, J. Kim, and David Zeotropic Mixture Cycles and Heat [2]. This led to the development of A. Didion, “Causes of the Apparent Transfer,” ASHRAE Transactions, v 107, pt. the CONTAM series of computer Heat Transfer Degradation for 2, 2001. programs that have expanded in capa- Refrigerant Mixtures,” ASME/AiCHE/ANS 11. Mark O. Mclinden, “The History of bilities and usability since the mid- 1992 National Heat Transfer Conference NIST’s Refrigerants Program: II. 1980s into the 21st century [3-6]. Htd-Vol. 197, pp 149-158, San Diego, Theromophysical Properties Research,” 1992. ASHRAE Transactions, v 107, pt. 2, 2001. 3. Mark O. Mclinden and David A. Didion, Other indoor air quality research “CFC’s - Quest for Alternatives, The focused on measurement methods to 10.10 INDOOR AIR QUALITY Search for Alternative Refrigerants - A determine formaldehyde emissions Molecular Approach,” ASHRAE Journal About the same time that energy effi- from wood products and the develop- Vol. 29, No. 12, pp 32-42, 1987. 4. Piotr A. Domanski and Mark O. ciency research and demonstration ment of models relating these emission Mclinden, “A Simplified Cycle projects were advancing in the mid- rates to temperature and relative Simulation Model for the Performance 1970s, concerns about indoor air pol- humidity [7, 8]. Another area of focus Rating of Refrigerants and Refrigerant lution were also increasing. These con- was the development of test methods Mixture,” International Journal of cerns were based upon energy efficien- to evaluate the performance of gaseous Refrigeration, Vol. 15, pp 81-88, 1992. cy measures of increased envelope air- air cleaning devices [9-11]. This work 5. Mark O. Mclinden, J. Gallagher, and tightness, leading to reduced infiltra- built on similar research in the 1970s Graham Morrison, “NIST Thermodynamic Properties of tion rates, along with reductions in and before on particulate filter effi- Refrigerants and Refrigerant Mixtures outdoor air ventilation rates. In combi- ciency by Charles (Max) Hunt. The Database, Version 1.0,” NIST Standard nation with new materials being used gaseous efficiency test methodology

154 has fed directly into the ASHRAE Department of committee developing a test for Commerce in gaseous air cleaning media, which will 1977 for his be issued as Standard 145. development of tracer gas meas- Another area of NBS and subsequently urement tech- NIST indoor air quality research was niques. Andrew in the development of methods for Persily received conducting long term field studies of the Bronze ventilation and indoor contaminant Medal Award in Automated tracer gas system for measuring building air change rates. levels in buildings. This work built off 1989 for the tracer gas research (see section advancement of 5. George N. Walton, CONTAM93 User 10.11) and involved the development measurement techniques for indoor air Manual, NISTIR 5385, National Institute and deployment of automated data quality, and Persily received the 2002 of Standards and Technology, 1994. acquisition systems to monitor carbon Award of Appreciation from ASTM 6. William Stuart Dols, George N. Walton, monoxide, carbon dioxide, particulate Committee D-22, Sampling and and K. R. Denton, CONTAMW 1.0 User and other contaminant levels. These Analysis of Atmospheres, for his lead- Manual, NISTIR 6476, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2000. studies were performed in a number ership as Chair of the Related Factors 7. Richard A. Grot, Sam Silberstein, and K. of buildings located throughout the section of Subcommittee D22.05, Ishiguro, Validation of Models for Predicting country and greatly expanded our Indoor Air, and for his contributions Formaldehyde Concentrations in Residences knowledge of actual indoor air quality to the development of new standards Due to Pressed Wood Products: Phase I. performance in office buildings and for the sampling and analysis of indoor National Bureau of Standards, 1985. the factors that impacted that per- atmospheres. 8. Sam Silberstein, Richard A. Grot, K. formance [12-17]. Among other Ishiguro, and J. L. Mulligan, “Validation results, this work produced the first References of Models for Predicting Formaldehyde Concentrations in Residences due to comprehensive database of measured 1. Tamami Kusuda, “Control of Ventilation Press-Wood Products,” APCA Journal. 38: ventilation rates in mechanically venti- to Conserve Energy While Maintaining Acceptable Indoor Air Quality,” ASHRAE pp 1403-1411, 1988. lated office buildings, that is still Transactions, 82 (1): 1169-1181,1976. 9. Preston McNall, Proceedings of the unique and relied upon in many analy- 2. Preston McNall, George Walton, Sam Symposium on Gaseous and Vaporous Removal ses of indoor air quality in U.S. office Silberstein, J. Axley, K. Ishiguro, Richard Equipment Test Methods, NBSIR 88-3716, buildings [18]. The other major con- A. Grot, and Tamami Kusuda, Indoor Air National Bureau of Standards, 1988. tribution of this work has been in the Quality Modeling Phase I Report Framework 10. Bal M. Mahajan, A Method for Measuring area of the measurement and interpre- for Development of General Models, NBSIR the Effectiveness of Gaseous Contaminant 85-3265, National Bureau of Standards, Removal Filters, NISTIR 89-4119, tation of indoor carbon dioxide con- 1985. National Institute of Standards and centrations as they relate to building 3. George N. Walton, AIRNET - A Computer ventilation rates and indoor air quality Program for Building Airflow Network Technology, 1989. [19]. This work led to the subsequent Modeling, NISTIR 89-4072, National 11. Sam Silberstein, Proposed Standard Practice for Assessing the Performance of Gas-Phase Air development of an ASTM guide on Institute of Standards and Technology, 1989. Cleaning Equipment, NISTIR 4523, that subject, Standard D6245. 4. Richard A. Grot, User Manual NBSAVIS National Institute of Standards and CONTAM88, NISTIR 4585, National Technology, 1991. Charles (Max) Hunt received the Institute of Standards and Technology, 12. William Stuart Dols and Andrew K. Bronze Medal Award of the 1991. Persily, Ventilation and Air Quality

155 Investigation of the U. S. Geological Survey ed at NBS to develop measurement increasing our understanding of the Building, NISTIR 89-4126, National methods to evaluate the thermal per- magnitude and impacts of these ther- Institute of Standards and Technology, formance of the building envelopes of mal defects. The results of this 1989. 13. William Stuart Dols, Andrew K. Persily office buildings. Supported by the U.S. research resulted in a great advances in and Steven J. Nabinger, Indoor Air Quality Department of Energy and the General the measurement knowledge and our Commissioning of a New Office Building, Services Administration’s Public knowledge of building envelope per- NISTIR 5586, National Institute of Building Service, NBS developed formance [4-6]. The results of this Standards and Technology, 1995. measurement methods to determine effort contributed to numerous ASTM 14. Andrew K. Persily, William Stuart Dols, envelope airtightness and infiltration test methods in the area of tracer gas Steven J. Nabinger, and D. A. rates, in-site thermal resistance of VanBronkhorst, Air Quality Investigation in techniques, building pressurization the NIH Radiation Oncology Branch, NISTIR walls, and overall thermal integrity methods and in-site R-value measure- 89-4145, National Institute of Standards using infrared thermography. The pri- ment. Ultimately, NIST developed and Technology, 1989. mary effort was in the area of tracer design guidelines for thermal enve- 15. Andrew K. Persily and William Stuart gas methods for measuring building lope integrity for GSA that have had Dols, Ventilation and Air Quality infiltration rates, with a focus on auto- widespread application in the design Investigation of the Madison Building Phase I mated instrumentation that would Report, National Institute of Standards of office building envelopes in the and Technology, 1989. determine hourly average air change U.S. [7]. 16. Andrew K. Persily, W. A. Turner, H. A. rates over periods of several months in Burge, and Richard A. Grot, order to characterize infiltration rates References “Investigation of a Washington, D.C. as a function of weather conditions 1. Charles M. Hunt and Stephen J. Treado, Office Building,” Design and Protocol for and building system operation. This “Air Exchange Measurements in a High- Monitoring Indoor Air Quality, ASTM STP work began in the late 1970s, with the Rise Office Building,” DOE-ASHRAE 1002, N. L. Nagda and J. P. Harper, pp first measurements made in the NBS Symposium on Thermal Performance of 35-50, 1989. Exterior Envelopes of Buildings, Kissimmee, 17. Andrew K. Persily, William Stuart Dols, Administration Building [1]. More Florida, pp 160-177, 1979. and Steven J. Nabinger, Environmental buildings were studied in the 1980s, 2. Richard A. Grot, “The Air Infiltration Evaluation of the Federal Records Center in including a 26-story office building in and Ventilation Rates in Two Large Overland Missouri, NISTIR 4883, National Newark NJ [2]. Commercial Buildings,” ASHRAE/DOE Institute of Standards and Technology, Conference Thermal Performance of the 1992. 18. Andrew K. Persily, “Ventilation Rates in A major effort was conducted in the Exterior Envelopes of Buildings II, Las Vegas, Office Buildings,” IAQ ‘89 The Human early 1980s for GSA, in which eight NV, pp 391-406 (4 story building in Equation: Health and Comfort, San Diego, federal buildings throughout the coun- Glasgow, Scotland and 26 story building CA, pp 128-136, 1989. try were studied using all the measure- in Newark, NJ), 1982. 3. Richard A. Grot, Andrew K. Persily, Y. 19. Andrew K. Persily, “Evaluating Building ment methods referred to earlier [3]. IAQ and Ventilation with Indoor Carbon M. Chang, J. B. Fang, Stephen Weber These buildings were generally of fairly Dioxide,” ASHRAE Transactions, 103 (2): and Lawrence S. Galowin, Evaluation of pp 193-204, 1997. recent vintage and were not meeting the Thermal Integrity of the Building their expected energy efficiency per- Envelopes of Eight Federal Office Buildings, 10.11 BUILDING formance. Thermal envelope problems NBSIR 85-3147, National Bureau of Standards, 1985. ENVELOPE were suspected as being part of the reason for this discrepancy, and this 4. Richard A. Grot and Andrew K. Persily, PERFORMANCE “Measured Air Infiltration and research effort was carried out to first Ventilation in Eight Federal Office Driven by energy efficiency issues in refine the test procedures and then to Buildings,” Measured Air Leakage of the 1970s, a major program was start- demonstrate them in the field while Buildings, ASTM STP 904, Heinz R.

156 Treschel and P. L. Lagus, pp 151-183, manufacturers of solar systems and Under the HUD residential solar 1986. components could certify their prod- demonstration program, over 500 5. Andrew K. Persily and Richard A. Grot, ucts as to compliance with the defini- projects, involving 10,000 dwelling “Pressurization Testing of Federal tive performance criteria; and moni- Buildings,” Measured Air Leakage of units at a cost of $19.5 million were Buildings ASTM STP 904, H. R. Trechsel toring the performance and operation completed. Approximately 65 percent and P. L. Lagus, pp 184-200, 1986. of various solar heating and cooling of these projects consisted of active 6. Andrew K. Persily, Richard A. Grot, J. B. demonstration projects. Working with solar energy systems and 35 percent Fang and Y. M. Chang. “Diagnostic the lead Federal agencies, U.S. consisted of passive or hybrid solar sys- Techniques for Evaluating Office Department of Housing and Urban tems. The HUD program, along with Building Envelopes,” ASHRAE Development (HUD) and Energy the DoE National Solar Data Network Transactions, 94 (2): pp 987-1006, 1988. 7. Andrew K. Persily, Envelope Guidelines for Research and Development Program which developed instrument- Federal Office Buildings: Thermal Integrity Administration (ERDA), now the ed thermal performance data, provid- and Airtightness, NISTIR 4821, National Department of Energy (DoE), and ed a large data base on the perform- Institute of Standards and Technology, other organizations in the public and ance of solar heating and cooling sys- 1993. private sectors, NBS had an unique tems which was very valuable in identi- and challenging opportunity during a fying technical problems and issues 10.12 PERFORMANCE twelve year period (1974-1986) to pertinent to the development of per- CRITERIA AND conduct research activities in carrying formance criteria and standards. STANDARDS FOR out and meeting its responsibilities. SOLAR ENERGY NBS prepared a revised interim per- To develop interim performance crite- formance criteria document in 1978 SYSTEMS ria, NBS staff used: a performance [4], and in 1981, a draft final or In September 1974, the United States statement format developed by NBS “definitive” performance criteria doc- Government enacted the Solar for a previous HUD program on inno- ument was prepared and made avail- Heating and Cooling Demonstration vative and industrialized housing sys- able for public review and comments Act [1]. The purpose of this Act was tems [2]; available limited published [5]. Following consideration of the to “provide for the early development information on solar hot water, heating comments received, definitive per- and commercial demonstration of the and cooling systems; recommendations formance criteria for solar heating and technology of solar heating and com- from consultants in solar heating and cooling systems in residential buildings bined solar heating and cooling sys- cooling system design, construction, were published in 1982 [6]. tems.” Various sections of the Act and operation; and comments and sug- assigned specific responsibilities to gestions on draft performance criteria The 1982 document served as a tech- NBS. These responsibilities included: which were developed by NBS and nical reference and resource for the the development of interim perform- made available for public review in solar industry, building industry and ance criteria for solar heating systems November 1974. The interim per- various governmental agencies con- and dwellings within 120 days; the formance criteria document, which cerned with assessing the design and development of definitive perform- dealt with the functional, mechanical, performance of solar heating systems ance criteria, as soon as feasible, using structural, safety, durability/reliability, in buildings. Previously, the interim data obtained from the residential and maintainability performance of performance criteria documents [3, 4] solar demonstration program; prepa- systems and components, was pub- served as useful resources for the ration of test procedures by which lished in January 1975 [3]. development of: performance criteria

157 for commercial solar heating and cool- overview of these organizations’ activi- zation under both outdoor environ- ing systems [7, 8] and photovoltaic ties in order to assure an orderly and mental conditions and indoors using a systems [9]; HUD standards for solar effective process which would avoid solar simulator [22-26]. The test pro- heating and hot water systems [10], duplication of effort and conflicting cedure developed for solar hot water and recommended requirements for standards. With financial support from systems permitted testing under out- building codes [11]. ERDA and DoE, NBS established vari- door conditions, indoor testing using a ous research projects for generating solar simulator, and indoor testing Members of NBS staff who participat- draft standards that could be subse- using a novel thermal simulation ed in the preparation of performance quently utilized by standards-writing method [21, 27-35]. The Solar Rating criteria were: F. Eugene Metz, John K. organizations as a starting basis for the and Certification Corporation (SRCC), Holton, Thomas H. Boone, Leopold F. accelerated generation of national con- an independent non-profit organiza- Skoda, Michael F. McCabe, Elmer P. sensus standards. tion, adopted the solar collector and Streed, Lawrence W. Masters, hot water test methods developed by Elizabeth J. Clark, Paul W. Brown, W. During the eight-year period, 1974- NBS in the early 1980s. To date, over Douglas Walton, David Waksman, 1982, significant accomplishments 1000 solar thermal collectors and 300 Thomas K. Faison, Belinda C. Reeder, were made in the development and solar hot water systems have been and Robert D. Dikkers. validation of test methods and other SRCC certified providing much needed standards relating to solar heating and information to consumers contemplat- A plan that identified the needs and cooling systems, components, and ing the purchase of solar equipment. priorities for test methods and other materials. With DoE support, many standards (recommended practices, organizations including the American Through research and the preparation specifications) for solar heating and Society of Heating, Refrigerating and of draft standards, NBS also aided cooling applications was first published Air-Conditioning Engineers ASTM in developing specifications for by NBS in 1976. It was later revised in (ASHRAE), American Society for rubber seals and hose [36-38]; and 1978 [12]. This plan was prepared in Testing and Materials (ASTM), ANSI, practices for evaluating the durability cooperation with a Steering and NBS contributed to the develop- of cover plates [39,40], absorptive Committee established under the aus- ment of twenty new national consensus coatings [41], thermal insulation [42], pices of the American National standards. Most of these standards, metallic and polymeric containment Standards Institute (ANSI) and was along with improved analytical proce- materials [43,44], and solar collectors useful in establishing priorities for dures and design guidelines were refer- [45]. Several of these standards have research and standards development enced in the various evaluation sec- been referenced for use in U.S. indus- projects. The purposes of this Steering tions of the 1982 definitive perform- try certification programs for solar col- Committee, which was comprised of ance document (6). lectors and hot water systems. Many of representatives from over 20 public the other standards were used as valu- and private-sector organizations, were Specifically, NBS assisted ASHRAE in able tools in the evaluation of new to: identify needs and formulate spe- the development and evaluation of test materials and components for use in cific tasks leading to the development methods to measure the thermal per- solar heating and cooling systems. of national consensus standards for the formance of solar collectors [13-17], utilization of solar heating and cooling; storage devices [14, 18-20], and The U.S. Department of Energy spon- assign standards development projects domestic water heating systems [21]. sored research at NBS from 1977 to competent standards-writing organi- The NBS method of test for solar through 1987 to provide experimental zations; and maintain a continuous thermal collectors allowed characteri- data to validate and improve computer

158 Base in Okinawa, Japan. The Tennessee Valley Authority, in concert with the National Park Service, funded the installation and monitoring of NIST’s solar photovoltaic system at the Great Smoky Mountains National Park (GSMNP) [60,61]. Since 1996 this system has met the hot water needs of the main visitor’s center and provided excellent visibility for NIST’s efforts. The majority of the experimental work on solar energy equipment took place at the NIST Annex (adjacent to NIST’s campus, a former US Army Nike Missile site). The solar equipment, in this photograph, Building integrated photovoltaics, the is being used to develop test methods for materials, solar collectors, and solar water heating systems. integration of photovoltaic cells into one or more of the exterior surfaces of simulation models used to predict the In addition to providing experimental the building envelope, began to receive performance of solar water heating data for model validation [46-51], the widespread interest in the late 1990s. Several factors are supporting this cur- systems. In order to meet this objec- research conducted within this facility rent interest including increased con- tive, Hunter Fanney led a team con- led to an improved understanding of cerns over global warming, continuing sisting of Jim Allen, Donn Ebberts, component interactions within solar declines in photovoltaic prices, legisla- Charles Terlizzi, and latter Brian water heating systems [52-55], the tion that requires utilities to buy Dougherty in the construction of a development of a novel measurement excess energy generated by on-site dis- solar hot water test facility. The result- technique to measure the flow rate in tributed energy sources, and the fact ing facility was the only one within the thermosyphon solar water heating sys- that buildings account for 40 percent U.S. that permitted the side-by-side tems [56, 57], and supported the of the U.S. energy consumption. One testing of up to six solar water heaters development of a testing methodology of the barriers to the widespread pro- subjected to identical environmental for solar water heating systems. liferation of building integrated photo- and load conditions. Over the years, voltaics is the lack of performance data this facility was used to test a vast array As interest in the direct conversion of and validated models that will enable of solar water heating systems utilizing sunlight to electricity through the use designers, architects, installers, and various solar collector designs, heat of solar photovoltaics increased during consumers to judge the merits of transfer fluids, control strategies, and the 1980s, NBS researchers Hunter building integrated photovoltaics. In storage tank configurations. The data Fanney and Brian Dougherty became order to address this need Hunter collected from this facility greatly intrigued with the development of a Fanney, Brian Dougherty, and Mark improved the simulation models and as solar hot water system that utilized Davis have constructed a number of a result, Hunter Fanney was asked to photovoltaic panels. This work led to a experimental facilities and undertaken join and provide data to the prototype system and a U.S. patent a multi-year project, co-funded by the International Energy Agency’s Solar was awarded to NIST in 1994 [58,59]. California Energy Commission to pro- Heating and Cooling Program. His During the next several years, the U.S. vide the data needed for model valida- subsequent involvement provided addi- Air Force funded NIST to deploy and tion. The facilities include a mobile, tional exposure to NBS’ solar energy measure the performance of two of photovoltaic test facility, a building activities. these systems at the Kadena Air Force integrated photovoltaic “test bed,” and

159 through September 1986, was awarded the Department of Commerce Silver Medal Award in 1979 for his significant contributions to the development of national performance criteria and standards for solar energy systems. Department of Commerce Bronze Medal awards in 1980 went to: Willard Roberts for developing durability tests for solar systems materials; Elmer Streed for developing and evalu- Hunter Fanney, leader, Heat Transfer and Alternative Energy Systems Group and David Block, director, Florida Solar Energy Center, shown commissioning a photovoltaic solar water heating system at the ating testing standards for solar heating Florida Solar Energy Center. and cooling equipment; and David Waksman for development of performance criteria and standards for solar a meteorological station [62]. Working This project represents a cooperative heating and cooling applications. with the solar photovoltaic industry effort between BFRL’s Heat Transfer Hunter Fanney, received the NIST has characterized a number of and Alternative Energy Systems Group, Department of Commerce Bronze photovoltaic cell technologies [63], led by Hunter Fanney, and NIST’s Medal in 1988, for development of collected long-term experimental data Plant Division, led by Douglas Elznic. design, testing, and rating procedures for a number of building integrated This grid-connected photovoltaic sys- for solar domestic water heating sys- photovoltaic panels [64], and is cur- tem will serve as a model for the tems for buildings. In 1996 Hunter rently striving to improve the comput- future installation of photovoltaic sys- Fanney and Brian Dougherty received er simulation tools [65,66]. tems at NIST. the Federal Laboratory’s Consortium Excellence in Technology transfer NIST’s most recent activity in solar James Hill, who began NBS research Award for their outstanding work in energy took place on September 14, in 1974 on measurement methods for transferring the photovoltaic solar 2001 when a 35 kW photovoltaic sys- the performance of solar tem located on NIST’s Administration collectors and storage sys- Photovoltaic Array installed on the NIST Administration Building began supplying electrical tems, received the Building that provided NIST’s first on-site renewable energy on power into the electrical grid [67]. Department of Commerce 14 September 2001. This system provides enough electrical Silver Medal Award in 1976, energy on an annual basis to meet the for contributions to the total electrical needs of four to five development of efficient typical homes in the Gaithersburg, solar energy systems. Robert MD, area. In addition to saving energy D. Dikkers, who was and reducing peak demand charges, responsible for the manage- over a 30 year lifetime, this solar sys- ment and coordination of tem is projected to avoid power plant solar heating and cooling emissions of an estimated 3,211 kg of research activities being car- nitrogen oxides, 7,470 kg of sulfur ried out for DoE and HUD oxides, and 1,261 t of carbon dioxide. from September 1974

160 water heating technology to the private 9. Interim Performance Criteria for Photovoltaic 19. B. J. Hunt, T. E. Richmyer, and James E. sector. Based upon his contributions to Energy Systems, SERI/TR 742-654, Solar Hill, An Evaluation of ASHRAE Standard the field of solar energy, Hunter Energy Research Institute, May 1980. 94-77 for Testing Water Tanks for Thermal 10. Intermediate Minimum Property Standards Storage, NBSIR 78-1548, National Fanney was selected by the National Supplement-Solar Heating and Domestic Hot Bureau of Standards, 1978. Society of Professional Engineers as Water Systems, HUD, 1977. 20. D. E. Jones and James E. Hill, Testing of the Department of Commerce’s “1999 11. Recommended Requirements to Code Officials Pebble-Bed and Phase-Change Thermal Engineer of the Year.” To date, the for Solar Heating, Cooling and Hot Water Storage Devices According to ASHRAE NIST team conducting solar photo- Systems, ANSI/CABO 1.0-981, Council Standard 94-77, NBSIR79-1737, of American Building Officials, 1981. voltaic research (Hunter Fanney, Brian National Bureau of Standards, 1979. 12. David Waksman, James H. Pielert, 21. A. Hunter Fanney, William C. Thomas, Dougherty, and Mark Davis) has Robert D. Dikkers, Elmer R. Streed, and C. Scarbrough, and C. P. Terlizzi, received three American Society of W. J. Niessing, Plan for the Development Analytical and Experimental Analysis of Mechanical Engineers’ Best Paper and Implementation of Standards for Solar Procedures for Testing Solar Domestic Hot Awards. Heating and Cooling Applications, NBSIR Water Systems, Building Science Series 76-1143A, National Bureau of 140, National Bureau of Standards, Standards, 1978. References 1982. 13. James E. Hill and Tamami Kusuda, 22. James E. Hill, John P. Jenkins, and D.E. 1. Solar Heating and Cooling Demonstration Act Method of Testing for Rating Solar Collectors of 1974, U.S. Public Law 93-409, Jones, Experimental Verification of a Based on Thermal Performance, NBSIR 74- Standard Test Procedure for Solar Collectors, September 3, 1974. 635, National Bureau of Standards, 2. Guide Criteria for the Design and Evaluation NBS BSS 117, National Bureau of 1974. Standards, 1979. of Operation Breakthrough Housing Systems, 14. James E. Hill, Elmer R. Streed, George 23. John P. Jenkins and Kent A. Reed, NBS Report 10200, National Bureau of E. Kelly, J. C. Geist, and Tamami Comparison of Unglazed Flat Plate Liquid Standards, 1970. Kusuda, Development of Proposed Standards Solar Collector Thermal Performance Using the 3. Interim Performance Criteria for Solar Heating for Testing Solar Collectors and Thermal ASHRAE Standard 96-1980 and Modified and Combined Heating/Cooling Systems, Storage Devices, NBS Technical Note 899, BSE Test Procedures, NBSIR 82-2522, National Bureau of Standards, 1975. National Bureau of Standards, 1976. National Bureau of Standards, 1982. 15. Elmer R. Streed, William C. Thomas, A. 4. Interim Performance Criteria for Solar Heating 24. John P. Jenkins and James E. Hill, Testing Dawson III, B. Wood, and James E. Hill, and Cooling Systems in Residential Buildings, Flat-Plate Water Heating Solar Collectors in 2nd Edition, NBSIR 78-1562, National Results and Analysis of a Round-Robin Test Program for Liquid-Heating, Flat-Plate Solar Accordance with the BSE and ASHRAE Bureau of Standards, 1978. Procedures, Final Report, NBSIR 80-2087, 5. Performance Criteria for Solar Heating and Collectors, NBS Technical Note 975, National Bureau of Standards, 1978. National Bureau of Standards, 1980. Cooling Systems in Residential Buildings, 25. James E. Hill and Tamami Kusuda, NBSIR 80-2095, National Bureau of 16. James E. Hill, J. P. Jenkins, and D. Jones, Experimental Verification of a Standard Test Method of Testing for Rating Solar Collectors Standards, 1981. Procedure for Solar Collectors, Building Based on Thermal Performance, Interim 6. Performance Criteria for Solar Heating and Science Series 117, National Bureau of Report, NBSIR 74-635, National Cooling Systems in Residential Buildings, Standards, 1979. Bureau of Standards, 1974. Building Science Series 147, National 17. John P. Jenkins and James E. Hill, Testing 26. Elmer R. Streed, William C. Thomas, A. Bureau of Standards, 1982. Flat-Plate Water-Heating Solar Collectors in G. Dawson III, B. D. Wood, and James 7. Interim Performance Criteria for Commercial Accordance with the BSE and ASHRAE E. Hill, Results and Analysis of a Round- Solar Heating and Combined Heating/Cooling Procedures, NBSIR 80-2087, National Robin Test Program for Liquid-Heating Flat- Systems and Facilities, Document No. Bureau of Standards, 1980. Plate Solar Collectors, NBS TN 975, 98M10001, NASA, February 1975. 18. George E. Kelly and James E. Hill, National Bureau of Standards, 1978. 8. Performance Criteria for Solar Heating and Method of Testing for Rating Thermal Storage 27. A. Hunter Fanney, Kent A. Reed, and Cooling Systems in Commercial Buildings, Devices Based on Thermal Performance, James E. Hill, “Testing and Rating Solar NBSIR 76-1187, National Bureau of NBSIR 74-634, National Bureau of Domestic Hot Water Systems Using Standards, 1976. Standards, 1975. ASHRAE (American Society of Heating,

161 Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning “Proposed Procedure of Testing for and Cooling Systems, NBSIR 79-1919, Engineers) Standard 95-1981,” Solar ‘83 Rating Solar Domestic Hot Water National Bureau of Standards, 1979. International Solar Energy Symposium Systems,” American Society of Heating, 44. Elizabeth J. Clark, C. Kelly, and Willard Proceedings, October 2-6, 1983, Palma de Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers E. Roberts, Solar Energy Systems - Mallorca, Spain, pp 135-165, 1983. Transactions, Vol. 86, No. 1, pp 805-822, Standards for Screening Plastic Containment 28. James E. Hill and A. Hunter Fanney, 1980. Materials, NBSIR 82-2533, National “Proposed Procedure of Testing for 35. Sandy A. Klein and A. Hunter Fanney, Bureau of Standards, 1982. Rating Solar Domestic Hot Water “Rating Procedure for Solar Domestic 45. David Waksman, Elmer R. Streed, Systems,” American Society of Heating, Water Heating Systems,” Journal of Solar Thomas W. Reichard, and Louis E. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Engineers Energy Engineering, Vol. 105, No. 4, pp Cattaneo, Provisional Flat Plate Solar Transactions, Vol. 86, No. 1, pp 805-822, 430-439, 1983. Collector Testing Procedures: First Revision, 1980. 36. R. D. Stiehler, A. Hockman, Edward J. NBSIR 78-1305A, National Bureau of 29. A. Hunter Fanney and William C. Embree, and Larry W. Masters, Solar Standards, 1978. Thomas, “Simulation of Thermal Energy Systems - Standards for Rubber Seals, 46. A. Hunter Fanney and Stanley T. Liu, Performance of Solar Collector Arrays,” NBSIR 77-1437, National Bureau of “Comparison of Experimental and National Bureau of Standards, Standards, 1978. Computer-Predicted Performance for Department of Energy, ASME Transactions, 37. R. D. Stiehler and J. L. Michalek, Solar Six Solar Domestic Hot Water Systems,” Vol. 103, 258-267, 1981. Energy Systems - Standards for Rubber Hose, ASHRAE Transactions, Vol. 86, No. 1, 30. A. Hunter Fanney, “Experimental NBSIR 79-1917, National Bureau of 823-835, 1980 and LA-80-9 No. 2; Technique for Testing Thermosyphon Standards, 1979. Solar Hot Water Systems Symposium, Solar Hot Water Systems,” Journal of 38. R. D. Stiehler, Solar Energy Systems - Proceedings, February 3-7, 1995, Los Solar Energy Engineering, Vol. 106, No. 4, Standards for Rubber Hose used with Liquids Angeles, CA, 1980. pp 457-464, 1984. Above Their Boiling Points, NBSIR 81- 47. A. Hunter Fanney and Stanley T. Liu, 31. A. Hunter Fanney, Kent A. Reed, and 2352, National Bureau of Standards, “Experimental System Performance and James E. Hill, “Testing and Rating Solar 1981. Comparison With Computer Predictions Domestic Hot Water Systems Using 39. Elizabeth J. Clark, Willard E. Roberts, for Six Solar Domestic Hot Water ASHRAE (American Society of Heating, John W. Grimes, and Edward J. Embree, Systems,” International Solar Energy Society Refrigeration and Air-Conditioning Solar Energy Systems - Standards for Cover Silver Jubilee Congress, Proceedings, Paper Engineers) Standard 95-1981,” Solar ‘83 Plates for Flat Plate Solar Collectors, in Sun II 1, May 29-June 1, 1979, International Solar Energy Symposium, Technical Note 1132, National Bureau Atlanta, GA, pp 972-976, 1979. Proceedings, October 2-6, 1983, Palma de of Standards, 1980. 48. A. Hunter Fanney and Stanley T. Liu, Mallorca, Spain, pp 135-165, 1983. 40. Elizabeth J. Clark and Willard E. “Performance of Six Solar Domestic Hot 32. A. Hunter Fanney and Charles P. Roberts, Weathering Performance of Cover Water Systems in the Mid-Atlantic Terlizzi, “Testing of Refrigerant-Charged Materials for Flat Plate Solar Collectors, Region,” Solar Heating and Cooling Systems Solar Domestic Hot Water-Systems,” Technical Note 1170, National Bureau Operational Results, 2nd Annual Conference, Solar Energy, Vol. 35, No. 4, pp 353-366, of Standards, 1982. Proceedings, November 27-30, 1979, 1985. 41. Larry W. Masters, James Seiler, Edward Colorado Springs, CO, 25-31 pp, 1979. 33. A. Hunter Fanney and William C. J. Embree, and Willard E. Roberts, Solar 49. A. Hunter Fanney and Sandy A. Klein, Thomas, “Three Experimental Energy Systems - Standards for Absorber “Performance of Solar Domestic Hot Techniques to Duplicate the Net Materials, NBSIR 81-2232, National Water Systems at the National Bureau of Thermal Output of an Irradiated Bureau of Standards, 1981. Standards: Measurements and Collector Array,” Journal of Solar Energy 42. Max Godette, J. Lee, and J. Fearn, Solar Predictions,” Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, Vol. 105, pp 92-100, 1983, Energy Systems: Test Methods for Collector Engineering, Vol. 105, No. 3, pp 311- and American Society of Mechanical Insulations, NBSIR 79-1908, National 321, 1983. Engineers (ASME), Solar Energy Bureau of Standards, 1979. 50. R. A. Fisher and A. Hunter Fanney, Division, 4th Annual Conference, 43. Paul W. Brown and John W. Grimes, “Thermal Performance Comparisons for Proceedings, April 26-29, 1982, Evaluation of a Proposed ASTM Standard a Solar Hot Water System,” ASHRAE Albuquerque, NM, pp 511-518, 1982. Guide to Assess the Compatibility of Metal- Journal, Vol. 25, No. 8, pp 27-31, 1983. 34. James E. Hill and A. Hunter Fanney, Heat Transfer Liquid Pairs in Solar Heating 51. Stanley T. Liu and A. Hunter Fanney,

162 “Comparing Experimental and Heating Systems,” ASME Journal of Solar “Measured Performance of a 35 Computer- Predicted Performance of Energy Engineering, Vol. 119, pp 265-272, Kilowatt Roof Top Photovoltaic System,” Solar Hot Water Systems,” ASHRAE 1997. Proceedings of ISEC 2003 International Solar Journal, Vol. 22, No. 5, pp 34-38, 1980. 60. A. Hunter Fanney and Brian P. Energy Conference15-18 March, 2003, 52. J. E. Braun and A. Hunter Fanney, Dougherty, Photovoltaic Solar Water Heating Kohala Coast, Hawaii Island, Hawaii “Design and Evaluation of System at Great Smoky Mountains National USA, 2003. Thermosiphon Solar Hot Water Heating Park, Pamphlet, 2 p., U.S. Government Systems,” Progress in Solar Energy, Vol. 6, Printing Office, 1997. 10.13 PLUMBING pp 283-288, 1984. 61. Brian P. Dougherty, A. Hunter Fanney, 53. A. Hunter Fanney, “Measured and John O. Richardson, “Field Test of a In 1924 Herbert Hoover, Secretary Performance of Solar Hot Water Systems Photovoltaic Water Heater,” ASHRAE of the Department of Commerce, Subjected to Various Collector Array Transactions, Vol. 108, No. 2, pp 1-12, reported in “Recommended Flow Rates,” Solar Buildings: Realities for 2002. Today - Trends for Tomorrow, Proceedings, 62. A. Hunter Fanney and Brian P. Minimum Requirements for March 18-20, 1985, Washington, DC, Dougherty, “Building Integrated Plumbing in Dwellings and Similar pp 123-130, 1985. Photovoltaic Test Facility,” ASME Journal Buildings,” “…actual (plumbing) 54. A. Hunter Fanney and Stanley T. Liu, of Solar Energy Engineering, Special Issue: practice has been governed by opin- “Test Results on Hot Water Systems Solar Thermochemical Processing, Vol. ions and guesswork, often involving Show Effects of System Design,” Solar 123, No. 2, 194-199, 2001. needless costly precautions which Engineering, pp 26-29, 1980. 63. A. Hunter Fanney, Brian P. Dougherty, many families could ill afford. The 55. A. Hunter Fanney and Sandy A. Klein, and Mark W. Davis, “Performance and lack of generalized principles is “Thermal Performance Comparisons for Characterization of Building Integrated Solar Hot Water Systems Subjected to Photovoltaic Panels,” IEEE Photovoltaic responsible to a certain extent for the Various Collector and Heat Exchanger Specialists Conference Proceedings, May 20- contradictory plumbing regulations in Flow Rates,” Solar Energy, Vol. 40, No. 1, 24, 2002, New Orleans, LA, pp 1-4, different localities….” NBS’ Dr. Roy pp 1-11, 1988. 2002. B. Hunter’s research contributions 56. A. Hunter Fanney and Brian P. 64. A. Hunter Fanney, Brian P. Dougherty, established the basis for U.S. national Dougherty, “Self-Heated Thermistor Mark W. Davis, “Measured Performance plumbing codes that followed “The of Building Integrated Photovoltaic Flowmeter for Flow Measurement in a Hoover Codes” of 1928 and 1932 Thermosyphon Solar Hot Water Panels,” ASME Journal of Solar Energy System,” American Society of Mechanical Engineering, Special Issue: Solar [1]. Those contributions remain in Engineers Solar Energy Conference, Thermochemical Processing, Vol. 123, worldwide plumbing codes as adopt- Proceedings, SED 8th Annual, April 13- No. 2, pp 187-193, 2001. ed “Hunter Fixture Units” for design 16, 1986, Anaheim, CA, pp 1-10, 1986. 65. A. Hunter Fanney, Brian P. Dougherty, applications to full bore water supply 57. A. Hunter Fanney and Brian P. and Mark W. Davis, Evaluating Building pipe flow and partially filled pipe Dougherty, “Measurement of Buoyancy- Integrated Photovoltaic Performance flow in drain-waste systems [2, 3]. Induced Flow Using a Self-Heated Models. IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference Proceedings, May 20-24, 2002, Thermistor Flowmeter,” Journal of Solar FULL SCALE DYNAMIC Energy Engineering, Vol. 109, pp 34-39, New Orleans, LA, pp 1-4, 2002. PLUMBING TEST FACILITY - 1987. 66. Mark W. Davis, Brian P. Dougherty and 58. A. Hunter Fanney and Brian P. A. Hunter Fanney, “Prediction of REALIZED Dougherty, “Photovoltaic Solar Water Building Integrated Photovoltaic Cell After NBS moved to Gaithersburg in Heating System,” ASME Journal of Solar Temperatures,” ASME Journal of Solar the late 1960s the need was recognized Energy Engineering, Special Issue: Solar Energy Engineering, Vo. 119, 126-133, for a plumbing test facility to investi- 1997. Thermochemical Processing, Vol. 123, 59. A. Hunter Fanney, Brian P. Dougherty No.2, pp 200-210, 2001. gate hydraulic phenomena of pipe net- and Kenneth P. Kramp, “Field 67. A. Hunter Fanney, Kenneth R. works of as-built systems. A full-scale Performance of Photovoltaic Solar Water Henderson, and Eric W. Weise, tower installation was advocated by

163 industry and code groups and con- and DoD’s Tri-Services structed with the assistance of indus- Committee NBS developed try. Increased competence in hydraulic recommendations for sizing research event measurement was fore- vents at less than code specifi- seen and was achieved with the intro- cations [5] for small residential duction of computers for dynamic buildings. Data were derived conditions event recording coupled from test evaluations in NBS’ with advanced instrumentation meth- new laboratory town house ods. The NBS plumbing test tower was module. constructed in 1972 in CBT under the supervision of Robert Wyly, Jack Snell, With the DoD Tri-Services and Reece Achenbach. The facility Committee for Building provided capabilities for full-scale sim- Materials, NBS supported full ulations of drain-waste-vent (D-W-V) scale testing of a two-story plumbing systems in multi-story and townhouse configuration with town house installations. reduced-size vents over a wide range of waste loading condi- CBT’s seven-story plumbing tower and high-speed computer- SELECTED PLUMBING tions in drain-waste-vent sys- ized electronic data acquisition system is used to simulate RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS tems (D-W-V) [6]. Pipe size operation of full-scale plumbing systems in multistory build- Several important building plumbing reductions were shown feasible ings and reduced size venting and drain-waste-vent studies. without jeopardizing trap seal systems research investigations were retention capacity. Actual air performed using the plumbing facility potential for larger number of mortgage demand measurements were signifi- in collaborations with industry and the approvals as determined from NBS eco- cantly less than assumed from current government sectors. Working with the nomic analyses applied to national practice in plumbing codes (based on Copper Development Association NBS financial minimum conditions for appli- earlier NBS reports) for short stack cants. NAHB’s economic assessment of developed test procedures for test loads systems with vent networks. and measurements of a novel high rise the latter provisions indicated savings of about $500 per home in plumbing sys- single stack system (now the Sovent sys- With the USAF, the Building Research tem) for U.S. applications. The work tem costs. Confirmation of the sizing Committee Tri-Services, and HUD, procedure information was submitted followed HUD Operation Breakthrough NBS determined reduced vent sizing High Rise investigations with particular- for plumbing code acceptance. It was for six new homes based on prior lab- not achieved primarily due to dissident ly identified research needs [4]. oratory results. The field studies instal- opinion from sources seeking preserva- Installation acceptance for U.S. high lation included automated system tion of ‘existing satisfactory practices’. rise buildings was advanced as a result instrumentation (in occupied homes) of the data and information from this for plumbing performance and user In a HUD sponsored research NBS research; various materials are now data collection for water usage [7]. marketed for the stacks and fittings with NAHB encouraged their constituency performed investigation of water closet cost savings to contractors. of small home builders to adopt this reduced consumption by control mod- sizing into practice by presentation of a ifications of installed fixtures [8]. In collaboration with the National mockup display installation. Cost sav- Laboratory testing of two-step flush Association of Home Builders (NAHB) ings of materials and labor indicated a control devices installed on water clos-

164 ets were conducted to evaluate the became practical as the 1970s decade by HUD) became a decade long pri- efficacy for water savings with reduced closed. Upgrading the test tower by mary resource for the American Water flush volumes. Criteria were developed Paul Kopetka, Fred Winter, and Lynn Works Association. The Residential for performance testing of mechanical Shuman provided a unique ability to Water Conservation Projects Summary functions and necessary performance simultaneously measure time dependent Report on water conserving installa- phenomena and improve data precision. tions was published by HUD. It sum- evaluation procedures for retention of marized three projects in Los Angeles, siphonic action, trap seal restoration, No comparable measurements in a Denver, and the Washington areas. contaminated water exchange variabili- full-scale drain-waste-vent plumbing Robert Wyly and Lawrence Galowin ty or reduction, rim wash cleansing, system and fixtures had been under- assisted HUD as participants, technical and adequacy of tissue extraction. taken elsewhere, or have been dupli- advisors, and reviewers. Recommendations were prepared for cated to date. The determination of implementation in standards. actual transient event details became Results included performance of practical (water closets discharge from water-conserving fixtures, water supply Dynamic evaluations also were conduct- three to ten seconds while hydraulic requirements suitable for plumbing ed in the test facility. Investigation was jumps and flow mixing in merged codes and consistent with water-con- made of added circulation drain and flows occur within a second). serving fixtures, and test procedures vent loop modified D-W-V systems to Instrumentation was installed coupled for the performance of water-conserv- increase system capacity in housing with an electronic advanced sensor ing fixtures. These results permitted rehabilitation [9]. Reduced size vent interface with desk top computer sys- reliable and serviceable water-conserv- applications for Veterans Administration tems that established new competency ing residential plumbing systems with hospitals were investigated by testing in dynamic measurement and automat- showerhead flow pressure control, user and analytical modeling for sizing [10]. ed data recording with control of test temperature requirements, pressure Test data from dynamic measurements events and pre-arranged loading condi- limiting devices and water distributions on multi-branch vent circuit networks tion sequences. testing for performance standards were obtained for a novel installation of [11]. Results were incorporated into ‘vent header’ interconnects (of vertical POTABLE WATER the 1983 American National Standards vent stacks) in the interstitial space CONSERVATION PROGRAM - Institute standard for water-conserving A COMPREHENSIVE THRUST below the roof to avoid rain leakage fixtures. The 1986 One and Two from roof penetrations. Building side- HUD Under Secretary Donna Shallala Family Dwelling Code of the Council wall fittings provide atmospheric pres- in 1978 approved plans for a National of American Building Officials adopted sure relief. Pressure calculations includ- Potable Water Conservation program the recommendations for drainage ed algorithms for air pressure loss fac- led by Lawrence Galowin with broadly loads and methods for sizing water tors based on for local conditions; inclusive participation from other par- supply, drain, and vent piping. The design sizing tables were prepared as ticipating sectors. NBS activity incor- work led to a National Potable Water guide to illustrate applications [10]. porated economics, human factors, Conservation Conference [12]. As a consumer products, establishment of result, the American Water Works MODERNIZATION AND Stevens Institute contract, and HUD Association has encouraged water con- TRANSFORMATION OF private contractor interface. Field servation. PRINCIPLES studies of residential water demand Elimination of steady flow assumptions and usage in a series of city studies on A major result was the development for plumbing hydraulic phenomena home water consumption (published (by Professor John A. Swaffield as

165 Utilizing Low Angle Stack-Branch Confluence and Bottom Shunt Venting, Building Horizontal solid waste drain transport for surge flow discharge Science Series 41, National Bureau of Standards, 1972. 5. Robert S. Wyly and G. C. Sherlin, Guest Scientist at NBS) of a numerical tional recognition for his research and Laboratory Studies of the Hydraulic method of characteristics solution to recently served as a Visiting Professor Performance of One-Story and Split-Level the governing equations for time and Leverhulme Fellow appointed at Residential Systems With Reduced Size Vents, dependent flow and waste solids trans- Heriot-Watt University, Scotland. Building Science Series 49, National port. A computer-based engineering Bureau of Standards, 1974. design procedure for the drain-waste- References 6. Mary J. Orloski and Robert S. Wyly, vent system accurately accounted for 1a. Final Report of the Subcommittee on Hydraulic Performance of a Full Scale Townhouse Drain-Waste-Vent System with the transient transport of liquids and Plumbing of the Building Code Reduced Size Vents, Building Science Series solids [13-20]. Fundamental theory Committee - U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Elimination of Waste Series, Recommended 60, National Bureau of Standards, 1975. and applications to plumbing codes Minimum Requirements for Plumbing in 7. Robert S. Wyly and Lawrence S. were achieved which correctly reflect- Dwellings and Similar Buildings, Requested Galowin, Field Hydraulic Performance of ed the hydraulics of plumbing piping by Secretary of Commerce Herbert One- and Two-Story Residential Plumbing systems and waste solids transport. Hoover, appointed Subcommittee from Systems with Reduced-Sized Vents, NBSIR Industry, Trade Associations, University, 84-2860, National Bureau of Standards, The dynamic modeling computer pro- and Labor, BH 2, 1924. 1984. 1b. Final Report of the Subcommittee on gram for plumbing drainage system 8. Fred Winter and Lawrence S. Galowin, Plumbing of the Building Code Criteria and Evaluation for Two-Step Flush design has become a commercially Committee - U. S. Dept. of Commerce, Devices for Water Closets, NBSIR 81-2296, available product in the 1990s for Elimination of Waste Series, Recommended National Bureau of Standards, 1981. engineered systems and to many Minimum Requirements for Plumbing in 9. Fred Winter and Lawrence S. Galowin, diverse applications for design and Dwellings and Similar Buildings, BH 2 revision, 1928. Experimental Evaluation of Circulation Loop problem resolution. Progress continues Drain and Vent Plumbing Modifications for with sustained research in doctoral 1c. Final Report of the Subcommittee on Plumbing of the Building Code Building Rehabilitation, NBSIR 82-2602, degree programs in the United Committee - U. S. Dept. of Commerce, National Bureau of Standards, 1982. Kingdom that are directed by Elimination of Waste Series, Recommended 10. Lawrence S. Galowin and Paul Kopetka, Professor Swaffield. Minimum Requirements for Plumbing in Requirements for Individual Branch and Dwellings and Similar Buildings, BH 13 - Individual Fixture Events - Recommendations Larry Galowin provided enthusiastic Recommended Minimum Requirements for Model Plumbing Codes, CIB W62 Water for Plumbing, 1932. Supply and Drainage, Zurich, leadership for CBT’s plumbing 2. Roy B. Hunter, Methods of Estimating research until it was curtailed by the Switzerland, September, 1982. Loads in Plumbing Systems, BMS 65, 11. Paul Kopetka and Lawrence S. Galowin, cuts in CBT in the mid 80s. Galowin National Bureau of Standards, 1940. Development and Evaluation of a Test Method 3. Roy B. Hunter, Plumbing Manual, Report continued to be active in national and for Shower Heads, NBSIR 82-2630, of Subcommittee on Plumbing, Report of international plumbing research and National Bureau of Standards, 1983. Subcommittee on Plumbing, Central standardization activities while assigned 12. Dynamic Corporation Edited, Proceedings to other programs at NBS/NIST. As a Housing Committee on Research, Design, and Construction BMS 66; of the National Water Conservation Conference NIST Guest Researcher he continues National Bureau of Standards, 1940. on Publicly Supplied Potable Water, April participation in plumbing activities. 4. Robert S. Wyly and G. C. Sherlin, 1981, NBS Special Publication 624, Galowin received national and interna- Performance of a Single-Stack DWV System National Bureau of Standards, 1982.

166 13. Bal M. Mahajan, Lawrence S. Galowin, Transport of Discrete Solids in Partially Filled and Documentation, Rotterdam, the and Paul A. Kopetka, “Models of Quasi- Pipe Flow, NBS Building Science Series Netherlands, Vol 11, No 1, pp 48-60, Steady and Unsteady Discharge from BSS139, National Bureau of Standards, January-February 1983. Plumbing Fixtures,” Journal of Research of 1982. 19. John A. Swaffield and Katrina Maxwell- the National Bureau of Standards, Vol. 86, 17. John A. Swaffield, Sarah Bridge, and Standing, “Improvements in Application No. 2, pp 171-179, March-April, 1981. Lawrence S. Galowin, “Mathematical of the Numerical Method of 14. John Swaffield, Entry Transition Water Modelling of Time Dependent Wave Characteristics to Predict Attenuation in Surface Profile Prediction in Supercritical Attenuation in Gravity Driven Partially Unsteady Partially Filled Pipe Flow,” Partially Filled Pipe Flow, NBSIR 81-2290, Journal of Research of the National Bureau of National Bureau of Standards, 1981. Filled Pipe Flow,” 4th International 15. John A. Swaffield, Application of the Conference on Finite Elements in Water Standards, National Bureau of Standards, Method of Characteristics to Predict Resources, University of Hanover, W. Vol. 91, Number 3, pp 149-156, May- Attenuation in Unsteady Partially Filled Pipe Germany, Springer-Verlag, Berlin, pp16- June 1986. Flow, NBSIR 82-2478, National Bureau 21-34, C.A. Brebbia Ed., June 1982. 20. John A. Swaffield and Lawrence S. of Standards, 1982. 18. John A. Swaffield., “Unsteady Flow in Galowin, The Engineered Design of Building 16. John A. Swaffield, Sarah Bridge, and Long Drainage Systems,” Building Drainage Systems, Ashgate Publishing Lawrence Galowin, Application of the Research and Practice, International Limited, University Press, Cambridge Method of Characteristics to Model the Council for Building Research, Studies Great Britain, October 1992.

167

11. FIRE SAFETY 11ENGINEERING

11.1 FLAMMABLE lished a Task Force to begin imple- FABRICS mentation of the new responsibilities. An Office of Flammable Fabrics was The Flammable Fabrics Act (FFA) was established at NBS in 1969 under Elio passed in 1953 to protect individuals Passaglia. In 1970 Joseph Clark was from serious burns due to wearing hired to direct the office. combustible apparel. The primary impetus for passage of the law was the increased incidence of burn injuries due to brushed rayon (“torch”) sweaters. The FFA was based on a standard test, up to that time voluntary, which was derived substantially from research and testing at NBS. In late 1967 the Act was amended to extend and strengthen protection from the flammability hazards of other wearing apparel and interior furnishings such as carpets, drapes and furniture.

Responsibilities for implementing the Act were split among the Department of Health, Education & Welfare Joseph Clark, director, Office of Flammable Fabrics (HEW), for accident case investigation; the Federal Trade Commission, for enforcement of the law; and the A computerized database was devel- Department of Commerce for developed at NBS in 1970, from accident opment and promulgation of flamma- reports provided by HEW investiga- bility standards. The Secretary of tors. The accident data available indi- Commerce delegated the standards cated the most frequent and severe development responsibility to NBS. In injuries and losses to be involved with 1968 NBS Director Allen Astin estab- children’s sleepwear and certain interi-

169 or furnishings in homes. Available acci- to meet the requirements of standard vertically hung specimens of fabrics, dent data indicated that carpets and FF1-70 (flammable fabrics). This seams, and trim of children’s sleep- rugs, curtains and drapes, upholstered requirement states that no more than wear garments must self-extinguish furniture, and beds were the items one out of eight specimens shall burn a after three seconds exposure to a small most frequently involved in residential distance of 75 mm from the point of open flame. Manufacturers of chil- fires. Sleepwear was the first item ignition when tested according to the dren’s sleepwear must test prototypes ignited more frequently than any other prescribed method. The test method, of sleepwear garments with acceptable item in almost 2,000 fire incident known as the “pill test,” involves sub- results before beginning production. reports available at the time. jecting a 290 mm x 290 mm specimen, Manufacturers must also sample and Laboratory work was accelerated to which has been dried in an oven, to the test garments from regular production. develop and evaluate test methods that flame from a standard igniting source The standard does not require or pro- were related to the situations docu- in the form of a methenamine tablet. hibit the use of any particular type of mented in the accident case reports. The tablet, or “pill,” is placed on top fabric or garment design as long as the The law required that standards be of the pile in the center of the speci- manufacturer successfully completes promulgated only to protect the public men and ignited with a match, provid- the prescribed prototype and produc- from “unreasonable risks” of the ing a standardized flame source for a tion testing. occurrence of fire leading to death, period of about 2 minutes. If the flame injury, or significant property damage. spread on the carpet is more than While work was proceeding on the The standards must be “reasonable, 75 mm from the point of ignition, the children’s sleepwear standard, investi- appropriate and technologically practi- specimen fails; and if more than one gation of interior furnishings contin- cable.” The legal concept of unreason- specimen of eight fails, the style of car- ued to progress. The accident data able risk and the technical concepts pet cannot be legally manufactured for indicated that smoldering cigarettes underlying appropriate tests and flame- sale. The burden of compliance with and other smoking materials provide retardant technology framed an intense FF1-70 rests with the carpet manufac- the ignition source in most residential set of activities ranging from basic turer. Smaller carpets and rugs were fires. Most victims in residential fires research through policy analysis. subject to the same test, but since the were asleep at the time of their injury. Scientists and attorneys in and out of risk from these items is smaller, it is The data also indicate that a high per- government frequently found them- required only that they be labeled as centage of the victims were partially selves in public debates, media appear- flammable. The standard for carpets incapacitated by alcohol, drugs, or ances, and congressional testimony. A and rugs smaller than 1.2 m x 1.8 m is infirmity associated with illness or old particularly troublesome issue involved designated FF2-70. age. Smoldering cigarette ignition was the potential toxicity of the combus- the most frequent source of fires in tion products of some chemicals added In 1971, the Secretary of Commerce bedding and upholstered furniture. to fibers and fabrics to increase their proposed a flammability standard flame retardance. (FF3-71) for children’s sleepwear in In 1972, the Secretary of Commerce sizes 0 through 6X. The standard was issued a flammability standard (FF4- Development of a test method for sur- issued to protect young children from 72) for mattresses and mattress pads face flammability of carpets and rugs death and serious burn injuries that to protect the public from death and proved relatively straightforward, so had been associated with ignition of serious burn injuries associated with promulgation of this standard came sleepwear garments, such as night- ignition of mattresses and mattress about first, in 1970. All carpet and rugs gowns and pajamas, by small open- pads by smoldering cigarettes. The 1.2 m x 1.8 m or larger were required flame sources. The test requires that standard prescribes a test for mattresses

170 and mattress pads which requires children’s sleepwear standards are The issue of cigarette ignition has placement of lighted cigarettes at spec- nearly identical. been, until recently, the main focus of ified locations on the surface of the CPSC’s flammability investigations. mattress or mattress pad. An individ- In 1976, CPSC contracted with the CPSC data show that fire deaths due ual mattress or mattress pad proto- National Bureau of Standards to draft to cigarette ignition of upholstered type passes the test in the standard if a standard for upholstered furniture’s furniture dropped from 1,150 in 1980 no cigarette test location produces resistance to ignition from lit ciga- to 470 in 1994. Deaths from “small char length more than 50 mm in any rettes, and a standard (PFF6-76) was open flames” however, have remained direction. proposed. By 1978, CPSC had made consistent at about 100 per year dur- improvements to the proposed stan- ing the same period, most of those In 1972, the Department of dard, and it was prepared for formal deaths resulting from children playing Commerce issued a notice regarding issuance. Industry opposition to the with matches and lighters. the need to develop a standard for mandatory standard resulted in a com- upholstered furniture. This notice promise in which the mandatory stan- In 1998, CPSC issued a draft regula- summarized the available accident data dard was not promulgated, and the tion which would require that a piece and solicited comments on the risks as furniture industry moved aggressively of upholstered furniture resist burning well as the type of test method that in 1979 into a voluntary alternative when exposed to a small flame for a would be appropriate. Assessing the program run by their Upholstered period of 20 seconds. “Small open ignition resistance of upholstered fur- Furniture Action Council (UFAC). flame” is understood as meaning can- niture is much more complex than UFAC promoted industry use of ciga- dles, matches, or cigarette lighters. It is mattresses due to the more complex rette resistant upholstery fabric and further understood that in most cases, geometry (both geometry of construc- furniture design, testing protocols, and such fires are begun when children tion and geometry of exposure to a under the age of five play with match- cigarette), more varied materials of a hang-tag program. Those refine- es, lighters or other sources of flame. construction, fabric coatings, back- ments have been incorporated into The problem of small flame ignition coatings, liners, and the like. NFPA and ASTM voluntary standards based on PFF6-76. Most manufactur- continues to be studied. In 1973, authority to issue flammabili- ers of upholstered furniture follow this ty standards under provisions of the program and have changed furniture It is noteworthy that strategies other FFA was transferred from the design, construction and materials so than fabric flammability standards have Department of Commerce to the new that resistance to cigarette ignition has been used with success in helping to Consumer Product Safety Commission improved greatly. reduce deaths, injuries and property (CPSC) by the Consumer Product loss due to fire. CPSC has issued a Safety Act. Several key scientists trans- Today, using either government or safety standard for matchbooks requir- ferred from NBS to CPSC to help industry data, it is widely acknowl- ing the product to meet several design provide continuity in the work on edged that deaths and injuries from requirements, including locating the flammable fabrics. cigarette ignition of upholstered furni- friction surface on the outside back ture have declined dramatically. CPSC cover near the bottom of the match- In 1974, the Commission issued a and industry data indicate that over 80 book. CPSC has also issued a safety flammability standard (FF5-74) for percent of currently manufactured fur- standard for cigarette lighters to ensure children’s sleepwear in sizes 7 through niture can be expected to resist ciga- the child resistance of these devices. In 14. The safety requirements of the two rette ignition. addition, smoke detectors have come

171 into widespread use in residences, and mode of implementation and enforce- attempt at identifying the most com- sprinkler systems are used increasingly, ment was crucial to reducing losses. mon fire death scenarios was not data- especially in multi-family residences. Moreover, the time scale for reliably based at all but was the result of a detecting any real change in fire statis- Delphi exercise carried out by the The Department of Commerce recog- tics is of the order of several years, far CFR senior staff. Scenarios were nized James Winger’s contribution to too long to be of help in directing a described by occupancy, time of day, this work with its award of the Silver research program day-to-day. Instead, ignition source, item-first-ignited, Medal in 1978. the real utility of the loss reduction agents of spread (both smoke and objective was in shaping the content of flame) and cause of death (heat or In all, the efforts have contributed to a a research program. The formalism smoke). The Delphi-based scenario very substantial reduction in deaths, which was used to connect the two, ranking was the basis for the Center injuries and property loss due to flam- loss reduction and program content, first long range plan, completed in mable fabrics. Accident data from all was the fire scenario. early 1975 [2]. sources indicate reductions ranging from 50 percent to 90 percent in A fire scenario is essentially just that: There were those, however, who deaths and injuries involving children’s an abbreviated story or script of a fire. thought that a quantitative scenario sleepwear, mattresses and upholstered From CFR’s point of view, it was the ranking was not only preferable but furniture. “who, what, where, when, how, and possible. Clayton Huggett, then Chief why” of the incident that was of most of the Chemistry Section and later 11.2 FIRE SCENARIOS interest, because the physical aspects Deputy Director of CFR, was particu- The thrust of America Burning [1] was were the clues to where technology larly insistent that it was worth trying. to solve the Nation’s “fire problem,” might have an effect. Although it was He persuaded Frederic Clarke, who and the report set a goal of reducing recognized that every fire would be was in charge of the CFR planning U.S. fire losses by half in the next gen- different if described in enough detail, effort, to visit the National Fire eration. In practice the Federal it was also suspected that, for fatal fires Protection Association (NFPA), dig emphasis, at least as far as NBS was at least, there would be common ele- through the NFPA data files and see concerned, was to be on improving life ments in many scenarios which would what could be accomplished. safety rather than property protection. point to ways of breaking the chain of Ensuring life safety is primarily a regu- events leading to the fatal outcome. NFPA had two distinct fire databases, latory exercise, and so from there it This suggested a plan: devise a set of both of which depend upon the volun- was an easy step to articulating CFR’s “intervention strategies” designed to tary cooperation of fire departments own long-term objective: to provide address the most common fire death across the country. One, which was the the technical basis, particularly for the scenarios and fashion a research pro- forerunner of the National Fire Data requisite codes and standards, neces- gram based on those strategies. System now operated by the Federal sary to cut fire deaths in half in 25 government, was based on a standard- years. First, however, it was necessary to ized reporting system and used for determine just what the most common NFPA’s annual estimate of U.S. fire Impressive as this objective may sound, scenarios were. Fire departments were losses. Fires and fire deaths were however, it is useless as a managerial not required to keep statistics and, counted by occupancy, by time-of-day, metric. For one thing, NBS had no even if they did, there was no require- etc., but there was no way at the time control over its technology once in the ment that they be reported in any sys- to relate the various categories, so the hands of the actual regulator, whose tematic fashion. Therefore, the first scenario approach wouldn’t work.

172 THE TOP FIRE DEATH SCENARIOS

Rank Occupancy Item First Ignited Ignition Source % of Fire Deaths 1 Residential Upholstered furniture Smoking materials 27 /mattresses 2 Residential Upholstered furniture Open flame 5 3 a. Transportation Flammable fluids Several 4 Also, it was recognized that fire b. Residential Apparel Heating and Cooking 4 equipment departments under-reported deaths in c. Residential Furnishings Heating and Cooking 4 certain categories, notably those from equipment apparel fires, because the fire in ques- 6 a. Several Apparel/flammable Several 3 tion was often too small to generate an fluids alarm. They also tended to miss b. Residential Flammable fluids Open flame 3 deaths which occurred after the victim c. Several Apparel Open flame 3 9 a. Residential Interior finish Heating and Cooking 2 was transported from the fire scene. equipment b. Residential Interior finish Electrical equipment 2 NFPA’s other database, the Fire c. Several Apparel Smoking materials 2 Incident Data Organization, or FIDO, d. Residential Structural member Electrical equipment 2 was strictly anecdotal. For an incident All others, each less than 2 percent of total 34 to be included in FIDO, it had to 100 involve death, serious injury or large property loss. FIDO was subject to Fire data collection has improved a investigations of combustion product some of the same fire-department- great deal in the past quarter-century toxicology. In 1979, Benjamin derived biases as the regular NFPA but these early estimates have proven Buchbinder received the Department data system but it had two important to be surprisingly good. Comparison of Commerce Bronze Medal Award for features: it was large, containing data with the rankings produced by the his work on decision analysis for fire on approximately 11,000 fatalities and Delphi exercise showed that the intu- safety. there was a coded description of each ition of the CFR staff was reasonably fire incident, so it was possible to learn accurate with one exception: the References importance of children’s sleepwear something of the circumstances of the 1. R.E. Bland, chairman, and H.D. Tipton, fires was overstated. Since the mid-70s death. executive director, America Burning, were the height of Federal interest Report of the National Commission on and involvement in this issue, such a Fire Prevention and Control, 1973. Clarke and John Ottoson, of NFPA, finding should not be surprising. 2. Frederic B. Clarke, Long Range Plan were able to cross-correlate the FIDO 1979-1984, Center for Fire Research, database and mortality data from the The principal utility of fire scenarios, National Bureau of Standards, August 1979. Bureau of Vital Statistics of the US of course, is that they highlight where Department of Health, Education and 3. Frederic B. Clarke and J. Ottoson, “Fire efforts need to be applied. That the Death Scenarios,” Fire Journal, May Welfare, both of which contained ignition of soft furnishings by smoking 1976. incomplete - but overlapping - profiles materials, primarily dropped cigarettes, of US fire deaths, to produce the first was an important scenario came as no 11.3 FIRE RESEARCH self-consistent and completely inclusive surprise, but the sheer size of the INFORMATION estimate of where they occur. With this problem was somewhat unexpected. It SERVICES (FRIS) information in hand, the in-depth infor- provided much of the impetus for the mation from FIDO was used to pro- Center’s work on upholstered furni- The Apollo I spacecraft fire in 1968 duce a list of 14 abbreviated scenarios ture and mattress ignition standards; killing three astronauts was the first which together accounted for an esti- studies of room fire buildup and fatal accident of the United States mated two thirds of US fire deaths [3]. flashover; and the first systematic space program [1]. This accident was

173 of the FIREDOC Vocabulary List [2]) included building staff contributions. was developed to ensure quality con- S. Regina Burgess’s scanning ability trol of the information to assist the and Glenn Forney’s computer skills user. have enhanced the product. The BFRL yearly bibliography in paper format The state-of-the-art research reports ceased in 1996 and only the CD-ROM discussed topics such as fires in oxy- version was available. In 1997 the digi- gen-enriched atmospheres, fire detec- tal version of all BFRL publications Nora Jason, leader, Fire Research Information tion, and toxicity. In addition, a list of became available on the NIST web site Services experts in the fire field [3] was devel- http://www.bfrl.nist.gov and listed in oped to be a additional source of the section entitled BFRL Publications so tragic that the National Aeronautical information. Online. and Space Administration/Aerospace Safety Research and Data Institute There was no fire research library in In 1986 FIREDOC, an online biblio- (NASA/ASRDI) developed a plan to the United States and NBS recognized graphic fire research database [9], was have better access to information that the NASA work could be a model first announced at the Society of Fire applicable to the program. Twelve for a fire literature collection. The Protection Engineers’ Annual areas of knowledge were identified. decision to develop and maintain a fire Conference in Atlanta, Georgia. By One of the areas was fire safety and the research literature collection was rec- 2000 Kathleen Whisner has devoted NBS, well known for its fire research ommended by the National Academy approximately 13 staff-years inputting and safety program and the reputations of Sciences [4]. Dick Katz was the 60,000 bibliographic records into the of Alexander Robertson and John selected as the first project leader of database. Initially it was accessed over Rockett, was selected for the project. the Fire Research Information telephone lines and telnet. In 1996 The tasks were to create input for a Services. Shortly thereafter he was FIREDOC became available over the bibliographic database and write several transferred to the newly formed U.S. World Wide Web and today that is the state-of-the-art reports. Fire Administration library and Nora sole source of entry; the URL is: Jason became the project leader. http://fris.nist.gov. The effectiveness of The bibliographic database was FRIS’ Fire on the Web was recognized designed to meet specific NASA needs The first NBS product was the annual in 1999 by the Bronze Medal Award of and it was futuristic for its time, that is compilation of fire research reports the Department of Commerce for in the early 1970s. Each record had [5]. Over time this product continued Nora Jason and Glenn Forney. the complete bibliographic reference, to incorporate the technological and in-depth narrative abstracts, major changes and the organizational changes The original NASA tasks set a prece- and minor keywords, in addition to [6]. Nora Jason’s work in establishing dent for additional work with NASA report number, corporate source, con- FRIS was recognized by the and other organizations in creating tract sponsor(s), contract number(s). Department of Commerce Bronze bibliographies and organizing confer- It is now incorporated into the NASA Medal Award in 1976. ences and editing conference proceed- bibliographic database. ings [10]. Other agencies/organizations The first CD-ROM containing fire with projects that involved the FRIS No fire safety thesaurus existed in the research publications [7] by the staff staff included the Minerals United States or elsewhere so a vocab- and grantees was created in 1993; by Management Services, National Fire ulary list (later serving as the nucleus the following year the CD-ROM [8] Protection Association Research

174 Foundation, and the U.S. Fire 11.4 FIRE standable when it is recognized that Administration. INVESTIGATIONS AT until the late 1980s there were few NIST publicly available instruments for mak- References ing such evaluations. One of the best 1. Fire Onboard!, NFPA J., 90(1), 68-69, 11.4.1 INTRODUCTION of that era was the Fire Investigation 1996. Serious fire by its natural is a large- Handbook [2] published in 1980. It 2. Nora H. Jason, FIREDOC Vocabulary List, however faded into virtual nonuse NBSIR 85-3231, National Bureau of scale event, and difficult to reproduce once the models and other analytical Standards, 1985. in laboratories, even in large laborato- 3. B. W. Kuvshinoff, S. B. McLeod and R. ries. The study of real world fires pro- tools became available. For its time the G. Katz, Directory of Workers in the Fire vides the opportunity to test, evaluate Handbook was great but late and soon Field, NASA CR-121149, National and demonstrate the engineering tools passed-over by fire technology Aeronautics and Space Administration, developed by NIST and its colleagues advances. During the 1990s the Fire Lewis Research Center, February 134 p, around the world and to determine Safety Engineering Division was 1973. the efficacy of the various standard involved in the investigation and analy- 4. Report of the Ad Hoc Evaluation Panel for the sis of several large fire disasters around Fire Technology Division, Institute for approaches included in building codes Applied Technology, National Bureau of and other engineering regulatory and the world. Standards, p 16, August 30, 1972 guide documents. 5. Nora H. Jason, R. G. Katz, and P. A. 11.4.2 NURSING HOME FIRES Powell, Fire Research Publications, 1969- Ever since fire research became a In 1975 NIST was charged by the 1972, NBSIR 73-246, National Bureau NIST program in 1914, NIST has Department of Health and Human of Standards, 1973. been interested in fires and have made 6. Nora H. Jason, Building and Fire Research Welfare formerly the Department of Laboratory Publications, 1990, NISTIR investigations and evaluations of inci- Health Education of Welfare (HEW) 4562, National Institute of Standards dents. A formalized approach to inves- to improve the firesafety knowledge and Technology, 1991. tigation, however, did not get under- base in nursing homes. There had 7. Phyllis M. Martin and Nora H. Jason, way until the mid 1970s, and then at a been a series of serious nursing home Fire Research Publications, 1993, NIST SP relatively slow pace. Fire investigation fires and Congress had passed an act 878, National Institute of Standards and is one of the responsibilities contained mandating that nursing homes con- Technology, 1994. in the Fire Prevention and Control Act form with the Life Safety Code pub- 8. Phyllis M. Martin and Nora H. Jason, of 1974 [1]. NIST’s initial response to lished by NFPA. The desire of HEW BFRL Publications, 1994, NIST SP 883, 2 volumes, National Institute of Standards this obligation was to award a grant to was to go beyond this and develop a and Technology, 1995. the National Fire Protection better understanding of the life safety 9. Nora H. Jason, FIREDOC: A Fire Research Association underwriting increased problems in nursing homes and devel- Bibliographic Database, SFPE TR 86-04, activity in their established fire investi- op better means of responding to Society of Fire Protection Engineers, gation activates. The NFPA investiga- them. One of the initial NIST efforts Bethesda, MD, 10 p, 1986. tions, while important, concentrated was a study undertaken through a 10. William D. Walton, Nelson P. Bryner, on the construction, fire department grant to the University of California at Daniel Madrzykowski, James R. Lawson activities and conformance with estab- Berkley, with Professor Lars Larup as and Nora H. Jason, Fire Research Needs Workshop Proceedings, San Antonio, Texas, lished codes and standards. They did the principal investigator. Professor October 13-15, 1999, NISTIR 6538, not undertake engineering calculations Lerup studied the available data. His National Institute of Standards and or try to quantitatively analyze the fire primary source was NFPA reports of Technology, 2000. phenomena. The situation is under- serious fires in nursing homes.

175 Working closely with the NIST staff he based on original research at CFR. time were beginning to emerge from made parallel plots of the development Instead, CFR performed an editorial several sources, sponsored by NIST. of the fire and resulting fire hazard in and implementing function to prepare This includes grant work by Edward comparison with the activities of the a handbook for fire investigators. Its Zukoski at California Institute of staff and patients. He presented these separate sections were written by Technology, the work of Howard in graphic/realistic cartoon fashion [3]. practicing experts under editorial Emmons and his colleagues at Harvard Lerup’s work brought out a number of guidance from Francis Brannigan, an and the Factory Mutual Research observations important to safety to life eminent practitioner, and Richard Corporation, and the work of Thomas that had not been previously detected. Bright and Nora Jason of CFR. The Waterman and Ronald Pape at Illinois Of single most importance was the fact whole handbook was reviewed by Institute of Technology. All of these that nursing staffs did not understand other experts and the U.S. Fire came to fruition at about the same the phenomena of flashover and the Administration. All of the contributors time. Each was different in its detail danger of allowing a flashover fire to donated their contributions. while following the same general con- vent itself inside the building. Both cept of entrainment of gases (air, HEW and NIST agreed that it was The sections are: Fire Ground smoke, etc,) into the flame and fire important that nursing staffs be Procedures, Post-Fire Interviews, the plume, heat balance, radiation, and informed of flashover, its dangers, and Building and its Makeup, Ignition fluid (smoke) flow. Also about the safeguarding actions they could under- Sources, the Chemistry and Physics of same time the concept of oxygen take. As a result NIST produced the Fire, and Sources of Information. In depletion calorimetry also was devel- training film Flashover, Point of No addition there are appendices on how oped. This development was primarily Return [4]. Flashover, Point of No to organize an arson task force, how to Return demonstrated the risk of be an effective expert witness, a list of through the efforts of William Parker flashover, the impact of the phenome- independent testing laboratories, and a and Clayton Huggett at NIST. Their na, and the ability a nursing staff had bibliography. The handbook was pub- work resulted in a breakthrough in the to confine the fire using the traditional lished by the U.S. Government determination of mass burning rates hospital patient room door. Flashover Printing Office on paper that would and rates of heat release of both indi- was first published in the late 1970s survive moisture and rough handling in vidual materials and full size furniture and is still actively used as a training field use. It was reprinted at least assemblies. tool. Hundreds of thousands of nurs- twice. ing staff have viewed it and indications With the availability of these new tools are that it has resulted in incidents 11.4.4 ADVENT OF and the associated knowledge, it where the nursing staff followed its MATHEMATICAL POST became feasible to make scientifically guidance and protected the residence FIRE ANALYSIS based quantitative analysis of the fire of nursing homes from a potentially At the time Lerup produced his graph- phenomena and to reconstruct the lethal insult. Both Lerup’s analysis and ic displays there were no available course of the fire and the reasons that Flashover received national recognition mathematical compartment fire mod- a fire behaved as it did. The first in the form of awards. els available to describe the fire. efforts focused on specific occurrences Lerup’s work was primarily based on during the fire, latter the scope was 11.4.3 FIRE INVESTIGATION fire reports and the qualitative under- expanded to a more universal apprais- HANDBOOK standing of fire provided by the staff of al. Improvements in both scope and The Fire Investigation Handbook [2] the Center for Fire Research. quality of scientifically based fire inves- was unique for CFR in that it was not Mathematical models, however, at that tigation continue to this day.

176 NIST has been involved in a large a fluid transported down the corridor field investigation was conducted by number of fire investigations. A select- from the bar to the cabaret. the NFPA fire investigators. The subse- ed series of investigations are listed to quent analysis by NIST. The fire mod- demonstrate the progression in 11.4.4.2 MGM Grand Hotel and els used in the analysis were ASSETB increased sophistication with time. Casino, Las Vegas, Nevada, [6] and DETAC T[7]. In this incident, 84 Dead, a fire occurred in a bedroom off a cor- November 21, 1980 11.4.4.1 Beverly Hills Supper ridor. The bedroom door was open. Club, 165 Fatalities, In the MGM Grand Hotel Fire John The window broke as the room went May 18, 1977 Klote acting as the advisor for NIST, through flashover, and smoke pro- One of the first application of the new used his work on smoke travel to iden- gressed down the corridor invading analytical knowledge to fire investiga- tify the paths of smoke movement other rooms. The initial appraisal of tions occurred in the litigation result- from the fire source at ground level to the carbon monoxide content in the ing from the Beverly Hills Supper Club the various upper levels of the build- atmosphere flowing into the exposed Fire on May 18, 1977. One hundred ing. The enclosures around the earth- rooms down the corridor appeared to and sixty-five persons died in this fire. quake joints and the elevators were be marginal in its lethality. However, all The Beverly Hills Supper Club was a found to be the prime source of smoke of the exposed patients died. Since this large complex with several different and toxic gas movement. Also, post- was a hospice it was first felt that the activities. These included a traditional fire evaluation of the chemical content terminal conditions of the patients dining room restaurant, a cabaret, and of victims blood, by Merit Berky, lead made them extraordinarily susceptible. a separate bar. The fire started in the to a conclusion that the carbon Autopsies however, indicated that bar and, at a point early in the fire, monoxide (carboxyhemoglobin) was almost all of the victims had high car- spread with great speed to the cabaret not sufficient to be the sole source of boxyhemoglobin concentrations in room where the majority of the deaths fatality and there was strong suspicion their bloodstream, indicating that their occurred. It was initially held that fire of hydrogen cyanide presence in the personal health condition was not a spread on the surface of combustible smoke distributed throughout the factor. As a result of this inconsistency, material through a corridor linking the building. Nelson conducted an experiment in bar to the cabaret space. Howard the NIST burn test corridor where the Emmons, a close colleague and grantee During the litigation following the fire, arrangement of spaces was reconfig- of NIST at Harvard University ana- Emmons was again retained as an ured to imitate the situation at the lyzed the fire phenomena involved, expert witness and used the Harvard V hospice. In the fire air was drawn in Emmons used the phenomenology model, recently developed, to demon- through the broken window of the developed as part of the work he and strate which of the materials in the room of fire involvement. This sus- his team at Harvard and Factory kitchen and dining room area, where tained a flashed over high-energy fire. Mutual Research Corporation were the fire started, contributed to the The fire vented smoke laden with car- undertaking as part of a NIST grant development of flashover and which bon monoxide and devoid of oxygen covering the development of fire mod- did not. into the corridor which spread into els. Emmons demonstrated that the the sleeping rooms. The result of this fire spread as fast as it did not because 11.4.4.3 Hospice of Southern test demonstrated a massive switch in of a progressive ignition on a com- Michigan, 6 Dead, the chemical balance between carbon December 1985 [5] bustible surface, but rather as a fluid monoxide and carbon dioxide, pro- mechanics movement of a flame front This analysis was the first attempt by ducing conditions 30 times to 100 containing yet unburned pyrolized the NIST staff to use fire modeling to times more lethal than free and open products. The flame and fuel moved as reconstruct a fire incident. The actual burning with adequate air. Further

177 testing at NIST continues to this day found to be in very close proximity tection engineers to their staff and is in and has demonstrated the appropriate- with the findings made by ATF and the process of the construction of a ness of this conclusion. FBI through interviews and matched major new fire test and investigation very closely with photographs taken laboratory. 11.4.4.4 Dupont Plaza Hotel, during the fire. It’s felt this investiga- Puerto Rico, 90 Dead, tion was a breakthrough investigation 11.4.4.5 First Interstate Bank December 31, 1988 in terms of advancing the concepts of Building, 1 Dead, This is the first incident in which fire reconstruction with physical and May 4, 1988 [10] NIST used its emerging analytical tech- mathematical models. Jack Snell was One person died in this fire. This fire niques and models to describe the awarded the Gold Medal of the initiated in the trading room on the course of events in fire. James Department of Commerce in 1987 for twelfth floor of a 60 story building. Quintiere and. Nelson joined the overall leadership of the investigation While sprinkler protection was in the Federal investigation team working at and for subsequent efforts to modern- process of being installed, it was not in the site. Their prime purpose was to ize Puerto Rican regulations for the service at the time of the fire, so the both assist the Alcohol, Tobacco and fire safety of buildings. building responded as a non-sprin- Firearms team and to demonstrate and klered building. The fire traveled from test the ability of the computational The engineering tools used in this eval- floor to floor, presumably through the instruments then arriving on the uation have been refined and brought space between the exterior wall and scene. together in the collection FPETOOL the floor slab, eventually covering four [9]. The FPETOOL collection and floors. Problems with the water supply Nelson used the collection known as other models are now heavily used hampered the fire department and the FIREFORM [8]. FIREFORM included throughout the entire fire safety com- fire burned unattacked for almost two various closed form equations related munity in both risk appraisal and fire hours. The fire propagated around the to fire and Nelson’s partially complet- incident reconstruction. Prime exam- entire building on each of these floors ed compartment fire model (then ples of the advances being made are and was fully involved for the entire called ROOMFIRE, but later entitled the use of Computational Fluid floor areas for most of its duration. FIRE SIMULATOR). With these the Dynamics (CFD) fire and smoke mod- The probable point of origin was NIST team was able to demonstrate els in the reconstruction of events in mathematically determined by the the speed of development of the fire as the Cherry Road Fire and the work sequence of response of the smoke well as its production of excess pyrol- currently underway in understanding detectors and the characteristic burns state (unburned fuel) mixing with the the events resulting in the collapse of of the living contents. The models in flames. The transfer of this flaming the World Trade Center attack on FPETOOL were used and proved mixture of burning yet unburned com- September 11, 2001. capable of analyzing the fire develop- bustible material from the ballroom, ment and spread on any floor. The where the fire occurred, into the large Also, as a result of the demonstration spread from floor to floor was, howev- foyer and from there traversing the of the value of engineering analysis and er, estimated on the physical evidence casino, where the majority of the fire science to fire investigation, the of the flame and empirical understand- deaths occurred was determined by ATF has undertaken a serious effort to ing of the construction of the joints Quintiere and Nelson. The reconstruc- train its fire investigators in the rudi- between floor slabs and curtain walls. tion developed by the NIST team was ments of fire science, added fire pro- The building survived with complete

178 tion field. The report lays killed the occupants of the second out step-by-step the engi- floor. neering analysis of the incident starting with the 11.4.4.8 Oil Fields of Kuwait ignition of the initial fuel As a result of the Iraqi invasion of and proceeding to the Kuwait and the subsequent conflict, final end result. The 749 oil wells were systematically dam- report is used in numer- aged with explosives in February 1991 ous fire investigation resulting in uncontrolled gas and oil courses as an example of well blowout fires on 610 of the wells. a methodology to be As part of the international scientific emulated. response to the environmental and health emergency, NIST in coordina- 11.4.4.7 Happy Land Disco, Bronx, tion with the United Nations New York, 87 Environment Programme (UNEP), the Fatalities, World Meteorological Organization March 25, 1990 (WMO), the U.S. Army Corp of First Instate Bank Building. BFRL develops improved methods to [12] Engineers, and U.S. Gulf evaluate fire performance of new materials and structures. In this fire an arsonist Environmental Technical Assistance splashed gasoline over the Task Force, performed exploratory burnout of the involved floors, but no entrance to the building. It was esti- structural damage or failure of a load- mated about 3.8 L of gasoline was Daniel Madrzykowski, fire engineer, is performing supporting member. used. The fire was then ignited, it heat flux measurements. The flame height is about flashed over the foyer, followed by 65 m high with a heat release rate of 1.7 GW. 11.4.4.6 Hillhaven Nursing Home flashover of the adjacent barroom and Fire, 13 Dead, October 5, then raced up stairs, pushing toxic 1989 [11] fumes ahead of it, until it filled the In this fire 13 persons died. The fire upstairs main room with toxic fumes. was reminiscent of the conditions pre- Relatively small amounts of flame actu- viously described for the hospice of ally reached the upstairs. The fire Southern Michigan. A flashed over fire scene was investigated by Richard occurred in a bedroom, the patients Bukowski and Harold Nelson and the from that room were removed to a model FAST [13], then in its final pre- place of safety, but the doors on the release stage of development at NIST, other patient’s rooms failed to close was used to reconstruct the process properly and the carbon monoxide and progress of the fire. The model loaded gas propagated through the demonstrated the manner in which corridor, entering these rooms and oxygen was depleted in the original killing patients in their beds. The space of involvement, resulting in the importance of this investigation has production of high carbon monoxide, been an impact on the fire investiga- which rapidly anesthetized and then

179 measurements to demonstrate the feasibility of determining the heat release rate of burning wells as an essential part of the characterization of the fires for use in modeling of the smoke plume[14].

Dave Evans, Dan Madrzykowski, and George Mulholland traveled to Kuwait in May 1991. Flame height and heat An Oakland Hills neighborhood that was in the fire’s path and completely destroyed. Note the burned flux measurements were made on a automobiles in the foreground. number of burning oil wells in the Al Mawqá and Al Ahmadi oil fields [15]. structures played in the fire spread. (UJNR), which includes a Panel on Smoke samples were also collected. The investigation found that the high Wind and Seismic Effects and a Panel Gerald Haynes provided NIST with an wind speed, proximity of flammable on Fire Research and Safety, Noel aerial flame height survey of burning vegetation to structures and the flam- Raufaste of NIST and Kazuhiko wells in the Al Minagish oil field. A mability of exterior construction mate- Kawashima of the Japan Public Works radar altimeter was used from a heli- rials were factors in the spread of the Research Institute (PWRI) quickly copter to perform this measurement. fire. The use of wood framing mem- organized teams to investigate the The heat release rate of the fires meas- bers did not significantly influence the damages and what might be done to ured ranged from 90 MW to 2,000 rate of spread or the extent of the fire mitigate future disasters of this type. MW that corresponded to 1,500 bar- [16]. Richard Bukowski, of NIST, and rels to 30,000 barrels of oil per well Charles Scawthorn, of EQE per day. 11.4.4.10 Post-Tsunami Fires, International, headed the fire portion Hokkaido, Japan of the investigation [17]. The study 11.4.4.9 Oakland Hills On July 12, 1993, an earthquake regis- found that the combustible construc- On Sunday, October 20, 1991, tering 7.8 on the Richter scale struck tion of the buildings, combustible Oakland California experienced one of in the Japanese Sea off the coast of debris between the buildings and the the worst single fire losses events in Hokkaido. The earthquake generated a unanchored kerosene and propane recent U.S. history. Twenty-five per- tsunami that devastated the small tanks all contributed to the fire spread. sons were killed and 2,889 dwellings island of Okushiri. The tidal wave Comparisons were made between the were destroyed. The conflagration, destroyed buildings, overturned fuel events of these post-tsunami fires to which covered 7.2 km2, was a classic tanks and spread debris making it diffi- the post-earthquake fires that occurred example of a wind driven, cult for the fire department to respond in the 1980s after the Coalinga, Loma wildland/urban interface fire [16]. to the fires that followed the tsunami. Prieta and San Francisco earthquakes. Kenneth Steckler, David Evans and The disaster resulted in more than 200 Jack Snell comprised the NIST team people dead and more than $60 mil- 11.4.4.11 Post-Earthquake Fires, who worked with fire experts from lion dollars in damages. By the time Northridge, CA Japan, the U. S. Department of the fires were extinguished almost 300 A magnitude 6.8 earthquake struck the Agriculture, and UC Berkeley. The homes had been destroyed. Through San Fernando Valley at 4:31 AM on objective of the investigation was to the effective bilateral collaborative US- January 17, 1994. Fifty-eight people determine the role that wood framed Japan Program on Natural Resources died and thousands of injuries resulted

180 UJNR Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects. The objectives were to document important lessons from this earthquake that might be used to mitigate the impact of future earthquake disasters [19].

From the U.S., the fire team was composed of Dan Madrzykowski from A collapsed carport shields a house from the adjacent structure that burned down completely. NIST and Ed Comeau from the National Fire Protection Association. from the earthquake. Building damage spacing, and the intervention of the They were in Japan from February 12 was wide spread with approximately fire department most of the fire were through 18, 1995. One hundred forty 80,000 people to 125,000 people dis- limited to the building of origin. eight fires occurred during the three placed from their homes. In the most However building-to-building fire days following the earthquake. The severe cases, buildings and elevated spread did occur in three manufac- fires damaged or destroyed approxi- highways collapsed. The earthquake tured housing developments. In these mately 6,900 buildings and burned the also resulted in 30 to 50 significant developments, close spacing and com- equivalent of 70 city blocks. The fires throughout the valley and an bustible construction lead to multiple source of many fires were broken gas increased number of fires in the days unit fires. In some instances, the col- lines and damaged kerosene heaters. following the earthquake due to lapse of carports between units helped Many of the ignitions occurred as elec- restoration of power and gas to dam- to form a firebreak. In addition to tric power restoration was attempted. aged buildings. A multi-agency team, documenting what happened, the Collapsed buildings intermingled with organized under the auspices of the poster disaster report states that given crushed automobiles assisted the fires Interagency Committee on Seismic the favorable weather conditions and in spreading from block to block. The Safety in Construction and headed by the time of the occurrence, the fire damage in Kobe to the water supply, the NIST, was assembled and within losses were small relative to the loss days of the incident were working at potential under windy, hot and dry An example of the many collapsed buildings that the disaster locations [18]. conditions [18]. blocked entire streets making it difficult for emergency response on in some cases, escapes. If this building had caught fire, it would have easily spread the fire to Doug Walton led the fire portion of 11.4.4.12 Post-Earthquake Fires, both sides of the street and exacerbating the fire con- the investigation for NIST. His focus Kobe, Japan ditions considerably. was to identify the factors that con- A year to the day, after the tributed to the cause, spread of and Northridge, CA earthquake, an loss from the fires. The finding of the earthquake of similar magnitude study indicate that a significant num- struck Kobe, Japan and its sur- ber of the post earthquake fires rounding areas. The earthquake involved natural gas leaks due to dam- resulted in more than 6,000 deaths aged lines or equipment. Due to light and over 30,000 injuries. The winds, high moisture content in natu- multi agency investigation was con- ral fuel, building construction and ducted under the auspices of the

181 the emergency water cisterns, and to (pressurized) hose lines to protect analysis of the fire development in the the transportation systems (highways, themselves? World Trade Center attack of train trestles, etc) significantly limited September 11, 2001. the fire department response. Lessons Two NIST models, the Fire Dynamics learned for the U.S. covered a broad Simulator [21] and Smokeview [22], NIST staff engineers, Daniel range. Beginning with large scale gov- were used to simulate and visualize a Madrzykowski, Robert Vettori, Doug ernmental issues, such as city planning townhouse fire that claimed the lives Walton, Glenn Forney, and Kevin and design to develop fire breaks and of two Washington D.C. firefighters. A McGrattan, formed the team that alternative water supplies and ending model following the Standard enhanced the existing models, applied with information and training for resi- Operating Procedures (SOPs) of the then to the problem and presented the dents so that they can be prepared to fire department for comparison pur- results in a manner meeting the needs help themselves in times of widespread poses was also developed. of the investigation. disasters that overwhelm public service resources. The Fire Dynamic Simulator simula- 11.4.4.14 Summary tions and the Smokeview visualizations The sophistication, quality, and impact 11.4.4.13 Cherry Road Fire, helped the department understand the of NIST fire investigations have mas- Washington, D.C, 2 Firefighter Fatalities, incident. It also demonstrated the sively increased over the last decades. May 30, 1999, [20] value of the departments SOP relative Investigations have become an impor- to venting. The CD-ROM format tant test of and technology transfer NIST was asked to help on the Cherry allowed research results and fire mod- instrument for dissemination of NIST Road Fire Investigation by the District eling technology to be used directly by products. of Columbia Fire & Emergency the fire service (i.e. a training officer Medical Services Department can take the CD and use it to demon- References 1. The Federal Fire Prevention and Control Act of Reconstruction Committee. The strate the benefits of proper ventila- reconstruction committee could not 1974, Public Law 93-498. tion, the speed with which a fire envi- 2. F. L. Branningan, Richard D. Bright, and explain several things about the fire ronment can drastically and tragically Nora H. Jason, Fire Investigation incident. change). Handbook, NBS Handbook 134, National 1. Three firefighters received severe Bureau of Standards, 1980. burn injuries that seemed to be 3. L. Lerup, D. Cronrath, and J. K. C. Liu, The results are being made available to Human Behavior in Institutional Fires and Its inconsistent with the limited ther- a wide audience to educate firefighters Design Implications, University of mal damage in the room they in an effort to prevent a similar inci- California, Berkeley, NBS GCR 77-93, were in. dent from occurring. NIST engineers National Bureau of Standards, 1977. 2. The severe burn injuries to the developed a CD-ROM demonstrating 4. Flashover, Point of No Return, cassette video and set of 78-35 mm slides, National three firefighters were inconsistent the application of the models to this Bureau of Standards, ID No. 0293-130, with the minor injuries to other case [23]. The Smokeview visualiza- 1978. firefighters that were in close tions have been incorporated into a 5. Harold E. Nelson, “An Engineering proximity. number of fire fighter training curricu- Analysis of Fire Development in the 3. The two nozzle men, both fatali- lums, including IAFC’s Command Hospice of Southern Michigan, December 15, 1985,” Fire Safety Science- ties, were well trained and ade- School, the National Fire Academy. As Proceedings of the Second International quately equipped. Why didn’t they discussed below these models are cor- Symposium, Hemisphere Publishing flow water from their charged nerstone elements in the ongoing Company, New York, 1989.

182 6. William D. Walton, ASET: A Room Fire 15. Daniel Madrzykowski, David D. Evans, 22. Glenn P. Forney and Kevin B. Program for Personal Computers, NBSIR 85- and Gerald A. Haynes, “Large Fires: McGrattan, User’s Guide for Smokview 3144-1, National Bureau of Standards, Kuwait,” Proceedings of the 12th Joint Panel Version 1.0: A Tool for Visualizing Fire 1985. Meeting of the UJNR Panel on Fire Research Dynamics Simulation Data, NISTIR 6513, 7. David D. Evans and David W. Stroup, and Safety, Oct 27 -Nov 2, 1992, National Institute of Standards and Methods to Calculate the Response Time of Building Research Institute, Tsukuba, Technology, 2000. Heat and Smoke Detectors Installed Below Ibaraki, and Fire Research Institute, 23. CD-ROM, Simulation of the Dynamics of the Fire Large Unobstructed Ceilings, NBSIR 85- Mitaka, Tokyo, Japan, 1994. at 3146 Cherry Road, NE, Washington, DC, 3167, National Bureau of Standards, 16. Kenneth D. Steckler, David D. Evans, NISTIR 6510, National Institute of 1985. and Jack E. Snell, Preliminary Study of the Standards and Technology, 2000. 8. Harold E. Nelson, Fireform: A 1991 Oakland Hills Fire and Its Relevance Computerized Collection of Convenient Fire to Wood-Frame, Multi-Family Building 11.5 SMOKE AND FIRE Construction, NISTIR 4724, National Safety Computations, NBSIR 86-3308, DETECTORS National Bureau of Standards, 1986. Institute of Standards and Technology, 9. Harold E. Nelson, FPETOOL: Fire 1991. A summary of early work at NBS was Protection Engineering Tools for Hazard 17. Richard W. Bukowski and Charles prepared by Dan Gross for the third Estimation, NISTIR 4380, National Scawthorn, “Earthquake and Fire in IAFSS Conference in 1991 [1]. The Japan: When the Threat Became a Institute of Standards and Technology, earliest studies at NBS of the perform- 1990. Reality,” NFPA Journal Vol. 88, No. 3, NFPA Quincy, MA, May/June 1994. ance of detectors were conducted in 10. Harold E. Nelson, Engineering View of the 18. Diana Todd, Nicholas Carino, Riley M. the 1920s and 30s. In the 1950s pio- Fire of May 4, 1988 in the First Interstate Chung, H. S. Lew, Andrew W. Taylor, neering work was conducted by Bank Building, Los Angeles, California, NIS- William D. Walton, James D. Cooper, TIR 89-4061, National Institute of McCamy on flame detectors for air- and Roland Nimis, 1994 Northridge Standards and Technology, 1989. craft engine nacelles [2] in which he Earthquake: Performance of Structures, 11. Harold E. Nelson and K. M. Tu, An published data on both ultraviolet Lifelines, and Fire Protection Systems, NIST Engineering Analysis at the Hillhaven (UV) and infrared (IR) signatures and Special Publication 862, National Nursing Home Fire, October 5, 1989, NIS- Institute of Standards and Technology, proposed coupling IR sensors with TIR 4665, National Institute of 1994. flame flicker circuits to discriminate Standards and Technology, 1991. 19. Riley M. Chung, ed., The January 17, hot objects from actual flame. 12. Richard W. Bukowski and Robert C. 1995 Hyogoken - Nanbu (Kobe) Spetzler, “Analysis of the Happyland Earthquake: Performance of Structures, 11.5.1 OPERATION Social Club Fire With HAZARD I,” Fire Lifelines, and Fire Protection Systems, NIST BREAKTHROUGH and Arson Investigator, Vol. 42, No. 2, 36- Special Publication 901, National 47, March 1992 and Journal of Fire Institute of Standards and Technology, In the late 1960s the US Department Protection Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 4, 1996. of Housing and Urban Development pp 117-131, 1992. 20. Daniel Madrzykowski and R. I. Vettori, (HUD) instituted a major, innovative 13. Walter W. Jones, Model for the Transport of Simulation of the Dynamics of the Fire at housing demonstration project called Fire, Smoke, and Toxic Gases (FAST), 3146 Cherry Road, NE, Washington, DC, “Operation Breakthrough” [3]. NBSIR 84-2934 and NBSIR 85-3118, May 30, 1999, NISTIR 6510, National Intended to facilitate the development National Bureau of Standards, 1984. Institute of Standards and Technology, of novel approaches to design, materi- 14. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 2000. als, and construction techniques for Report to Congress, United States Gulf 21. Kevin B. McGrattan and Glenn P. Forney, Environmental Technical Assistance from Fire Dynamics Simulator: User’s Manual, NIS- improving low-income housing, the January 27- July 31, 1991 Under Public TIR 6469, National Institute of Standards program included the submission of Law 102-27, Section 309, October 1991. and Technology, 2000. concepts and the actual construction

183 of demonstration homes by the win- judged the life saving potential of a The 17,000 homes were delivered to ning submitters. Because traditional, heat detector in every room or a sin- several sites and were used by families prescriptive building codes could not gle, smoke detector outside the bed- until they could rebuild or find alter- deal effectively with innovative meth- rooms and at the head of the basement native accommodations. Most lived in ods and materials, HUD engaged NBS stairs (if the home had a basement). the homes for a year but some were to develop performance-based guide Their judgment was that the heat still occupied three years later. The fire criteria to assure safety, functionality detectors would have reduced the safety statistics were surprising. While and durability of the innovative sys- fatalities by 8 percent and the smoke the statistically expected number of tems. The guide criteria were a proto- detectors by 41 percent. fires did occur, there were no fire type for the performance standards deaths and few injuries. The smoke now being promulgated globally. HUD NIST included in its Breakthrough cri- detectors were credited with getting obtained waivers of local prescriptive teria [5] a requirement for smoke occupants out before they became building codes to allow construction detectors located in accordance with trapped - just as McGuire and Ruscoe and occupancy of the demonstration the McGuire and Ruscoe guidelines. had surmised. homes. Since few of these homes were built, no substantial fire experience was This was the first, large installation of At the time of Breakthrough, fire gained with these detectors. residential smoke detectors and the alarm systems in homes were rare, and results convinced the manufactured where installed used commercial 11.5.2 HURRICANE AGNES housing industry to adopt the first detectors and panels designed by the smoke detector “ordinance.” In 1975 In 1971, heavy rains from Hurricane rules applied to commercial proper- it became the policy of the Mobile Agnes flooded many homes in central ties. Heat detectors usually were used Home Manufacturing Association (the Pennsylvania and lower New York. in occupied spaces. In commercial predecessor of today’s Manufactured HUD mounted a federal disaster relief installations, relatively expensive smoke Housing Institute) that one smoke detectors usually were used only to effort (this was before FEMA was cre- detector located outside the bedrooms protect high value items, so they were ated) including the provision of tem- be provided in every manufactured rare in home systems. A then typical porary housing for many poor resi- home produced by a member company. residential system cost as much, in dents of the region. HUD purchased 1968 dollars, as residential sprinkler 17,000 mobile homes (later called 11.5.3 UL STANDARD systems cost in 2000 dollars. The (sin- manufactured homes) and asked NIST gle-station) smoke alarm had been to apply some of the lessons of The large procurement of smoke developed in 1965 but sales were low Breakthrough to the purchase specifi- detectors for the hurricane Agnes and availability poor for the few mod- cation. NIST included a requirement homes piqued Dick Bright’s curiosity els being marketed. for a single-station smoke detector about just how well these devices per- (typically battery operated) outside the formed in detecting fires. He modified One of NBS’s fire protection engi- bedrooms of each unit. The order for a spare prototype of the NBS Smoke neers, Richard (Dick) Bright, had been 17,000 smoke detectors had to be split Chamber (that later became ASTM impressed with an article published by among five manufacturers because at D648) to generate smoke from a small Canada’s National Research Council in the time no single company had the source and circulate it with a small bar 1962. John McGuire and Brian Ruscoe production capacity to fill the order. heater. When he hung production [4] studied 342 residential fire deaths Today, one manufacturer could do so smoke detectors in the box he was in Ontario from 1956-1960 and with two days’ production. appalled to see the “power on” light

184 on many disappear in the smoke with- improved. This cooperative environ- ing the battery with the detector at out a sound from the detector. ment led to rapid improvements in the purchase, the use of commonly performance of detectors that benefit- available batteries, functional testing Further tests revealed a problem with ed the public and the industry. features, and others. smoke entry into the outer housing at low convective flow rates. The smoke The work that year uncovered a num- 11.5.4 NFPA STANDARD ber of issues identified as problems (or box test used by Underwriters In the fall of 1974, Bukowski returned Laboratories (UL) at the time had two potential problems) that were correct- to UL and completed the development large fans pointed directly at the detec- ed by the industry and incorporated in and adoption of UL217. Bright had tor forcing the smoke in - a not so the suggested standard that was pre- been appointed Chair of the National realistic condition. This experience led sented to UL and formed the basis for Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Bright and his supervisor Irwin the first edition of their Safety Committee on Household Fire Benjamin to conclude that the poten- Standard for Single- and Multiple- Warning Equipment that developed tial of residential smoke detectors Station Smoke Detectors, UL217. the NFPA 74 Standard on the would not be realized unless there These included: Installation, Maintenance, and Use of were effective product approval stan- • Identification and quantification of Household Fire Warning equipment. dards that assured their proper per- low velocity smoke entry problems First published in 1967 as a guide for formance and reliability. into detector housings or sensor assemblies and the associated homeowners this document reflected Variable Velocity and Directionality Bright and Benjamin approached UL the philosophy of the times that homes tests in the new Standard. about participation in a cooperative should be protected in the same way as • Design of a new smoke box for sen- project under NBS’ Industry Research commercial businesses - with a heat sitivity testing with improvements to Associate program where UL would detector in every room wired to a fire the flow characteristics and instru- assign an employee to work at NBS for alarm panel and alarm bells. The cost mentation that is now used for all of such a residential fire alarm system a year to develop the basis for such a smoke Detectors. standard that UL would then promul- for an average home was about $1500 • Effects of the condensation of mois- so they were rare. gate. Richard Bukowski was selected ture on sensor or circuit boards that by UL for the one-year assignment, could cause false alarms or non- Since the installation of residential fire beginning in the fall of 1973. operation and the Humidity Plunge alarm equipment was voluntary (and test placed in the Standard to no one thought that requiring fire safe- One of the unique aspects of this proj- address this issue. ect was that it was conducted in close • Development of an electrical tran- ty equipment in homes would ever cooperation with the residential smoke sients test to improve reliability by happen), Bright felt that homeowners detector industry, who themselves reducing the susceptibility of detec- should be given the opportunity to were working with an immature tech- tors to damage from transients. choose a minimum system that provid- nology. Companies provided samples • The application of the “full-scale ed some protection at low cost, like of current product and were very fire tests” to all smoke detectors that suggested by McGuire and grateful for constructive criticism. where they had previously been Ruscoe. The committee proposed a Company engineers began to visit with used only for ionization type. system of four “Levels of Protection” prototypes of models under develop- • Agreement on the policies of mini- in the 1974 edition of NFPA 74. ment that were jointly evaluated and mum one-year battery life, includ- These were:

185 Levels of Protection • Level 4 was a smoke detector outside the bedrooms cupied homes that were and at the head of any basement stairs from In an independent analysis of the first McGuire and Ruscoe. scheduled for demolition and year results, a fire safety panel, advising • Level 3 added heat or smoke detectors in living or available for fire tests. Fires the governor of Massachusetts on a family rooms that had the highest statistical likeli- involved actual residential statewide detector law, applied an arbi- hood of residential fire initiation. contents and instruments trary three-minute escape time • Level 2 added heat or smoke detectors in the bed- monitored conditions within requirement. The data showed that a rooms that were next on the list of fire initiation. the homes to judge when smoke detector on every level would • Level 1 was the full system of a heat or smoke detector in every room. unassisted escape using doors provide the required three-minutes in (but not jumping out win- 89 percent of the cases, while a smoke dows) would no longer be detector in every room would increase practical. meeting the requirement only to 93 This unique concept was presented to percent. the NFPA Membership for adoption at The research involved 76 experiments the May 1974 meeting in Miami Beach conducted in three homes over two In 1978 the US Department of and it was strongly opposed by the fire years. The data showed that the opti- Housing and Urban Development services (the Fire Marshals and Fire mum performance was obtained with a (HUD) commissioned a study similar Chiefs). Their concern was that they smoke detector on every floor level of to the Indiana Dunes Tests to be con- saw no evidence that anything less than the home, mostly because smoke flow ducted in a manufactured home [7]. “complete protection” (Level 1) was up stairs could be impeded by flows HUD was preparing to promulgate adequate. They were correct - the lev- induced by HVAC systems, especially their federal Manufactured Home els were solely based on the judgment air conditioning. A closed door at the Construction and Safety Standards of the committee and that of McGuire top of the basement stairs could create (49CFR3280) and this work provided and Ruscoe. a dead air space that delayed response. the basis for the smoke detector The home was better protected from requirements therein. 11.5.5 INDIANA DUNES TESTS fires starting in the basement by a 11.5.6 REGULATORY ACTIONS While the Levels of Protection concept smoke detector on the basement ceil- was adopted at that meeting the con- ing near the stairway. The Indiana Dunes tests had a strong cern expressed by the fire service were and immediate impact and soon vari- not taken lightly. Bright proposed that The report presented results in a ous jurisdictions began to adopt laws NBS fund a research project, which unique way, in terms of the escape requiring the provision of smoke came to be known as the Indiana time (time between detector alarm and detectors in every level of new residen- Dunes Tests, [6] to assess the effective- reaching one of the tenability limits tial housing. More surprising to many ness of the Levels of Protection. This defined by the study) provided by the was the adoption by some of regula- contract was awarded to IIT Research detectors. These escape times were tions requiring the installation of Institute and UL. The Principal used to produce a probability plot of smoke alarms in existing residences. Investigators were Tom Waterman of the percent of experiments in which a This ran counter to the U.S. tradition IITRI, and William Christian and given amount of escape time was pro- of “a man’s home is his castle;” most Bukowski from UL. vided. Thus the reader could select a opposition was not to the smoke time needed and determine the per- detectors, but to the challenge to this Detectors currently available on the cent of cases in which that (or more) tradition. Montgomery County market were installed in actual, unoc- time was available. Maryland was one of the first to adopt

186 such an ordinance in 1975, effective in effective smoke detectors were at standards (UL217) and installation 1978. Even more startling was the awakening sleeping people and how standards (NFPA74) were in place and immediate impact of the law. As much time was needed for a family, the combination of regulatory and vol- implementation began the residential especially with young children, to untary installations were at a pace that fire death rate, which had been steady escape. soon nearly every home would be for some years at around 32 per year, equipped. Thus, NBS decided to apply began to drop significantly. After the To address these issues NBS awarded a its limited resources in other areas. law became effective fatalities became grant to Professor E. Harris Nober at zero in compliant homes and stayed the University of Massachusetts at The result was limited studies mostly there for several years; this convinced Amherst to conduct a study. Nober aimed at improving detector perform- other jurisdictions to adopt similar had a sleep laboratory on campus and ance in special applications. The laws. experience in this field, although like applications addressed included health most sleep researchers he had focused care facilities [9, 10] (especially Successes like that of Montgomery on insomnia as opposed to awakening. reducing the incidence of nuisance County led to the rapid adoption of Nober’s work [8] began in the labora- alarms that were affecting system mandatory smoke detectors in most tory but soon moved into homes to credibility), fire protection for atria state or provincial building codes in provide more realism and to address [11] (these had become a common the U.S. and Canada. Codes at the city the behavior of whole families. He architectural feature), and even space- or county level often went further by developed a protocol to install in a test craft [12]. NASA had begun advanced requiring the installation of smoke home a smoke detector that could be planning for their 21st Century proj- detectors in existing residential prop- activated with a radio transmitter from ects, including a space station, and erties. Coupled with effective market- the street. After waiting several weeks wanted to explore innovative tech- ing campaigns by major appliance to avoid biasing the trial, the niques for fire detection. manufacturers such as GE and Gillette, researchers activated the alarm in the and retailers like Sears, compliance middle of the night. The family had In the 1990s NIST (formerly NBS) been instructed to turn on a bedroom pioneered the use of computational with these regulations was unusually light immediately on awakening (this experiments to study the performance high - typically above 90 percent. The gave a measure of awakening time), to of, and to develop guidelines for the result was a decline in U.S. fire deaths place a call to the Amherst Fire installation of, smoke detectors. In a by 50 percent between 1975 and 1998 Department (which participated in the project funded through a public/pri- that has been attributed largely to the study and provided a time for the call), vate consortium through the smoke detector. and to evacuate outside to a pre- (National) Fire Protection Research arranged meeting place in front of the Foundation, NIST researchers evaluat- 11.5.7 FURTHER STUDIES house. These experiments it deter- ed the effects of both geometry and The “Indiana Dunes Tests” and other mined that three minutes, as judged physical barriers, and the interaction similar studies conducted in the 1970s almost a decade prior, was a typical with mechanical ventilation systems on and 80s clearly demonstrated that the evacuation for families. smoke and heat detector activation occupants of most homes with smoke times. While others have used compu- detectors at every level could expect 3 In the early 1980s NBS decided that tational techniques to design specific minute to 5 minutes of escape time for the residential smoke detector issues installations, this was the first time most fires. However there were several had largely been addressed and the anyone performed parametric calcula- human factors questions such as how technology matured. Product approval tions designed like a series of experi-

187 ments to provide systematic informa- real time data of significant use to the 6. Richard W. Bukowski, Field Investigation of tion on a hypothesis. fire service in making tactical deci- Residential Smoke Detectors, NBSIR 76- sions, as well as evaluating detector sig- 1126, National Bureau of Standards, 1976 and Fire Journal, 71, No. 2, pp The results of the study were revealing; nals for consistency with fire chemistry 18-41, 1977. confirming some common practice and physics and determining the level 7. Richard W. Bukowski, Investigation of the and indicating that some assumptions of threat to people and property. Effects of Heating and Air Conditioning on may be wrong. The results had a the Performance of Smoke Detectors in Mobile direct and significant effect on the Fire detectors and the systems to Homes, NBSIR 79-1915, National code requirements [13, 14, 15, 16]. which they connect play a significant Bureau of Standards, 1979. role in the reduction of fire losses. 8. E. Harris Nober, H. Peirce, and A. D. Thus the NIST fire program will con- Well, Waking Effectiveness of Household NIST is still involved in detector Smoke and Fire Detection Devices, GCR 83- research. One project involves the tinue to conduct research on detection 439, National Bureau of Standards, development of an apparatus for evalu- as a means to achieve its goals of 1983. ating the performance of multi-sensor reducing the burden of fire. 9. Richard W. Bukowski, Tests on the devices. Called the Fire Performance of Automatic Fire Detectors in Emulator/Detector Evaluator (or The Department of Commerce recog- Health Care Occupancies - A Preliminary FE/DE), the apparatus shows real nized Richard Bright’s work on smoke Report, NBSIR 79-1739, National detectors with its award of the Silver Bureau of Standards, 1979. promise for international standardiza- 10. Richard W. Bukowski and S. M. Istvan, A Medal in 1976. tion [17]. With links to the Indiana Survey of Field Experience with Smoke Dunes Tests, NIST is conducting a new Detectors in Health Care Facilities, NBSIR evaluation of residential smoke detec- References 80-2130, National Bureau of Standards, tors (now commonly referred to as 1. Daniel Gross, “Fire Research at NBS: 1980. The First 75 Years, Fire Safety Science,” smoke alarms). This work intends to 11. Richard W. Bukowski, Smoke Detectors, Proc of the Third International Symposium, Alarms, and Controls, NFPA Roundtable on re-examine the installation and siting Elsevier Applied Science, London, pp Fire Safety in Atriums - Are the Codes Meeting rules, the efficacy of current sensor 119-133, 1991. the Challenge?, December 15-16, 1988, technologies, examine nuisance alarm 2. C. S. McCamy, “A Five-Band Recording pp 1-19, 1988. Spectroradiometer,” NBS J. Res., 56, 5, sources, and develop data with which 12. Richard W. Bukowski, Techniques for 293, National Bureau of Standards, Fire Detection, Proceedings of the NASA alarm algorithms might be developed 1956. Workshop on Spacecraft Fire Safety, National for multi-sensor devices. 3. Feedback, Operation Breakthrough, Phase 1, Aeronautics and Space Administration, Design and Development of Housing Systems, pp 9-29, 1987. Finally, NIST is using its experience in Department of Housing and Urban Development, Washington, DC, HUD- 13. Glenn P. Forney, Richard W. Bukowski, computational fire models to develop a and William D. Davis, “Fire Modeling: “sensor-driven” or “inverse” model RT-28; 261 p 1973. 4. John H. McGuire, and Brian E. Ruscoe, Effects of Flat Beamed Ceilings on [18]. Where traditional fire models “The Value of a Fire Detector in the Detector and Sprinkler Response,” start with the heat release rate of the Home,” National Research Council of International Fire Detection Research Project, fire and predict the fire’s impact on Canada, Fire Study No. 9 of the Division of Technical Report, Year 1, 59p, 1993. the building this model takes the ana- Building Research, National Research 14. William D. Davis, Glenn P. Forney, and Richard W. Bukowski, “Field Modeling: log signal from fire sensors and pre- Council of Canada, Ottawa, Canada, 1962. Simulating the Effect of Sloped, Beamed dicts the heat release rate of the fire 5. Irwin A. Benjamin, Criteria for Fire Safety Ceilings on Detector and Sprinkler most likely to be producing those sig- in Operation Breakthrough, National Response,” International Fire Detection nals. This model holds promise in Bureau of Standards, Building Standards, Research Project, Technical Report, Year 2, allowing fire alarm systems to produce Vol. 40, No. 6, 33-36, 1971. 34p, 1994.

188 15. John H. Klote, Glen P. Forney, William a growing number D. Davis, and Richard W. Bukowski, of installations and “Field Modeling: Simulating the Effects expanded use of of HVAC Induced Air Flow from Slot Diffusers on Detector Response,” Year 3 wood burning stoves Technical Report, National Fire Protection in homes through- Research Foundation, Quincy, MA, out the United 1996. States and the fact 16. John H. Klote, William D. Davis, Glenn that most homes are P. Forney, and Richard W. Bukowski, made of com- “Field Modeling: Simulating the Effects bustible construc- of HVAC Induced Airflow From Various Diffusers and Returns on Detector tion. Standards for the safe installation ances of appliances to combustible Response,” Technical Report, Year 4, and use of the appliances were based walls, safe methods of joining a chim- National Fire Protection Research on information more than 40 years ney connector to a masonry chimney Foundation, Quincy, MA, 1998. old and rarely applicable to modern through a combustible wall, and theo- 17. William L. Grosshandler, Towards the appliances. retical prediction of appliance/wall Development of a Universal Fire Emulator- heat transfer with arbitrary wall pro- Detector Evaluator, National Institute of BFRL led concentrated research efforts Standards and Technology, Fire Safety tection. As the research results became Journal, Vol. 29, 113-127, 1997, to provide new and updated informa- available in NIST reports and journal University of Duisburg, International tion to develop appropriate codes and articles, BFRL staff worked closely Conference on Automatic Fire standards for the modern appliances. with building and fire code commit- Detection, AUBE ‘95, April 4-6, 1995, Programs have been targeted to raise tees to develop a new generation of Duisburg, Germany, Luck, H., Editor, pp consumer awareness through educa- code requirements for wood heating 368-380, 1995. tion and to improve the standards and appliances. Most of the current codes 18. William D. Davis and Glenn P. Forney, Sensor-Driven Inverse Zone Fire Model, codes governing the construction, related to wood heating are based on National Institute of Standards and installation, and testing of appliances. BFRL research. Technology, Research and Practice: Much of the supporting technical Bridging the Gap, Fire Suppression and information for the standard and code Positive actions by BFRL and others Detection Research Application changes and for consumer education have improved the safety of these Symposium. Proceedings, Fire has come from BFRL research. The appliances and, thus, reversed an Protection Research Foundation, February 23-25, 2000, Orlando, FL, pp point has finally been reached when increasing fire incidence rate. After 204-211, 2000. much of the 40-year-old data and folk- several years of extensive research and lore originally used to develop the activity in this area, new and up-to- 11.6 WOOD HEATING codes, standards, and public educa- date technical information and stan- tional materials is being replaced by SAFETY RESEARCH dards on fire safe installation and use solid technical information. of solid fuel heating appliances have The energy crisis in the late 1970s led Wood heating safety research at BFRL contributed to reversing a dramatically to a large increase in the use of wood concentrated on several key aspects of increasing fire problem. A review of as an alternate heating source. Along the fire problem: clearances needed related publications are listed [1-6]. with this increase came a dramatic between wood burning appliances and increase in the number of unwanted combustible construction materials, References fires. The marked increase in the late creosote buildup and burnout, protec- 1. Richard D. Peacock, E. Ruiz, and R. 1970s and early 1980s is attributed to tive barriers to allow reduced clear- Torres-Pereira, Fire Safety of Wood Burning

189 Appliances, Part 1: State of the Art Review and jails [3], office and laboratory and Fire Tests, Volume I and II, NBSIR buildings [4], overnight accommoda- 80-2140, National Bureau of Standards, tions in National Parks [5], and board 1980. 2. Richard D. Peacock, Intensity and and care facilities [6]. Duration of Chimney Fires in Several Chimneys, NBSIR 83-2771, National The FSES for Health Care Facilities Bureau of Standards, December 1983. was part of a broad fire safety effort 3. J. J. Loftus and Richard D. Peacock, sponsored by the Department of “Wall and Ceiling Protection for Heating Health and Human Service in response Harold Nelson, innovative fire protection engineer. Appliances,” Fire Technology, Vol. 21, No. to an important need to develop a 3, pp 213-229, August 1985. 4. Richard D. Peacock, “Chimney Fires: means of meeting the fire safety objec- Intensity and Duration,” Fire Technology, tives of prescribed codes without nec- reduced the cost of compliance from Vol. 22, No. 3, August 1986. essarily being in explicit compliance an estimated $30 million to $60 mil- 5. Richard D. Peacock, Thermal Performance with the code. In the 1960s with the lion to less than $2 million. Equally of Masonry Chimneys and Fireplaces, NBSIR birth of the Medicare and Medicaid important, the development of alterna- 87-3515, National Bureau of Standards, programs Congress prescribed confor- tive approaches allowed the improve- 1987. mance with the requirements of the ments to be made without interrup- 6. Richard D. Peacock, “Wood Heating Safety Research: An Update,” Fire Life Safety Code, National Fire tions of hospital services. Technology, Vol. 23, No. 4, pp 292-312, Protection Association Standard 101, November 1987. in all nursing homes and hospitals The FSES is a grading system designed receiving funds under the program. A to determine the overall level of fire 11.7 FIRE SAFETY nation-wide inspection and enforce- safety of an existing or proposed facili- EVALUATION ment program was established to ty in comparison with a hypothetical assure compliance. Most if not all SYSTEMS facility that exactly matched each inspected facilities were found to be in requirement of the Life Safety Code. The Fire Safety Evaluation System some degree of non-compliance with The system is based on common (FSES) was conceived of by Harold the specific requirements of the Life building factors that determine fire (Bud) Nelson and Irwin Benjamin to Safety Code. A significant number safety, such as type of construction, provide a series of separate systems were closed as a result. Others under- partitioning and finishes, hazardous each designed to measure the level of took correction programs. Many, activities, fire detection and fire sup- fire safety of an existing or proposed including some of the Nation’s largest pression and fire alarm systems. For structure housing a given type of and most prestigious hospitals, were occupancy. These have provided declared to fail this safety standard. practical considerations, however, fac- means of meeting or exceeding the tors relating to building utilities, furni- level of safety prescribed by the appli- The FSES for Health Care Facilities ture, and emergency procedures are cable code while providing the design- was developed to discover alternate handled elsewhere in the FSES. An er with a wide range of cost saving and solutions, delivering at least an equiva- informative discussion of the relevance functional options. The FSES for lent level of safety as compared to that of the approach to validity is available Health Care Facilities [1] was the first produced by exact compliance with in Nelson’s paper An Approach to of a series of documents covering a the detailed prescriptions of the Life Enhancing the Value of Profession variety of types of occupancies includ- Safety Code. In the case of one large Judgment in the Derivation of ing apartment buildings [2], prisons hospital complex, the use of the FSES Performance Criteria [7].

190 The FSES for Health Care Facilities The FSES for Board and Care Software for Cost-Effective Compliance was adopted by the National Fire Occupancies includes an innovative with Fire Safety Codes [11]. Protection Association as part of the method for appraising the emergency 1981 edition of the Life Safety Code evacuation capability of the occupants In the long term, the principal impor- and a recognized means of developing and staff of a board and care home tance of the fire safety evaluation sys- alternative approaches to determine housing persons of varying individual tems lies not only in the specific objec- compliance with the code in that and capacity and varying staffing. The sys- tives of delivering safety with lower later editions of the Life Safety Code. tem, developed under the leadership of cost and greater design flexibility, but The FSES’s have been adopted into Bernard Levin, measured the amount in the demonstration that a total per- building codes and similar regulations of assistance needed by each housed formance approach to fire safety was and have been institutionalized by the individual as compared to the capabili- feasible. Nelson’s contributions to establishment of a special technical ties of the staff to provide the needed FSES and other fire safety technologies committee of the National Fire help. The result was a break through have been recognized by Silver and Protection Association (NFPA) charged in understanding the life safety needs Gold Medal Awards from the U.S. with the responsibility for Alternative of group homes housing persons of Department of Commerce, in 1982 Methods for Life Safety in Buildings. diminished capabilities. and 1989 respectively, the Special This committee maintains NFPA Award for Technology Transfer of the Standard 101A [8] in support of the The FSES’s have stood the test of time Federal Research Laboratory FSES’s, thereby assuring that each and are now a regular part of life safety Consortium, the first Harold E. Nelson Professional Service Award FSES remains current and an appro- design in many buildings. They have both improved safety and reduced from the Society of Fire Protection priate reflection of the changing safety costs. In the NIST study Benefits and Engineers, the Standards Medal of the levels prescribed by building codes and Costs of Research: A Case Study of the National Fire Protection Association, regulations. Fire Safety Evaluation System by and the Kawaoe Medal of the Chapman and Weber [9], an estimate International Association for Fire Subsequently, the Life Safety Code savings of almost $1 billion up to 1995 Safety Science. In addition, Irwin adopted FSES’s developed by was credited to the FSES for Health Benjamin received the Department of NBS/NIST covering Detention and Care Facilities. Unmeasured but signif- Commerce Silver Medal in 1979 for icant savings have also been achieved Correctional Occupancies (i.e. prisons his contributions to FSES by the other FSES’s. and jails), Board and Care Occupancies, and Office Occupancies. In the early 1980s Chapman and his References 1. Harold E. Nelson, and A. J. Shibe, System In 1995 the National Fire Protection colleagues [10] extended the work of Association created a new document for Fire Safety Evaluation for Health Care Nelson’s team by the development of a Facilities, NBSIR 78-1555-1, National NFPA 101A, Guide on Alternative cost optimizer computer program Bureau of Standards, 1978. Approaches to Life Safety [8] to gather enabling the user to determine the 2. Harold E. Nelson and A. J. Shibe, System and contain the FSES’s in a single pub- best cost acceptable alternatives to for Fire Safety Evaluation for Multifamily lication and place them in the care of a achieving equivalent safety with the Housing, NBSIR 82-2562, National Bureau of Standards, 1982. single technical committee. Nelson was Life Safety Code requirements for 3. Harold E. Nelson and A. J. Shibe, Fire the initial chair of this committee, and Health Care Facilities. In 1994 this Safety Evaluation System for Detention and upon his retirement the chair was work was used to develop the computer Correctional Occupancies, NBSIR 84-2976, given to David Stroup, also of NIST. program ALARM 1.0, Decision Support National Bureau of Standards, 1985

191 4. Harold E. Nelson, Fire Safety Evaluation more of the following mechanisms: book, Design of Smoke Management System for NASA Office/Laboratory Buildings, compartmentation, dilution, pressur- Systems [5] that was jointly published NBSIR 86-3404, National Bureau of ization, airflow and buoyancy. From by ASHRAE and SFPE. Even before Standards, 1986. 5. Harold E. Nelson, A. J. Shibe, Barbara the early 1970s to the 1990s the publication, John Klote won the 1991 M. Levin, S. D. Thorne, and Leonard Y. objective of the NIST smoke manage- BFRL Communication Award for his Cooper, Fire Safety Evaluation System for ment effort was to aid the advance- work on this book. Four ASHRAE best National Park Service Overnight ment of this technology as it became paper awards won by John Klote [3, 6, Accommodations, NBSIR 84-2896, an established part of building fire pro- 7, 8] are an indication of the quality of National Bureau of Standards, 1984. tection. This went beyond develop- NIST work in this area. 6. Harold E. Nelson, Barbara M. Levin, A. ment of models to include concept J. Shibe, N, W. Groner, L. Paulson, D. M. Alvord, and S. D. Thorne, Fire Safety studies, field tests, and large scale fire References Evaluation System for Board and Care Homes, experiments. Thomas Lee received the 1. John H. Klote and J.W. Fothergill, Design Final Report, NBSIR 83-2659, National Bronze Medal Award of the of Smoke Control Systems for Buildings, Bureau of Standards, 1983. Department of Commerce in 1979 for American Society of Heating, 7. Harold E. Nelson, “An Approach to development of the Smoke Chamber Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, 1983. Enhancing the Value of Professional test method. Judgment in the Derivation of 2. NFPA, Recommended Practice for Smoke Performance Criteria,” Proceedings of the Control Systems, NFPA 92A, National Fire 3rd ASTM/CIB/RELIM Symposium on the The 1983 book by ASHRAE, Design of Protection Association, Quincy, MA, Performance Concept in Buildings, Lisbon, Smoke Control Systems for Buildings 1988. March 29 - April 2, 1982. [1], was primarily written at NIST and 3. John H. Klote, Fire Experiments of 8. NFPA Standard 101A, Guide on Alternative Zoned Smoke Control at the Plaza Hotel Approaches to Life Safety, 1998 Edition, for the first time provided designers in Washington DC, ASHRAE Transactions, National Fire Protection Association, with methods of analysis for smoke con- Vol. 96, Part 2, pp 628-645, 1990. Quincy, MA, 1998. trol systems. John Klote and Harold 4. NFPA, Guide for Smoke Management Systems 9. Robert E. Chapman, and Stephen F. Nelson of NIST were major contribu- in Malls, Atria, and Large Areas, NFPA Weber, Benefits and Costs of Research: A tors to the 1988 NFPA publication, 92B, National Fire Protection Case Study of the Fire Safety Evaluation Association, Quincy, MA, 1991. System, NISTIR 5863, National Bureau Recommended Practice for Smoke 5. John H. Klote and J. A. Milke, Design of of Standards, 1996. Control Systems [2] that incorporated Smoke Management Systems, American 10. Robert E. Chapman, A Cost-Conscious the approaches of the 1983 book. These Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Guide to Fire Safety in Health Care Facilities, approaches were based on engineering Air-Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, NBSIR 82-2600, National Bureau of principles, and they were experimentally 1992. Standards, 1982. 6. John H. Klote, Design of Smoke 11. Stephen F. Weber and Barbara C. verified by large scale fires at the Plaza Control Systems for Areas of Refuge, Lippiatt, ALARM 1.0 - Decision Support Hotel in Washington, DC [3]. ASHRAE Transactions, American Society of Software for Cost-Effective Compliance with Heating, Refrigerating and Air Fire Safety Codes, NISTIR 5554, National Conditioning Engineers, Atlanta, GA, Institute of Standards and Technology, Smoke protection of large spaces such Vol. 99, Part 2, pp 793-807, 1993. 1994. as atria are a unique challenge, and John Klote and Harold Nelson were 7. John H. Klote and G. T. Tamura, Design of Elevator Smoke Control Systems for major participants in the development 11.8 SMOKE Fire Evacuation, ASHRAE Transactions, of 1991 NFPA standard, Guide for MANAGEMENT Vol. 97, Part 2, pp 634-642, 1991. Smoke Management Systems in Malls, 8. John H. Klote, An Overview of Smoke Smoke management provides protec- Atria, and Large Areas [4]. This topic Control Technology, ASHRAE Transactions, tion from smoke exposure by one or was included in a more exhaustive Vol. 94, Part 1, pp 1211-1221, 1988.

192 11.9 SOFTWARE FOR FIRE the space resulting from the material tims. Finally, the CFR combustion tox- HAZARD or product burning, but it would also icology program was producing data ASSESSMENT require understanding the movement that showed toxicological effects were and behavior of occupants and the primarily from a small number of toxic NIST Handbook 146, HAZARD I - physiological and psychological effects species. Fire Hazard Assessment Method [1], of exposure to this fire. represents the culmination of a long- Also at this time, the personal comput- term program aimed at placing the Since the project started before the er revolution was well underway. It prediction of fire outcomes on a more personal computer revolution, the ini- became clear that a computer on every objective and scientific basis. In the tial plan was to develop the software to desktop would soon be a reality, so the 1970s NBS provided a grant to run on NBS’s mainframe and to equip CFR software was now targeted at that Harvard University to develop numeri- a “fire simulation laboratory” at NBS audience. Efforts were expended on an cal models that could predict, from the with terminals and graphics equipment improved user interface that would basic equations of heat transfer and so that scientists and engineers could both simplify data entry at the front fluid flow, the temperature in a room learn how to use the software to end and provide graphical output sup- containing a fire. These early models address practical problems. Once the port to make the results more under- were difficult to use and interpret; usefulness of these models were appre- standable and useful at the back end. required large, mainframe computers ciated, the larger engineering firms that were only available in academic were expected to invest in the hard- In 1989 the first version of the HAZ- institutions; and were plagued with ware needed to exploit the technology. ARD I software and documentation long execution times often interrupted Somewhere by the end of the century [1] was released. The software was by software crashes. Major pieces of these firms would have the computers designed to provide material and prod- fire physics and most fire chemistry to run the software in their own uct manufacturers with a tool to assess were not well enough understood to offices. the fire hazards of their products and a be included in the models, so that pre- means to justify higher costs associated dictive accuracy was disappointing. As By 1986 the CFR multi-compartment with better performing products. a result, these early models were little model, FAST (Fire and Smoke However, the manufacturers were more than academic playthings, which Transport) [2] had been enhanced so underwhelmed because the methods were seldom put to practical use. that its predictions were credible when required some skill to apply and were applied within specific bounds. CFR’s unproved. In 1983 CFR established a goal to pioneering development of oxygen develop a tool that could evaluate the consumption calorimetry provided a Several pressures came together to role of the fire performance of an means to measure the rate at which begin to change perceptions of the individual material or product in the mass and energy were released from a potential of HAZARD I. First, there outcome of a specific fire in a specific burning item. By expressing a materi- was political pressure to regulate com- compartment or group of compart- al’s fire performance in terms of con- bustion toxicity, with one state actually ments. The first year of the effort was served quantities, it was possible to promulgating a regulation. NIST pro- involved with determining what capa- describe burning behavior for a pre- duced a fire hazard analysis that bilities would be needed to accomplish dictive model. An CBT psychologist showed burning rate was much more this, and the result was somewhat was developing a unique evacuation important as an indicator of fire hazard daunting. Not only would it be neces- model with embedded behavioral rules than toxicity. Second, a well respected sary to predict the fire environment in derived from interviews with fire vic- fire protection engineer became inter-

193 involved the exclusion of government- developed software from copyright. Since the software is in the public domain, users are legally unencum- bered by the cautions in the documentation. A solution was found in including a users’ registration card that is to be signed, dated, and returned to qualify for technical support. The signature The Hazard I computer model was developed for engineers, architects, building owners, and others to on the card was below a statement that predict the spread of smoke, toxic gases, and heat from a fire in a room to other parts of a building without having to burn a room or building. This photo shows one of the developers, Walter Jones, the signer read and agreed to the limi- physicist, running the fire model from this software suite. tations in the documentation - thus creating a contractual agreement. ested in learning these new techniques for the manuals, shrink wrapped disks Later, a Government Accounting and successfully applied HAZARD I to with the software and installation pro- Office study of the copyright policy absolve clients of liability in civil litiga- gram, and even a printed function key applied to government software cited tion involving a fire. This led to addi- template. This Handbook received two specific examples of critical gov- tional uses in both civil and criminal special scrutiny on technical, policy, ernment software that should have litigation and represented the first sig- and legal fronts and nificant application of modern fire was the model for HAZARD I software and documentation package. In 1989, the first models. most NIST software version of the HAZARD I software and documentation (NIST to follow. Handbook 146) was released. HAZARD I includes several technologi- The publication of NIST Handbook cal advances that were crucial to its acceptance in practice: the CFAST 146 represented a watershed for NIST The HAZARD I prod- fire model, the EXITT evacuation model and the TENAB toxicology in several ways. While NIST had devel- uct was distributed model. This is the only existing software suite to provide a complete oped and distributed other software under a formal agree- hazard analysis for unwanted fires. products (such as DATAPLOT, a scien- ment with the tific graphing package), HAZARD I National Fire was an engineering analysis tool that Protection Association could be used to make (literally) life (NFPA), a not-for- and death decisions. It contained a profit standards organ- broad range of engineering and scien- ization. They offered tific methodology that needed to be for purchase an initial appropriately documented. package, upgrades Documentation consisted of a when issued by NIST, Technical Reference Guide, which and discounts for their underpinned the equations and members. Over a assumptions and explained how they decade they sold sev- are coded, a set of worked examples, eral thousand copies. and a Users’ Guide to the software. The product was packaged as a com- One interesting aspect mercial product with printed binders of this development

194 copyright protection - Grateful Med try-specific, test methods. These are verification literature. Further, a suite from the National Library of Medicine being replaced by nearly uniform per- of test cases was developed that and HAZARD I. Several legislative formance objectives. HAZARD I and stressed the model in different ways to proposals on this issue were consid- its sub models are specifically cited in see if it would fail. This test suite was ered but never adopted. most of these codes and supporting run each time the model was modi- guidelines documents as an acceptable fied. Computer Aided Software By 1990 successes in litigation led the means of demonstrating compliance Engineering (CASE) tools were used to fire protection engineering community with the codes. document changes to the model and to to begin to use HAZARD I in building allow changes to be reversed if neces- design. While building codes pre- HAZARD I included several techno- sary. Each revision of the software was scribed the minimum required fire logical advances that were crucial to its backward compatible so that users safety features of buildings, they also acceptance in practice. First, the fire would not have to work excessively to contained a provision recognizing model, FAST, was more robust and re-run older cases, and the effect of alternate approaches that can be easier to use because of a significant changes was documented. Each of shown to provide equivalent protec- investment in the user interface soft- these aspects followed good (commer- tion. Demonstrating this equivalence ware. There were embedded databases cial) software development practice. to regulatory authorities was always of material properties, and additional the difficult part. Now HAZARD I references to data were cited. One of The EXITT (for Exit Time) [3] evacu- could be used to show equivalence in the criteria used by the development ation model differed from most of its safety to occupants rather than having team was to require as inputs only data contemporaries in the inclusion of a to prove that an alternative approach that were available and to cite sources behavioral sub model. Other evacua- performed the same function. for everything. Many other models at tion models of the day had everyone the time used engineering estimates making the correct decisions and, The acceptance of HAZARD I in that required coefficients to be entered while some allowed for user-selected demonstrating code equivalence led to by the user based solely on judgment decision delays, people marched a global revolution in building codes. It rather than properties for which meas- quickly toward the exits. In HAZARD became possible for codes to specify urement methods and handbook values I people investigated the fire until see- only the desired outcomes in terms of existed. ing smoke or flame, assisted other life safety and property protection and family members, or even (children) hid to allow any solutions that provided The equation solver used was carefully or waited for instructions from an that level of performance. Such per- selected to work efficiently and seldom adult. The result was an amazingly real- formance-based codes had long been failed to converge. The software could istic sequence of actions and an evacua- discussed but were impractical until be run interactively (with real-time tion process that convinced users and means were available to measure fire graphics) for exploratory purposes or authorities of its applicability. safety performance quantitatively. The in batch mode to generate case files or U.S. building regulatory community for sensitivity analysis in engineering The toxicology module TENAB (for began work in 1996 on a performance applications. Tenability) [1] was the only 20th cen- code, which was published in 2000. As tury attempt to model physiological similar codes are being developed and The FAST model predictions were effects of the inhalation of a mixture of adopted in other countries these are compared to a range of full-scale toxic gases. Based on correlations to eliminating non-tariff barriers to trade experimental data and these compar- data from animal exposures, but with that result from unique, local or coun- isons were published to form a body of an implementation that mimics impor-

195 tant physiological interactions, the References scenarios. Finally, since the “fuel” in model produced results that aligned 1. Richard W. Bukowski, Richard D. most fires was never intended as such, well to actual fire experience. In one Peacock, Walter W. Jones, C. Lynn the data needed to characterize both case, HAZARD I successfully predicted Forney, and Emil Braun, HAZARD I - Fire the fuel and the fire environment may the development of the fire, including Hazard Assessment Method, NIST not be available. Handbook 146, National Institute of a prediction of which occupants suc- Standards and Technology, 1989. cessfully escaped and which died, 2. Walter W. Jones, A Model for the Transport Howard Baum of CFR and Ronald including the location of the bodies of Fire, Smoke, and Toxic Gases (FAST), Rehm, then of the Center for Applied and the autopsy results on each. This NBSIR 87-3591, National Bureau of Mathematics, tackled the problem in particular case involved NIST using Standards, 1985. one of NBS Director Ambler’s first HAZARD I to support a Justice 3. Bernard M. Levin, EXITT - A Simulation “competence” projects. The results Department attorney to defend the Model of Occupant Decisions and Actions in show the wisdom of his decision to federal government in a wrongful Residential Fires: Users Guide and Program invest in fundamental, path-breaking death suit from a fire on a military Description, NBSIR 87-3591, National research to place NBS in a lead posi- Bureau of Standards, 1987. base. The final analysis indicated no tion in the most important areas of fault by the government, and the day science and technology. following the deposition of the NIST 11.10 LARGE EDDY In order to make progress, they great- staff the plaintiff ’s council offered to SIMULATIONS OF ly simplified the problem. Instead of settle this $26.5 million suit for $180 FIRES seeking a methodology that can be thousand. applied to all fire problems, they began 11.10.1 INTRODUCTION by looking at a few scenarios that NIST’s pioneering work to develop The idea that the dynamics of a fire were most amenable to analysis. They engineering tools to predict fire per- might be studied using digital comput- used idealized descriptions of fires, formance in buildings, and especially ers probably dates back to the begin- based on the kind of incomplete the HAZARD I methodology, repre- nings of the computer age. The con- knowledge of fire scenarios that is sented the enabling technology for the cept that a fire requires the mixing of a characteristic of real fires, and approx- move to performance-based building combustible gas with enough air at ele- imate solutions to the idealized equa- and fire codes which are being adopted vated temperatures is well known to tions. However, the methods were globally. The methods and models anyone involved with fire. Graduate capable of systematic improvement as included in HAZARD I are routinely students enrolled in courses in fluid physical insight and computing power cited in these performance-based mechanics, heat transfer, and combus- grew more powerful. codes and in their associated codes of tion have been taught the equations practice, worldwide. These perform- that need to be solved for at least as The “Large Eddy Simulation” (LES) ance methods are reducing the costs of long as computers have been around. technique, developed at NIST over a fire safety in the built environment and What is the problem? The difficulties nearly two decade period, refers to the are eliminating non-tariff barriers to revolve about three issues: First, there description of turbulent mixing of the trade for U.S. companies. Emil Braun, are an enormous number of possible gaseous fuel and combustion products Richard Bukowski, Lynn Forney, fire scenarios to consider. Second, with the local atmosphere surrounding Walter Jones, and Richard Peacock there is neither the physical insight nor the fire. This process, which determines received the Silver Medal Award of the the computing power to perform all the burning rate in most fires and con- Department of Commerce in 1990 for the necessary calculations for most fire trols the spread of smoke and hot gases, the development of HAZARD I. is extremely difficult to predict accurate-

196 The equations describing the transport limit the number of such cells to at of mass, momentum, and energy by most a few million. This means that the fire induced flows were simplified the ratio of largest to smallest eddy so that they could be solved efficiently length scales that can be resolved by for the fire scenarios of actual interest. the computation (the “dynamic range” The general equations of fluid of the simulation) is roughly 100 to mechanics describe a rich variety of 200. physical processes, many of which have Howard Baum pioneer of the new generation of nothing to do with fires. Retaining this Unfortunately, the range of length fire models. generality would lead to an enormous- scales that need to be accounted for if ly complex computational task that all relevant fire processes are to be ly. This is true not only in fire research would shed very little additional simulated is roughly ten to one hun- but in almost all phenomena involving insight on fire dynamics. The simpli- dred thousand. Much of the discrep- turbulent fluid motion. The basic idea fied equations, developed by Rehm ancy is due to the fact that the com- behind the use of the LES technique is and Baum [1], have been widely bustion processes that release the that the eddies that account for most of adopted by the larger combustion energy take place at length scales of the mixing are large enough to be calcu- research community, where they are 1 mm or less. lated with reasonable accuracy from the referred to as the “low Mach number” equations of fluid mechanics. The hope combustion equations. They describe 11.10.2 FIRE PLUMES (which ultimately was justified by appeal the low speed motion of a gas driven The idea that different physical phe- to experiments) was that small-scale by chemical heat release and buoyancy nomena occur at different length and eddy motion can either be crudely forces. time scales is central to an understand- accounted for or ignored. ing of fire phenomena, and to the The low Mach number equations are compromises that must be made in Ronald Rehm, co-developer of large eddy simu- solved on the computer by dividing the attempting to simulate them. The lations of fire phenomena. physical space where the fire is to be most important example is an isolated simulated into a large number of rec- fire plume in a large well ventilated tangular cells. In each cell the “state of enclosure. motion,” i.e. the gas velocity, temperature, etc. are assumed to be uniform; Simulations of scenarios of this kind changing only with time. The comput- are reported in [2, 3]. The fire plume er then computes a large number of is the “pump” which entrains fresh air snapshots of the state of motion as it and mixes it with the gasified fuel changes with time. The figure shows emerging from the burning object. It one such snapshot of a hangar fire then propels the combustion products simulation. Clearly, the accuracy with through the rest of the enclosure. The which the fire dynamics can be simu- eddies that dominate the mixing have lated depends on the number of cells diameters that are roughly comparable that can be incorporated into the to the local diameter of the fire plume. simulation. This number is ultimately Thus, in the above simulation, the cells limited by the computing power avail- have to be so small that many (a 12 x able to the user. Present day computers 12 array in this case) are used to

197 flame height devel- based substance, with a high energy oped by McCaffrey density and sooting potential. This lat- [5]. A prescribed frac- ter type of fire is the object of study tion of the fuel is con- here. verted to soot as it burns. Each element The hazards associated with such fires Simulation of a fire in a hanger. also emits a pre- occur on two widely separated length scribed fraction of the scales. Near the fire, over distances describe the state of motion across the chemical energy released by combus- comparable to the flame length, the surface of the fuel bed. Since the sim- tion as thermal radiation. This fraction radiant energy flux can be sufficiently high to threaten both the structural ulation also needs to include the is typically about 35 percent of the remainder of the hangar as well, even integrity of neighboring buildings, and total. The soot generated by the fire the 3 million cell simulation shown the physical safety of firefighters and can act as an absorber of the radiant above cannot cope with the combus- plant personnel. At much greater dis- energy. Thus, if the fire generates large tion processes without additional mod- tances, typically several times the amounts of soot, the transport of radi- eling effort. plume stabilization height in the ant energy through the gas must be atmosphere, the smoke and gaseous Physical processes like combustion that calculated in detail [6]. Even in the occur on scales much smaller than the absence of significant absorption of individual cell size are often called radiant energy by the products of com- Thermal elements in a fire plume simulation of “sub-grid scale” phenomena. The most bustion, the radiant heat transfer to hot and burned out thermal elements; net reflec- tive flux on the floor. important of these for our purposes boundaries is an important component are the release of energy into the gas, of the total heat transfer to any solid the emission of thermal radiation, and surface. the generation of soot together with other combustion products. These 11.10.3 OUTDOOR FIRES phenomena are represented by intro- Large outdoor fires can be convenient- ducing the concept of a “thermal ele- ly divided into two categories based on ment” [4]. This can be thought of a the fuel source. Wildland fires are small parcel of gasified fuel interacting characterized by a relatively low heat with its environment. release rate per unit area of ground covered by fuel, but a very large area Each element is carried along by the over which the fire can spread. Indeed, large scale flow calculated as outlined the description of the fire spread above. As long as the fire is well venti- process is an essential part of any suc- lated, it burns at a rate determined by cessful simulation of such an event. the amount of fuel represented by the Industrial fires, in contrast, are usually parcel and a lifetime determined by much more highly localized but intense the overall size of the fire. The lifetime emitters of heat, smoke, and other of the burning element is determined combustion products. This is particu- from experimental correlations of larly true if the fuel is a petroleum

198 products generated by the fire can was chosen. The reach the ground in concentrations ambient tempera- that may be unacceptable for environ- ture was taken to mental reasons. This latter, far field, be constant. This is hazard has been studied extensively by a very stable NIST researchers [7, 8]. This work has atmosphere, typical Large Eddy Simulation of a fire in containment trench surrounding an oil led to the development of a computer of winter condi- storage tank. code ALOFT [9] and its generalizations in northern tions to complex terrain. climates. The of human intervention to control the spilled oil in the trench was assumed damage caused by fires. The A distinct approach is needed to to burn with a heat release rate of International Fire Sprinkler, Smoke model the near field hazard associated 1,000 kW per square meter, for a total and Heat Vent, Draft Curtain Fire Test with the flame radiation. An example heat release rate of 12.1 GW. Each Project organized by the National Fire scenario is a fire surrounding an oil element was assumed to emit 35 per- Protection Research Foundation storage tank adjacent to several neigh- cent of its energy as thermal radiation, brought together a group of industrial boring tanks. The heat release generat- and 12 percent of the fuel was con- sponsors to support and plan a series ed by a fire on this scale can reach sev- verted to soot. eral gigawatts if the entire pool surface of large scale tests to study the interaction of sprinklers, roof vents and draft is exposed and burning. Such fires The bright colored elements in fig. curtains of the type found in large interact strongly with the local topog- (oilplume) are burning, releasing warehouses, manufacturing facilities, raphy (both natural and man made), energy into the gas and the radiation and warehouse-like retail stores. The and the vertical distribution of wind field. Thus, the composite burning ele- tests were designed to address relative- and temperature in the atmosphere. ments represent the instantaneous Moreover, the phenomena are inher- flame structure at the resolution limit ly large, open-area buildings with flat ently time dependent and involve a of the simulation. The dark colored ceilings, sprinkler systems, and roof wide temperature range. Thus, the elements are burnt out. They repre- venting, with and without draft cur- simplifications employed in ALOFT sent the smoke and gaseous combus- tains. The most elaborate tests involved and its generalizations can not be used, tion products that absorb the radiant a series of five high rack storage com- and the “low Mach number” combus- energy from the flames. It is important modity burns. tion equations need to be modified to to understand how much of the emit- account for the stratification of the atmosphere. ted radiant energy is re-absorbed by In parallel with the large scale tests, a the surrounding smoke. The model program was conducted at NIST to The photograph shows a simulation of showed that of the original 35 percent develop a computer model based on a fire resulting from an oil spill of the energy released as thermal radi- the LES methodology, the Industrial trapped in the containment trench ation, 29 percent was reabsorbed, in Fire Simulator (IFS) that incorporated surrounding one of a number of oil agreement with earlier measurements the physical phenomena needed to tanks [10]. The diameter of each tank by Koseki [11]. describe the experiments. A series of is 84 m, the height 27 m. A wind pro- bench scale experiments was conduct- file that increased from 6 m/s near the 11.10.4 INDUSTRIAL FIRE ed at NIST to develop necessary input CONTROL tank top to 12 m/s at 768 m that is data for the model. These experiments representative of the atmospheric Recently, the LES techniques have generated data describing the burning mean wind profile near the ground begun to be used to study the effects rate and flame spread behavior of the

199 systematically extended by coupling this information to the results of computer simulations.

11.10.5 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS The work described here is the contribution of many people at NIST. Howard Baum and Ronald Rehm collaborated over many years to develop Computer simulation of a rack storage cartooned plastic commodity fire test using the NIST Large these fire modeling capabilities. Kevin Eddy Simulated Fire Model. McGrattan has been the architect and creator of the computer programs that cartoned plastic commodity, thermal experiments that activated a large convert the simplified physical and response parameters and spray pattern number of sprinklers and those that mathematical models into practically of the sprinkler, and the effect of the did not. This goal has been met. The useful predictive tools. William Mell water spray on the commodity selected model was also used to provide valu- and William Walton contributed their for the tests. able insight into what occurred in the expertise to the modeling and experi- experiments, and what would have mental confirmations. Finally, the work Simulations were first compared with occurred for various changes of test was guided and encouraged over the heptane spray burner tests, where they parameters. Further information about years by the Late Professor Howard W. were shown to be in good quantitative this work can be found in [12,13]. Emmons, who was the father of mod- agreement with measured sprinkler ern fire science. This section is based activation times and near-ceiling gas There are plans to continue the devel- on a paper by Baum [14]. temperature rise. The sprinkler activa- opment of the IFS model in the tion times were predicted to within 15 future. Much more work is needed to The Department of Commerce recog- percent of the experimental values for verify the additional models used to nized fire modeling advances with a the first ring of sprinklers surrounding account for the flame spread, the number of its medal awards. the fire, and 25 percent for the second. interaction of the spray with fuel sur- • James Quintiere received the Bronze The gas temperatures near the ceiling faces, and the various heat transfer Medal in 1976 for studies of room were predicted to within 15 percent. mechanisms. However, the results fire growth. Next, simulations were performed and obtained to date are certainly encour- • John Rockett received the Silver compared with the unsprinklered aging. The simulations yield informa- Medal in 1977 for early work in fire calorimetry burns of the cartoned plas- tion that is difficult if not impossible modeling. tic commodity. The heat release rates to obtain any other way. Moreover, it is • James Quintiere received the Silver were predicted to within about 20 per- possible to test the various assump- Medal in 1982 for fire growth mod- cent. Simulations of the five cartoned tions and models individually against eling. plastic commodity fire tests were then experiments designed to yield much • Bernard McCaffrey received the performed see photograph. more precise information than can be Bronze Medal in 1983 for large obtained from large scale tests. Thus, plume experiments and theory. The goal of these simulations was to be the knowledge gained from a limited • Howard Baum and Ronald Rehm able to differentiate between those number of large scale tests could be received the Gold Medal in 1985

200 for development of the large eddy 7. Howard R. Baum, Kevin B. McGrattan, 11.11 FIRE FIGHTER simulation technique. and Ronald G. Rehm, “Simulation of EQUIPMENT • Daniel Madrzykowski received the Smoke Plumes from Large Pool Fires,” Bronze Medal in 2001 for large Proceedings of The Combustion Institute, 11.11.1 FIRE DEPARTMENT Vol.25, pp 1463-1469, 1994. GROUND LADDERS scale field fire tests. 8. Kevin B. McGrattan, Howard R. Baum, • Kevin McGrattan and Glenn and Ronald G. Rehm, “Numerical During the decade of the 1960s several Forney received the Silver Medal Simulation of Smoke Plumes from Large serious fire service accidents occurred in 2001 for advanced fire dynamics Oil Fires,” Atmospheric Environment, Vol. when using ground ladders. The lad- simulations. 30, pp 4125-4136, 1996. ders failed during normal fire fighting 9. Kevin B. McGrattan, Howard R. Baum, operations. Some of the failures relat- References William D. Walton, and J. Trelles, Smoke ed to load carrying capabilities, and 1. Ronald G. Rehm and Howard R. Baum, Plume Trajectory from In-Situ Burning of others failed as a result of loads and Crude Oil in Alaska --- Field Experiments and “The Equations of Motion for Thermally heating from the fire. The objective of Driven, Buoyant Flows,” J. Research of Modeling of Complex Terrain, NISTIR 5958, National Institute of Standards and this effort was to review existing stan- Nat. Bur. Standards, Vol. 83, pp 297-308, dards to identify issues related to lad- National Bureau of Standards, 1978. Technology, 1997. 2. Howard R. Baum, Kevin B. McGrattan, 10. Howard R. Baum and Kevin B. der failure, study key performance and Ronald G. Rehm, “Three McGrattan, “Simulation of Large requirements for the use of fire service Dimensional Simulation of Fire Plume Industrial Outdoor Fires,” Fire Safety ground ladders, and recommend Dynamics’’, Fire Safety Science - Proceedings Science - Proceedings of the Sixth improvements for NFPA and American of the Fifth International Symposium, Y. International Symposium, M. Curtat, Ed., National Standards Institute (ANSI) Hasemi, Ed., International Association International Association for Fire Safety ground ladder standards [1]. for Fire Safety Science, pp 511-522, Science, pp 611-622, 2000. 11. H. Koseki and George W. Mulholland, 1997. NBS’ Fire Service Section of the Fire 3. Kevin B. McGrattan, Howard R. Baum, “The Effect of Diameter on the Burning and Ronald G. Rehm, “Large Eddy of Crude Oil Pool Fires,” Fire Technology, Technology Division teamed with the Simulations of Smoke Movement,” Fire Vol. 54, 1991. Prince Georges County, Maryland and Safety Journal, Vol. 30, pp 161-178, 12. Kevin B. McGrattan, Anthony Hamins, Bowie, Maryland fire departments; 1998. and David Stroup, Sprinkler, Smoke and and the Fire Service Extension 4. Howard R. Baum, O. A. Ezekoye, Kevin Heat Vent, Draft Curtain Interaction--Large Department of the University of B. McGrattan, and Ronald G. Rehm, Scale Experiments and Model Development, Maryland to identify performance NISTIR 6196-1, National Institute of “Mathematical Modeling and Computer issues associated with the use of fire Simulation of Fire Phenomena,” Standards and Technology, 1998. Theoretical and Computational Fluid 13. Kevin B. McGrattan, Anthony Hamins, department ground ladders. Field Dynamics, Vol. 6, pp 125-139, 1994. and Glenn P. Forney, “Modeling of studies of ground ladder applications 5. Howard R. Baum, and B. J. McCaffrey, Sprinkler, Vent and Draft Curtain were carried out. Metallurgical studies “Fire Induced Flow Field - Theory and Interaction,” Fire Safety Science - were conducted on three ladders that Experiment,” Fire Safety Science, Proceedings of the Sixth International failed in service. Ladders were also Proceedings of the Second International Symposium, M. Curtat, Ed., International tested for deflection response to load, Symposium, Hemisphere, New York, pp Association for Fire Safety Science, pp failure in horizontal bending, and 129-148, 1989. 505-516, 2000. 6. Howard R. Baum, and William Mell, “A 14. Howard R. Baum, “Large Eddy resistance to impact. Human factor Radiative Transport Model for Large- Simulations of Fires: From Concepts to issues related to sizing and design Eddy Fire Simulations,” Combust. Theory Computations,” Fire Protection Engineering, were studied. Information gained Modeling, Vol. 2, pp 405-422, 1998. pp 36-42, Spring 2000. from these studies was presented to

201 ANSI and NFPA to assist in improving and desires of the Fire Department of tions at its fall meeting on November ground ladders standards. Prince Georges County, Maryland, a 18, 1975. This standard, NFPA 1971, purchase specification was developed became the first American national Results from this study were presented which was used by that county to pur- standard for fire fighters’ protective to NFPA and ANSI. NFPA 193, chase a number of coats. A coat manu- clothing. Standard on Fire Department Ladders facturer produced the coats, and the and ANSI A14.2 Standard for Portable Prince Georges County Fire Other organizations assisting with this Metal Ladders were both modified to Department evaluated the garments project: Prince Georges County reflect many of the recommendations through field use. Comments were Maryland Fire Department; made by NBS. obtained from the fire department, International Association of Fire each Director of State Fire Service Chiefs; International Association of Participants in this project from NBS Training, the International Association Fire Fighters; International Fire included H. P. Utech, T. Robert of Fire Fighters (IAFF), turnout coat Service Training Association; National Shavers, Donald C. Robinson, Donald and coat component manufacturers, Fire Protection Association; University B. Novotny, Henry C. Warfield, and and other interested parties. The com- of Maryland Extension Service; and Joseph M. McDonagh. William E. ments were analyzed and a new draft the Federal Fire Council. This work Clark of the Prince Georges County, specification was prepared. The pro- was sponsored by the U.S. Maryland Department of Fire posed changes were dis- Protection also assisted with this study. cussed at a series of seminars arranged by Turnout coat damaged from thermal exposure. 11.11.2 FIRE FIGHTERS’ the fire service groups. TURNOUT COATS Additional drafts of the specifications were pre- The purpose of this research was to pared based on com- improve the protection afforded fire ments received, and a fighters by their turnout coats and to final report [3] was insure the durability of the coats. It prepared. developed standard specifications for the selection and purchase of for fire Findings from this work fighters’ turnout coats, and turnout were shared with the coat specifications for development of NFPA Sectional a standard for fire fighters’ protective Committee on clothing. Protective Equipment for Fire Fighters that NBS conducted a series of studies to was a part of the determine what was needed by the Committee on Fire Fire Service in the use of turnout Department Equipment. coats, and investigated the most practi- The final NBS report cal means for meeting those needs [2]. was published in The studies concentrated on evaluating October of 1975 and what was available in the marketplace. NFPA adopted much of Based on these studies and the needs the report recommenda-

202 Department of Commerce, National has less than 10 Fire Prevention and Control seconds to escape a Administration. flashover fire instead of the 17.5 11.11.3 FIRE FIGHTERS’ seconds suggested PROTECTIVE by the NFPA TPP CLOTHING test. The initial project compared conditions measured in room fires conduct- The paper by ed over several years at NBS’ CFR to Krasny, Rockett, protection levels provided by fire fight- and Huang received er turnout coats and pants conforming the Fire Technology, Example of modern fire fighter protective clothing under simulated thermal environment. with NFPA 1971, Standard for National Fire Protective Clothing for Structural Fire Protection Research Fighting. Foundation, Harry C. Bigglestone An initial study [6] was conducted to Award For Excellence in Written quantify what was known about the Heat flux conditions measured in Communication. thermal environments of fire fighting seven room fire tests [4, 5] were com- and fire fighter burn injury and death pared to heat flux values and the ther- Although significant advances had been statistics. NIST rejoined the NFPA mal protective performance (TPP) rat- made in the performance of fire fight- and ASTM technical committees that ings of fire fighters protective clothing. ers’ protective clothing, by the mid maintain standards on fire fighters NFPA 1971 required that fire fighters’ 1990s the number of serious burn protective clothing. A workshop [7] protective clothing protect the wearer injuries had remained constant for was held to identify fire service and against second degree burns when a more than a decade. Therefore protective clothing industry concerns heat flux of 84 kW/m2 is applied to its research was resumed to develop associated with protecting fire fighters outside surface for a minimum of 17.5 measurement methods and computer from thermal exposures and to facili- seconds. Heat flux data representing based predictive methods that would tate the exchange of ideas. NIST the TPP test exposures were superim- provide a detailed understanding of worked with numerous fire depart- posed on heat flux plots from the thermal performance for fire fighters’ ments to better understand issues room fires. protective clothing. These analytical related to the performance of fire tools were designed to assist manufac- fighters protective clothing. This Comparisons of heat flux from room turers in product development, assist effort included the study of serious fires to heat flux exposures from the the standards writing organizations in burn injury cases and fire fighter fatali- TPP test showed that room fire will development of technically sound stan- ty cases that resulted from thermal often exceed test conditions provided dards for thermal protective clothing, exposure. Existing ASTM and NFPA by the TPP test. Data from this study and provide the fire service with infor- thermal test methods for measuring suggested that turnout garments that mation and tools for selecting thermal the thermal performance of fire fight- meet requirements for the NFPA 1971 protective clothing, training fire serv- ers’ protective clothing were evaluated TPP test only allow a short time for ice personnel in the proper use of the [8]. Knowledge learned from these escape. Estimates for escape time from protective clothing, and for analyzing studies was carried to the laboratory this study indicate that a fire fighter fire fighter thermal injury cases. and resulted in the development of

203 two new thermal test apparatus [9, 10] Information on these measurement Denver Fire Department, CO; Fairfax that could be used to better quantify methods has been submitted to ASTM County Fire and Rescue Department, the thermal performance of fire fight- International Committee F23 on VA; Jacksonville Fire Department, FL; ers’ protective clothing. In addition, Protective Clothing and the National Lexington Fire and Emergency an effort was begun to translate what Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Services, KY; Louisville Fire was being learned from these studies Committee on the Protective Department, KY; Montgomery County into a physics based computer pro- Ensemble for Structural Fire Fighting. Fire and Rescue, MD; York Beach Fire gram for predicting the thermal per- Data from these measurement appara- Department, ME. Manufacturers pro- formance of fire fighters’ protective tus are being applied to performance viding assistance and contributing clothing. A one dimensional heat evaluations of other test methods used materials for this research effort were: transfer model [11] was developed for the analysis of thermal protective Alden Industries; Celanese that could be used to predict heat clothing. Corporation, Dupont Advanced Fiber transfer through the multiple layers of Systems; Globe Firefighter Suits; Lion fire fighters’ protective clothing gar- Robert T. McCarthy, Chief, Fire Apparel Inc.; Minnesota Mining and ments. In addition, NIST developed Technical Programs Branch (USFA) Manufacturing Company (3M), Safety thermal properties data [12] for the worked with NIST in support of this and Security Systems Division; fire fighters’ protective clothing pre- effort. This project was supported by Morning Pride Manufacturing, Inc.; dictive heat transfer model and began the U.S. Fire Administration (USFA) Reflexite Corporation; Southern Mills developing data on thermal conduc- and the National Institute of Standards Inc.; W. L. Gore and Associates. Other tivity. Other studies are underway to and Technology. Thomas Van Essen, NIST staff participating in this effort quantify specific heat and the thermo- Fire Commissioner, Chief Stephan J. were: Robert L. Vettori and Dan optical properties of protective cloth- King, Safety Chief, and Battalion Chief Madrzykowski. ing materials. Hughie Hagan of the York City Fire Department (FDNY) supported devel- References Five major manufacturers of compo- opment of the dynamic compression 1. H. P. Utech, Fire Department Ground nents for fire fighters’ protective cloth- test apparatus, and Lt. Kevin S. Malley, Ladders-Results of a Preliminary Study, NBS Technical Note 833, National Bureau of ing and protective clothing garment Director of Human Performance Standards, 1974. systems have developed proprietary (FDNY), became a NIST Guest 2. James Quintiere, “Radiative research agreements with NIST and Researcher to assist with development Characteristics of Fire Fighters’ Coat have used the protective clothing ther- of the test apparatus and assisted with Fabrics,” Fire Technology, Vol. 10, No. 2, mal measurement facilities to study protective clothing testing and report pp153-161, May 1974. their products. Data generated by preparation. Division Chief, Kirk 3. J. W. Eisele, Design Criteria for Firefighters’ Turnout Coats, NBSIR 75-702, National these measurement apparatus have Owen of the Plano, Texas Fire Bureau of Standards, 1975. resulted in design modifications to fire Department and Chairman of the 4. J. F. Krasny, John A. Rockett, and Dingyi fighters’ protective clothing and com- NFPA Committee on the Protective Huang, “Protecting Fire Fighters ponents used to fabricate fire fighters’ Ensemble for Structural Fire Fighting Exposed in Room Fires: Comparison of protective clothing. Primary areas provided technical council. The fol- Results of Bench Scale Test for Thermal where protective clothing has seen lowing fire departments participated in Protection and Conditions During Room Flashover,” Fire Technology, National Fire improvements are turnout coat sleeve these efforts by cooperating with field Protection Association, pp 5-19, 1988. cuff designs, knee pad and elbow pad studies and providing other forms of 5. Richard D. Peacock, J. F. Krasny, John A. designs and improvements in thermal assistance: Austin Fire Department, Rockett, and Dingyi Huang, “Protecting performance of trim materials. TX; Cincinnati Fire Department, OH; Fire Fighters Exposed in Room Fires,

204 Part 2: Performance of Turnout Coat 11.12 FIRE SPRINKLERS of accurately predicting multiple sprin- Materials Under Actual Fire kler activation and fire suppression 11.12.1 INTRODUCTION Conditions,” Fire Technology, National from the water spray cannot be done a Fire Protection Association, pp 202- Automatic sprinkler systems have been 222, August 1990. priori. As a result, the most reliable 6. James R. Lawson, Fire Fighters’ Protective successfully used to protect industrial means of determining the effectiveness Clothing and Thermal Environments of and commercial buildings and their of fire sprinklers for a given set of con- Structural Fire Fighting, NISTIR 5804, occupants for more than 100 years ditions is full-scale testing. National Institute of Standards and [1]. The Report of the National Technology, 1996. Commission on Fire Prevention and 11.12.2 FULL-SCALE FIRE 7. James R. Lawson and Nora H. Jason, Control, America Burning, issued in Editors, Firefighter Thermal Exposure SUPPRESSION 1973, changed the focus of sprinkler Workshop: Protective Clothing, Tactics, and EXPERIMENTS Fire Service PPE Training Procedures research, in both government and pri- Gaithersburg, Maryland June 25- 26, 1996, vate sector labs, from protecting the By 1977, NBS had two major sprinkler Special Publication 911, National building and its contents to protecting research projects; 1) automatic sprin- Institute of Standards and Technology, the occupants of the building [2]. The klers in health care facilities and 2) the 1997. research efforts at NIST used measure- use of sprinklers or water sprays for 8. James R. Lawson, “Thermal ments and analysis in order to develop protection of open stairways [3]. Performance and Limitations of Bunker Gear,” Fire Engineering, Penn Well, Saddle methods of predicting automatic These projects were being conducted Brook, NJ, August 1998. sprinkler response and fire suppression by the Program for Fire Detection and 9. James R. Lawson and W. H. Twilley, effectiveness. The impact of the Control in the Center for Fire Development of an Apparatus for Measuring research conducted during this period Research (CFR). the Thermal Performance of Fire Fighters’ can be seen in a variety of engineering Protective Clothing, NISTIR 6400, applications, standards development New Sprinkler Technology for National Institute of Standards and and as a foundation for much of the Technology, 1999. Health Care Occupancies– The 10. James R. Lawson, W. H. Twilley, and K. fire suppression research that is cur- objective of the first project, spon- S. Malley, Development of a Dynamic rently underway at NIST and other sored by the U.S. Department of Compression Test Apparatus for Measuring research laboratories around the Health, Education, and Welfare Thermal Performance of Fire Fighters’ world. (HEW), was to determine the effec- Protective Clothing, NISTIR 6502, tiveness of automatic sprinklers in National Institute of Standards and In its most basic form, an automatic terms of fire control and life safety. Technology, 2000. 11. W. E. Mell and James R. Lawson, “A fire sprinkler system consists of a water Over the course of this project, 1977 - Heat Transfer Model for Firefighters’ supply, piping to deliver the water 1982, O’Neill, Hayes and Zile con- Protective Clothing,” Fire Technology, from the supply to the sprinklers and ducted 21 full-scale fire experiments Vol. 26. No. 1, 1st Quarter, pp 39-68, thermally activated sprinklers. In most in a patient room, corridor and lobby February 2000. cases, each sprinkler has a temperature arrangement that had been installed in 12. James R. Lawson and T. A. Pinder, sensitive link. Hence water is only dis- a former NIKE missile base barracks Estimates of Thermal Conductivity for charged in the area where the gases Materials Used in Fire Fighters’ Protective building adjacent to the NIST Clothing, NISTIR 6512, National from the fire have gotten hot enough Gaithersburg Campus [4, 5, 6]. The Institute of Standards and Technology, to activate the sprinkler. While the sys- fires were set in mattresses with bed- 2000. tem seems simple enough, the process ding or in wooden wardrobes filled

205 results of the experiments demonstrated the effectiveness of sprinkler protection for openings and have provided data for use with NFPA 13.

Impact of Sprinklers on Office and Laboratory Fires– The next major series of full-scale sprinklered fire experiments began in the late Instrumented “standard” and “quick” response sprinklers, installed in the Barracks Building at the NIST Annex (former Nike Site). eighties under the sponsorship of the General Services Administration (GSA). By now, NBS had developed with clothing to demonstrate a “worst mented by Notarianni [8]. The oxygen consumption calorimetry case” shielded fire. In later stages of research sponsored by the National methods, which had been implement- the project, gas burners were used to Institutes of Health (NIH), focused on ed in the Large Fire Research Facility replicate the thermal conditions of the tenability conditions within the room (Bldg 205). This enabled researchers burning furnishings [7]. of fire origin, with similar comparisons to measure the impact of the sprin- as the previous HEW sponsored stud- klers on suppressing the fire in terms The research was seminal in many ies, quick-response versus standard of heat release rate. Walton conduct- ways, it demonstrated the life safety response sprinklers and pendent versus ed fire experiments examining the value of “fast response” (low thermal sidewall position. This work reaffirmed impact of sprinkler spray density on inertia) sprinkler activation technology. the utility of QR sprinklers for defend the burning fuels representing a “light In addition, it provided a comparative in place situations and provided fur- hazard” [11]. The results demonstrat- database for temperatures, gas concen- ther insight on the reduced level of ed that 0.07 mm/s was the “reliable trations, and smoke obscuration based obstruction created by privacy curtains minimum” for rapidly reducing the on the thermal response of the sprin- with open mesh near the top. heat release rate and suppressing the kler, as well as the location of the fire [11]. sprinkler in the room i.e. pendent ver- Using Sprinklers to Limit the The GSA research was continued by sus sidewall. Last but not least, the Spread of Fire and Smoke– O’Neill Madrzykowski, with the objective of results of this research program were and Cooper studied the abilities of quantifying the sprinklered fire expo- used to develop recommendations for sprinkler and water spray nozzle sys- sure on an exit corridor and spaces the positioning of hospital privacy cur- tems to protect open stairways and adjacent to that corridor [12]. The fire tains with respect to the location of other openings in fire-resistive walls source in the burn room was a shield- the sprinkler. Installation criteria based and ceilings [9, 10]. The experiments, ed wood crib, sized to maintain a 1 on the NBS recommendations were sponsored by the Occupational Safety MW fire. Tenability was assessed using adopted in the National Fire and Health Administration (OSHA), both temperature and gas toxicity cri- Protection Association (NFPA) 13, were conducted in a three-story stair- teria. The experiments showed that Standard for the Installation of well that was built in the opening of an the sprinklers maintained tenable con- Sprinkler Systems, in 1983. underground bunker used for the stor- ditions in the corridor and in the adja- age of NIKE missiles. The stairwell cent room. Without the sprinkler In 1993, the research on protecting was exposed to fire sizes up to 4 MW protection, the corridor became patient rooms with sprinklers was aug- with and without the sprinklers. The untenable within 6 minutes.

206 GSA was funding this research as part made during the experiments. Walton were conducted in “real world” envi- of an effort to develop an engineering would use this experience to optimize ronments including a mobile home, a based approach to fire safety design and enhance NIST’s field measure- hotel, and large aircraft hangers [22- [13]. Implementing this approach was ment capabilities. In the decade that 27]. This data has been used to either constrained in part by a lack of rele- followed these capabilities would be evaluate a predictive sprinkler activa- vant heat release rate data and the used for a wide range of field experi- tion model or to develop new ones. inability to determine the impact of an ments addressing mitigation of oil activated sprinkler. In response to this spills, fire suppression effectiveness of Sprinkler Spray Characterization– need, Madrzykowski and Vettori con- Class A foam, arson burn pattern stud- The measurement of sprinkler sprays ducted a series of experiments burning ies and further studies on the impact has been addressed in a number of a wide variety of office furnishings and of sprinklers in various occupancies. ways since 1985. The measurements measuring the heat release rate with have been limited by the measurement and without sprinkler activation. The 11.12.3 SPRINKLER technology available at the time. effect of a “light hazard” design density RESEARCH AREAS Ideally a water droplet can be of 0.07 mm/s was documented and described in terms of size and velocity. used as a basis for an empirical sup- Given the complexities of understand- This would enable the prediction of pression model [14]. ing sprinkler activation and suppres- the trajectory of the droplet and the sion under actual fire conditions, the determination of the momentum of Under the sponsorship of GSA and problem was de-coupled and studied the droplet. Within the scope of a NIH, Walton and Budnick conducted a in parts: activation, sprinkler spray sprinkler spray, it is important to know set of fire sprinkler experiments in a characterization, cooling via water the distribution of the droplet sizes lab building, which was slated for ren- droplets, and suppression. Finally, sev- and velocities in order to determine ovation, on the NIH campus [15, 16]. eral studies have been conducted look- how this water spray may impact a fire. This test series is key for two reasons: ing at the potential impact of sprinkler first, it identified the life safety and systems. Hayes conducted a literature survey of design benefits of using quick response existing drop size data, means of meas- sprinklers in chemical laboratories and Sprinkler Activation– The study of uring drop size and the significance of office areas and second, it was the first sprinkler activation at CFR was spear- drop size in fire suppression [28]. His major fire research program conducted headed by Evans [17, 18]. Beginning survey led to sprinkler spray measure- in a “field location.” While the fire with the characterization of the ther- ments, sponsored by GSA and con- research program had conducted sim- mal response of fusible links used to ducted by Lawson et al. using a comple field experiments with simple activate sprinklers, Evans’ study of the puter controlled shadowgraph technique [29]. This device used a strobe instrumentation prior to NIH, this thermal elements used in sprinklers light and light sensitive array to pro- series of experiments included com- and the characteristics of the hot gas vide the measurements. Subsequently, plex detection and suppression experi- environments generated by a variety of spray measurements were conducted fires coupled with research conducted ments and measurements. Several sim- by Putorti et al. using an improved ilar lab rooms were instrumented to by Factory Mutual and others would shadowgraph method incorporating a record activation times of detection soon lead to the development of a self contained laser beam and an opti- and suppression systems, temperature, computerized means of predicting cal diode array [30, 31]. In 2000, sev- and concentrations of oxygen, carbon sprinkler activation [19-21]. In addi- eral researchers were developing water dioxide and carbon monoxide. Videos tion to laboratory-based experiments, droplet measurements, Widmann of the fire room and hallway were many sprinkler activation experiments using Phase Doppler Interferometry

207 diMarzo, with scientific oversight from Evans, have worked on measuring the cooling of a hot surface by droplet evaporation [33-38]. Based on the measurements, a coupled model was developed that can simultaneously yield the surface temperature and heat flux as well as the transient due to droplet evaporation. Coupled with the droplet measurements, the results from this research would provide a Photographs (such as this) of sprinkler sprays were used to examine water sheet break-up and droplet portion of the fuel-cooling piece of the formation in the 1980s. fire suppression puzzle. (PDI) and Sheppard and Lueptow dawns, Putorti and Atreya have begun Given that the universal sprinkler sup- using Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) the development of a unique measure- pression solution is still many years in [32]. While both methods permit accu- ment device, the large-scale planar laser, rate and non-intrusive measurements of drop size and velocity measurement the future, parallel research efforts sprinkler sprays, the PIV only measures apparatus. After utilizing the best com- were undertaken to provide a near mean drop velocity and does not pro- mercially available technology and term, although limited solution. The vide drop size distribution, while PDI falling short of the goal of fully charac- empirical suppression model by provides both drop size and velocity. terizing the sprinkler spray it is hoped Madrzykowski and Vettori was incor- Characterizing a sprinkler spray field is that this heuristic approach can provide porated in to FPETool [14, 39]. Based a tedious and difficult process given the the insight and the data required to on these experimental results and small measurement volume used in enable a sprinkler spray based suppres- those of Walton, Evans developed a both systems. As the new century sion predictive method. generalized suppression model for light hazard occupancies that could account Determination of water droplet size and velocity using Photographs of water droplets fluo- for a range of spray densities [40]. This model was incorporated into the the Particle Tracking Velocimetry and Imaging resced via a sheet of laser light. HAZARD I model. As part of a Technique (PTVI). Two images of each droplet are Computer analysis of this photo will obtained by fluorescence with two laser sheets. National Fire Protection Research provide droplet Foundation project on predicting the size and velocity impact of sprinklers in high rack stor- data. age warehouses, Hamins and McGrattan embarked on a set of Sprinklered Fire reduced scale experiments to develop a Suppression - fire suppression model with a given From 1986 fuel, (group A plastic commodity), in a through 1996, given configuration, (rack storage), teams of with a given water flux. Algorithms, University of compatible with a computational fluid Maryland stu- dynamics model, describing the heat dents, led by and mass transfer taking place during

208 suppression were developed from the NIST fire research. data [41]. In 1985, Evans and Stroup developed Sprinklered Life Safety Analysis– the first public In addition to studying the heat trans- domain computer fer and fluid dynamics aspects of model, DETACT-QS sprinkler fire suppression, NIST has [45]. The model was conducted studies focused on the life designed for calcu- safety impact of installing sprinklers. In lating the response 1984, Budnick published a study esti- time of heat detec- mating the improvement that state of tors or sprinklers Schematic of DETACT-QS sprinkler activation model inputs. the art detection and suppression tech- installed below large nology could have on life safety in resi- unobstructed ceil- Models– As NIST continued to dential occupancies. It was estimated ings. Stroup, Evans and Martin further develop models that would consider that residential sprinklers, in conjunc- developed another heat detector acti- fire development in the context of a tion with a smoke detection/alarm sys- vation model, DETACT-T2, aimed at room environment which could tem could reduce residential fire evaluating the response of existing sys- include heat loss to the walls and ceil- deaths by 73 percent [42]. Also in tems with a range of fire growth rates ing, doors or windows that could open 1984, Ruegg and Fuller completed a [46, 47]. Given limited access to com- and occupants, the basic DETACT cost benefit analysis on residential puters by the general engineering com- sprinkler algorithm was incorporated sprinkler systems [43]. In 1998, munity, the models were published [52-54]. Over the years refinements Notarianni and Fischbeck, developed a with a large number of cases pre-run were added to the zone models’ sprin- methodology to handle value judg- and arranged in look-up tables. Two kler capabilities, this included modify- ments, such as the value of premature versions were published one in English ing the heat transfer algorithm to be death avoided, by means of compara- units and one in metric units. Cooper, more representative of actual compart- tive analysis, parametric analyses, and Stroup and Davis worked from 1986 ment temperature conditions and switchover analysis. This methodology through 1990 developing a different adding limited empirical sprinkler was applied to a model for determin- model for predicting sprinkler activa- suppression algorithms [39, 55]. ing the benefits and costs of residential tion in a compartment [48-51]. The However the zone models were still fire sprinklers [44]. resulting model, LAVENT, considered limited to the activation of the first the effects of a compartment, had the sprinkler. 11.12.4 PREDICTIVE ability to accommodate vents in the ceiling and allowed the user to posi- Multiple Sprinkler Activation with METHODS tion the detector at different distances Suppression– Beginning in the mid Stand Alone Sprinkler Activation below the ceiling as opposed to 90s, McGrattan and Forney began Models– The predictive models of DETACT which assumed that the examining the interaction of sprinkler sprinkler activation and fire suppres- detector was in the position of maxi- sprays and fire gases using a computa- sion are used by engineers around the mum temperature and velocity in the tional fluid dynamics model (CFD) world to address fire protection and ceiling jet. [56]. The CFD technology enabled the investigation challenges. While these prediction of multiple sprinklers and models are still under development, Integrated Sprinkler Activation how the water spray might inhibit the significant progress has been made by and Suppression Routines in Zone activation of additional sprinklers. At

209 Rehm, Hamins and Division at NIST continues to improve Forney continued to the body of knowledge regarding fire improve the capabil- sprinklers with the mission of reducing ities of the model loss of life and property due to fire. and the first version of the NIST Fire David Evans received the Bronze Smokeview visualization of a heptane fire with two sprinklers activated. Dynamics Simulator Medal Award of the Department of (FDS) was released Commerce in 1990 for his work on in January of 2000 sprinkler response prediction. this point, the model was known as the [59]. A sister model to FDS, NIST Large Eddy Simulation (LES) Smokeview, was released in May [60]. References fire model. NIST entered into an This was a post processing scientific 1. R. E. Solomon, “Automatic Sprinkler agreement with the National Fire visualization tool, which allows the Systems,” Fire Protection Handbook, 18th Protection Research Foundation, ed., National Fire Protection Association, user to see the numerical results of where members of the foundation Quincy, MA, pp 6-136,1997. FDS. Hence with Smokeview the user would fund full-scale fire experiments 2. America Burning, The Report of the could watch the simulated fire develop National Commission on Fire Prevention at UL’s new state of the art test facility in a room. Watch the sprinkler activate and Control, U.S. G.P.O.: 1973-O-495- in Northbrook, IL. NIST would model and suppress the fire, all on the screen 792, May 1973. the experiments and actually provide of a computer monitor. This visualiza- 3. John G. O’Neill, “Brief Status Report on the model predictions before the NBS/CFR Sprinkler Projects,” National tion model is one of the most dramatic experiments were conducted. Fire Prevention and Control Administration, improvements to the computer models McGrattan, Hamins and Stroup Conference on Low Cost Residential Sprinkler because it enables a wider range of Systems, Nov. 29-30, 1977 Proceedings accepted the challenge of the people, including: engineers, building National Bureau of Standards, International Sprinkler, Smoke and owners, and other members of the fire Gaithersburg, MD Heat Vent, Draft Curtain Fire Test 4. John G. O’Neill and Warren D. Hayes, protection community, to see and Project for NIST [57. 58]. By the end Full-Scale Fire Tests with Automatic Sprinklers understand the results of an FDS of the project, 34 heptane spray burn- in a Patient Room, NBSIR 79-1749, model run. National Bureau of Standards, 1979. er experiments and 5 Group A plastic 5. John G. O’Neill, Warren D. Hayes Jr., commodity high rack storage fires had 11.12.5 SUMMARY and Richard H. Zile, Full-Scale Fire Tests been conducted. This did not include with Automatic Sprinklers in a Patient Room, numerous reduced scale experiments Since 1975, the fire research program Phase 2, NBSIR 80-2097. National to support model development. While at NIST has been leader in research Bureau of Standards, 1980. the initial predictions for time to acti- aimed at developing and validating 6. John G. O’Neill, “Fast Response Sprinklers in Patient Room Fires,” Fire vation needed some improvement, the methods to predict the activation and Technology, Vol. 17, No. 4, pp 254-274, most challenging task of predicting the suppression effectiveness of sprinklers. November 1981. number of sprinklers to activate was Results from this research have been 7. Warren D. Hayes, Jr. and Richard H. met with great success. As other physi- incorporated into building codes and Zile, Full-Scale Study of the Effect of Pendent cal phenomena were incorporated into sprinkler standards. The sprinkler acti- and Sidewall Location on the Activation Time of an Automatic Sprinkler, NBSIR 82-2521, the model to improve the time to activation models are a critical piece of the National Bureau of Standards, 1982. vation prediction, the model evolved infrastructure that supports perform- 8. Kathy A. Notarianni, Measurement of Room and was renamed the Industrial Fire ance based fire safety design around Conditions and Response of Sprinklers and Simulator 2 (IFS2). McGrattan, Baum, the world. Today the Fire Research Smoke Detectors During a Simulated Two Bed

210 Hospital Patient Room Fire, NISTIR 5240, NBSIR 81-2329, National Bureau of DETACT-QS and LAVENT Computer Models, National Institute of Standards and Standards, Gaithersburg, MD, August NISTIR 4947, National Institute of Technology, 1993. 1981. Standards and Technology, 1993. 9. John G. O’Neill, Sprinkler-Vent and Spray 18. David D. Evans, Thermal Actuation of 27. J. E. Gott, Darren L. Lowe, Kathy A. Nozzle Systems for Fire Protection of Openings Extinguishing Systems, NBSIR 83-2807, Notarianni, and William D. Davis, in Fire Resistive Walls and Ceilings - The National Bureau of Standards, 1984. Analysis of High Bay Hanger Facilities for Fire State-of -the-Art and a Plan for Future 19. Ronald L. Alpert, “Calculation of Detector Sensitivity and Placement, NIST TN Research Work, NBSIR78-1571, National Response Time of Ceiling Mounted Fire 1423, National Institute of Standards Bureau of Standards, 1978. Detectors,” Fire Technology, Vol 8, No. 3, and Technology, 1997. 10. Leonard Y. Cooper and John G. O’Neill, August 1972. 28. Warren D. Hayes, Jr., Literature Survey on Fire Tests of Stairwell-Sprinkler Systems, 20. Gunner Heskestad and H. Smith, Drop Size Data, Measuring Equipment, and a NBSIR 81-2202, National Bureau of “Investigation of a New Sprinkler Discussion of the Significance of Drop Size in Standards, 1981. Sensitivity Approval Test: The Plunge Fire Extinguishment, Revised Edition, Final 11. William D. Walton, Suppression of Wood Test,” FMRC No. 22485, Factory Mutual Report, NBSIR 85-3100-1, National Crib Fires with Sprinkler Sprays: Test Results, Research Corp., Norwood, MA, Bureau of Standards, 1985. NBSIR 88-3696, National Bureau of December 1976. 29. James R. Lawson, William D. Walton, Standards, 1988. 21. Gunner Heskestad, and H. Smith, and David D. Evans, Measurement of 12. Daniel Madrzykowski, Reduction in Fire “Plunge Test for Determination of Droplet Size in Sprinkler Sprays, NBSIR 88- Hazard in Corridors and Areas Adjoining Sprinkler Sensitivity,” FMRC 3715, National Bureau of Standards, Corridors Provided by Sprinklers, NISTIR J.I.3A1E2.RR, Factory Mutual Research 1988. 4631, National Institute of Standards Corp., Norwood, MA, 1980. 30. Anthony D. Putorti, Jr., Tammi D. and Technology, 1991. 22. John H. Klote, Fire Experiments of Zoned Belsinger, and William H. Twilley, 13. Daniel Madrzykowski, “Office Building Smoke Control at the Plaza Hotel in Determination of Water Spray Drop Size and Fire Research Program: An Engineering Washington D.C., NISTIR 90-4253, Velocity from a Low Pressure, High Based Approach to Fire Safety Design,” National Institute of Standards and Momentum, Water Mist Nozzle, Report of Test Fire and Materials ‘98 International Technology, 1990. FR 4000, National Institute of Standards Conference, 5thProceedings, February 23- 23. Daniel Madrzykowski, The Effect of and Technology, 1995. 24, 1998, San Antonio, TX. Interscience Recessed Sprinkler Installation on Sprinkler 31. Anthony D. Putorti, Jr., Tammi D. Communications Ltd., London, England, Activation Time and Prediction. Master’s Belsinger, and William H. Twilley, pp 23-33, 1998. Thesis, University of Maryland, Determination of Water Spray Drop Size and 14. Daniel Madrzykowski and Robert L. Department of Fire Protection Speed from a Standard Orifice, Pendent Spray Vettori, “Sprinkler Fire Suppression Engineering, College Park, MD, Sprinkler, Report of Test FR 4003, National Algorithm,” Journal of Fire Protection November 1993. Institute of Standards and Technology, Engineering, Vol. 4, No. 4, pp 151-164, 24. Robert L. Vettori, Effect of an Obstructed 1995, revised May 1999. October/November/December 1992. Ceiling on the Activation Time of a Residential 32. John E. Widmann, Dave T. Sheppard, 15. William D. Walton and Edward K. Sprinkler, NISTIR 6253, National and R. M. Lueptow, “Non-Intrusive Budnick, Quick Response Sprinklers in Office Institute of Standards and Technology, Measurements in Fire Sprinkler Sprays,” Configurations: Fire Test Results, NBSIR 88- 1998. Fire Technology, Vol. 37, No. 4, pp 297- 3695, National Bureau of Standards, 25. Robert L. Vettori and Daniel 315, 2001. 1988. Madrzykowski, Comparison of FPETool: 33. A. K. Trehan, M. diMarzo, and David D. 16. William D. Walton, Quick Response FIRE SIMULATOR with Data from Full Scale Evans, Transient Cooling of a Hot Surface by Sprinklers in Chemical Laboratories: Fire Test Experiments, NISTIR 6470. National Droplet Evaporation, NBS GCR 86-516, Results, NISTIR 89-4200, National Institute of Standards and Technology, National Bureau of Standards, 1986. Institute of Standards and Technology, 2000. 34. M. diMarzo and David D. Evans, 1989. 26. William D. Walton and Kathy A. Evaporation of a Water Droplet Deposited on 17. David D. Evans and Daniel Notarianni, Comparison of Ceiling Jet a Hot High Thermal Conductivity Solid Madrzykowski, Characterizing the Thermal Temperatures Measured in an Aircraft Hanger Surface, NBSIR 86-3384, National Response of Fusible-Link Sprinklers, Test Fire with Temperatures Predicted by Bureau of Standards, 1986.

211 35. M. diMarzo and David D. Evans, 42. Edward K. Budnick, Estimating US-Japan Conference on Utilization of “Evaporation of a Water Droplet Effectiveness of State-of-the-Art Detectors and Natural Resources, 10th Joint Meeting of the Deposited on a Hot High Thermal Automatic Sprinklers on Life Safety in UJNR Panel on Fire Research and Safety, Conductivity Surface,” Journal of Heat Residential Occupancies, NBSIR 84-2819, June 9-10, 1988, Tsukuba, Japan, pp 87- Transfer, Vol. 111, No. 1, pp 210-213, National Bureau of Standards, 1984. 91, 1988. February 1989. 43. Rosalie T. Ruegg and Sieglinde K. Fuller, 50. William D. Davis and Leonard Y. 36. M. diMarzo, Y. Liao, P. Tartarini, David A Benefit-Cost Model of Residential Sprinkler Cooper, Estimating the Environment and the D. Evans, and Howard R. Baum, Systems, NBS Technical Note 1203, Response of Sprinkler Links in Compartment “Dropwise Evaporative Cooling of a Low National Bureau of Standards, 1984. Fires with Draft Curtains and Fusible Link- Thermal Conductivity Solid,” 44. Kathy A. Notarianni and P. S. Fischbeck, Actuated Ceiling Vents, Part 2, User Guide for International Association for Fire Safety “Methodology for the Quantitative the Computer Code LAVENT, NISTIR 89- Science, Fire Safety Science, Proceedings, Treatment of Variability and Uncertainty 4122, National Institute of Standards 3rd International Symposium. July 8-12, in Performance-Based Engineering and Technology, 1989. 1991, Edinburgh, Scotland, Elsevier Analysis and/or Decision Analysis with a 51. Leonard Y. Cooper, “Estimating the Applied Science, New York, pp 987-996, Case Study in Residential Fire Environment and the Response of 1991. Sprinklers,” Pacific Rim Conference and Sprinkler Links in Compartment Fires 37. M. diMarzo, P. Tartarini, Y. Liao, 2nd International Conference on with Draft Curtains and Fusible Link- Howard R. Baum, and David D. Evans, Performance-Based Codes and Fire Actuated Ceiling Vents: Theory,” Fire “Coupled Solid-Liquid Model for Safety Design Methods, Proceedings, Safety Journal, Vol 16, No.2, pp 137-163, Dropwise Evaporative Cooling,” International Code Council and the Society of 1990. Combustion Institute/Eastern States Fire Protection Engineers, May 3-9, 1998, 52. Harold E. Nelson, FPETool: Fire Protection Section, Chemical and Physical Processes in Maui, HI, International Code Council, Engineering Tools for Hazard Estimation, Combustion, Fall Technical Meeting, Birmingham, AL, pp 225-239, 1998. NISTIR 4380, National Institute of December 3-5, 1990, Orlando, FL, pp 45. David D. Evans and David W. Stroup, Standards and Technology, 1990. 82/1-4, 1990. “Methods to Calculate the Response 53. Harold E. Nelson, FPETool User’s Guide, 38. M. DiMarzo, P. Tartarini, Y. Liao, David Time of Heat and Smoke Detectors NISTIR 4439, National Institute of D. Evans, and Howard R. Baum, Installed Below Large Unobstructed Standards and Technology, 1990. “Evaporative Cooling Due to a Gently Ceilings,” Fire Technology, Vol.22, No. 1, 54. Richard W. Bukowski, Richard D. Deposited Droplet,” International Journal pp54-65. Peacock, Walter W. Jones, and Glenn P. of Heat and Mass Transfer, Vol. 36, No. 17, 46. David W. Stroup, David D. Evans, and P. Forney, Technical Reference Guide for the pp 4133-4139, 1993. M. Martin, Evaluating Thermal Fire HAZARD I Fire Hazard Assessment Method, 39. Scott Deal, Technical Reference Guide for Detection Systems (English Units), NBS SP NIST Handbook 146, Volume II, FPETool Version 3.2, NISTIR 5486, 712, National Bureau of Standards, National Institute of Standards and National Institute of Standards and 1986. Technology, 1991. Technology, 1994. 47. David W. Stroup, David D. Evans, and P. 55. Walter W. Jones, Glenn P. Forney, 40. David D. Evans, “Sprinkler Suppression M. Martin, Evaluating Thermal Fire Richard D. Peacock, and Paul A. Reneke, Algorithm for HAZARD,” U.S./Japan Detection Systems (Metric Units), NBS SP A Technical Reference for CFAST: An Cooperative Program on Natural Resources 713, National Bureau of Standards, Engineering Tool for Estimating Fire and (UJNR), Proceedings, 12th Joint Panel 1986. Smoke Transport, NIST TN-1431, Meeting on Fire Research and Safety, Oct 27- 48. Leonard Y. Cooper and David W. Stroup, National Institute of Standards and Nov 2, 1992, NISTIR 5254, National Test Results and Predictions for the Response Technology, 2000. Institute of Standards and Technology, of Near-Ceiling Sprinkler Links in a Full-Scale 56. Glenn P. Forney and Kevin B. 1993. Compartment Fire, NBSIR 87-3633, McGrattan, “Computing the Effect of 41. Anthony Hamins and Kevin B. National Bureau of Standards, 1987. Sprinkler Sprays on Fire Induced Gas McGrattan, Reduced-Scale Experiments to 49. Leonard Y. Cooper, “Estimating the Flow,” International Conference on Fire Characterize the Suppression of Rack Storage Environment and the Response of Research and Engineering. Proceedings, Commodity Fires, NISTIR 6439, National Sprinkler Links in Compartment Fires September 10-15, 1995, Orlando, FL, Institute of Standards and Technology, with Draft Curtains and Fusible Link- Society of Fire Protection Engineers, 1999. Actuated Ceiling Vents: An Overview,” Bethesda, MD, pp 59-64, 1995.

212 57. Kevin B. McGrattan and David W. and treated. Mechanical recovery of oil have led to public concerns over the Stroup, “Sprinkler, Vent and Draft in areas such as rocky shorelines, effects of intentional burning large Curtain Interaction: Experiment and marshlands, and in ice laden water- crude oil spills. Unresolved questions Computer Simulation,” 2nd International Conference on Fire Research and Engineering, ways is impractical. In the 1980s about personnel and equipment safety Proceedings, August 10-15, 1997, burning oil in place - in-situ burning - from the heat and thermal radiation Gaithersburg, MD, Society of Fire - was explored as a primary technology produced by large fires also has ham- Protection Engineers, Bethesda, MD, pp for oil spill response. pered application of burning to oil 14, 1997. spills. In the decision process for 58. Kevin B. McGrattan, Anthony Hamins and David W. Stroup, “Sprinkler, Heat The 1989 oil spill from the Exxon approval of intentional burning of oil Vent and Draft Curtain Interaction: Valdez tanker onto the waters of Prince spills, local authorities need to have Large Scale Experiments and Model Williams Sound in Alaska focused tools to quantify the likely benefits of Development,” International Fire Sprinkler- national attention on oil spills. An esti- the burning in terms of oil removal Smoke and Heat Vent-Draft Curtain Fire Test mated 42 million liters of oil were and the likely consequences in terms Project, NISTIR 6196-1, National Institute of Standards and Technology, released from the ship into the water. of the fire generated smoke plume. 1998. Some of the oil, driven by winds and BFRL’s in-situ oil spill research pro- 59. Kevin B. McGrattan, Howard R. Baum, currents, was deposited on the shore- gram was designed to develop quanti- Ronald G. Rehm, Anthony Hamins, and line of Prince Williams Sound. At the tative information and software tools Glenn P. Forney, Fire Dynamics Simulator: time of that spill, NIST and others to aid authorities in making informed Technical Reference Guide, NISTIR 6467, were already engaged in the evaluation decisions. The lack of this information National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2000. of burning as a response to oil spills. was an impediment to the acceptance 60. Glenn P. Forney and Kevin B. Industry was beginning to produce fire and use of this emerging technology. McGrattan, User’s Guide for Smokeview resistant booms that could be used to Version 1.0 - A Tool for Visualizing Fire confine oil spilled on water to burn it To understand and quantify the impor- Dynamics Simulation Data, NISTIR 6513, in-place. It is a little known fact that tant features of in-situ burning it was National Institute of Standards and Technology, 2000. using a fire resistant boom, approxi- necessary for BFRL to perform three mately 57,000 liters of oil from the scales of experiments. Laboratory tests 11.13 BURNING OIL Exxon Valdez that had been in the furnished property data, experiments water for nearly two days was confined SPILLS utilizing large-scale outdoor burn facil- and burned. The resulting fire lasting ities provided mesoscale data and One of the risks of oil drilling and approximately 45 minutes consumed means to develop and evaluate instru- transportation is that accidents can all but 1,100 liters of residue that mentation, and finally, actual burns of occur releasing natural crude oil or its remained in the boom [1]. spilled oil at sea provided data on in refined products as oil spills. Oil con- situ burning at the anticipated scale of tamination of land or water is an envi- Burning oil spills in-place normally actual response operations [2]. In this ronmental hazard to life. Historically produces a visible smoke plume con- research program, there has been con- oil spill response has been limited to taining soot and other combustion tinued interaction between findings various mechanical means of recover- products produced in the burning. from measurements on small fire ing the spilled oil from land or water Lack of knowledge about the extent of experiments performed in the con- and then disposing or reprocessing the the area affected by the smoke plume trolled laboratory environments of waste. Generally using mechanical produced by burning crude oil spills NIST and the National Research recovery large amounts of oil contami- and the possibility of undesirable com- Institute of Fire and Disaster (NRIFD) nated materials need to be removed bustion products carried in the plume in Mitaka, Tokyo, Japan, and large fire

213 variation in carbon contained in the forms of CO

fire extinction and CO2. behavior observed In the figure the smoke yield is plotted although it did versus pool diameter. The effective not appear to diameter of the 2.7 m square pan was affect the defined as the diameter of a circle Crude oil burn at the U.S. Coast Guard Safety and Fire Test Detachment average burn- (3.05 m) with area equal to the square mesoscale burn facility in Mobile, Alabama. ing rate. pan. This figure includes other crude oil fires with “pan sizes” ranging from experiments at facilities like the USCG The amount of smoke particulate 0.085 m to 100 m [6 - 12]. The data Fire Safety and Test Detachment in released from large oil fires is charac- from 2 m to 15 m based on five stud- Mobile, Alabama where outdoor liquid terized by the smoke yield. Smoke ies [6 - 10] with five types of crude fuel burns in large pans are possible. yield is defined as the mass of smoke oils (Murban, Arabian light, Louisiana aerosol generated per mass of fuel crude, Murban-Arabian light mixture, Large scale burns of a confined oil consumed. The smoke aerosol collect- and Newfoundland crude) appear to be independent of size; with one layer up to 15.2 m x 15.2 m were ed during these experiments contained exception the data fall in the range used to determine a mean value for both solid material (graphitic carbon) 0.13 to 0.16. For the pan sizes larger the burning rate per unit area of and condensable hydrocarbons from than 3 m, the burns were performed (0.052 +0.002) kg/s/m2 and for the the fire plume. Two methods for outside where the ambient wind may heat release rate per unit area is determining smoke yield were used in affect the smoke yield. The results 2 this study. The first was the flux (2180 +100) kW/m assuming a heat from two series of tests at 17.2 m are method, which measured the smoke of combustion of 41.9 MJ/kg. The significantly lower than the results collected on a filter and the mass loss wind direction and speed in the out- from 2 m to 15 m. The results from door burns contributed to the wide from the burning specimen [3, 4]. one series [6] range from 0.101 to This type of measurement worked well 0.111 with a mean of 0.107 while the in a laboratory test environment where other was a single test with a value of Crude oil released into a fire resistant contain- all the products of combustion were ment boom and burned during the 0.127 [10]. The cause for an apparent collected and drawn through an decrease is not known. Newfoundland Offshore Burn Experiment con- exhaust stack. ducted off the coast of St. John’s Newfoundland on August 12, 1993. As an aid to effectively transfer the The second method of determining result of the BFRL research useful to the smoke yield is referred to the authorities and emergency responders carbon balance method [4, 5]. This (decision makers about applying inten- method required a determination of tional burning of an oil spill) BFRL the ratio of the smoke mass in a developed software to estimate the given volume to the total mass of extent and concentrations of particu- carbon in the form of gas or particulate in the smoke plume and at ground late in the same volume. This was level. accomplished by dividing the smoke mass collected on a filter to the sum The ALOFT (A Large Outdoor Fire of the smoke mass and the mass of plume Trajectory) model developed by

214 propriate for two reasons: (1) the dictions showed good agreement with characteristics of the “source” are dif- ground particulate concentration ferent from the smokestacks that are measurements. Simulations of the usually assumed by such models, and smoke plume from the burns showed The effect of pool diameter on the smoke yield (2) the size of the source is well good agreement with the observed from burning different crude oils in laboratory beyond those considered in industrial plume trajectory (see photo). and outdoor burns. applications and thus outside of the experimental parameter range used to To facilitate the approval of in situ calibrate the models. BFRL takes an approach similar to that burning as an oil spill response of Ghoniem et al [13], but it uses method, the Alaska Department of finite-difference methods to determine During development ALOFT-FT pre- the large scale mixing, combined with dictions were compared with measure- a Lagrangian description of the trans- ments taken at three field experiments. port of the smoke and other pollu- It should be pointed out that the tants. The ALOFT model differs from experimental data were used to assess most of the atmospheric dispersion the accuracy of the model predictions. models in use today because it is a The data were not used to calibrate the deterministic rather than an empirical model. This is an important distinc- model. The approach is to solve the tion, and it points out the difference equations governing the flow rather between a deterministic and an empir- Downwind view of the simulated smoke plume than to rely on empirical formulae that ical model. from the second ACS emulsion burn, Prudhoe approximate the extent of the disper- Bay, September 1994. sion. Empirical models typically In early September 1994, Alaska Clean assume the pollutant is Gaussian-dis- Seas (ACS) conducted at its Fire tributed in the plane perpendicular to Training Ground in Prudhoe Bay, Environmental Conservation sought the direction of the prevailing wind. Alaska, three mesoscale burns to assistance from BFRL to use the newly The parameters defining the distribu- determine the feasibility of burning developed ALOFT model for smoke tion are estimated from experiments. emulsified oil [14]. The photo shows plume trajectory to help develop However, Gaussian models are inap- an aerial view of the second burn. guidelines for approval of intentional Twelve real-time aerosol monitors burning of spills. Two in situ burning (RAMs), supplied by the US Aerial photograph taken of the second ACS scenarios were developed by NIST: one burn, Prudhoe Bay, September 1994 Environmental Protection Agency, the representing the burning of Cook Inlet EPA’s Emergency Response Team crude oil in the Cook Inlet region and (EPA/ERT), were set out on meter the other North Slope crude oil in the high tripods, spread out in rows of North Slope region. three or four, at distances ranging from 1 km to 5 km downwind of the burn In 1994, the State of Alaska used the site to provide data on particulate con- results of this BFRL research as a basis centrations at ground level. Model pre- for revision to their guidelines for

215 approval of in-situ burning [15]. In the at BFRL, but is capable of being run state guidelines BFRL’s research is on portable computers in the field. A cited as: user-friendly interface was developed to allow users to input available data Based upon the finding of the NIST report, from site measure- "SmokePlume Trajectory from In-Situ Burning ments or simply Example output screen from the NIST ALOFT-FT of Crude Oil in Alaska," the ARRT [Alaska observations so that personal computer software used to quantify down Regional Response Team] has set a worse case, the calculation wind particulate concentrations from large fires. could be as specific conservative downwind distance of 10 kilome- to the incident as ters or approximately 6 miles as the primary results. The ALOFT-FT software pro- possible. vided information on the smoke plume value for "a safe distance" to conduct burning Responders found trajectory and downwind concentra- operations away from the human population... the graphic output tions in a manner that could be easily This distance may be modified (decreased or (see figure) provid- understood by local officials and public ed by the model increased) after evaluating spill specific data interest groups involved with the inci- useful in explaining such as location of spill, type of oil, and stabili- dent. The combined visual presenta- the findings of the tion of technical results provided by ty class of current meteorological conditions. If calculations to local ALOFT-FT, the long history of verifi- the burn involves either Cook Inlet or North authorities for cation testing, and the reputation of Slope Crude and is located on the North Slope or approval for inten- NIST as a source of high quality meas- in South Central Alaska, i.e., Cook Inlet/Prince tional burning. urement and prediction technology William Sound, values from Table 7 [Burn Results from the ALOFT-FT model provided the confidence for approval Scenarios] of the NIST report, which presents a were used by local of intentional burning. This incident summary of smoke trajectory runs, may be uti- officials in the deci- is the first time that intentional burn- lized with a safety factor of 2X. Table 7 is includ- sion to intentionally ing received wide spread publicity in ed as an attachment to this review checklist. burn fuel onboard the United States as a spill mitigation the freighter, New technique. Removing oil from the ship Carissa grounded in by burning helped to prevent millions To put the capabilities of performing Coos Bay, Oregon in February 1999. of dollars of shoreline clean-up costs smoke trajectory calculations in the Burning was the only response option that would have occurred as the hands of responders for the purpose of feasible to reduce the potential for a grounded vessel, battered by waves assessing the acceptability of initiating disastrous oil spill from the imminent ruptured and split into two pieces in-situ burning considering specific breakup of the ship. The ALOFT-FT shortly after the burns. conditions at a site, BFRL developed model was cited by the on-scene scien- the ALOFT-FT smoke plume trajecto- tific advisors as providing the timely NIST measurement and prediction ry software for personal computers and critical information about the efforts have played a major role in [16,17]. This software produces tra- impact of burning on air quality. establishing in-situ burning as an oil jectory predictions and downwind par- spill response method for use in the ticulate concentrations within the Equally important to the quality of the United States to minimize the pollu- uncertainty of the computations per- computations was the quality and clari- tion from oil spills. The better under- formed with more powerful computers ty of the graphic presentation of the standing of oil spill burning and the

216 consequences produced by the NIST Halley, J. Latour, R. Galarneau, B. Ryan, 27, pp 54-65, 1991. research enabled guidelines to be D. V. Aurand, and R. R. Hiltabrand, 9. William D. Walton, William H. Twilley, established whereby in situ burning is “The Newfoundland Offshore Burn J. McElroy, David D. Evans, and E. J. Experiment -NOBE,” Proceedings of the Tennyson, “Smoke Measurements Using now considered to be a primary oil 1995 International Oil Spill Conference, a Tethered Miniblimp at the spill response technology. Burning is Publication 4620, American Petroleum Newfoundland Offshore Oil Burn no longer regarded as an oil spill Institute, pp 123-132, 1995. Experiment,” Proceedings of the Seventeenth response method of last resort. 3. David D. Evans, Howard R. Baum, B. J. Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical Important data has been generated to McCaffrey, George W. Mulholland, M. Seminar, Ministry of Supply and Services quantify the smoke particulate in large Harkelroad, and W. Manders, Combustion Canada, Vol. 2, pp 1083-1098, 1994. of Oil on Water, NBSIR 86-3420, fire plumes. Methods have been devel- 10. David D. Evans, William D. Walton, National Bureau of Standards, 1987. Howard R. Baum, Kathy A. Notarianni, oped to reliably predict the downwind 4. George W. Mulholland, V. Henzel, and James R. Lawson, H. Tang, K. Keydel, concentrations of particulate transport- Vytenis Babrauskas, “The Effect of Scale Ronald G. Rehm, Daniel Madrzykowski, ed by wind blown fire plumes. Tools on Smoke Emission,” Proceedings of the R. Zile, H. Koseki, and E. Tennyson, In- have been developed to make this infor- Second International Symposium on Fire Situ Burning of Oil Spills: Mesoscale mation accessible and usable by the fire Safety Science, edited by T. Wakamatsu, Y. Experiments, Proceedings of the Fifteenth and oil spill response communities. Hasemi, A. Sekizawa, P. G. Pagni and C. Arctic and Marine Oil Spill Program Technical E. Grant, Hemisphere, New York, pp Seminar, Ministry of Supply and Services 347-357, 1989. Canada, Cat. _ En 40-11/5-1992, pp William (Doug) Walton received the 5. D. E. Ward, R. M. Nelson, and D. F. 593-657, 1992. Bronze Medal Award of the Adams, “Forest Fire Smoke Plume 11. K. K. Laursen, R. J. Ferek, P. V. Hobbs, Department of Commerce in 1993 for Documentation,” paper 079-6.3, and R. A. Rasmussen, “Emission Factors leadership of field tests of burning of Proceedings of the Seventy-Seventh Annual for Particles, Elemental Carbon, and oil spills. David Evans received the Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Trace Gases From the Kuwait Oil Fires,” Association, Air And Waste Management J. Geophys. Res. 97, pp 14,491-14,497, Silver Medal Award of the Department Association, Pittsburgh, PA, 1979. 1992. of Commerce in 1995 for his leader- 6. William D. Walton, David D. Evans, 12. W. R. Cofer III, R. K. Steven, E. L. ship of experimental and analytical Kevin B. McGrattan, Howard R. Baum, Winstead, J. P. Pinto, D. I. Sebacher, M. studies of burning of oil spills and of William H. Twilley, Daniel Y. Abdulraheem, M. Al-Sahafi, M. A. implementation of the techniques with Madrzykowski, Anthony D. Putorti, Jr., Mazurek, R. A. Rasmussen, D. R. state and federal environmental regula- Ronald G. Rehm, H. Koseki, and E. J. Cahoon, and J. S. Levine, “Kuwait Oil Tennyson, In Situ Burning of Oil Spills: tory agencies. Fires: Composition of Source Smoke,” Mesoscale Experiments and Analysis, J. Geophys. Res. 97, pp 14,521-14,525, Proceedings of the Sixteenth Arctic and Marine 1992. References Oil Spill Program Technical Seminar, 13. A. F. Ghoniem, X. Zhang, O. M. Knio, 1. A. Allen, “Contained Controlled Burning Ministry of Supply and Services Canada, Howard R. Baum, and Ronald G. Rehm, of Spilled Oil During the Exxon Valdez pp 679-734, 1993. “Dispersion And Deposition of Smoke Oil Spill,” Thirteenth Arctic and Marine 7. George W. Mulholland, H. Koseki, and Plumes Generated from Massive Fires,” Oilspill Program Technical Seminar, W. A Liggett, “The Effect of Pool J. Hazard. Mater. 33, pp 275-293, 1993. Proceedings June 6-8, 1990, Edmonton, Diameter on the Properties of Smoke 14. I. Buist, Demulsifiers and Modified Heli- Alberta, Environment Canada, Ottawa, Produced by Crude Oil Fires,” Twenty- Torch Fuels to Enhance in situ Burning of Canada K1A IC8, pp 305-313, 1990. Sixth Symposium (International) on Emulsions, Technical report, S. L. Ross 2. M. F. Fingas, G. Halley, F. Ackerman, R. Combustion, The Combustion Institute, Environmental Research Ltd., Ottawa, Nelson, M. Bissonnette, N. Laroche, Z. Pittsburgh, pp 1445-1452, 1996. Ontario, February 1995. (Prepared for Wang, P. Lambert, K. Li, P. Jokuty, G. 8. H. Koseki, and George W. Mulholland, Alaska Clean Seas, Anchorage, Alaska.) Sergy, E. J. Tennyson, J. Mullin, L. “The Effect of Diameter on the Burning 15. Kevin B. McGrattan, Howard R. Baum, Hannon, R. Turpin, P. Campagna, W. of Crude Oil Pool Fires,” Fire Technology and Ronald G. Rehm, “Numerical In

217 Situ Burning Guidelines for Alaska,” The plified ASET and rewrote it to run on of the multiroom zone models HAR- Alaska Federal/State Preparedness Plan for a PC. The new program, ASETB [11], VARD 6 by Rockett and Mitler [9] and Response to Oil and Hazardous Substance became one of the most widely used FAST by Jones [10], the introduction Discharges/Releases, Unified Plan Appendix II Annex F, Revised May fire programs ever released by NIST. of a new multiroom zone model 1994. DETACT was converted to DETACT- CCFM by Forney and Cooper [15], 16. Kevin B. McGrattan, Howard R. Baum, QS by Walton and Stroup [12] and and. the development of a single room William D. Walton, and J. J. Trelles, DETACT-T2 [13] by Evans and fire model LAVENT (Link Activated Smoke Plume Trajectory From In Situ Burning Stroup. Both programs would run on a Vent) by Davis [16] based mainly on a of Crude Oil in Alaska: Field Experiments and PC. These programs are used today theory developed by Cooper [17]. Modeling of Complex Terrain, NISTIR 5958, and are part of NFPA 204, 2002. LAVENT featured new physics that National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1997. included the activation of fusible links 17. Web site- www.fire.nist.gov/aloft. Walton started a computer bulletin by a ceiling jet that was modified by board for the NIST computer pro- the presence of a hot layer. The impact 11.14 ZONE FIRE grams and modified most of the exist- of the position of the detector both MODELING ing mainframe programs such that they below the ceiling and radially away could run on the PC. He provided from the fire could be predicted. This The origin of zone fire modeling using documentation for each program and a new algorithm represented an upgrade computers dates back to 1976 with the description on how to use the pro- in sophistication from the program publications and talks given by gram. This effort made available DETACT-QS. LAVENT could be used Quintiere [1], Reeves and MacArthur NIST’s fire programs to the fire pro- to estimate the impact of ceiling vent- [2], Mitler [3], and Pape and tection community. Stroup and Davis ing on the upper layer and on detector Waterman [4]. Of these early models, converted Harvard 5 to run on a PC. activation that represented a substan- only Harvard 3 developed by Emmons, The new program was renamed FIRST. tial advancement in zone modeling. At the time, it was the most complete Mitler, and Trefethen [5] survives Davis wrote a graphics display pro- fire model from a fire physics stand- today as a substantially revised model, gram, GRAPH, using a NIST devel- point and was the first zone model to FIRST [6]. These early computer oped, Fortran callable graphics package provide a self-consistent model of the models ran on mainframe computers: [18] to display the output of LAVENT. fire. an inconvenient format to distribute to LAVENT is in use today and featured the fire community. Other early mod- Gross and Davis used FIRST to model in NFPA 204, 2002. els developed at NIST include: ASET STARK, the USS Stark (FFG 31) 1987 by Cooper and Stroup [7], DETACT shipboard fire caused by an Iraqi With the increasing fiscal constraints by Evans and Stroup, and later the Exocet missile striking the frigate. of the early nineties, it was decided multiroom models by Tanaka [8], FIRST was used because other NIST that only one multi-room zone model Harvard VI by Emmons and Mitler fire models did not have adequate fire should be developed. Forney and Jones [9], and FAST by Jones [10]. physics to give realistic answers. merged FAST [10] and CCFM [15], During this project, Davis rebuilt the taking the best from each, to produce When the IBM PC was developed, solvers in FIRST, developed addition CFAST [19]. An upgrade occurred for Walton recognized that NIST’s fire fire physics, and released the second CFAST as Forney, Peacock, and programs could be moved from the version of FIRST [14]. Reneke changed the model structure, mainframe computers to the PC and solver and added new fire physics. made available to the fire protection Fire modeling at NIST in the middle Later, Forney added a sophisticated engineering community. Walton sim- to late eighties continued development radiation package and a corridor algo-

218 zone fire models could perform an adequate job predicting the plume centerline temperatures or the ceiling jet temperatures reached by the largest An example of a fire scenario that demonstrates much of the fire physics included in LAVENT. fires. Davis developed a method to model these experiments using a sub- rithm. Today, CFAST is one of the for detectors demonstrated in the stitute source theory for plume tem- leading multi-room zone models and is experiments, the extensive use of sci- peratures developed by Evans [23] and used worldwide. entific monitoring devices to clarify the a variable radiation fraction as a func- detector behavior, and the quality of tion of fire size based on experiments FPETool was being developed in the the experiments that provided a basis by Yang et. al. [24]. The resulting algo- early nineties by Nelson and Deal [20]. for further model development. rithm represented a substantial step The model was based on the ASETB forward in modeling fire phenomena zone model and included a number of In analyzing the Navy hangar experi- when a hot layer was present. Davis algebraic algorithms to provide a tool- ments, it was evident that none of the used the Navy data to develop a new box for the fire protection engineer. This model became one of the most widely used models of the nineties. Fire test, in a Navy aircraft hanger, Keflavik, Iceland, to determine how the latest generation of fire detectors and sprinkler heads respond to increasing sizes of fires. Many of the team members shown in In the middle nineties, Gott of the the photograph are from NIST, other organizations that made hangar experiments possible include: members from The Naval Facilities Engineering Command, The Naval Air Stations at Keflavik, Iceland Naval Facilities Engineering Command and at Barbers Point, Hawaii, The U. S. Air Force, the U. S. Marine Corps, The U. S. Army Corps of and Notarianni of NIST devised an engineers, Simplex Time Recorder Co., The Viking Corporation, Detector Electronics Corporation, experimental program to examine fire Detection Systems, Inc., and Alison Control, Inc. detection in military hangars [21]. Davis was brought into the program to model the experiments as preplanning for instrument placement and fire sizes. Davis used the computer models LAVENT and Harwell FLOW3D [22] to examine instrumentation and fire sizes for the two hangars that were located in Hawaii and Iceland. Gott and Notarianni, working with major industrial partners, allowed BFRL to test a number of different heat detectors, smoke detectors, UV/IR detectors and slow and fast actuating sprinkler links. Notarianni and Davis designed the experimental fires such that threshold effects for detector activation could be studied. These experiments were unique due to the variety of devices tested, the threshold effects

219 ceiling jet model and packaged the new 6. Henri E. Mitler and John A. Rockett, J. Links to Compartment Fires,” Fire Tech fire physics in a zone model, JET [25] A., Users Guide to FIRST, Comprehensive 27, pp 113-127, 1991. that used many of the older algorithms Single-Rom Fire Model, NBSIR 87-3595, 17. Leonard Y. Cooper, Estimating the Environment and the Response of Sprinkler of LAVENT. JET was the first of the National Bureau of Standards, 1987. 7. Leonard Y. Cooper and David W. Stroup, Links in Compartment Fires with Draft zone models to use Microsoft Visual “ASET - A Computer Program for Curtains and Fusible Link-Actuated Ceiling Basic to build a user input module. Calculating Available Safe Egress Time,” Vents - Part I: Theory, NBSIR 88-3734, F. Safety J. 9, pp 29-45, 1985. National Bureau of Standards, 1988. The Navy data also proved useful in 8. T. Tanaka, A Model of Multiroom Fire 18. D. Kahaner, C. Moher, and S. Nash, demonstrating that CFAST was pre- Spread, NBSIR 83-2718, National Numerical Methods and Software, Prentice Hall, 1989. dicting too high of temperatures. The Bureau of Standards, 1983. 19. Richard D. Peacock, Glenn P. Forney, 9. John A. Rockett and Mashairo Morita, earlier data sets that were used for Paul A. Reneke, Rebecca W. Portier, and “The NBS/HARVARD MARK VI Multi- FAST and CFAST did not have the Walter W. Jones, CFAST, the Consolidated room Fire Simulation,” Fire Science instrumentation to demonstrate this Model of Fire Growth and Smoke Transport, Technology, Vol. 5, pp159-164, 1985. problem convincingly. Paul Reneke Technical Note 1299, National Institute 10. Walter W. Jones, “A Multicompartment found and corrected the error. of Standards and Technology, 1993. Model for the Spread of Fire, Smoke 20. Harold E. Nelson, FPETool: Fire Protection and Toxic Gases,” F. Safety J., 9, pp 55- Engineering Tools for Hazard Estimation, The Navy hangar data has been used as 79, 1985. NISTIR 4380, National Institute of an aid in the design of fire protection 11. William D. Walton, ASET-B A Room Fire Standards and Technology, 1990. for high ceiling structures worldwide. Program for Personal Computers, NBSIR 85- 21. J. E. Gott, Darren L. Lowe, Kathy A. Based on the information collected in 3144, National Bureau of Standards, Notarianni, and William D. Davis, the project, fire protection design was 1985. Analysis of High Bay Hangar Facilities for substantially changed in military 12. David D. Evans, David W. Stroup, and P. Fire Detector Sensitivity and Placement, NIST Martin, Evaluating Thermal Fire Detection TN 1423 National Institute of Standards hangars. It ranks high in NIST fire Systems (SI Units), SP 713, National and Technology, 1997. experiments that impacted fire protec- Bureau of Standards, 1986. 22. Harwell Flow3D, Release 3.2: Users tion engineering. 13. David D. Evans and David W. Stroup, Manual, CFD Department, AEA “Methods to Calculate the Response Industrial Technology, Harwell References Time of Heat and Smoke Detectors Laboratories, Oxfordshire, United 1. James Quintiere, “The Growth of Fire in Installed Below Large Unobstructed Kingdom, 1992. Building Compartments,” ASTM-NBS Ceilings,” Fire Technology, 22, pp 54-65, 23. David D. Evans, “Calculating Fire Plume Symposium on Fire Standards and Safety, 1986. Characteristics in a Two Layer National Bureau of Standards, 1976. 14. Daniel Gross and William D. Davis, Environment,” Fire Technology, 20, pp 39- 63, 1984. 2. J. B. Reeves and C. D. MacArthur, FAA- Burning Characteristics of Combat Ship 24. Jiann C. Yang, Anthony Hamins, and RD-120, University of Dayton Research Compartments and Vertical Fire Spread, Takashi Kashiwagi, “Estimate of the Institute, 1976. NISTIR 88-3897, National Institute of Effect of Scale on Radiative Heat Loss 3. Henri E. Mitler, “Mathematical Standards and Technology, 1988. Fraction and Combustion Efficiency,” Modeling of Enclosure Fires,” Technical 15. Leonard Y. Cooper and Glenn P. Forney, Combustion Science and Technology, Vol 96, Report No. 21011.7, FMRC, 1976. The Consolidated Compartment Fire pp 183-188, 1994. 4. R. Pape and T. Waterman, “RFIRES,” Model (CCFM) Computer Code Application 25. William D. Davis, The Zone Fire Model Report J6367, Illinois Institute of CCFM.VENTS-Part I: Physical Basis, JET: A Model for the Prediction of Detector Technology Research Institute, 1976. NISTIR 4342, National Institute of Activation and Gas Temperature in the 5. Howard W. Emmons, Henri E., Mitler, Standards and Technology, 1990. Presence of a Smoke Layer, NISTIR 6324, and L. N. Trefethen, “Computer Fire 16. William D. Davis and Leonard Y. National Institute of Standards and Code III,” Home Fire Project Technical Cooper, “A Computer Model for Technology, 1999. Report No. 25, Harvard University, 1978. Estimating the Response of Sprinkler

220 1212. FIRE SCIENCE

12.1 FIRE GRANTS and publications of other technical societies. The graduate students fre- The CFR Grants Program was initiated quently went on to become experts in in 1975 with funds from the plastics fire protection, professors at other industry, and then in 1976 augmented institutions or new staff members at by transfer of the fire program of the CFR. National Science Foundation’s Research Applied to National Needs There were individual grants as well on (RANN) project. This transfer was specific research projects. These varied made with the understanding that the such that in any typical year, 20 per- NSF funds would continue to be used cent to 30 percent of the program was for a grants program. in new grants. The NSF RANN program, developed and managed by Ralph Long, was Initially, the CFR program was admin- focused around “Centers of istered by Clayton Huggett with yearly Excellence.” Primary among them proposals from the principal investiga- were the Harvard University-Factory tors reviewed by CFR staff members Mutual Insurance Corporation joint with frequent review, evaluation and effort led by Professor Howard use of the results by CFR staff engaged Emmons, Johns Hopkins Applied in related research. Subsequently the Physics Laboratory led by Professor program was managed by Robert Walter Berle, Princeton University led Levine. Administrative matters were by Professor Irvin Glassman, handled by Sonya Cherry of CFR who University of California Berkeley led worked with the financial officers of by Professor Patrick Pagni, and the grantee organizations and the pro- California Institute of Technology led curement staff at NBS. When ques- by Professor Edward Zukoski. Each tions arose about financial or adminis- lead professor became an expert in the trative matters, Sonya Cherry’s records field of fire, and with his graduate stu- and CFR procedures proved to be dents contributed major research faultless. For these efforts, she received papers, participated in the yearly CFR the Bronze Medal Award of the research conference, and in sessions Department of Commerce in 1981.

221 The technical results of the program When the Federal Emergency on the United States fire loss record, were outstanding. The Harvard- Management Agency (FEMA) was which was the worst in the industrial- Factory Mutual Program, for instance, formed, support of grants for fire ized world. From the outset, the new produced the first U.S. zone models of fighting science and technology was Program sought to maximize its impact fire growth within a compartment transferred to FEMA, which divided by focusing on the factors giving rise to (Harvard Fire Code V) and within a the work at the Applied Physics the most prevalent fire loss scenarios. series of compartments (Harvard Fire Laboratory (APL) into two programs. Code VI). These became the bases for Both programs died because APL man- Early analyses of the causes of fire the Hazard software for the engineer- agement could not cope with the deaths had indicated that most fire ing design of fire safety systems for financial problems created by FEMA’s fatalities resulted from smoke inhala- various occupancies. A series of late contracting. However before this, tion rather than burns. Scientists at research tasks described parts of the APL in cooperation with Johns NIST [1], elsewhere in the U.S. and fire process in algorithms suitable for Hopkin’s Medical School and overseas then began to identify the use in fire models. For instance, the Maryland’s Medical Examiner per- chemicals produced during the pyroly- formed pioneering work on toxicology California Institute of Technology sis and burning of the materials that of fire gases through studies of fire vic- developed a mathematical description make up interior finish and common tims. The results led to the use of of the buoyant plume and of buoyan- household furnishings. They soon dis- breathing apparatus by fire fighters cy-affected flow in corridors. covered that literally hundreds of during operations and overhaul of fire chemicals were produced, some of scenes. For much of its life, this program was which were known to cause harm deprecated by other parts of NBS as a The nature and scope of the Fire Grants when inhaled. Toxicologists quickly distraction from research to program program changed as its funding was began a variety of experiments using management. However, they did not reduced in parallel with CFR funding laboratory animals to determine the distract CFR personnel from research during the budget crises of the 1980s. potential of fire smoke to cause inca- but put them into collaborative Funding declined from $2 million pacitation and death. research relationships addressing the annually to $1.34 million annually, and CFR program with outstanding peers. the decrease was exacerbated by the Much of this work was sponsored in effects of inflation on research costs. the early 1970s by the National The Centers of Excellence disappeared Science Foundation under the as their principal investigators retired. Research Applied to National Needs The grant program enlisted The Grants Program continues as exter- (RANN) program. This research grants the support of the best nal projects developed in cooperation program was transferred to the NBS in with BFRL group leaders to comple- 1976. One of their four centers of brains in the country for ment the BFRL fire research program. excellence was at the University of fire research and trained a Utah under the leadership of Professor new generation of highly 12.2 MEASURING THE Irving Einhorn. The Utah team found that smoke from a particular burning talented people for the TOXICITY OF FIRE SMOKE material produced smoke so toxic that fields of fire research and even a small amount caused debilita- fire protection. The creation of the NBS Center for tion and death in lab mice. They Fire Research in 1975 made possible dubbed the harmful component from for the first time a technological assault this type of material a supertoxicant.

222 The field of fire hazard analysis was advancing rapidly in the late 1970s and into the 1980s. In 1989, NBS released the first version of HAZARD I, a methodology for predicting the threats to life in a building fire [4]. New findings enhanced the quality of the toxic hazard component of overall fire hazard. The Southwest Research Institute Merritt Birky calibrating a combustible vapor detector. under the sponsorship of the Vinyl Institute, published data showing that Almost immediately, fire toxicology Realizing that the toxic potency of hydrogen chloride could be lost to wall research became directed at identify- smoke was only one input to the cal- deposition as the smoke moved further ing any materials that produced culation of fire hazard, NBS began to from the fire source. Autopsy evi- supertoxicants (just as many other fire develop a test method that could be dence accumulated, showing that car- tests were designed to identify mate- used to provide that input and to bon monoxide and hydrogen cyanide rials with unusually high flame spread screen for materials whose smoke toxic levels in the blood of fire victims were rates, etc.) so that regulations could potency merited special attention. The frequently at lethal levels [5]. Yoshio ban their use. Nearly 30 research work was led initially by Merritt Birky, Tsuchiya of the National Research groups worldwide developed appara- and upon his departure from NBS was Council of Canada proposed that the tus for combusting small samples of completed under the leadership of toxicity of fire smoke could be esti- materials and exposing the smoke to Barbara Levin. The NBS Toxicity Test mated by the sum of the contributions laboratory animals. Method (alternately known as the Cup of all the gases in the smoke. Furnace Method), published in 1982 [2], exposed rats to the smoke from At NBS, Barbara Levin began a series Barbara Levin, leader of smoke toxicity research. test specimens that were pyrolyzed or of animal (rat) experiments to quantify autoignited. Tsuchiya’s hypothesis. As her results began to emerge [6,7], Richard Gann Concurrently, the CFR was sponsoring of NBS suggested that one need not research into combustion toxicity in consider all the gases, but rather that a Professor Yves Alarie’s group at the small number, N, of these might well University of Pittsburgh. They developed a test method [3] in which mice account for almost all of the lethal were exposed to the evolved gases effect and that an animal check test from a specimen combusted in a tube would reveal the validity of this con- furnace. Listing of data using this cept. The use of an “N-gas model,” method was required in 1986 by the with input data based on Levin’s State of New York as a condition for experiments soon became the pre- allowing building materials to be sold ferred input for fire hazard estimations in the State; the requirement has since [8]. Barbara Levin’s pioneering been dropped. research into the combined effects of

223 method of known accuracy for obtaining lethal toxic potency data for fire hazard and risk analyses.

There was concurrent activity on smoke toxicity in the international arena, mostly taking place in ISO Committee TC92, Subcommittee 3 on Fire Threat to People and the Environment. The contentious issue was the drafting of a NIST-developed apparatus for measuring the toxic potency of fire smoke. Now standardized as NFPA document on smoke incapacitation data 269 and ASTM E1678, it is the only validated smoke toxicity test in the world. for use in estimating the time available for escape. An extremely restrictive ver- smoke components was also a bell- Arthur Grand of the Southwest sion of the document had been voted wether in the wider field of combined Research Institute for the National down as an ISO Standard in 1999, largely because of poor resolution over physiological effects of mixed gases. Institute of Building Sciences. The rat what was and was not known about the exposure chamber was that of the cup sublethal effects of fire effluent. This furnace method. NBS staff under the During this same time period, fire sci- shortcoming triggered a major project ence was emerging as a disciplinary leadership of Vytenis Babrauskas and under the Fire Protection Research field. Practitioners at NBS and else- Barbara Levin, developed a novel pro- Foundation to provide technical resolu- where soon realized that (a) complex cedure for use of the apparatus. tion. Led by NIST, the project’s first commercial products might not behave report was issued in 2001[14]. Under in a manner that could be constructed Babrauskas next led development of a the leadership of Gordon Hartzell, from their component materials and laboratory protocol to quantify the retired Director of the SwRI (b) the combustion conditions in the ability of bench-scale devices to reflect Department of Fire Technology, and cup furnace and most of the other tox- the potency of commercial products in Gann, the ISO document was heavily icity measurement devices did not real-scale fires. His team constructed revised to reflect these latest findings closely resemble the conditions under five criteria for considering the accura- and new fire hazard analyses. It was cy of the bench-scale toxic potency which products were exposed in most approved in 2001 as an ISO Technical data. They then showed that the radi- fatal fires. Fire incidence data showed Specification [15] and will again be ant apparatus was superior to the Cone that most fatalities resulted from fires considered as an International Standard Calorimeter and the cup furnace in in 2004. that had passed beyond flashover, the this respect, replicating the real-scale point at which multiple fuels were data within about a factor of three for involved and their combustion was the most conservative agreement crite- Today, fire smoke toxicity is ventilation limited [9]. The thermal rion [11]. In 1997 under Gann’s lead- routinely included in engi- input to the fuels was largely radiative. ership, this method became the first (and still only) one adopted by U.S. neering estimations of fire Thus, NBS developed a next-genera- national standards bodies as ASTM hazard and risk. The drive to tion bench-scale toxic potency meas- E1678 [12] and NFPA 269 [13]. Over quantify and validate these urement method [10]. The combustor twenty years after NBS began the was radiant, based on a 1990 design of enabling research, there was now a data can largely be attributed to NBS/NIST metrology.

224 References pp 70-71, March/April, 1987. Using Fire Data,” International Standards 1. Barbara C. Levin, “A Summary of the 9. Richard G. Gann, Vytenis Babrauskas, Organization, Geneva, 2001. NBS literature Reviews on the Chemical Richard D. Peacock, and J. R. Hall, Jr., Nature and Toxicity of the Pyrolysis and “Fire Conditions for Smoke Toxicity 12.3 MEASUREMENT OF Combustion Products from Seven Measurement,” Fire and Materials, 18, pp Plastics,” Fire and Materials, 11, pp 143- 193-199, 1994. HEAT RELEASE RATE 10. Vytenis Babrauskas, Richard G. Gann, 157, 1987. Intuitively, the rate of heat release 2. Barbara C. Levin, Andrew J. Fowell, Barbara C. Levin, M. Paabo, Richard H. Merit M. Birky, M. Paabo, A. Stolte, and Harris, Jr., Richard D. Peacock D., and from an unwanted fire is a major indi- D. Malek, Further Development of a Test S. Yusa, “Methodology for Obtaining and cation of the threat of the fire to life Method for the Assessment of the Acute Using Toxic Potency Data for Fire safety and property. This indeed is Inhalation Toxicity of Combustion Products, Hazard Analysis,” Fire Safety Journal.31, true, and a reliable measurement of a NBSIR 82-2532, National Bureau of pp 345-358, 1998. fire’s heat release rate was a goal of fire Standards, 1982. 11.a. Vytenis Babrauskas, Richard H. Harris, researchers at NBS and other fire lab- Jr., Emil Braun, Barbara C. Levin, M. 3. Y. Alarie and R.C. Anderson, oratories at least as early as the 1960s. “Toxicological Classification of Thermal Paabo, and Richard G. Gann, The Role Decomposition Products of Synthetic of Bench-Scale Test Data in Assessing Real- Traditionally, heat release measure- and Natural Polymers,” Toxicology and Scale Fire Toxicity, Technical Note 1284, ments of burning materials were based Applied Pharmacology, 57, pp 181-188, National Institute of Standards and on the temperature rise of ambient air 1981. Technology, 1991. as it passed over the burning object. 4. Richard W. Bukowski, Richard D. 11.b. Vytenis Babrauskas, R. H. Harris, Jr., Because the fraction of radiant emis- Emil Braun, Barbara C. Levin, M. Peacock, Walter W. Jones, and C. L. sion varies with the type of material Forney, HAZARD I Fire Hazard Assessment Paabo, and Richard G. Gann, “Large- Method, NIST Handbook 146, National scale Validation of Bench-scale Fire being burned, and because that energy Institute of Standards and Technology, Toxicity Tests,” J. Fire Sciences, 9, pp does not all contribute to temperature 1989. 125-148, 1991. rise of the air, there were large errors 5. Merit Birky, D. Malek, and M. Paabo, 12. ASTM E-1678-97, Standard Test Method in the measurements. Attempts to “Study of Biological Samples Obtained for Measuring Smoke Toxicity for Use in Fire account for the heat that was not cap- from Victims of MGM Grand Hotel Hazard Analysis, ASTM, West tured by the air required siting numer- Fire,” J. Applied Toxicology, 7, pp 265- Conshohocken, PA, 1998. 271, 1983. 13. NFPA 269, Standard Test Method for ous thermal sensors about the fire to 6. Barbara C. Levin, M. Paabo, J. L. Developing Toxic Potency Data for Use in Fire intercept and detect the additional Gurman, S. E. Harris, and Emil Braun, Hazard Modeling, National Fire heat. This approach proved to be “Toxicological Interactions Between Protection Association, Quincy, MA, tedious, expensive, and prone to large Carbon Monoxide and Carbon 2000. errors, particularly when the burning Dioxide,” Toxicology, 47, pp 135-164, 14. Richard G. Gann, J. D. Averill, Kathryn “object” was large, such as a full-sized M. Butler, Walter W. Jones, George W. 1987. room filled with flammable furnishings 7. Barbara C. Levin, M. Paabo, J. L. Mulholland, J. L. Neviaser, Thomas J. Gurman, and S. E. Harris, “Effects of Ohlemiller, Richard D. Peacock, P. A and surface finishes. Exposure to Single or Multiple Reneke, and J. R. Hall, Jr., International Combinations of the Predominant Toxic Study of the Sublethal Effects of Fire Smoke on During the 1970s a novel alternative Gases and Low Oxygen Atmospheres Survivability and Health (SEFS): Phase I technique for determining heat release Produced in Fires,” Fundamental and Final Report, Technical Note 1439, rate was developed at NBS. It had dis- National Institute of Standards and Applied Toxicology, 9, pp 236-250, 1987. tinct advantages over the traditional 8. Vytenis Babrauskas, Barbara C. Levin, Technology, 2001. and Richard G. Gann, “A New Approach 15. ISO Technical Specification 13571, “Life approach, but its widespread accept- to Fire Toxicity Data for Hazard Threat from Fires- Guidance on the ance was hampered by uneasiness in Evaluation,” Fire Journal, pp 22-28 and Estimation of Time Available for Escape the fire science community concerning

225 potential errors if the technique were which he was working, Parker found large number of organic gases and liq- used in less-than-ideal circumstances. that although the heat released per uids was fairly constant. Nevertheless, In 1980, Clayton Huggett [1], fire sci- unit mass of material consumed (i.e., since in real fires and fire experiments entist at NBS, published the seminal the heat of combustion) varied greatly, the oxygen supply is sometimes limit- paper that convinced the fire science the amount of heat released per unit ed, incomplete combustion and par- community that the new technique volume of oxygen consumed was fairly tially oxidized products can be pro- was scientifically sound and sufficiently constant, i.e., within ±15 percent of duced. Huggett’s paper examined in accurate for fire research and testing. the value for methane, 16.4 MJ/m3 detail the assumption of constant heat The technique now is used worldwide oxygen consumed. release per unit of oxygen consumed and forms the basis for several national under real fire conditions and assessed and international standards. This fortunate circumstance—that the its effect on the accuracy of heat heat release rate per unit volume of release rate determinations for fires. The underlying principle of new heat oxygen consumed is approximately the release rate technique was “discov- same for a range of materials used to Instead of expressing results on a per ered” in the early 1970s. Faced with construct buildings and furnishings— unit volume basis, as Parker did, the challenge of measuring the heat meant that the heat release rate of Huggett expressed results in the more release of combustible wall linings dur- materials commonly found in fires convenient and less ambiguous per ing full-scale room fire tests, William could be estimated by capturing all of unit mass of oxygen consumed. Parker, Huggett’s colleague at NBS, the products of combustion in an Huggett began by presenting values for investigated an alternative approach exhaust hood and measuring the flow the heat of combustion and heat of based on a simple fact of physics: In rate of oxygen in that exhaust flow. combustion per gram of oxygen con- addition to the release of heat, the fire The technique was dubbed oxygen sumed for typical organic liquid and process consumes oxygen. As part of consumption calorimetry, notwith- gas fuels, assuming the products are his work on the ASTM E 84 tunnel standing the absence of any actual CO , H O, HF, HCl, Br , SO , and N . test, Parker [2] explored the possibility calorimetric (heat) measurements. 2 2 2 2 2 Notwithstanding large variations in the of using a measure of the reduction of heat of combustion (up to a factor of oxygen in fire exhaust gases as an indi- Later in the decade, Huggett per- cator of the amount of heat released by formed a detailed analysis of the criti- 4) for this group of fuels, the heats of the burning test specimens. Indeed, cal assumption of constant proportion- combustion per unit mass of oxygen for well-defined materials with known ality of oxygen consumption to heat consumed fell within ± 3 percent of chemical composition, heat release as release. Parker’s assumption was based their average value of 12.72 kJ/g (O2). well as oxygen consumed can be calcu- on enthalpy calculations for the com- Huggett explained that this near con- lated from thermodynamic data. The plete combustion of chemical com- stancy was not surprising because the problem with applying this approach pounds to carbon dioxide, water, and energetic processes are the result of to fires is that in most cases the chem- other fully oxidized compounds. breaking either carbon-carbon or car- ical compositions of modern materi- Indeed, a literature review by Huggett bon-hydrogen bonds, and these bonds als/composites/mixes that are likely to revealed that Parker’s findings were have similar energetics. be involved in real fires are not known. actually a rediscovery and extension of In the process of examining data for Thornton’s work [3], published in An examination of the same data for complete combustion (combustion 1917, which found that the heat typical synthetic polymers, some of under stoichiometric/excess air condi- released per unit of oxygen consumed which Parker did not consider, pro- tions) of the polymeric materials with during the complete combustion of a duced similar results; for this class of

226 materials the heats of combustion per char that can affect heat release rate. be sufficiently accurate for most fire unit mass of oxygen consumed fell By examining a hypothetical reaction and fire-test applications. For fires within ±4 percent of their average that forces production of pure carbon, burning conventional organic fuels, value of 13.03 kJ/g (O2). Fuels of natu- Huggett demonstrated that the effect Huggett recommended the constant ral origin (e.g., cellulose, cotton, was small; 13.91 kJ/g (O2) when pure 13.1 kJ/g (O2), which should produce newsprint, corrugated box, wood, etc.), carbon was produced verses 13.59 kJ/g heat release rate results accurate to that are likely to be found in large (O2) when the reaction took place in ±5 percent or better. Ever since its quantities in building fires, have heats of excess air. publication, this value has been the combustion per unit of oxygen con- accepted value for oxygen-consump- sumed that range within ± 5.3 percent Other partial oxidation reactions can tion calorimetry when burning con- of their average of 13.21 kJ/g (O2). occur and affect the heat release rate. ventional materials. Huggett argued that although their The results presented so far assumed details are unknown, their effects Huggett examined other factors that complete combustion. Huggett could be assessed via representative influence the overall accuracy of oxy- explored the effects of incomplete examples; noting that the actual mate- gen consumption calorimetry. For combustion on the assumption of con- rial in the example was not important example, dilution by products of com- stant heat release per unit of oxygen since only the chemical bonds that bustion in the exhaust flow, where the consumed. He did this by making sev- were rearranged by the reaction signif- oxygen concentration measurement is eral conservative but realistic assump- icantly affected the results. He consid- made, is a source of error because the tions concerning incompleteness of ered partial oxidation of propylene, number of moles of products is not combustion for a range of materials polyacrylonitrile (produces hydrogen the same as the number of moles of likely to be found in a structural fire. cyanide under some combustion con- oxygen consumed. This ‘dilution fac- For example, carbon monoxide often ditions), and polytetrafluoroethylene tor’ is a function of the fuel’s stoi- is present in a fire’s combustion prod- and argued that under worst-case con- chiometry and can be taken into ucts, but usually at a very low level and ditions the heats of combustion per account if the stoichiometry is known. rarely exceeds 10 percent of the car- unit oxygen consumed range from In general, however, this is not the bon dioxide concentration produced 10.76 kJ/g (O2) to 13.91 kJ/g (O2) and case and the dilution factor must be by the fire. Huggett then calculated the if present in small quantities would not estimated. Through analysis of ‘limit- heat of combustion per unit of oxygen introduce a significant error in heat ing’ cases, Huggett reasoned that if an consumed for the burning of cellulose release based on oxygen consumption. appropriate dilution factor were not in limited air, such that the carbon All these scenarios were considered available, then assuming a value of 1.6 monoxide concentration was about 10 ‘limiting cases’; the effect in real fires would lead to an error of less than six percent of the carbon dioxide concen- usually would be less than presupposed percent in the amount of oxygen con- tration. The result was 13.37 kJ/g (O2) in the analyses. In situations where sumed. compared with 13.59 kJ/g (O2) for the large quantities of incomplete combus- excess air case. The difference was tion products were produced, correc- The paper by Huggett was published very small and, if necessary, could be tions could be made if these products just as the rate of heat release was corrected if the carbon monoxide con- were measured. beginning to be recognized as the cen- centration was measured. tral property affecting fire growth [4]. Huggett concluded that the assump- The novel new technique was rapidly Another consideration was that cellu- tion of constant heat release rate per incorporated by Babrauskas and losic fuels tend to form a carbonaceous unit mass of oxygen consumed would Twilley [5] in their invention of the

227 7. NFPA 271, “Standard Test Method for Heat and Smoke Release Rates for Materials and Products using an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter,” 1999 National Fire Codes 16, National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, MA, pp 271-1-271-22, 1999. 8. Fire Tests-Reaction to Fire-Part 1:Rate of Heat Release from Building Products-(Cone Calorimeter Method), ISO 5660-1:1993, Technical Corrigendum 1, International Vytenis Babrauskas, fire protection engineer and developer of the cone calorimeter, is collecting data crit- Organization for Standardization, ical to predicting the fire hazard of a product using a small sample of material. This test replaces time- Geneva, 1993. consuming and expensive full-scale tests. ASTM and ISO adopted a voluntary fire hazard test method based on the instrument. 12.4 SMOLDERING COMBUSTION Cone Calorimeter, a bench-scale References device now used worldwide for heat 1. Clayton Huggett, “Estimation of Rate of Smoldering combustion has arisen as a release rate measurements. It also Heat Release by Means of Oxygen fire safety issue in two principal con- became the technique used in fire Consumption Measurements,” Fire and texts. The first is as a pathway for the calorimeters of larger (room) size at Materials 4, pp 61-65, 1980. initiation of destructive upholstered 2. William J. Parker, An Investigation of the NIST and at most fire laboratories furniture and bed fires [1]. The threat Fire Environment in the ASTM E 84 Tunnel here arises from the careless use of throughout the world. The oxygen- Test, Technical Note 945, National cigarettes whose own smoldering consumption technique forms the Bureau of Standards, 1977. basis for several national (ASTM [6], 3. W. M. Thornton, “The Relation of process can spread into soft furnish- NFPA [7]) and international (ISO [8]) Oxygen to the Heat of Combustion of ings with which they come into con- standards. Organic Compounds,” Philos. Magazine tact. The other context arose rather 33, pp 196-203, 1917. dramatically in the 1970s as a direct Department of Commerce Medal 4. Vytenis Babrauskas, and R. D. Peacock, consequence of the increased use of “Heat Release Rate: The Single Most Awardees received for this work thermal insulation materials in build- Important Variable in Fire Hazard,” Fire ings to counter the rapidly rising cost include: the Bronze Medal to William Safety Journal 18, pp 255-272, 1992. Parker in 1976 for the concept of 5. Vytenis Babrauskas, “Development of of energy. Some of the most popular measurement of heat release rate; the the Cone Calorimeter - a Bench-scale insulation materials were made from Bronze Medal in 1984 to William Heat Release Apparatus Based on re-cycled newsprint that, if improperly Twilley for design and construction of Oxygen Consumption,” Journal of Fire formulated, could begin to smolder as the cone calorimeter; and the Bronze Sciences 2, pp 15-19, 1984. a consequence of exposure to such Medal in 1986 to Vytenis Babrauskas 6. ASTM E 1354-99, “Standard Test heat sources as recessed light fixtures. for the conception and standardization Method for Heat and Smoke Release In both of these areas, the life hazard Rates for materials and Products Using of the cone calorimeter. Babrauskas was compounded by the possibility an Oxygen Consumption Calorimeter,” also received the NIST Rosa Award in 1999 Annual Book of ASTM Standards that the smoldering process would 1992 for the contributions of heat 4.07, American Society for Testing and develop into a much more rapid flam- release rate and the cone calorimeter Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, pp ing process. In both of the contexts, to fire standards, worldwide. 750-767, 1999. the goal of BFRL research has been to

228 tion [5]. This background 11, pp 277-310, 1985. was useful when NIST 5. Thomas Ohlemiller, “Forced Smolder began to study the role Propagation and the Transition to Flaming in Cellulosic Insulation,” that cigarette design Combustion and Flame 81, pp 354-365, parameters [6] have in the 1990. initiation of smoldering in 6. Thomas Ohlemiller, K. Villa, Emil soft furnishings; that study Braun, Keith Eberhardt, Richard Harris, is described in more detail James Lawson, and Richard Gann, under its own heading. “Quantifying the Ignition Propensity of Cigarettes,” Fire and Materials 19, pp 155-169, 1995. The understanding of smoldering combustion 12.5 ADVANCED FIRE phenomena expressed in the referenced publications MEASUREMENTS and others has helped sub- The need for fire metrology has been stantially in the develop- driven from the earliest days of NBS ment of appropriate test by building codes, product perform- methods to assess this haz- ance, and fire fighting activities. The ard in various applications. objective of our research has been to Ohlemiller received the develop measurement methods for the Thomas Ohlemiller, chemical engineer, examines the results of an performance of products and fire con- experiment to characterize the smoldering combustion of blown-in Bronze Medal Award of the trol technologies that allow extrapola- cellulosic insulation in attic spaces. Department of Commerce in 1986 for his studies of tion of the behavior of these products smoldering combustion. and technologies to actual building understand the basic mechanisms at fires. Measurement advances at labora- work in this unique form of combus- References tory-, mid-, and full-scale all have tion so as to assure that test methods 1. R. McCarter, “Smoldering Combustion been targeted since accurate predic- are soundly based. of Cotton and Rayon,” J. Consumer tions only can be achieved by a higher Product Flammability 4, pp 269-286, level of understanding of the dynamics The initial experimental and modeling 1977. of fire and more certain measurement studies were performed by grantees at 2. A. Moussa, T-Y. Toong, and C. Garris, methods. MIT [2] and Princeton [3]. “Mechanism of Smoldering of Cellulosic Materials,” Sixteenth Symposium Simultaneous experiments at NIST (International) on Combustion, p 1447, The Predicting how an object will respond established the fundamental role Combustion Institute, Pittsburgh, Pa., in a real fire, how a fire will grow played by alkali metals as char oxida- 1976. beyond the room of origin, or how tion catalysts in many practical materi- 3. Thomas Ohlemiller, J. Bellan, and F. well a suppression system will extin- als. Thomas Ohlemiller moved to Rogers, “A Model of Smoldering guish the flames hinges on the meas- NIST and continued experimental and Combustion Applied to Flexible urement of key properties in and Polyurethane Foams,” Combustion and modeling studies of the variables, Flame, 36, pp 197-215, 1979. around the fire under carefully con- which influence smolder initiation [4], 4. Thomas Ohlemiller, “Modeling of trolled conditions. Because the dynam- propagation rate and the transition Smoldering Combustion Propagation,” ics of fire are strongly non-linear, dif- from smoldering to flaming combus- Progress in Energy and Combustion Science ferent measurement methods have

229 species profiles measured by Smyth [7] in a laminar methane flame.

The turbulence associated with jet flames and fire plumes of greater size controls the local mixing process and time available for chemical reactions. Small and large scale turbulent structures have been measured using William Grosshandler, mechanical engineer, is using new test methods to quantify the impact of an electri- Rayleigh scattering to explain lift-off cally heated surface on the amount of a gaseous agent necessary to extinguish a burning plastic specimen. and stabilization of hydrocarbon jet flames [8]. As fires get larger and buoyancy dominates, and as fuels become been developed to probe the multiple tions. These measurements led to a more complex, detailed species, tem- temporal and spatial scales that reveal new research program focused on perature, and flow data become difficult the chemical and physical principles explaining this discrepancy. to measure with certainty. Turbulent guiding fire behavior. Pioneering work pool fires are an example of this class, was done by Ingberg [1] in the first Measurements of the transformations which has been much studied. Hamins quarter of the last century, with his that occur in solid and liquid fuels et al [9] describe their measurement measurement methods defining the prior to and during combustion, such methods and the data gathered in liquid concept of fire loading and endurance as in the recent work by Nyden [4], pool fires of a variety of fuels and sizes. standards used in building codes promise to reveal mechanisms that can A fire within an enclosure is another throughout the world. The single most be exploited to increase the fire resist- class that presents a measurement chal- important characteristic of a fire is the ance of materials. The quantity and lenge, especially as the fire becomes rate of heat release. Huggett [2] devel- type of smoke generated by these and underventilated, when the flow through oped a practical means to measure this other burning materials is the third the doorway controls the fire. Steckler parameter for fires at real scale, based characteristic (along with the rate of and Quintere [10] quantified this flow upon the consumption of oxygen in heat release and CO) of great impor- in a full-scale room fire for the first the exhaust products. Oxygen tance. Optical and extractive methods time. While thermocouple measure- calorimetry is now carried out rou- have been developed to measure ments are straightforward to take, tinely for fires of all materials, systems, smoke levels, and these depend upon proper interpretation of the results and and sizes as large as 10 MW. the precise measurements by assessment of the measurement uncer- Mulholland of the soot morphology tainties are complicated in room fires. Great attention has been paid to the and optical properties [5]. The smoke Blevins and Pitts [11] examined this design and scale of fire experiments. and CO levels are sensitive to the problem and bracketed the magnitude An important example is a multi-story equivalence ratio (symbolized by the of the uncertainty in temperature meas- house built within the large fire facility Greek letter phi). A unique instrument urements for this situation. to duplicate a multi-fatality fire [3]. was developed by Babrauskas et al. [6] Measurements of CO in rooms remote to directly measure phi for the first Knowledge of the products of an from the fire revealed high levels, con- time. Our understanding of the kinet- incipient fire are key to early and cer- sistent with the cause of death but ics of soot formation have been greatly tain fire detection. Traditional meas- inconsistent with numerical predic- enhanced by the detailed spectroscopic urement methods have been used by

230 References Burning, in Fire Resistance of Industrial 1. S. H. Ingberg, ‘Tests of the Severity of Fluids,” ASTM STP 1284, G. Totten and Building Fires ‘, Quarterly of the National J. Reichel, Eds., American Society for Fire Protection Association 22, n1, 1928. Testing and Materials, West 2. Clayton Huggett, “Estimation of the Conshohocken, 1996. Rate of Heat Release by Means of 10. Kenneth Steckler, James Quintiere, and Oxygen Consumption Measurements,” W. Rinkinen, “Flow Induced by Fire in a Fire and Materials 4, pp 61-65, 1980. Compartment,” Nineteenth Symposium 3. Robert S. Levine and Harold E. Nelson, (International) on Combustion, The Kermit Smyth, leading researcher of chemical Full Scale Simulation of a Fatal Fire and Combustion Institute, pp 913-920, structure of flames. Comparison of Results with Two Multiroom 1982. Models, NISTIR 90-4268, National 11. L. G. Blevins and William M. Pitts, Institute of Standards and Technology, “Modeling of Bare and Aspirated Grosshandler et al [12] to characterize 1990. Thermocouples in Compartment Fires,” the content of the weak plumes that 4. Marc R. Nyden, “Real-time Fire Safety Journal 33, pp 239-259, 1999 . rise above small, growing fires. During Measurement of Condensed-phase 12. William L. Grosshandler, Thomas Spectra in Burning Polymers,” Applied Cleary, Marc Nyden, and W. Rinkinen, the act of suppressing a fire, measure- “Signatures of Smoldering/ Pyrolyzing ment of the details of the process are Spectroscopy 53, pp 1653-1655, 1999. 5. George W. Mulholland, and M. Y. Choi, Fires for Multi-element Detector Evaluation,” Proceedings of the Seventh particularly challenging. In response to “Measurement of the Mass Specific International Fire Science and Engineering this challenge and with the desire to Extinction Coefficient for Acetylene and Conference, Interflam 96, Interscience find suitable replacements for halon Ethene Smoke Using the Large Communications, pp 497-506, 1996. (halogenated hydrocarbon) 1301, sev- Agglomerates Optics Facility,” The 13. William L. Grosshandler, William M. Twenty-Seventh Symposium (International) on eral new measurement methods were Pitts, and Richard G. Gann (editors), Combustion, The Combustion Institute, developed that enabled the Evaluation of Alternative In-flight Fire pp 1515-1522, 1998. Department of Defense to select the Suppressants for Full-scale Testing in 6. Vytenis Babrauskas, William J. Parker, Simulated Aircraft Engine Nacelles and Dry best options for protecting military George Mulholland, and William H. aircraft from in-flight fires [13]. Bays, NIST SP 861, National Institute of Twilley, “The Phi Meter: A Simple, Fuel- Standards and Technology, 1994. Independent Instrument for Monitoring Combustion Equivalence Ratio,” Rev. Sci. Awards of the Department of 12.6 FIRE SAFE Commerce for this work include: Instrum. 65, pp 2367-2375, 1994. 7. Kermit C. Smyth, J. H. Miller, R. C. MATERIALS Bronze Medal to George Mulholland in Dorfman, W. G. Mallard, and R. J. In recent decades synthetic polymeric 1985 for smoke particle generation Santoro, “Soot Inception in a materials, because of their unique and growth mechanisms; Bronze Methane/Air Diffusion Flame as Characterized by Detailed Species physical properties, have rapidly Medal to William Pitts in 1991 for replaced more traditional materials turbulent combustion measurements; Profiles,” Combustion and Flame 62, pp 57-181, 1985. such as steel and nonferrous metals as Silver Medal to Kermit Smyth in 1992 8. William M. Pitts, “Large-scale Turbulent well as natural polymeric materials for measurements of the chemical Structures and the Stabilization of Lifted such as wood, cotton, and natural rub- structure of flames. Smyth also Turbulent Jet Diffusion Flames,” Twenty- ber. However, one weak aspect of syn- third Symposium (International) on received the NBS Condon Award in thetic polymeric materials compared Combustion, The Combustion Institute, 1987 for his seminal paper on the 1990. with steel and other metals is that chemistry of molecular growth in 9. A. Hamins, Takashi Kashiwagi, and R. these materials are combustible under flames. Buch, “Characteristics of Pool Fire certain conditions. Thus the majority

231 of polymer-containing end products polymers conducted at NBS from the linkages at about 160 °C (representing (for example, cables, TV sets, electric late 1940s to early 1970s [12]. one type of defect at the polymer appliances, carpets, furniture) must backbone); the second (scheme 2) by pass some type of regulatory test to Providing the technical basis for indus- scissions at the chain-end initiation help assure public safety from fire. trial clients to design less flammable from vinylidene ends at around 270 °C; However, these traditional pass/fail materials requires unfolding the struc- and the last (scheme 3) by random tests have not provided any informa- tural features that determine thermal scission within the polymer chain (at tion regarding the relationship stability. This paper [1] reports a study the weakest bonds). between flammability properties and of the thermal and oxidative degrada- the physical and chemical characteris- tion mechanisms of an acrylic polymer The first two mass loss steps were not tics of polymeric materials. Such infor- in atmospheres of nitrogen and air by observed with ionically polymerized mation is needed to develop more fire- measuring the change in the sample samples, which indicates that the first safe materials, a need which has accel- mass while various specially polymer- two steps are caused by the defects in erated because of European environ- ized samples were heated from 80 °C the polymer. Although the existence of mental concerns about the use of halo- to 480 °C. Thermal degradation of the head-to-head linkages could not be genated flame retardants (because of acrylic polymer, which was polymer- demonstrated, the vinylidene ends in potential formation of dioxins in the ized using a free-radical method, pro- the polymer were detected by the incineration of spent end products). ceeds in three steps of mass loss: the HNMR spectrum. No significant dif- The paper, Effects of Weak Linkages first and easiest (see figure below) is ferences were seen in the thermal or on the Thermal and Oxidative initiated by scissions of head-to-head oxidative degradation of the acrylic Degradation of Poly(methyl methacrylate) [1] is one of a series published on Three proposed thermal degradation steps of PMMA. this topic by the members of the Materials CH 3 CH 3 Fire Research Group H3C CH 3 H2 H2 H2 H2 at NBS/NIST from (1) C C C + C

H CO C CO CH 1985 to 1994 [2-11]. 3 2 2 3 CO 2CH 3 CO 2CH 3 These papers represent

a new approach that CH H C CH 3 3 2 CH 2 studies the effects of H2 H2 H2 C + H C molecular-level struc- (2) C C 2 H CO C CO CH ture of polymers on 3 2 2 3 CO 2CH 3 CO 2CH 3 their thermal stability

CH 3 and flammability prop- CH 2 H2 erties instead of a tra- C + H2C

ditional global ther- CO 2CH 3 CO 2CH 3 mal-balance approach. CH CH This series of studies is H3C CH 3 3 3 H2 H2 H2 H2 H2 built upon the pio- (3) C C C C + H2C C neering work on ther- H3CO 2C CO 2CH 3 CO CH CO CH mal degradation of 2 3 2 3

232 polymer when it was polymerized with the free-radical method using two common initiators. It was found that gas-phase oxygen traps polymer radicals resulting from chain scissions at head-to-head linkages, and no mass loss was observed from this step in air. Similarly, oxygen traps radicals generated by end initiation, but mass loss is only delayed to slightly higher temper- Fire Materials Research Group, 1994 atures, presumably because of a slight gain in the thermal stability of the oxy- The influence on thermal stability by char [13]. The results predicted that gen-trapped polymers compared with the above-discussed defects in the the formation of cross-linking, for end initiation. polymer have been studied and pub- example by exposure of polyethylene lished [7,8,10]. The results show that a to ionizing radiation, enhanced further This series of studies involved not only higher thermal stability increases pilot- cross-linking when the polymer is experimental observations but also ed-ignition delay time and gasification burned. An increase in ignition delay theoretical calculations in which kinet- rate of the polymer, but initial molecu- time was observed for irradiated poly- ics equations were solved for each lar weight does not affect ignition ethylene samples compared to unex- polymer chain. Detailed thermal delay time. On the other hand, initial posed samples. A similar approach has degradation models were developed molecular weight of the polymer has been pursued by Charles Wilkie at based on random initiation, depropa- significant effect on flame spread rate Marquette University, Richard Lyon at gation of free radicals, and termination because low molecular weight materi- the FAA Technical Center, and James of free radicals; calculations were made als will flow more readily when heated. McGrath at Virginia Polytechnic with the assumption of steady-state The physical and chemical roles of the Institute and State University. free radical concentration [4] and condensed phase in the burning without that assumption [5]. The process of polymeric materials were Because of the increasing demand for kinetic rate constants for each reaction published as a summary of this series non-halogenated flame retardant additives for polymeric end products, this were derived by comparing experi- of studies [11]. molecular-level study has been extend- mentally measured molecular weights The molecular-level study of the ther- ed to include flame retardant mecha- of polymer samples collected at various mal degradation and flammability nisms of polymers containing small temperatures and exposure times with properties of polymers described above quantities of inorganic flame retardant the theoretically calculated results [6]. was pursued further by Marc Nyden additives. As a result of advancements The final paper of the series on ther- and coworkers at NIST. They used in nanoscale science and technology, mal degradation investigated the molecular dynamic simulations of molecular-level studies of the effects of behavior of primary radicals generated thermal degradation of polyethylene to trace additives in clay-polymer from random scissions by measuring identify factors that might be effective nanocomposites are demonstrating evolved degradation products with a in reducing polymer flammability by enhanced physical properties with mass spectrometer [9]. promoting the formation of residual simultaneous improvements in the

233 improved fire-safe materials, as well as Kashiwagi received the Department of studying ignition and flame spread in a Commerce Bronze Medal Award in microgravity environment. He was a 1982 for studies of radiant ignition, principal investigator of the ignition the Silver Medal Award in 1991 for and flame spread experiment conduct- characterization of flame spread, and ed on Space Shuttle flight STS-75. the Gold Medal Award in 2000 for Atsushi Inaba received his Ph.D. in flame retardants principles and mod- chemical engineering from Tokyo els. James Raines received the Bronze Takashi Kashiwagi pioneered research in igni- University in 1981 and was a guest sci- Medal in 1982 for laboratory automation and flame spread in microgravity and con- entist at NBS from May 1984 to tion support of these and other fire tributed significantly to understanding the com- March 1986. He is currently Director studies. Kashiwagi also received the bustion of polymeric materials and the mecha- of the Research Planning Office of the NIST Applied Research Award in 1991 nisms of flame retardants. National Institute for Resources and for studies of the thermal degradation Environment in Japan. James E. Brown of plastics. Marc Nyden received the flammability properties of polymers. joined the Polymer Division of NBS in Bronze Medal Award in 1993 for his This contrasts with the traditional 1956 as a research chemist, moved to studies of computational molecular approach that improves the flammabil- Fire Science Division in 1975, and dynamics. Jeffrey Gilman received the ity but often degrades mechanical retired in 1996. Koichi Hatada, a pro- Bronze Medal Award in 1999 for his properties. fessor in the Department of Chemistry studies of nanocomposites. at Osaka University, was known inter- The study described in this paper nationally for his work on stereoregu- References involved the synthesis of specific poly- lar and living polymerization and 1. Takashi Kashiwagi, Atsushi Inaba, James mers, analytical characterization of the copolymerization. He retired from E. Brown, Koichi Hatada, Tatsuki synthesized polymers, and careful ther- Osaka University in 1998 after serving Kitayama, and Eiji Masuda, “Effects of mogravimetric analysis. Two different Weak Linkages on the Thermal and as vice president of the University. Oxidative Degradation of Poly(methyl groups, the Materials Fire Research Tatsuki Kitayama is a professor in the methacrylate),” Macromolecules 19, pp Group at NIST and Department of Chemistry Department of Osaka 2160-2168, 1986. Chemistry at Osaka University, con- University. Eiji Masuda was a student 2. Takashi Kashiwagi, T. Hirata, and James tributed their own expertise to this under Professor Hatada and is current- E. Brown, Thermal and Oxidative highly collaborative undertaking. The ly a senior research scientist at Degradation of Poly(methyl methacry- group at Osaka University synthesized Polyplastics Company in Japan. late): Molecular Weight, Macromolecules, and characterized all polymer samples 18, pp 131-138, 1985. 3. T. Hirata, Takashi Kashiwagi, and James used in the study, while the group at Alexander Robertson received the NBS E. Brown, Thermal and Oxidative NIST performed the thermogravimet- Rosa Award in 1978 for career contri- Degradation of Poly(methyl methacry- ric analyses. butions to standards for materials late): Weight Loss, Macromolecules, 18, flammability test methods. Clayton pp 1410-1418, 1985. Takashi Kashiwagi joined NBS in 1971 Huggett received the Department of 4. Atsushi Inaba and Takashi Kashiwagi, A after he received his Ph.D. from Commerce Silver Medal Award in Calculation of Thermal Degradation Initiated by Random Scission, 1. Steady- Princeton University. He was a group 1978 for studies of flame inhibition, State Radical Concentration, leader from 1988 to 1998 in the Fire and William Bailey received the Bronze Macromolecules, 19, pp 2412-2419, 1986. Science Division. He is currently a Medal Award for laboratory support of 5. Atsushi Inaba, and Takashi Kashiwagi, A materials research engineer working on these and other fire studies. Takashi Calculation of Thermal Degradation

234 Initiated by Random Scission, Unsteady 12.7 CARBON little was known concerning the Radical Concentration, Eur. Polym. J. 23, MONOXIDE amounts formed or the physical mech- pp 871-881, 1987. anisms responsible for its generation. 6. Atsushi Inaba, Takashi Kashiwagi, and FORMATION IN As a result, it was nearly impossible to James E. Brown, “Effects of Initial FIRES Molecular Weight on Thermal model the effects of a fire on potential Degradation of Poly(methyl methacry- Fire safety research has been ongoing victims. late): Part 1 - Model 1,” Poly. Deg. and at NIST since its founding one hun- Stab. 21, pp 1-20, 1988. dred years ago. This research has tradi- Recognizing the importance of carbon 7. Takashi Kashiwagi and A. Omori, tionally been focused on understanding monoxide formation in fires, CFR ini- “Effects of Thermal Stability and Melt fire behavior and developing tests to tiated a long-term project aimed at Viscosity of Thermoplastics on Piloted improve fire safety. By the early 1970s identifying the mechanisms of carbon Ignition,” Twenty-Second Symposium the understanding of fire behavior had monoxide formation in fires and (International) on Combustion, The Combustion Institute, pp 1329-1338, advanced sufficiently that the develop- developing methodologies for predict- 1988. ment of engineering models capable of ing the levels generated [1, 2]. The 8. Takashi Kashiwagi, A. Omori, and James predicting the behavior of fires in principal investigator was William M. E. Brown, “Effects of Material buildings could begin. By the late Pitts who worked with a number of Characteristics on Flame Spreading,” Fire 1990s modeling capabilities had been BFRL staff including Nelson Bryner, Safety Science - Proceeding of the Second developed to a point where governing Erik Johnsson, George Mulholland, International Symposium, pp107-117, bodies were willing to consider per- and William Davis. Hemisphere Press, New York, 1989. formance based codes, which require 9. Takashi Kashiwagi, Atsushi Inaba, and The starting point for the project was Anthony Hamins, “Behavior of Primary engineering estimates of fire safety, in Radicals during Thermal Degradation of lieu of existing prescriptive codes. seminal research carried out at Poly(Methyl Methacrylate),” Poly. Deg. Harvard University and the California and Stab. 26, 161-184, 1989. Major components of fire safety engi- Institute of Technology under Center 10. Takashi Kashiwagi, Atsushi Omori, and neering are human behavior and safety. for Fire Research sponsorship. By H. Nanbu, “Effects of Melt Viscosity and Even though fire was a serious prob- using hoods to capture the products of Thermal Stability on Polymer lem claiming thousands of lives each combustion generated by fires burning Gasification,” Combust. Flame 81, 188 - year, the causes of fire deaths were not in open laboratories, these researchers 201, 1990. well characterized during the first half demonstrated that high levels of car- 11. Takashi Kashiwagi, “Polymer Combustion and Flammability - Role of of the last century. By the 1970s stud- bon monoxide were formed when the the Condensed Phase,” Twenty-Fifth ies were indicating that most fire amount of air entrained by a fire Symposium (International) on Combustion, deaths were the result of smoke plume located beneath a layer of com- pp 1423 -1437, The Combustion inhalation and not burns. The vast bustion gases was insufficient to con- Institute, 1994. majority of victims of smoke inhalation sume all of the fuel present. Such 12. S. L. Madorsky, Thermal Degradation of were found to have carbon monoxide burning is referred to as being under- Organic Polymers, Interscience Publishers, (a molecular species known to induce ventilated. Even more significant was New York, 1964. hypoxia) levels in their blood streams the observation that concentrations of 13. Marc R. Nyden, Glenn P. Forney, and James E. Brown, “Molecular Modeling sufficient to cause incapacitation the major species of combustion of Polymer Flammability: Application to and/or death. Even though these stud- (including carbon monoxide) in the the Design of Flame-Resistant ies suggested that the formation of car- hoods were strongly correlated with Polyethylene,” Macromolecules 25, pp bon monoxide was responsible for a the ratio of the masses of products 1658-1666, 1992. significant fraction of fire deaths, very derived from fuel and air present in

235 carbon monoxide for- sure fires, a series of natural gas fueled mation during enclo- fires were carried out in both a 40 sure fires as well as to percent-scale and a full-scale model of identify other mecha- an enclosure widely used in fire test- nisms capable of gener- ing. The full-scale room had dimen- ating carbon monoxide sions of 2.4 m wide, 2.4 m high, 3.7 m in enclosure fires. A long and contained a single doorway concurrent research centered in one of the short walls. program at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute Measurements made in the 40 per- and State University cent-scale model revealed that the funded by the Building composition of combustion gases and and Fire Research temperatures in the upper layer of the The plot shows the dramatic increases in carbon monoxide levels due Laboratory had similar fire varied somewhat with location, but to the presence of wood in the upper layer of an underventilated enclosure fire. When the wood weakens and falls to the floor of the goals. that the composition was still strongly enclosure, the carbon monoxide levels return to those typical of fires correlated with a global equivalence without wood present. One of the first steps in ratio based on the fuel release rate and the BFRL project was the amount of air entering the door- to perform fundamental way. This finding confirmed that the the hood normalized by the fuel-to-air thermodynamic and kinetic investiga- mechanism for carbon monoxide for- ratio required to fully convert the fuel tions in order to better understand the mation identified in the hood experi- to water and carbon dioxide. This nor- chemical nature of the upper layers ments was also important in enclosure malized ratio is known as the global formed during fires in enclosures. fires. However, the experimental equivalence ratio (GER), and the exis- These studies indicated that the upper- results, along with field modeling of tence of the correlations is referred to layer combustion products formed the flows in the enclosure, also showed as the GER concept. Interestingly, during underventilated burning are that a fraction of the air passing when the yields of carbon monoxide predominately determined by kinetics through the doorway could enter the were expressed on a mass generated and are far from thermodynamic equi- upper layer of the room directly with- per mass of fuel consumed basis, the librium. The gases only start to out being entrained into the fire results were found be nearly fuel inde- approach thermodynamic equilibrium plume. For a fuel rich upper layer the pendent. An initial survey of real-scale for temperatures in excess of 1100 °C. detailed chemical kinetic modeling fire tests results carried out as part of The calculated reaction behaviors were indicated that this air would react with the Building and Fire Research also consistent with the experimental fuel to generate primarily carbon Laboratory project showed that observation that the composition in monoxide. Thus direct entrainment of observed yields of carbon monoxide in the hood experiments varied somewhat air into a rich, high temperature upper underventilated fires were roughly in with the temperature of the gases. layer provides an additional mecha- line with those found during the hood nism for carbon monoxide formation experiments. The experiments that identified the in enclosure fires. GER concept are highly idealized mod- The NIST research program was els for enclosure fires. In order to veri- Somewhat surprisingly, much higher designed to confirm the applicability of fy that that the GER concept was levels of carbon monoxide were the GER concept for the production of appropriate for more realistic enclo- observed during burns in the full-scale

236 enclosure than in the reduced-scale with plywood. Observed enclosure. Analysis showed that these upper-layer concentrations higher levels were due to the higher of carbon monoxide were as temperatures present in the upper much as six times higher layer of the full-scale facility. These than when wood was absent, temperatures were sufficiently high for thus confirming the hypoth- the underventilated fire gases to begin esis and providing a fourth to react and approach thermodynamic mechanism for generating equilibrium. This leads to increases in carbon monoxide in enclo- carbon monoxide since this species is sure fire environments. thermodynamically favored at high temperatures. The upper-layer tem- Based upon the understand- peratures for which increased carbon ing developed during the monoxide formation was observed research program, an algo- were consistent with the predictions of rithm was developed that the detailed chemical kinetic modeling. allows fire safety engineers to determine whether car- Comparison with a number of real- bon monoxide is likely to be scale tests carried out at the Center for formed during an enclosure A scale model experiment used to investigate carbon monoxide Fire Research indicated that the three fire and to estimate the formation during underventilated burning within an enclosure. mechanisms discussed above were suf- amounts generated. The ficient to explain the formation of car- four formation mechanisms had been common for fire researchers bon monoxide for many fires. identified during the investigation are However, it was recognized that for to assess the potential of a particular several large fires in which wood was incorporated: 1) quenching of a turbu- fuel to generate toxic products by burned the levels of carbon monoxide lent fire plume upon entering a rich burning or pyrolyzing small samples were considerably higher than predict- upper layer, 2) mixing of oxygen and either identifying the products ed based on these mechanisms alone. directly into a rich, high-temperature generated or monitoring the response Since wood contains a significant frac- upper layer with subsequent reaction, of animals, such as rats, to the prod- tion of oxygen and is known to gener- 3) pyrolysis of wood in high-tempera- ucts. However, the results of this ate carbon monoxide when heated to ture, vitiated environments, and 4) research showed that the amount of high temperatures in anaerobic envi- approach to full-equilibrium combus- carbon monoxide, which is often the ronments, it was postulated that high tion product concentrations in a rich, dominant toxic species present, gener- concentrations of carbon monoxide in high-temperature upper layer. ated is determined primarily by the fires can be generated when wood is ventilation and flow conditions under located in high temperature fire envi- The results of this research not only which real-scale burning is occurring ronments where oxygen is unavailable. provided an understanding and predic- and is much less dependent on fuel-to- In order to test this hypothesis, under- tive method for the generation of car- fuel variations. This topic remains as ventilated natural gas fires were bon monoxide in enclosure fires, but active area of research, but many burned in both enclosures in which also had an impact on the study of fire researchers have concluded that small- the upper walls and ceilings were lined toxicity in general. Prior to this work it scale testing is only appropriate when

237 it is suspected that unusually toxic Nelson P. Bryner, “Carbon Monoxide to the turn of the century, but legisla- species may be generated by a particu- Formation in Fires by High-Temperature tion to control the ignition strength of Anaerobic Wood Pyrolysis,” Twenty-Fifth lar fuel. cigarettes had been thwarted by a pow- Symposium (International) on Combustion, pp 1455-1462, The Combustion erful industry lobby. Rather, a manda- The significance of this research was Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, 1994. tory standard for the cigarette resist- recognized in 1996 when Pitts was 7. Nelson P. Bryner, E. L. Johnsson, and ance of mattresses and voluntary stan- awarded the Department of William M. Pitts, Carbon Monoxide dards for upholstered furniture had Commerce’s Silver Medal “for ground Production in Compartment Fires: Reduced- become effective in the 1970s. Much of breaking research in predicting the Scale Enclosure Test Facility, NISTIR 5568, the developmental work for these stan- yields of carbon monoxide from fire National Institute of Standards and dards was done in the Center for Fire Technology, 1994. Research by John Krasny and Joseph and propelling a new era in real-scale 8. William M. Pitts, “The Global fire research.” Equivalence Ratio Concept and the Loftus under the leadership of James Formation Mechanisms of Carbon Winger. They acquired detailed knowl- References Monoxide in Enclosure Fires,” Progress in edge of cigarettes and furnishings. Now, 1. George W. Mulholland, Letter Report to Energy and Combustion Science 21, pp 197- this would be put to use in examining Richard G. Gann, Chief, Fire 237, 1995. the cigarette. Measurement and Research Division, 9. Nelson P. Bryner, E. L. Johnsson, and Center for Fire Research, National William M. Pitts, “Scaling Compartment The 1984 Act established a Technical Bureau of Standards, Unpublished, June Fires - Reduced- and Full-Scale Study Group on Cigarette and Little 16, 1988. Enclosure Burns,” Proceedings of 2. William M. Pitts, Long-Range Plan for a International Conference on Fire Research and Cigar Fire Safety (TSG), which was Research Project on Carbon Monoxide Engineering (ICFRE), pp 9-14, SFPE, directed to determine the technical Production and Prediction, NISTIR 4185, Boston, MA, 1995. and commercial feasibility, economic National Institute of Standards and 10. William M. Pitts, “An Algorithm for impact, and other consequences of Technology, 1989. Estimating Carbon Monoxide Formation developing cigarettes and little cigars 3. George Mulholland, Marc Janssens, S. in Enclosure Fires,” Proceedings of the Fifth that will have a minimum propensity Yusa, William Twilley, and Vytenis International Symposium on Fire Safety to ignite upholstered furniture or mat- Babrauskas, “The Effect of Oxygen Science, pp 535-546, International Concentration on CO and Smoke Association for Fire Safety Science, tresses. Such activities were to include Production by Flames,” Proceedings of the Boston, MA, 1997. identification of the different physical Third International Symposium on Fire Safety characteristics of cigarettes and little Science, pp 585-594, Elsevier, New York, 12.8 LESS FIRE-PRONE cigars which have an impact on the 1991. ignition of upholstered furniture and 4. William M. Pitts, “Reactivity of Product CIGARETTES mattresses, an analysis of the feasibility Gases Generated in Idealized Enclosure Fire Experiments,” Twenty-Fourth On September 30, 1984 the landmark of altering any pertinent characteristics Symposium (International) on Combustion, Cigarette Safety Act of 1984 (P.L. 98- to reduce ignition propensity, and an pp 1737-1746, The Combustion 567) was signed into law. It had long analysis of the possible costs and bene- Institute, Pittsburgh, PA, 1992. been known that cigarette-initiated fires fits, both to the industry and the pub- 5. William M. Pitts, “Application of were the largest single cause of fire lic, associated with any such product Thermodynamic and Detailed Chemical deaths in the United States: 1570 in modification. The TSG was composed Kinetic Modeling to Understanding 1984, along with 7000 serious injuries, of five representatives of Federal agen- Combustion Product Generation in Enclosure Fires,” Fire Safety Journal 23, 390 million of destroyed property, and cies, four representatives of the ciga- pp 271-303, 1994. a total cost of about $4 billion. Patents rette manufacturing industry, two 6. William M. Pitts, E. L. Johnsson, and for less fire-prone cigarettes dated back members from the furniture manufac-

238 turing industry, two members from stered furniture and mattresses and to ture (substrate). A lit cigarette public health organizations, and two do so with minimal economic impact, is placed on one of three differ- members from fire safety organiza- presuming the modified cigarettes ent mock-ups. Ignition (failure) tions. Richard Gann of the NBS were commercially feasible. The TSG is defined as the char propagat- Center for Fire Research was chosen also identified five additional pieces of ing 10 mm away from the tobac- to chair the TSG. technical work needed to support a co column. The procedure is safety standard for less fire-prone ciga- repeated a set number of times Over the next three years, most of the rettes. and the percent of failures is cal- research was performed at NBS in the culated. Center for Fire Research and the The Congress responded with a second - The Cigarette Extinction Center for Building Technology under piece of legislation, the Fire Safe Method measures whether a cig- the overall leadership of Gann: [1-7]. Cigarette Act of 1990 (P.L. 101-352). It arette, when placed on a heat- A team led by Robert Levine showed created a Technical Advisory Group absorbing substrate, burns long that it is possible to use laboratory- (TAG) with the same composition as and strong enough to cause igni- scale tests to produce cigarette ignition the TSG. Again, Gann was chosen as tion had it been dropped on a propensity data that correlated well the Chair. This Act specifically charged piece of furniture. A lit cigarette with full-scale chairs of the same mate- the NIST Center for Fire Research to is placed on one of three sub- rials. develop a standard test method for ciga- strates consisting of a fixed • Thomas Ohlemiller, Richard Harris, rette ignition propensity, compile per- number of pieces of common and co-workers identified certain formance data for cigarettes using this filter paper. Failure is defined as properties of cigarettes that can be method, and conduct research to devel- the cigarette burning its full varied to reduce the likelihood of op predictive capability. The Consumer length. The procedure is repeat- igniting a fire. Product Safety Commission and the ed a set number of times and • Rosalie Ruegg’s team of Steven Department of Health and Human the percent failures is calculat- Weber, Barbara Lippiatt, and Services were also assigned tasks. ed. [While the metric in this Sieglinde Fuller, all from the Center test is the cessation of burning, for Building Technology showed that The NIST research was again success- it is not a test for “self-extin- the cost of modifying cigarettes to ful, generating the products directed guishing” cigarettes. Some ciga- lower ignition propensity is modest by the Act: rette designs that pass this pro- and is far outweighed by the societal • A team of Kay Villa, Emil Braun, cedure have also performed well benefits of fewer fires, injuries, and Richard Harris, Randy Lawson and in the Mock-up Test, burning deaths. Richard Gann, led by Thomas their full length without causing Ohlemiller and supported by Keith an ignition.] Other projects were performed by the Eberhardt of the NIST Statistical The two methods produce similar Consumer Product Safety Commission Engineering Division, developed two results. Both were subjected to an and the National Fire Protection methods for measuring the ignition interlaboratory evaluation to Association. propensity of a cigarette type: [8,9] measure their reproducibility. - The Mock-up Ignition Method • Test data on 20 commercial ciga- As a result of this work, The TSG con- measures whether a cigarette rettes and 5 experimental cigarettes cluded that it was technically feasible causes ignition by transferring using the two methods. These data to develop cigarettes with a significant- enough heat to a fabric/foam indicated that the best selling ciga- ly reduced propensity to ignite uphol- simulation of a piece of furni- rettes were potent igniters of fur-

239 nishing and that a few specialty cigarettes had somewhat improved performance, while far better performance was technically possible. The data also provided a reference assessment of the 1993 marketplace for future use [8]. • Henri Mitler and George Walton created computer models of a multi-layer cushion subjected to a stationary heat source, a model of a burning cigarette lying on such a cushion and a protocol for using the Michael Smith, physical science technician (back to camera), demonstrates the NIST test for measuring two together [10]. the ignition strength of cigarettes (later ASTM E2187) for Richard Gann, chief, Fire Science Division and Mike Wallace of 60 Minutes. In March 1994, the crew of the CBS News Magazine, 60 Minutes, visited For his leadership in response to both Ingberg Award for the research leading NIST. While there was concern among of these Acts, Gann was awarded the to the Standard. Department of Commerce Silver NIST management that the institution Medal. Both test methods are current- On January 11, 2000, a major manu- would be harmed by the team of ly being processed by ASTM facturer of cigarettes announced that it reporter Mike Wallace and producer Committee E5 on Fire Standards. would soon be test marketing a modifi- Lowell Bergman, this turned out not Based on these results, legislation to cation of one of their cigarettes that to be the case. Michael Smith, the develop a National standard for less would make them less likely to start a BFRL technician who had done the fire-prone cigarettes has been intro- fire. The cigarette design evolved from lion’s share of the testing of the com- duced in the Congress, but a law has one of the patented ideas tested (with mercial cigarettes, was filmed for the not yet emerged. Meanwhile, there has positive results) under the Cigarette show and Dick Gann was interviewed been activity in several state legisla- Safety Act of 1984, entailing adding about the NIST research. The segment tures, and in June 2000, the State of circumferential bands of low air per- “Up in Smoke” aired on March 27, New York enacted the first bill direct- meability paper to the paper that wraps 1994, marking the first time NIST had ing the development of a cigarette fire the tobacco column. The manufactur- been featured on the show. safety standard by January 2003. That er’s ignition propensity test data, using regulation uses ASTM E-2187-02b, the Mock-up Ignition test Method, During the course of the filming, Mike Standard Test Method for indicated this design would be distinct- Wallace (who generally struck fear in Measurement of the Ignition Strength ly less likely to start a fire. The public the subjects of his interviews) asked of Cigarettes, which is the result of the safety community anticipated the Michael Smith about the difficulties of NIST work. In December 2002 the potential for a significant reduction in giving up smoking. Smith suggested team of Richard Gann, Emil Braun, life loss and injury; the regulatory com- that Mike Wallace should keep the dis- Keith Eberhardt, John Krasny, Randy munity anticipated the existence of a cussions to technical topics, and Lawson, and Tom Ohlemiller were product that would make a less fire- Wallace apologized for the intrusion. honored with ASTM’s Simon H. prone cigarette standard feasible.

240 Study Group on Cigarette and Little Cigar Fire Safety, Cigarette Safety Act of 1984, and NBSIR 87-3509, National Bureau of Standards, 1987. 3. Richard G. Gann, Richard H. Harris, Jr., John F. Krasny, R.S. Levine, Henri E. Mitler, and Thomas J. Ohlemiller, The Effect of Cigarette Characteristics on the Ignition of Soft Furnishings, Report No. 3, Technical Study Group on Cigarette and Little Cigar Fire Safety, Cigarette Safety Demonstration of the results of NIST research on the cigarette properties that affect the propensity of a Act of 1984, and NBS Technical Note cigarette to ignite a chair or bed. The cigarette on the left could have led to a serious fire. The cigarette 1241, National Bureau of Standards, on the right has properties that make it unlikely to ignite upholstered furniture. 1987. 4. John F. Krasny, Richard H. Harris, Jr., In May 2000, soon after the test mar- bodies proceed toward cigarette safety Robert S. Levine, and Richard G. Gann, keting of the modified cigarettes standards, NIST continues to provide “Cigarettes With Low Propensity to began, the Federal Trade Commission them with guidance on the technology Ignite Soft Furnishings,” J. Fire Sciences. requested that the NIST Building and to make such standards effective. 7, p 251, 1989. 5. Rosalie T. Ruegg, Stephen F. Weber, Fire Research Laboratory conduct tests Barbara C. Lippiatt, and Sieglinde K. to determine whether and to what John Krasny received the Bronze Fuller, Improving the Fire Safety of Cigarettes: extent this cigarette does reduce the Medal Award of the Department of An Economic Impact Analysis, Report No. 4, risk of ignition. While NIST does not Commerce in 1980 for his studies of Technical Study Group on Cigarette and routinely perform product tests, it rec- self-extinguishing cigarettes, and Little Cigar Fire Safety, Cigarette Safety Act of 1984, and NBS Technical Note ognized the important role of the Joseph Loftus, also in 1980, received Federal Trade Commission in assuring 1242, National Bureau of Standards, the Bronze Medal for his studies of Gaithersburg, MD, 1987. the public of the veracity of product cigarette ignition resistance of materi- 6. Richard G. Gann et al, “Toward a Less claims and the high potential for less als. Richard Gann received the Silver Fire-Prone Cigarette, Final Report to the fire-prone cigarettes to reduce fire Medal Award of the Department of Congress, Technical Study Group on deaths and injuries and agreed to Commerce in 1994 for his leadership Cigarette and Little Cigar Fire Safety,” Cigarette Safety Act of 1984, 1987. measure the ignition propensity of of the studies of cigarette ignition these test cigarettes relative to the per- 7. Barbara C. Lippiatt, “Measuring Medical propensity. formance of the unmodified product. Cost and Life Expectancy Impacts of Changes in Cigarette Sales,” Preventive The NIST tests show that the banded References Medicine, 19, pp 515-532, 1990. cigarette does have a lower relative 1. John F. Krasny and Richard G. Gann, 8. Thomas J. Ohlemiller, K.M. Villa, Emil ignition propensity than its conven- Relative Propensity of Selected Commercial Braun, Keith R. Eberhardt, Richard H. tional counterpart and performs far Cigarettes to Ignite Soft Furnishings Mockups, Harris, Jr., James R. Lawson and better than the best selling cigarettes Report No. 1, Technical Study Group on Richard G. Gann, Test Methods for from 1993 [11]. That cigarette is now Cigarette and Little Cigar Fire Safety, Quantifying the Propensity of Cigarettes to in commercial production. Cigarette Safety Act of 1984, and NBSIR Ignite Soft Furnishings, NIST Special 86-3421, National Bureau of Standards, Publication 851, National Institute of 1986. Standards and Technology, 1993. Thus, NIST research has paved the 2. John F. Krasny, Cigarette Ignition of Soft 9. Thomas J. Ohlemiller, K.M. Villa, Emil way for reducing the single most fre- Furnishings - A Literature Review With Braun, Keith R. Eberhardt, Richard H. quent cause of fatal fires. As governing Commentary, Report No. 2, Technical Harris, Jr., James R. Lawson and

241 Richard G. Gann, “Quantifying the In 1948, the U.S. Army commissioned and in January 1994, nearly all pro- Ignition Propensity of Cigarettes,” Fire a search for a fire suppressant of high duction ceased. and Materials, 19, pp 155-169, 1995. efficiency but low toxicity. Two com- 10. Henri E. Mitler and George N. Walton, Modeling the Ignition of Soft Furnishings by a pounds emerged and became commer- In 1989, the newly organized indus- Cigarette, NIST Special Publication 852, cial successes. Halon 1301 (CF3Br) try/government Halon Alternatives National Institute of Standards and found widespread use as a total flood- Research Consortium commissioned a

Technology, 1993. ing agent and halon 1211 (CF2ClBr) team led by Gann to formulate a com- 11. Richard G. Gann, Kenneth D. Steckler, became the predominant streaming prehensive plan to identify new, envi- S. Ruitberg, W. F. Guthrie and M. S. ronmentally safe fire suppressants. The Levenson, Relative Ignition Propensity of Test agent. By the 1980s, most computer first two projects were funded at NBS Market Cigarettes, NIST Technical Note rooms, nearly all commercial and mili- 1436, National Institute of Standards tary aircraft, and numerous museums by the Air Force. Led by Gann, a team and Technology, 2000. were typical of the high value proper- from CFR, the Center for Chemical ties protected by these halon systems. Technology (CCT), and the Materials 12.9 ALTERNATIVE FIRE Science and Engineering Laboratory, SUPPRESSANTS The National Bureau of Standards developed a set of tools to screen pos- became involved in fire suppression sible candidates [3]. A second team, The ability to control fire is universally during this period. Beginning in the lead by William Pitts of the CFR with and exclusively human. While about early 1960s, Carroll Creitz developed staff from the CCT, scoped the world 400,000 years ago homo erectus had new ways of studying inhibited flames of chemicals to be examined [4]. Little learned how to “capture” and use fire, and proposed a mechanism for the further public research was done, as their effort was directed at keeping the effectiveness of halogenated flame companies began to market as fire sup- fire from going out. The first formal inhibitors [1,2]. In the mid 1970s, pressants chemicals that had emerged requirement for fire suppression the Center for Fire Research (CFR) from the search for alternate refriger- appeared in ancient Rome, the first hired Richard Gann, who had done ants, a far larger market. Many users of water pump and hose was implement- research on halogenated fire suppres- the halons converted to these other ed in 1725, and the automatic sprin- sion with the Naval Research suppressants or ceased providing fire kler was invented in 1812. Today, the Laboratory, and Gary Mallard, who protection altogether. application of chemicals, manually and had done similar research with the by mechanical devices, to control fires Bureau of Mines. Together, they began However, the Department of Defense has become a mainstay of safety in looking for halons that might be more (DoD) was faced with a critical prob- modern society. effective than halon 1301. lem. Fires and explosions were (and continue to be) among the greatest Carbon tetrachloride, first mass pro- In the 1970s, it was found that when threats to the safety of personnel and duced early in the 20th century, was these halons were released into the the survivability of military aircraft, the first “clean” agent, i.e., unlike atmosphere, they would rise to the ships, and land vehicles in peacetime water it caused no damage to a build- stratosphere where they would and during combat operations. For ing or its contents and left no residue deplete the earth’s delicate protective these, halon 1301 had become the fire itself. It was also the first halon. ozone layer. Under the 1987 suppressant of choice. In 1992, the However, concerns soon arose about Montreal Protocol on Substances that DoD initiated a massive program to its toxic effects on firefighters and oth- Deplete the Ozone Layer and its sub- identify the optimal commercially ers at the fire scene. The same held sequent amendments, production of available replacements for all their true for other early halons. halons 1301 and 1211 was restricted, ozone-depleting substances, including

242 the halons. A large team of staff from the Building and Fire Research Laboratory and other NIST Laboratories, led by Gann, played a major role in the search for alternatives to halon 1301 for aircraft applications, establishing new science and engineering in a broad range of topics: The Transient Application, Recirculating Fire (TARPF) Facility was the first laboratory-scale appara- [5,6] tus that enabled measuring the effectiveness of new fire suppressants in the complex environment of • Thermodynamic properties of alter- aircraft engine nacelles. The picture shows the progression from stable flame to one that is about to nate agents: Jiann Yang, Brett Breuel be extinguished. • Fluid dynamics of agent discharge: William Pitts, Jiann Yang, Grzegorz Mulholland, Barbara Levin ommendation of C2HF5 as the opti- Gmurczyk, Leonard Cooper, • Suppression of high-speed flames mal commercially available chemical to William Grosshandler, Carole and quasi-detonations: Grzegorz replace halon 1301 for use in engine Womeldorf, Michelle King, Thomas Gmurczyk, William Grosshandler nacelles and dry bays. Unfortunately, Cleary; Marcia Huber, William • Photodegradation of CF3I: Marc this chemical is about 2-3 times less Cleveland, Cary Presser (Chemical Nyden efficient than halon 1301, requiring Science and Technology Laboratory, • Effects of suppressants on metal significant and costly modification of CSTL) fires: Thomas Ohlemiller, John the aircraft for its implementation. • Flame suppressant effectiveness: Shields [However, recent re-engineering of the Anthony Hamins, Grzegorz • Suppression of engine nacelle fires: Navy’s F/A-18 C/D aircraft has made Gmurczyk, William Grosshandler, Anthony Hamins, Thomas Cleary, C2HF5 the leading halon 1301 Isaura Vazquez, Thomas Cleary, and Kevin McGrattan, Glenn Forney, replacement contender for that use.] Cary Presser William Grosshandler; Cary Presser • Prediction of HF formation during • Flame inhibition chemistry and the In 1997, the DoD initiated the Next suppression: Gregory Linteris search for additional fire fighting Generation Fire Suppression • Real-time suppressant concentration chemicals: Marc Nyden, Gregory measurement; William Pitts, George Technology Program (NGP) to develop Linteris; Donald Burgess; Wing Mulholland, Bret Breuel, Eric retrofitable, economically feasible, Tsang, Michael Zachariah (CSTL) Johnsson, Richard Harris environmentally acceptable, and user- • Agent stability under storage and • Identification of a halon 1301 simu- safe processes, techniques, and fluids discharge residue: Richard Peacock, lant for use in engine nacelle certifi- that met the operational requirements Thomas Cleary, Richard Harris cation tests: Carole Womeldorf, satisfied by halon 1301 systems. The • Corrosion of metals: Richard Ricker William Grosshandler new technologies would be of low and Mark Stoudt (Materials Science mass and volume and compatible with and Engineering Laboratory, MSEL) William Grosshandler was awarded the the host weapons system design. Any • Elastomer seal compatibility: Department of Commerce Silver new chemicals would have high sup- Gregory McKenna and William Medal in 1995 for his prime research pression efficiency and perform well in Waldron (MSEL) role in this program. evaluations of ozone depletion poten- • Human exposure and environmental tial, global warming potential, atmos- impact: Emil Braun, Richard The outcome of this work was the mil- pheric lifetime, reignition quenching, Peacock, Glenn Forney, George itary’s concurrence on the NIST rec- residue level, electrical conductivity,

243 corrosivity to metals, polymeric mate- of delivering them to the fire, the Screening Procedures and Criteria for rials compatibility, long-term storage NIST approach has made its mark on Replacements for Halons 1211 and 1301, stability, toxicity of the chemical and the entire NGP: NIST Technical Note 1278, National Institute of Standards and Technology, its combustion and decomposition • use of sound science, archival and 1990. products, speed of dispersion, and new, in planning the research and 4. William M. Pitts, Marc R. Nyden, occupational safety requirements. interpreting the results, Richard G. Gann, W. G. Mallard, and Again, Gann was appointed to lead the • bringing the full suite of expertise at Tsang, Construction of an Exploratory List of program. NIST to bear on the problem, Chemicals to Initiate the Search for Halon • close collaboration with outside Alternatives, NIST Technical Note 1279, In the first four years of the NGP, now experts in the contributing disci- National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1990. focused on aircraft applications, about plines, and 5. William L. Grosshandler, William M. one fourth of the research was per- • detailed documentation of the find- Pitts, and Richard G. Gann, eds, formed at NIST, mostly within BFRL ings and the processes that led to Evaluation of Alternative In-Flight Fire with contributions from CSTL and PL. them. Suppressants for Full-Scale Testing in The NIST findings have led to new Simulated Aircraft Engine Nacelles and Dry insights into the fire suppression Jiann Yang received the Department of Bays, NIST Special Publication 861, process, accurate metrics for the per- Commerce Bronze Medal Award in 844 pages, National Institute of formance of potential fire suppressant 2000 for his studies of the suppression Standards and Technology, 1994. 6. Richard G. Gann, ed., Fire Suppression chemicals, and identification of candi- effectiveness of liquid agents. System Performance of Alternative Agents in date suppressants: [7,8] Aircraft Engine and Dry Bay Laboratory • Screening tests for fire suppression Driven by a continuing sequence of Simulations, NIST Special Publication SP efficiency: [9,10] Jiann Yang, new demands, research on fire sup- 890 (two volumes, 1411 pages), Michelle Donnelly, William pressants has continued for over a cen- National Institute of Standards and Grosshandler tury. It is likely that new criteria will Technology, 1995. • Screening protocol for agent toxici- continue to arise, and the NIST find- 7. Richard G. Gann, Next Generation Fire Suppression Technology Program FY1999 ty, environmental impact, and mate- ings of this century will become the Annual Report, NISTIR 6479, National rials compatibility: [11] Marc Nyden basis for the investigations of the next. Institute of Standards and Technology, • Measurements of environmental 2000. impact of suppressants: [12] Robert References 8. Richard G. Gann, Next Generation Fire Huie (CSTL) 1. E. C. Creitz, “Inhibition of Diffusion Suppression Technology Program FY2000 • New fire suppressant chemicals: Flames by Methyl Bromide and Annual Report, NIST Technical Note [13-16] Gregory Linteris, Valeri Trifluoromethyl Bromide Applied to the 1437, National Institute of Standards Fuel and Oxygen Sides of the Reaction Babushok, William Pitts, Linda and Technology, 2001. Zone,” Journal Research National Bureau of 9. J. C. Yang, M. K. Donnelly, N. C. Prive, Blevins, Jiann Yang; Wing Tsang, Standards 65 (4), 1961. and William L. Grosshandler, Dispersed Marcia Huber (CSTL) 2. E. C. Creitz, “Extinction of Fires by Liquid Agent Fire Suppression Screen • Real-time measurement of suppres- Halogenated Compounds - A Suggested Apparatus, NISTIR 6319, National sant concentration: [17] George Mechanism,” Fire Technology 8, 131-141, Institute of Standards and Technology, Mulholland, Erik Johnsson; Gerald 1972. 1999. 3. Richard G. Gann, J. D. Barnes, S. Davis, 10. William L. Grosshandler, A. Hamins, Fraser (PL) J.S. Harris, Richard H. Harris, J. T. Kevin McGrattan, R. Charagundla, and Herron, Barbara C. Levin, F.I. Mopsik, C. Presser, Suppression of a Non-pre- As the research continues for new sup- Kathy A. Notarianni, Marc R. Nyden, M. mixed Flame Behind a Step, Proceedings of pressants and more efficient methods Paabo, and Richard E. Ricker, Preliminary the Combustion Institute 28, 2001.

244 11. Marc R. Nyden and S. R. Skaggs, Screening Methods for Agent Compatibility with People, Materials and the Environment, NISTIR 6323, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1999. 12. V. L. Orkin, E. Villenave, R. E. Huie, and M. J. Kurylo, Atmospheric Lifetimes and Global Warming Potentials of Hydrofluoroethers: Reactivity Toward OH, UV Spectra, and IR Absorption Cross Sections, J. Phys. Chem. A 103, pp 9770-9779, 1999. A furniture mock-up subjected to the California Technical Bulletin 113 gas flame igniter that was 13. V. I. Babushok, W. Tsang, Gregory T. developed at NIST. To the left of the burner are two heat flux gages measuring the energy feedback Linteris, and D. Reinelt, Chemical from the flames. Limits to Flame Inhibition, Combustion and Flame, 115, pp 551-560, 1998. 14. V. I. Babushok, W. Tsang, and William L. in recent years, children playing with polyurethane foam) and to develop- Grosshandler, Inhibitor Rankings for matches have also been shown to be ment of test methods to establish the Hydrocarbon Combustion, Combustion significant contributors. There are thus ignition propensity of both furniture and Flame, 2000. two major modes of ignition: smolder- materials and, separately, cigarettes 15. William M. Pitts, J. C. Yang, M. L. ing, through contact with cigarettes, or themselves. The fundamental smolder- Huber, and L. G. Blevins, Characterization flaming, through direct small flame ing combustion studies and the ciga- and Identification of Super-Effective Thermal Fire Extinguishing Agents- First Annual contact. Either mode of ignition may rette ignition propensity studies are Report, NISTIR 6414, National Institute eventually lead to a large flaming fire treated separately under appropriate of Standards and Technology, 1999. that poses a major life hazard. BFRL headings in this history. The study of 16. M. D. Rumminger and Gregory T. research on furniture flammability has the tendency of various furniture Linteris, The Role of Particles in Flame largely been in support of the develop- material combinations to ignite to Inhibition by Iron Pentacarbonyl, Combustion and Flame 123, 82-94, 2000. ment of both voluntary and govern- smoldering as a result of cigarette con- 17. George W. Mulholland, Eric L. Johnsson, mentally-mandated tests to establish tact led to a test method that has been G.T. Fraser, A.V. Zuban, and I. I. Leonov, the degree of hazard and to enable the the basis for a voluntary industry stan- Performance of Fast response Agent development of lesser hazard designs. dard for more than two decades. Concentration Meter, Proceedings of the An implicit goal has been the develop- 2000 Halon Options Technical Working ment of an understanding of the igni- The other major thrust that emerged Conference, pp 480-491, Albuquerque, 2000. tion and burning processes as a means from the above goals focused on meas- of assuring that meaningful measure- uring the flaming fire behavior of fur- 12.10 FURNITURE ments are at the heart of test methods. niture and predicting this behavior from small-scale tests. Both of these FLAMMABILITY The above goals have led in several were very much tied up with the Upholstered furniture fires have, for directions. The cigarette smoldering development of techniques to measure decades, shown up in U. S. fire statis- ignition mode [1], for example, led to the rate of heat release from a fire by tics as one of the leading causes of fire fundamental experimental and model- measuring its oxygen consumption. deaths. These fires typically start ing studies of smolder initiation and Heat release rate emerged clearly as through the careless use of smoking propagation in upholstered furniture the most meaningful measure of the materials, particularly cigarettes, but, material composites (e.g., fabric over size of any fire; oxygen consumption

245 was the only truly practical and accu- efforts to implement improved flam- 2. Vytenis Babrauskas, James Lawson, rate means to measure this variable. It mability standards for the upholstery William D. Walton, D. and William H. Twilley, Upholstered Furniture Heat Release was applied to full-size chairs and sofas and bedding industries. In a similar Rates Measured with a Furniture Calorimeter, in the context of a furniture calorime- manner, BFRL interacted with the NBSIR 82-2604, National Bureau of ter developed at NIST [2]. It was California Bureau of Home Standards, 1983. applied to small samples of materials Furnishings, which has regulatory 3. Vytenis Babrauskas and J. Krasny, taken from furniture in the context of authority in that state, to enable them “Prediction of Upholstered Furniture Heat Release Rates from Bench-Scale the Cone Calorimeter, also developed to put implement more effective test at NIST [3]. Efforts to use the small Measurements,” American Society of Testing methods [5]. This agency has been a and Materials STP 882, 1985. scale results to predict the full-scale strong advocate for fire safety and the 4. Vytenis Babrauskas and J. Krasny, Fire behavior have met with limited success impact of their testing philosophy has Behavior of Upholstered Furniture, and efforts along these lines continue reached well beyond the state of Monograph 173, National Bureau of to this day [4]. The challenge lies in Standards, 1985. California. the extremely complex behavior of the 5. James Quintiere, Furniture Flammability: burning furniture. The most recent An Investigation of the California Technical efforts focus on bed fires that present James Winger received the Silver Bulletin 133 Test, Part 1. Measuring the Hazards of Furniture Fires, NISTIR 4360, very similar problems and challenges Medal Award of the Department of Commerce in 1978 for his early stud- National Institute of Standards and (with some unique slants) [6]. Technology, 1990. ies of the flammability of furniture and 6. Thomas Ohlemiller, Flammability Throughout these studies, NIST/BFRL fabrics. Assessment Methodology for Mattresses, has worked interactively with the NISTIR 6497, National Institute of Consumer Products Safety References Standards and Technology, 2000. Commission, which has regulatory 1. J. Loftus, Backup Report for the Proposed Standard for the Flammability (Cigarette authority in the area of furniture flam- Ignition) of Upholstered Furniture, NBSIR mability. Each advance in testing 78-1438, National Bureau of Standards, methodology has supported CPSC 1978.

246 1313. MATERIALS

13.1 CONSTRUCTION Manager of AMRL and served as MATERIALS Secretary of ASTM Committee C01 REFERENCE for the whole of his time with CCRL. LABORATORIES James H. Pielert became Manager of AMRL and CCRL in 1983, a position In the early part of the 20th century, he still occupies. John Haverfield was there was concern about the inconsis- the Assistant Manager of CCRL until tency of testing of portland cement 1985 when Raymond Kolos assumed which was becoming an important the position. material used in construction. In response, a number of organizations, The AASHTO Materials Reference including NIST, ASTM International, Laboratory (AMRL) was established at and the Portland Cement Association NIST in 1965 under a similar arrange- collaborated in studies directed ment with the sponsorship of the towards improving standardized specifications and test methods for portland James Pielert, leader of Construction Materials cement. This response lead to the for- Reference Laboratories. mation of the Cement Reference Laboratory in 1929 as a research associate program at NIST, managed by NIST but under the sponsorship of ASTM Committee C01 on Hydraulic Cement [1]. In 1960, ASTM Committee C09 on Concrete and Concrete Aggregate was added as a sponsor, and the name was changed to the Cement and Concrete Reference Laboratory (CCRL). J. R. Dwyer who was actively involved with establishing CCRL was its Manager from 1929 to 1965. He was followed by John R. Dise in 1965 who added the title of

247 American Association of State Highway munity. The number of laboratories and Transportation Officials (AASH- participating in AMRL and CCRL pro- TO) [2]. This formation was in grams more than doubled during this response to an investigation of the period resulting in more than 1400 Interstate Highway System Program by laboratories participating in 2003. This Congressman Blatnick in the early participation includes laboratories 1960s, which identified problems with from all 50 of the United States and the consistency of testing of materials 20 other countries. New programs used in highways. NIST was selected were added in masonry materials, poz- Kathryn Tice, AMRL research associate, is because it was already hosting the zolans, blended cements, hot-mixed preparing hot performance graded asphalt binder CCRL, which became the model for asphalts, and paints used in transporta- test samples for placement in a pressured aging AMRL, and because of its reputation, tion systems. vessel for optimizing use in highway construction. could provide an unbiased evaluation of laboratory performance. Oakley The AMRL and CCRL Laboratory million research program to improve McIntosh was the Assistant Manager of Assessment and Proficiency Sample the performance and durability of the AMRL until 1985 when Peter Programs have become important nation’s highways, and to make those Spellerberg assumed the position. components of the laboratory accredi- highways safer for both motorists and tation system in the United States [3]. highway workers [4]. At the time The primary mission of AMRL and AMRL and CCRL Proficiency Sample SHRP concluded in 1993, it had CCRL is to improve the quality of test- Programs are used by the three major developed 130 products in support of ing in laboratories that test construc- accreditors of construction materials its mission, and the implementation of tion materials. This is accomplished testing laboratories; the AASHTO SHRP technology became an impor- through on-site visits to laboratories, Accreditation Program (AAP), the tant follow-up activity. AMRL support- distributing proficiency samples to lab- American Association for Laboratory ed the drafting of more than 70 stan- oratories for testing, participating in Accreditation (A2LA), and the dards resulting from this research, the work of standards committees, and National Voluntary Laboratory which are being processed through the conducting research related to devel- Accreditation Program (NVLAP). opment of tests for construction mate- AASHTO and ASTM standards rials. Construction materials covered AMRL and CCRL Laboratory process. The resulting standardized include hydraulic cements, portland Assessment programs are used by the test methods and practices have been cement concrete, masonry materials, AAP. Additionally, AMRL provides added to AMRL’s Laboratory reinforcing steel, pozzolans, aggregates, technical support to the AAP, which Assessment and Proficiency Sample soils, asphalt binders, hot-mixed was established by AASHTO in 1988, Programs, and to the scope of AAP. In asphalt, plastic pipe, and paints used in and it currently has more than 800 addition, AMRL has assembled a state- transportation systems. laboratories accredited. of-art liquid asphalt laboratory.

The last quarter of the 20th century AMRL has had an important role in In the mid-1990s, AMRL had a lead was a period of substantial change in the implementation of technology role in the metrication of AASHTO’s AMRL and CCRL as, with the increas- resulting from the National Academies’ materials standards as part of the ing emphasis on quality in construc- Strategic Highway Research Program movement toward the use of the met- tion, their programs gained increasing (SHRP). SHRP was established by ric system of measurement in the recognition by the construction com- Congress in 1987 as a five year, $150 United States.

248 The relationship between NIST, The strong leadership provided by Concrete Testing Laboratory, Version 1.0, ASTM, and AASHTO on the AMRL Dwyer and Dise in the first half centu- NISTIR 6583, National Institute of and CCRL programs was strengthened ry of CCRL and AMRL’s existence put Standards and Technology, 2000. in 1999 with the signing of a new these organizations in leadership posi- Memorandum of Agreement calling for tions in promoting the quality of labo- 13.2 SERVICE LIFE the development of a standards-orient- ratory testing. Through Pielert’s PREDICTION OF ed research component which would thoughtful management, strong inter- CONSTRUCTION complement the BFRL research pro- personal skills, and interest in keeping MATERIALS gram. This will ensure the continued up with technological developments 13.2.1 INTRODUCTION excellent relationship between the and foreseeing future needs have led to three parties to the agreement. increased professional stature and high Although most building and construc- morale for the research associates who tion materials are expected to have AMRL and CCRL have had a signifi- staff the CMRL, good relations with service lives of several decades, no cant impact on the quality of testing of sponsors in ASTM and AASHTO, and methods have been available for mak- construction materials during their 70 strong synergy with research activities ing reliable predictions of long service year history. The increasing concern in BFRL. lives either from short-term tests or currently being expressed about quality from first principles. The lack of gen- on the international level indicates that References erally-accepted methods for service life the programs can still make a valuable 1. James H. Pielert, “Construction prediction has been a barrier to the contribution in promoting the quality Materials Reference Laboratories at most effective selection, use and main- of testing of construction materials. NIST - Promoting Quality in Laboratory tenance of building and construction These programs are unique examples Testing,” ASTM Standardization News, materials, and has been cited as an of Federal government, state govern- American Society of Testing and ment, and private sector cooperation Materials, W. Conshohocken, PA, pp 40- important contributor to premature in addressing a problem of common 44, December 1989. failures. It is also a barrier to innova- 2. James H. Pielert and Peter A. tion since designers are reluctant to concern. Their customers were strong Spellerberg, “AASHTO Materials and effective proponents before specify products for which evidence of Reference Laboratory-Thirty Years of performance over time is lacking. The Congress for the continued existence Service to the Transportation of CBT during the budget crisis of the Community,” TR News, Transportation need to reduce costs associated with 1980s. Research Board, National Research repair, replacement and maintenance, Council, Washington, DC, pp 22-28, and to assess the service lives of inno- The AMRL and CCRL have developed April 1996. vative materials without decades of 3. Peter A. Spellerberg, W. L. Trimm, and testing led to the initiation, in 1973, of a large amount of data from the stan- James H. Pielert, “Development and CBT’s research program on service life dard tests carried out by participants Application of a Quality System Standard in the proficiency programs. The for Construction Materials Testing prediction. In that year, Geoffrey CCRL cement and concrete databases Laboratories,” ASTM Journal of Testing and Frohnsdorff joined CBT in 1973 as are of great value to BFRL’s Virtual Evaluation, Vol. 24, No. 1, pp 49-55, Chief of the Materials and Composites Cement and Concrete Testing January 1996. Section, at a time when the Section Laboratory (VCCTL) program in 4. “The SHRP Success Story,” Focus was heavily involved in durability stud- Newsletter, U.S. Department of ies in support of HUD’s Operation which they are being used in testing Transportation, Federal Highway the validity of VCCTL models for sim- Administration, October 2000. Breakthrough. Larry Masters and ulating performance of cement and 5. Dale P. Bentz and Glenn P. Forney, Users Winfred Wolfe had prepared a report concrete [5]. Guide to the NIST Virtual Cement and [1] on weather and climatological data

249 to provide a basis for relating outdoor Standard Practice for Developing Masters received the Department of exposure tests performed at sites such Short-Term Accelerated Tests for Commerce Bronze Medal. In the same as those used by NBS at the Roosevelt Prediction of the Service Life of year, Frohnsdorff was appointed to Roads Naval Base in Puerto Rico, and Building Materials and Components. RILEM’s Research Advisory Group at Nellis Air Force Base in Nevada, as Also in 1978, as a result of the collab- (RAG) and, in 1983, when he was well as at the NBS site. oration between Frohnsdorff and chairman of the Advisory Group, Sereda in ASTM Committee E06, an Frohnsdorff arranged for the establish- During the planning of a project to International Conference on the ment of a RILEM Committee on evaluate the durability of several types Durability of Building Materials and Service Life Prediction, Committee of adhesively-bonded sandwich panels, Components was held in Ottawa with 71-SLP, with Masters as chairman. Frohnsdorff pointed out the need for a NRCC, NBS/NIST, ASTM, and The main products of this committee general methodology for service life RILEM as sponsors. A keynote paper were Masters’ report [3] based on prediction. He then obtained agree- [2] on “The Meaning of Durability and ASTM E-632, and a later report pre- ment from HUD that such a standard Durability Prediction” that Frohnsdorff pared by Masters and Erik Brandt, a and Masters presented at the confer- methodology should be developed, and guest researcher from Denmark. ence suggested that the reliability he arranged for a new subcommittee, RILEM recognized the importance of approach might be brought in to serv- E-6.22, Durability Performance of the later report by giving it pre-stan- ice life predictions of building materi- Building Constructions, to be estab- dard status by designating it a RILEM als. That led to hiring Jonathan Martin, lished in ASTM Committee E06, Technical Recommendation [4]. It is Performance of Buildings. As chair- a reliabilist from the University of noteworthy that both the Principal man of the new subcommittee, Washington. Thus, in 1978, three Guide to Service Life Planning [5] of Frohnsdorff appointed Peter Sereda of major seeds of what has become the Architectural Institute of Japan and the National Research Council of BFRL’s world-leading service life pre- a key portion of British Standard BS Canada (NRCC) as vice-chairman, and diction program for building materials Masters was appointed chairman of a were planted - the hiring of Martin, 7543, Guide to Durability of task group to develop the needed stan- the publication of ASTM E-632, and Buildings, and Building Elements, dard methodology. Frohnsdorff, the holding of the International Products and Components” [6] draw Masters and Sereda shared the ambi- Conference; the conference became on ASTM E-632 or have portions pat- tious goal of developing a fundamental, the first in the series of triennial terned on it. The needs identified in science-based understanding of materi- International Conferences on the Masters’ work provided the justifica- als degradation that could provide the Durability of Building Materials and tion for the 1984 NATO Advanced technical basis for a new generation of Components (DBMC) sponsored by Research Workshop on Problems in durability standards . NRCC, NBS/NIST, RILEM and CIB. the Prediction of the Service Life of The Second International Conference Building and Construction Materials 13.2.2 STANDARD PRACTICE (2DBMC) was held at NBS in 1981 [7] at which Masters brought together FOR DEVELOPMENT OF with Frohnsdorff as chairman. leading European and U.S. durability ACCELERATED TESTS Subsequent conferences in the series researchers. AND A NEW SYSTEM OF have been held in Espoo, Finland; SERVICE LIFE PREDIC- Singapore; Brighton, England; Tokyo; CBT and other laboratories made TION STANDARDS Stockholm; Vancouver; and Brisbane. many applications of the ASTM E-632 By 1978, Masters had the first of the methodology during the 70s and 80s. needed service life prediction stan- In 1980, for his achievement in lead- For instance, CBT supported the dards in place as ASTM E-632, ing the development of ASTM E-632, Department of Energy and the emerg-

250 ing solar energy industry with studies els. The first level would consist of a Working Group 9 was elevated to sub- and recommendations that provided single generic standard, such as ASTM committee status as ISO TC59/SC14, the technical basis for many standards E-632 or the RILEM Technical Design Life of Buildings and for the durability of materials used in Recommendation, that outlined the Constructed Assets [12]. The solar energy systems [8]. CBT’s knowl- methodology for predicting service Subcommittee is drafting an eight-part edge on matters relating to durability life. The second level would consist of standard, ISO 15686, Buildings and and related aspects of performance of about six generic standards addressing Constructed Assets: Service Life building materials was also applied on topics called out in the standard in the Planning. Taken together, the parts several projects of national impor- first level including: characterization of will, for the first time, recommend tance. The work of Paul Campbell, service environments, characterization that designers call for service life data, Mary McKnight, and Larry Masters in of materials and components, identifi- or standard service life predictions, for providing detailed specifications for cation of degradation mechanisms, products to be used in their designs. the restoration and maintenance for modeling the kinetics of degradation, the paint on the White House was determination of times-to-failure, and 13.2.3 THE RELIABILITY- described [9] as one of the most reporting of results. The third level BASED APPROACH TO sophisticated and professional paint would consist of an indefinite number SERVICE LIFE studies ever conducted. Then, for a of material- or product-specific stan- PREDICTION study concerning the possible use of dards that described how the generic When Jonathan Martin joined CBT’s stone preservative treatments in the standards in the two higher levels materials research staff in 1978, he restoration of the West Front of the should be applied in predicting service introduced the reliability-based United States Capitol [10], James lives of specific materials. This hierar- approach to service life prediction. Clifton received a National Historic chy has been adopted as a model for The reliability-based methodology Preservation Award in 1988; the cita- the development of international stan- [13], with its rigorous experimental tion for the award stated, “technically dards for service life prediction in procedure and strong scientific basis, it has broken much new ground; it is a cooperative activities involving the had already had a long history of suc- model for archival and curatorial joint CIB/RILEM Committee on cessful application in the electronics, work.” For other durability-related Service Life Prediction and ISO aerospace, nuclear, and medical fields. studies, Mary McKnight received the TC59/SC14 on Design Life (see next In a reliability-based methodology, Department of Commerce Bronze paragraph). The European Community since weathering factors cannot be Medal in 1994 for contributions to is relying on the development of such controlled, results of field exposure improved coatings practices, and, for standards for full implementation of its experiments are not the standard of his work in modeling the degradation Construction Products Directive. performance -- however, they may be of coatings, Tinh Nguyen received the an important source of data if the Bronze Medal in 1994. In 1993, Frohnsdorff proposed to ISO weathering factors can be monitored Technical Committee TC59, Building just as they are in the laboratory. The In 1990, Frohnsdorff and Masters pre- Construction, that it should establish a standard of performance is now based sented a paper [11], “Suggestions for a Working Group on Design Life of on laboratory experiments that can be Logically-Consistent Structure for Buildings. The proposal was accepted made repeatable and reproducible if Service Life Prediction Standards,” at and Working Group 9 was established the sources of experimental error are the 5DBMC Conference. It recom- in Subcommittee 3 of TC59, with minimized; with proper design, the mended the development of a system Frohnsdorff as chairman. In 1997, in experiments can provide data from of service life standards with three lev- recognition of the progress made, which service life under any expected

251 conditions can be predicted. There is knowledge of the reliability approach, top of the sphere. The ports provide no longer a need to try to design labo- Martin, with David Bauer of the Ford essentially-identical sources of radia- ratory experiments that simulate out- Motor Company, initiated a series of tion for exposure chambers attached door exposures since the laboratory international conferences, sponsored to the ports through parabolic cone experiments can cover the range of by the American Chemical Society, on concentrators. Because of the unifor- exposure conditions that a product will prediction of service life of coatings, mity of the radiation within the be exposed to in the field. With the and on polymeric materials in general. sphere, monitoring the radiation emit- paradigm shift accompanying adoption The first two conferences were held in ted from a single port is equivalent to of the reliability-based methodology, 1997 [14] and 1999 [15]. monitoring the radiation emitted from laboratory accelerated aging and fun- every port. Conditions within any of damental mechanistic experiments are, The reliability-based methodology the exposure chambers could be confor all practical purposes, equivalent requires the sets of data collected from trolled for spectral radiation, tempera- except for the number of experimental the three primary sources of service ture, and relative humidity, and for variables under investigation. For his life data (field, accelerated laboratory, almost any other factor of interest; leadership in developing the reliability- and fundamental mechanistic studies) where necessary, mechanical loads based approach to service life predic- to have the same data elements and to could be applied to some specimens. tion of coatings and other polymeric be of comparable quality. Data is Large numbers of small specimens can building materials, Martin received the needed on the initial properties of a be exposed in each of the chambers, Department of Commerce Bronze material, on changes in the properties and the specimens can be easily Medal in 1996. of the material as functions of time, removed for analysis to determine the and on the weathering factors (i.e., degree of degradation. The ability to The industrial significance of Martin’s degradative factors) in the exposure provide a variety of precisely-con- work was first recognized by the coat- environment as functions of time. Data trolled exposures of large numbers of ings community. In 1994, a strong needed on the exposure environments, specimens greatly increases the power research consortium -- the Coatings whether in the laboratory or field, are and practicality of applying the relia- Service Life Performance Consortium usually spectral irradiance, spectral dis- bility approach to prediction of serv- involving industry, government and tribution, specimen temperature, and ice lives under any specified condi- academe -- was established. The con- specimen moisture content. tions. In an ancilliary development, to sortium, managed by Martin, included provide for frequent analyses of the several leading coatings manufacturers With the need for measurements to large number of specimens from the among its members. Its objective is to improve reliability-based service life exposure chambers, the presentation apply a reliability-based methodology predictions, Martin designed a com- of specimens for infra-red and ultravi- in estimating the service life of a coat- pletely new laboratory exposure device olet spectrophotometric measure- ing or other polymeric building mate- to minimize the temporal, spatial, sys- ments was automated. One of the rial subjected to ultraviolet radiation tematic, equipment, and operational early findings from the reliability- and other weathering factors. Though sources of error encountered in earlier based experiments was the unexpect- initially established for a three-year devices. In the new device [16], each edly strong dependence of rate of period, the achievements of the con- of 32 similar ports on the surface of a photodegradation on the moisture sortium have been sufficiently encour- 2 m diameter integrating sphere opens content within a coating [17]. aging that it has already been extended into the sphere’s interior. The interior for two additional three-year periods. is illuminated by an intense source of The need for high-quality field data for In view of the need to disseminate visible and ultraviolet radiation at the use with data from the new exposure

252 Components and Materials, 10. President’s Historic Preservation Awards, TN 838, National Bureau Advisory Council on Historic of Standards, 1974. Preservation and Department of the 2. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff Interior, November 1988, p28. and Larry W. Masters, 11. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff and Larry W. “The Meaning of Masters, “Suggestions for a Logically- Durability and Consistent Structure for Service Life Durability Prediction,” Prediction Standards,” in Durability of Durability of Building Building Materials and Components, (eds. J. Materials, (eds., P. J. M. Baker, P. J. Nixon, A.J. Majumdar, Sereda and G. G. and H. Davis), Proceedings, 5th Litvan), Special International Conference on the Tinh Nguyen, physical scientist, is using a Fourier transform infra- Technical Publication, Durability of Building Materials and red microscope to study factors affecting the failure of organic protec- STP 691, American Components, E. & F. N. Spon, London, tive coatings on steel. Society for Testing and 1990. Materials, Philadelphia, 12. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff, C. H. Sjostrom, device in predicting the service lives of PA, pp 17-30. and G. Soronis, “International Standards materials in the field, was accompanied 3. Larry W. Masters, “Prediction of Service for Service Life Planning of Buildings,” Life of Building Materials and by a need for access to strategically- in Durability of Building Materials and Components,” Materials and Structures, Components 8: Service Life and Asset located, well-instrumented, field expo- v19, n114, RILEM, Paris, 1986. Management, (eds., M. A. Lacasse and D. sure sites. The establishment of eight 4. Larry W. Masters and Erik Brandt, eds., J. Vanier), Proceedings, 8th International such sites at widely-spaced locations “Systematic Methodology for Service Conference on Durability of Building within the U. S. was carried out as a Life Prediction of Building Materials and Materials and Components, 8DBMC, cooperative project among four Components,” Materials and Structures, v. Vancouver, Canada, v. 2, pp, 1537-1542, Federal Agencies with overlapping 22, pp 385-392, 1989. 1999. 5. Principal Guide for Service Life Planning of 13. Jonathan W. Martin, S. C. Saunders, F. interests -- NIST, the Smithsonian Buildings, English Edition, Architectural L. Floyd, and J. P. Wineburg, Environmental Research Center Institute of Japan, 1993. Methodologies for Predicting the Service Lives (SERC), the USDA UV-B Network 6. BS7543:1992, Guide to Durability of of Coating Systems, Federation Series on Program, and the Forest Products Buildings, and Building Elements, Products, Coatings Technology, Federation of Laboratory (FPL) at Madison, WI and Components, British Standards Societies for Coatings Technology, [18]. With the establishment of these Institute, London, England. 1992. Philadelphia, PA, 1996. 7. NATO Advanced Research Workshop on 14. David R. Bauer and Jonathan W. Martin, sites, NIST now has in place all the Problems in the Prediction of the Service Life Eds., Service Life Prediction of Organic necessary components for develop- of Building and Construction Materials, Coatings: A Systems Approach, ACS ment and demonstration of its world- 1984. Symposium Series 722, American leading capability to apply the reliabili- 8. David Waksman and William C. Chemical Society, Oxford University ty approach to the prediction of the Thomas, “The NBS Solar Collector Press, New York, pp 470, 1999. service lives of polymeric building Reliability/Durability Test Program: 15. Jonathan W. Martin and David R. Bauer, materials including paints and coatings, Summary of Results and Eds., Service Life Prediction: Methodology and Recommendations for Collector Metrologies, ACS Symposium Series 805, building joint sealants, and composites. Testing,” Journal of Solar Energy American Chemical Society, Oxford Engineering, v108, n 1, ASME, February University Press, New York, pp 516, References 1986. 2001. 1. Larry W. Masters and W. C. Wolfe, The 9. Bill Kneemiller, “Painting the White 16. Joannie Chin, E. E. Byrd, Edward N. Use of Weather and Climatological Data in House,” American Painting Contractor, Embree, and Jonathan W. Martin, Evaluating the Durability of Building October 1984, pp 23-28. “Integrating Sphere Sources for UV

253 Exposure: A Novel Approach to the research carried out by James Clifton, Artificial UV Weathering of Coatings, Robert Mathey, and Hugh Beeghly [1, Plastics, and Composites,” Service Life 2] showed that only four of the forty Prediction Methodology and Metrologies, (eds., Jonathan W. Martin and D. R. eight coatings evaluated met the per- Bauer), American Chemical Society formance criteria. All four were spray- Symposium Series 805, Oxford Press, applied powdered epoxy resins. New York, p 144, 2001. 17. Tinh Nguyen, Jonathan W. Martin, E. E. Standards based on this research for Byrd, and Edward N. Embree, “Effects epoxy-coated steel reinforcing bars James Clifton, leader of inorganic building of Relative Humidity on were adopted by the American materials research. Photodegradation of Acrylic Melamine - A Quantitative Study,” Proceedings of the Association of State Highway and Polymeric Materials Science and Engineering Transportation Officials, ASTM, and value savings by use of coated reinforc- Division, American Chemical Society, 83, the Concrete Reinforcing Steel ing to extend life from 10 years to 40 118, 2000. Institute [3, 4]. A new industry repre- years is $745 million. 18. Lawrence J. Kaetzel, “Data Management sented by the Fusion-Bonded Coaters and a Spectral Solar UV Network,” Association developed to supply James Clifton, who earned a Ph.D. in Service Life Prediction Methodology and epoxy-coated reinforcing. Forty six Inorganic Chemistry from Oregon Metrologies, (Eds., Jonathan W. Martin states specify epoxy-coated reinforcing State University, joined the Building and D. R. Bauer), American Chemical Research Division in 1969 and led Society Symposium Series 805, Oxford in bridge deck construction. By 1990, Press, New York, p 89, 2001. over 272.2 x 106 kg of epoxy-coated research in durability of inorganic steel reinforcement, about 5.5 percent building materials until his death in 13.3 CORROSION PRO- of all reinforcing bars, were used in 1999. He was a quiet, cheerful man the U.S. In recognition of the impor- with endless enthusiasm for research TECTION FOR REIN- and the accomplishments of his col- FORCING STEEL tance of their work, Clifton and Mathey received the Department of leagues. Robert Mathey joined BRD in The deterioration of concrete highway Commerce Silver Medal in 1975, and 1955, worked 14 years in structural bridge decks exposed to deicing salts the Alfred E. Lindau Award from the research, and then in materials was identified as a national problem American Concrete Institute in 1987. research until his retirement in 1991. by the mid 1960s. The lifetime of His warmth, responsibility and coop- bridge decks was only 5 to 10 years in Findings from FHWA indicate the eration were appreciated by colleagues northern states where deicing salts coated reinforcing extends the life of in NBS, collaborating and sponsoring were heavily used. The Federal a bridge deck exposed to deicing federal agencies and professional and Highway Administration (FHWA) salts, from 5 to 10 years without standards committees. Hugh Beeghly estimated that $25 billion was needed coating, to more than 40 years. worked for CBT for a few years in the over the next decade to repair the Considering the 25 percent additional 1970s following a long career in failing decks. cost of coated reinforcing to be research in the steel industry. insignificant compared to the total FHWA engaged CBT to develop per- labor and material cost for a bridge References 1. James R. Clifton, H. F. Beeghly, and formance criteria and test methods for deck replacement, the 1990s annual Robert G. Mathey, Non-Metallic Coatings organic coatings to protect reinforcing expenditure of $500 million for bridge for Concrete Reinforcing Bars, Report No. bars from corrosion while providing deck replacement, and a discount rate FHWA-RD-74-18, Federal Highway needed structural reinforcement. The of 7.6 percent, the annual present Administration, 1974.

254 2. Robert G. Mathey and James R. Clifton, Science Series (BSS) 55, Preliminary cant improvements in BUR perform- “Bond of Coated Reinforcing Bars in Performance Criteria for Bituminous ance that occurred over the 15 year Concrete,” J. Structural Division, ASCE, v Membrane Roofing [2]. For the first period after the report’s publication. 102, n ST1, pp 215-229, January 1976. 3. Robert G. Mathey and James R. Clifton, time, the U.S. membrane roofing “Corrosion Resistant Epoxy-Coated industry had guidance for selecting Another major issue that faced the Reinforcing Steel,” Proceedings Structures membranes based on their perform- BUR industry in the early 1970s cen- Congress XII, American Society of Civil ance properties. Mathey and Cullen tered on restrictive requirements that Engineers, pp 109-115, 1994. identified 20 performance attributes severely limited the temperature to 4. J. L. Smith and Y. P. Virmani, considered important to the satisfacto- which asphalt could be heated during “Performance of Epoxy-Coated Rebars ry performance of BUR membranes, in Bridge Decks,” Public Roads, pp 6-12, installation of built-up membranes. At Autumn 1996. and they suggested performance crite- the time, asphalt was classified into ria for 10 of these attributes. The per- four Types, I, II, III & IV, based on the 13.4 ROOFING formance concept, applied to BUR results of tests such as softening point membranes, was widely embraced by and penetration. Although it was gen- RESEARCH the industry. Specifiers selected mem- erally considered that the higher the In 1969, C.W. Griffin [1] wrote that branes on the basis of their confor- type, the less likely the asphalt would “the volume of built-up roofing annu- mance to the criteria, manufacturers flow at a given temperature, specifica- ally installed in the United States totals promoted (where appropriate) existing tions for asphalt application did not 2 billion square feet… Probably 10 to products, and developed new products, usually recognize such differences. One 15 percent of the roofs ... fail prema- meeting the criteria. Consultants inves- consequence was that asphalt was turely.” Statements such as Griffin’s tigating performance problems with in- often applied at temperatures too low made it evident that the U.S. mem- place membranes compared properties for proper flow. Improper flow results brane roofing industry urgently needed with the BSS 55 recommendations. in excessively thick, non-uniform to improve the performance of its Roofing contractors were perhaps the asphalt layers that may contain voids products. One of the major problems most vocal group of supporters and, in and that may be inadequately adhered of the era was poor characterization of this regard, the National Roofing to membrane reinforcing felts. As a the engineering properties of built-up- Contractors Association (NRCA) solution to this asphalt heating prob- roofing (BUR) membranes. Manual incorporated recommendations lem, industry task groups proposed the Consequently, specifications detailing that installed membranes have per- Equiviscous Temperature concept. the performance requirements for formance properties in accordance According to this concept, asphalt was completed BUR membranes were with BSS 55 criteria. to be applied at a temperature at non-existent. In contrast, prescriptive which it would flow sufficiently (i.e., specifications indicating the type and The impact of BSS 55 has been long have adequately low viscosity) to number of reinforcing plies, and the lasting. By way of example, at an achieve well-adhered, uniformly thin, type and amount of bitumen were the NRCA annual convention in the late void-free layers between membrane norm. A common result was that 1980s, the Owens-Corning Company plies. Equivalently said, the viscosity of installed membranes had inadequate made a presentation on the history the heated asphalt at application was properties to perform satisfactorily. and performance of BUR systems in proposed to be in the range of about the U.S. The development of BSS 55 100 centistokes to 150 centistokes. In This situation changed dramatically, was recognized as a significant mile- support of the industry efforts, Walter when in 1974, Robert G. Mathey and stone in the industry’s history, and a J. Rossiter and Mathey authored BSS William C. Cullen published Building major driving force behind the signifi- 92, The Viscosities of Roofing Asphalts

255 use was not problem free. These membranes had been introduced into the market without consensus standards to assist in their proper selection and use. Research was needed to understand better the performance of these systems, to develop solutions to the problems that were arising, and to contribute to the technical bases of the much needed consensus standards.

Sampling built-up-roofing membranes for measuring its performance properties. Of the new membrane materials that entered the market in the mid-1970s, at Application Temperatures [3]. This publication of BSS 92, the industry EPDM (ethylene-propylene-diene ter- report, which described a combined adopted the Equiviscous Temperature polymer) rubber, manufactured as pre- laboratory and field study, was a cor- concept which remains in use today. formed single-ply sheets ready for field nerstone of the technical foundation installation, experienced the most for the Equiviscous Temperature con- As noted above in the quote from rapid growth. By the mid-1980s, it cept. In the laboratory, the viscosities Griffin, at the beginning of the 1970s accounted for about 35 percent of the of 20 typical roofing asphalts were built-up roofing had a monopoly on membrane market. EPDM is rather measured over their application tem- the U.S membrane market. However, chemically inert rubber, which makes peratures, and compared with soften- that monopoly was soon to be broken. it attractive for outdoor use as a mem- ing points and penetrations. These Because of the all-too-frequent prob- brane material. However, this chemi- data demonstrated that different lems with BUR membranes in the cal inertness becomes a limitation asphalts had different viscosity-temper- early 1970s, many owners, architects, when bonding adjacent sheets in the ature relationships, and that asphalt specifiers, and others responsible for field to form the seams of a water- application temperatures should be roof system selection were eager to proofing membrane. At the time, these determined on the basis of viscosity. In find alternative membrane materials. seams were typically fabricated with the field, BUR membrane samples In response, material suppliers contact-type, polymer-based, liquid were prepared using typical roofing emerged who provided, at competitive adhesives. In the mid-1980s, unsatis- asphalts heated at different tempera- costs, alternative systems based on factory seam performance accounted tures encompassing the range of appli- elastomeric and thermoplastic poly- for about 50 percent of the EPDM cation temperatures encountered in meric membranes, and polymer-modi- membrane problems reported to the practice. These BUR samples were fied bituminous membranes. The NRCA in surveys of member contrac- analyzed to relate the quality of the growth in use of these products was tors. BFRL initiated research to eluci- asphalt application to the application explosive. Although their use was date the factors affecting performance temperature and, in turn, the viscosity almost non-existent in the mid-1970s, and to develop solutions for improved at application. The major recommen- by the end of the 1980s they account- performance. dation was that the optimum viscosity ed for about 70 percent of the mem- of asphalt at the time of application branes installed in the U.S. -- a figure Reports from NRCA indicated that should be within the range of 50 cen- that has remained reasonably constant many seam defects developed within tistokes to 150 centistokes. Soon after through today. However, the growth in the first three years of service.

256 Additionally, BFRL field inspections of extremely important parameter affect- investigating factors affecting seam EPDM roofing provided evidence of ing performance, as time-to-failure performance under loading conditions seams that were leak-free for 4 years increased exponentially with adhesive that may lead to failure in the field. to 5 years, at which time problems thickness. Additionally, the cleanness of occurred. In these cases, disbonded the EPDM rubber at the time of adhe- As BFRL was completing its studies on seams were seen to be located at buck- sive application was also shown to be liquid adhesives and ASTM Test les and ripples in the EPDM mem- significant. Although industry had Method D5405 was under develop- brane. BFRL researchers reasoned that always required that EPDM rubber ment, EPDM roofing manufacturers many of these early failures were relat- was to be thoroughly cleaned before introduced a new generation of adhe- ed to the rheological behavior of the adhesive application, until BSS 169, sives based on preformed, polymer- adhesive and not to chemically- the important influence of adhesive based, tape adhesives. The introduc- induced deterioration. Consequently, thickness on seam performance had tion of tape adhesives was received BFRL research staff in the Building been given little attention by practi- with little enthusiasm by many practi- Materials Division began studies to tioners. BFRL observations from field tioners, as they had become confident elucidate the major factors affecting inspections showed, for example, that of the liquid adhesives being used at the capability of seams to sustain load- the thickness of adhesive layers often the time. On the other hand, propo- ing. They developed creep-rupture test was less than EPDM manufacturers’ nents believed that tape adhesives had protocols, suitable to EPDM seams, in recommendations. Although the rela- advantages over liquid adhesives such which joint specimens were stressed tionship between adhesive thickness as enhanced seam performance, less- under constant load and the time over and seam performance was surprising ened environmental impact because which they sustained the load was to many, its implications were taken they were solvent-free, and lower seam recorded. The better performing seriously. In 1991, the NRCA pub- fabrication costs. In 1994, the EPDM seams had longer times-to-failure. The lished [5], with BFRL assistance, a fea- industry formed a consortium with factors investigated included material ture article entitled, “Is Your Adhesive BFRL to conduct laboratory and field parameters such as the adhesive and its Layer Thick Enough?” to alert con- research to further the understanding applied thickness, mechanical parame- tractors to the importance of adhesive of this innovative EPDM seam-adhe- ters such as the magnitude and type thickness. At least one EPDM mem- sive technology. The consortium was (i.e., peel and shear) of load, environ- brane manufacturer made available comprised of three EPDM membrane mental parameters such as tempera- wet-film thickness gages to help ensure material manufacturers, two tape ture, moisture and ozone, and applica- that the amount of applied adhesive adhesive manufacturers and two indus- tion parameters such as the cleanness was within prescribed limits. try associations. The objectives were of the EPDM rubber surface. to: BSS 169 demonstrated the importance • compare the creep-rupture per- Initial creep-rupture experiments and of creep-rupture tests in evaluating formance of tape-bonded and liq- major findings were described in BSS seam performance. In 1993, ASTM uid-adhesive-bonded seams of 169, Strength and Creep-Rupture issued Standard Test Method D5405, EPDM membranes, and Properties of Adhesive-Bonded EPDM Conducting Time-to-Failure (Creep- • recommend a test protocol for eval- Joints Stressed in Peel, by Jonathan W. Rupture) Tests of Joints Fabricated uating creep-rupture performance Martin, Edward Embree, Paul E. from Nonbituminous Organic Roof of such seams. Stutzman, and J. A. Lechner [4]. Chief Membrane Material. This test method The results of the tape-bonded seam among the findings was that the thick- is based on BFRL seam research, and studies were published in BSS 175, ness of the adhesive layer was an provides a sensitive procedure for BSS 176 and BSS 177 [6-8]. BFRL

257 the dissemination of the results of roofing research to the U.S. roofing industry and in the development of the ASTM standards that were urgently needed by the roofing industry. Over these decades, BFRL teamed with the National Roofing Contractors Association (NRCA) to co-sponsor the biennial Conferences on Roofing Technology. In the 1970s, William Kevin Kraft and Edward Embry, BFRL materials staff, are examining the status of EPDM creep rupture Cullen received the NRCA Piper experiment. Award and also the ASTM Voss Award for his contributions to elucidating fac- staff participating in the studies were The consortium study hastened the tors affecting the performance of roof Rossiter, Kevin Kraft, Embree, and acceptance of the innovative EPDM membranes. Cullen’s efforts were fur- James Seiler, who were assisted tape-bonded seam technology. In 1998, ther acknowledged in 1980 when he throughout by Mark Vangel of the the NRCA marked the study conclu- received the Gold Metal Award of the NIST Statistical Engineering Division. sion in summarizing key findings and Department of Commerce for his con- Among the key findings, it was shown acclaimed its success in stating that tributions to performance standards that tape-bonded seams had times-to- “laboratory and field studies confirm for membrane roofing. In the early to failure that were, in most cases, com- the viability of tape-bonded seams” [9]. mid-1990s, Rossiter was chair of the parable to, or greater than, those of Additionally, the second study objective ASTM Committee D08 on Roofing the liquid-adhesive-bonded seams. was successfully met, as the results pro- and Waterproofing. Previously, he had Moreover, the times-to-failure of tape- vided the technical basis of ASTM served a lengthy appointment as chair bonded specimens prepared with Standard Practice D6383, Time-to- of Subcommittee D08.18, which has primed, clean EPDM were not affected Failure (Creep-Rupture) of Adhesive responsibility for standards for elas- by the application temperatures and Joints Fabricated from EPDM Roof tomeric and thermoplastic polymeric pressures investigated. This finding was Membrane Material. Among its bene- significant because application temper- fits, this Standard Practice allows for membranes. His contributions were atures and pressures are difficult, if not evaluating the creep-rupture perform- acknowledged when he received the practically impossible, to control in ance of newly developed adhesives for ASTM Award of Merit and the ASTM practice. Also, tape-bonded seams pre- fabricating EPDM seams. The signifi- Voss Award for his standards develop- pared with properly cleaned and cance of this Standard Practice was ment efforts and for advancing the primed EPDM rubber had longer made clear as the consortium study was understanding of the performance of times-to-failure than those fabricated concluding. At that time, two new tape seams in EPDM membranes. Rossiter without adequate cleaning and priming adhesives for EPDM seams entered the was also chair of the joint CIB/RILEM of the EPDM. This result, although not market, which doubled the number Committee on Roofing that provided unexpected, emphasized to contractors available when the study began. recommendations on needs for roofing in particular that proper application is standards. Based on this Committee’s a critical parameter affecting tape- Throughout the 1970s, 80s, and 90s, recommendations, five standards were bonded seam performance. BFRL staff played an important role in issued by ASTM.

258 References 9. T. L. Smith, “EPDM Research 1. C. W. Griffin, Manual of Built-Up Roof Results,” Professional Roofing, Vol. Systems, McGraw-Hill, New York, NY, p 28, No. 8, pp 20-22, August 1998. 1, 1970. 2. Robert G. Mathey and W. C. Cullen, 13.5 LEAD HAZARD Preliminary Performance Criteria for Bituminous Membrane Roofing, Building ABATEMENT IN Science Series 55, National Bureau of RESIDENTIAL Walter Rossiter, research chemist, obtains paint sample Standards, 1974. BUILDINGS for lead content analysis. He is investigating the pres- 3. Walter J. Rossiter and Robert G. Mathey, ence of lead in household paints. The Viscosities of Roofing Asphalts at From the early 1970s, NIST has Application Temperatures, Building Science conducted research and field stud- paint abatement. Harvey Berger Series 92, National Bureau of Standards, ies to support the programs of the U.S. 1976. received the Department of Department of Housing and Urban 4. Jonathan W. Martin, Edward Embree, Commerce Bronze Medal Award in Development (HUD) to identify lead- Paul E. Stutzman, and J. A. Lechner, 1976 for leadership of the lead-based based paint in housing and provide Strength and Creep-Rupture Properties of paint hazard abatement research. Adhesive-Bonded EPDM Joints Stressed in appropriate, cost-effective remediation Peel, Building Science Series 169, actions. HUD programs were devel- National Institute of Standards and oped in response to federal legislation In the late 1980s, NIST conducted Technology, 1990. (the Lead-based Paint Poisoning research in several areas to assist HUD 5. Jonathan. W. Martin, Walter J. Rossiter, Prevention Act of 1971 and its amend- in developing regulations in response to Jr., and Edward Embree, “Is Your new legislation. In BFRL, Mary Adhesive Layer Thick Enough?” ments of 1973, 1987, 1992) that Professional Roofing, Vol. 21, No. 5, pp aimed to reduce the number of chil- McKnight led research to evaluate the 30-37, May 1991. dren having excessive blood-lead levels. performance of new portable instru- 6. Walter J. Rossiter, Jr., M. G. Vangel, E. In the United States in 1978, the num- ments to determine the lead content of Embree, K. M. Kraft, and James F. ber of children with excessive blood- paint films [5]. Walter Rossiter devel- Seiler, Jr., Performance of Tape-Bonded Seams lead levels was approximately 14.8 mil- oped performance criteria for coatings of EPDM Membranes: Comparison of the used to overcoat existing lead-based Creep-Rupture Response of Tape-Bonded and lion, while in the early 1990s the num- Liquid-Adhesive-Bonded Seams, Building ber was approximately 1 million. paint films [6]. BFRL also collaborated Science Series 175, National Institute of with NIST’s Chemical Science and Standards and Technology, 1996. In the 1970s NIST research by Stanley Technology laboratory in the develop- 7. Walter J. Rossiter, Jr., M. G. Vangel, K. Rasberry [1], Phillip Cramp, and ment of Standard Reference Materials M. Kraft, and James J. Filliben, Harvey Berger [2] led to specification for lead in paint films and other envi- Performance of Tape-Bonded Seams of EPDM ronmental media [7]. A total of 17 Membranes: Effect of Material and Application and evaluation of new instruments to Factors on Creep-Rupture Response, Building determine the content of lead in paint materials were developed. Science Series 176, National Institute of films and to the development of cost- Standards and Technology, 1997. effective abatement strategies. Lead- In early 1991, HUD recognized an 8. Walter J. Rossiter, Jr., M. G. Vangel, and based paint abatement options were urgent need for standards for detect- K. M. Kraft, Performance of Tape-Bonded evaluated by David Waksman, Leo ing, controlling, and abating lead haz- Seams of EPDM Membranes: Factors Affecting Skoda, Elizabeth Clark [3] and others. ards associated with housing, and the Creep-Rupture Response of Tape-Bonded and Liquid-Adhesive-Bonded Seams, Building Robert Chapman and Joseph Kowalski requested that ASTM initiate their Science Series 177, National Institute of [4] conducted economic studies and development. In response, in late Standards and Technology, 1998. developed cost models for lead-based 1991, ASTM formed Subcommittee

259 Considerations, NBS Technical Note 979, ance, including service life, of con- National Bureau of Standards, 1979. crete, and to disseminate the knowl- 5. Mary E. McKnight, W. Eric Byrd, edge gained so as to facilitate innova- Willard E. Roberts, and E. S. Lagergren, tion and advance concrete technology. Methods for Measuring Lead Concentrations in Paint Films, NISTIR 89-4209, National The general approach has been to Institute of Standards and Technology, identify and prioritize needs for meas- 1989. ures of performance and tools for per- 6. Walter J. Rossiter, Jr., Mary E. formance prediction; then, to the Mary McKnight, leader of lead paint hazard McKnight, and Willard Roberts, Proposed extent possible with available mitigation research. Performance Criteria for Encapsulant Coatings resources, to develop needed knowl- for Lead-based Paint, NISTIR 5901, edge, measures, and tools that have a E06.23 on “Lead Hazards Associated National Institute of Standards and sound basis in the materials science of Technology, 1996. with Buildings” with McKnight as its 7. P. A. Pella, Mary E. McKnight, K. E. concrete and concrete materials. The chair. Under her leadership, E06.23’s Murphy, L. J. Wood, R. D. Vocke, W. results have had a significant influence work was swift and broad [8]. By the Eric Byrd, R. L. Watters, E. S. on concrete technology and, by pro- end of the decade, more than 20 new Lagergren, and S. B. Schiller, “NIST- viding tools for predicting perform- standards were issued. In recognition SRM 2759 Lead Paint Films for Portable ance, the latest ones appear to be lead- of her efforts, McKnight received the X-Ray Fluorescence Analyzers,” ACS ing a revolution in the technology. National Lead Abatement Council Proceedings of August 1992 Symposium, Technical Recognition Award in 1993, ACS, Washington, DC, 1992. In 1973, at the suggestion of Geoffrey 8. Mary E. McKnight, editor, ASTM the Department of Commerce Bronze Frohnsdorff, ASTM Committee C01, Standards on Lead Hazards Associated with Medal Award in 1995, and the Buildings, American Society for Testing Cement, established a task group Standards Engineering Society and Materials, West Conshohocken, PA, under his leadership to develop per- (SES)/ASTM Robert J. Painter Award 1998. formance specifications for blended in 1996. cements. This led, 19 years later, to 13.6 HIGH- the first ASTM performance specifica- References PERFORMANCE tion for hydraulic cements, ASTM 1. Stanley D. Rasberry, “Investigation of C1157-92 [2]. Though the specifica- CONCRETE Portable X-ray Fluorescence Analyzers tion was initially only for blended for Determining Lead Painted Surfaces,” NIST has a long history of research on cements, by 1997 it had been broad- Applied Spectroscopy, 27 (1973) 102. concrete as a material and on the ened to apply to all cements for gener- 2. A. Phillip Cramp, Harvey W. Berger, Evaluation of New Portable X-Ray Fluorescent structural performance of concrete. al construction. While BFRL was only Lead Analyzers for Measuring Lead in Paint, However, NIST’s research on the one of many contributors to develop- NBSIR 78-1466, National Bureau of material aspects of concrete fell to a ment of the specification, its final Standards, 1978. low level from the mid-50s until a new approval came about when the ASTM 3. David Waksman, Leo F. Skoda, and era began in the 1970s. The new C01 was chaired by Frohnsdorff. The Elizabeth J. Clark, Hazard Elimination research was in accord with the per- importance of the performance speci- Procedures for Leaded paints in Housing, formance concept [1] and, in broad fication is in its potential for facilitat- NBS Technical Note 770, National Bureau of Standards, 1973. terms, its goal throughout has been: To ing innovation in cement technology. 4. Robert E. Chapman and Joseph C. develop or improve methods for char- Among the benefits it is expected to Kowalski, Lead Paint Abatement Costs: acterizing concrete materials and for bring is facilitation of increased use of Some Technical and Theoretical measuring and predicting the perform- waste and by-product materials in

260 cement manufacture, thereby reducing fuel consumption, reducing the quantity of carbon dioxide liberated into the atmosphere, and reducing the need for stockpiling of wastes. The potential was noted in the report from the 1979 NIST/DoE workshop, Possible Contributions of Cement and Concrete Technology to Energy Conservation by the Year 2000 [3]. In the same year, Frohnsdorff, James Edward Garboczi, physicist, develops computer models that simulate the microstructure of concrete dur- Clifton and Paul Brown received the ing the setting process. These models are used to predict concrete performance, strength, and durability. P.H. Bates Memorial Award from the ASTM C01 for their review of the his- Hamlin Jennings in Clifton’s Inorganic posal to the National Science tory and status of standards relating to Building Materials Group, made excel- Foundation for establishment of a alkalis in hydraulic cements [4]; (P.H. lent progress. By 1986, the project was Center for the Science and Technology Bates, for whom the award was sufficiently advanced for Jennings and of Advanced Cement-Based Materials named, was a renowned cement Stephen Johnson to receive the (ACBM). The proposal was successful, researcher at NIST in the 1920s). Brunauer Award from the American in spite of NSF’s normal policy of not Ceramic Society’s (ACerS) Cements The year 1978 may be looked upon as funding research in Federal agencies, the one in which the seeds of BFRL’s Division for their paper on computer and the ACBM was established in present high-performance concrete simulation of microstructure develop- 1989 with the period of NSF support program were planted. In that year, ment in a model cement paste [6]. being renewable up to a maximum of with support from the NEL Unfortunately, at about this time, as 11 years. During the 11 year period, Director’s Reserve fund, a project the work was gaining recognition, the ACBM, with NIST as an important was undertaken to model the reac- Brown and Jennings left CBT for aca- participant, did much to strengthen tions with water of a single, spherical, demic positions, Brown going to Penn the material science base of concrete monophase cement particle. While State and Jennings to Northwestern. technology. the problem was greatly simplified, However, on the recommendation of and the available computational capa- Jennings, James Clifton recruited NIST’s contributions, often in collabo- bility limited, the results published by Edward Garboczi, and he also brought ration with university researchers, e.g. James Clifton and guest researcher back Dale Bentz from industry, to con- [7], including its organization of annu- James Pommersheim [5] laid the tinue the work. al modeling workshops, further groundwork for a successful 1981 enhanced its standing as the leader in competence initiative to develop With BFRL becoming recognized as the computational materials science of mathematical models for simulating the leader in the computational mate- cement and concrete. In the first 12 cement hydration and to generate rials science of cement-based materi- years, the modeling workshops, all experimental data for their validation. als, it was invited to join with organized by Garboczi, introduced Northwestern University and three more than 300 persons to the compu- The Cement Hydration competence other major universities (Illinois, tational and experimental techniques project, led by Paul Brown with Michigan, and Purdue) in a 1988 pro- developed by BFRL and collaborating

261 BFRL’s advances in ability to simulate the behavior of cements demanded advances in the ability to characterize cements and cement-based materials. Techniques have been developed for determining distributions of size, shape and chemical phases among cement particles and for comparable determinations of distributions of phases, pores and microcracks in concrete. BFRL’s contributions to estab- Material-science-based predictions of the performance of concrete require knowledge of the structure- lishment of the first ASTM standard property relationships at all scales from nanometers to meters. The structure can be determined experi- method for the use of X-ray diffraction mentally (top row), but it is becoming practical to use computer simulations (bottom row) as the basis for performance predictions. in identification of the phase composition of a portland cement or a portland cement clinker was initiated by researchers. When the NSF funding have been widely disseminated through Struble and reported in a paper [13] ceased in 2000, sufficient industrial the pioneering, continuously-growing, with Howard Kanare of the support was obtained to keep the “electronic monograph” that was first Construction Technology Laboratory. ACBM viable with Northwestern put on the World-Wide Web by The work was continued by Paul University, the University of Illinois, Garboczi and Bentz in 1997 [12]. By Stutzman and brought to fruition as and BFRL being the core members. At the end of 2001, the electronic mono- ASTM C 1365 under his leadership about that time, Leslie Struble, a for- graph had five authors and had grown [14]. Similarly, the first ASTM stan- mer BFRL researcher who had started to the equivalent of a 2300-page docu- dard method for use of the petro- to build BFRL’s X-ray diffraction capa- ment and, each month, it was being graphic microscope in determining the bility before moving to the University accessed from more than 7000 loca- phase composition of a portland of Illinois, was appointed Associate cement clinker, ASTM C 1356, was Director of the ACBM. tions, and from more than 70 countries. The excellence of the work of also established under Stutzman’s leadership [15]. These two techniques, BFRL’s world-leading capability in Garboczi and Bentz was recognized complemented by scanning electron computational materials science of internationally, with each being hon- microscopy - a technique for applica- concrete has been demonstrated in a ored by the award of the RILEM Gold tion of which [16] he had received the Medal -- Garboczi received the medal continuing series of papers on simula- P.H. Bates Memorial Award from the in 1992, and Bentz in 1997; (RILEM tion of the development of the 3- ASTM Cements Committee in 1991 -- dimensional microstructure in cement is the International Union of Research were applied by Stutzman [17], in col- paste, mortar, and concrete, and the and Testing Laboratories for Structures laboration with Stephan Leigh of ITL, heat liberation and changes in trans- and Materials). The significance of in characterizing the members of the port and mechanical properties their honor is apparent from the fact first suite of Standard Reference accompanying microstructure develop- that, although this award was estab- Materials for the phase composition of ment [8, 9, 10, 11]. These papers, and lished over 30 years ago, only two portland cement clinkers (SRMs many others from the BFRL program, other Americans have received it. Numbers 2686, 2687, and 2688).

262 The national importance of BFRL’s ly-used rapid chloride test method for Mountain of CSTL, developed a dissi- concrete research on prediction of determining the electrical conductivity pative particle dynamics model to sim- performance and service life is appar- of concrete [22]. ulate the flow of concrete [25]; this ent from some of its applications. For provided a generic capability to model example, the work of Nicholas Carino An essential attribute of fresh concrete the flow of concrete in rheometers and guest researcher Rajesh Tank [18] in almost every application is that its with different geometries. in developing maturity functions for flow properties should allow ease of predicting the effects of early-age tem- placement and consolidation. Although modern concretes tend to perature variations on strength devel- Nevertheless, no standard for measur- have lower water/cement ratios than opment in concretes of a wide range of ing the flow properties of concrete in older concretes, ACI guidelines for the compositions was recognized by award fundamental physical units has yet curing of concrete have not yet been of the 1994 Wason Medal for been achieved. This reflects experi- changed to take lower water/cement Materials Research from ACI; their mental difficulties caused by: ratios into account. Following their important work also provided the a) concrete’s non-Newtonian critical review [26] of ACI’s curing technical basis for ASTM and ACI behavior, guidelines, Carino and guest researcher standards. Another example was b) changes in properties resulting Kenneth Meeks, cooperated with the Kenneth Snyder and Clifton’s develop- from ongoing chemical reactions FHWA in detailed studies of moisture ment of software, 4SIGHT [19], for of the cement, movements during the curing of con- use by the Nuclear Regulatory c) settling of aggregate particles cretes of different formulations under Commission in predicting the service under gravity, and different environmental conditions life of concrete used to contain low- d) the necessity for direct tests to be [27]. The experiments were comple- level nuclear wastes when exposed to carried out on a large scale mented by experiments and computer any likely combination of degradation because of the presence of large simulations of moisture movements in factors. In another application, aggregate particles. concrete by Bentz in collaboration Stutzman used BFRL’s ability to To begin to address the problems, with Hansen of the Technical describe concrete in mathematical Chiara Ferraris, with Nicos Martys and University of Denmark [28]; subse- terms in determining, in 1999, the French guest researcher, François de quently, Bentz and Snyder continued most probable cause of widespread Larrard, published a survey of meth- the studies of moisture movements in deterioration of concrete highway ods for studying the rheological prop- an investigation of the benefits of using pavements in Iowa and five other mid- erties of cement pastes, mortars and unsealed, porous aggregates as inter- western states [20]. And in yet anoth- concretes, including the possibility of nally-distributed water reservoirs to er, Bentz developed a model for the predicting the flow properties of con- aid the curing of concrete with a low FHWA to use in predicting the surface crete from measurements on cement water-cement ratio [29]. The results temperature and time-of-wetness of paste [23]. Then, as chair of an ACI are being used by Carino to support concrete pavements and bridge decks subcommittee set up on her recom- recommendations to ACI Committee [21], an essential step in service life mendation, Ferraris led an interna- 308, Concrete Curing, to change ACI’s prediction. In other work related to tional inter-laboratory comparison of curing guidelines. steel-reinforced concrete bridge decks, the five main types of concrete Snyder, Ferraris, Martys, and Garboczi rheometer in 2000 [24]. At the same With serious questions about the fire coupled computer simulations with time, to aid understanding and predic- resistance of high-strength concrete impedance spectroscopy measure- tion of flow properties of cement- being raised in the early 90s, Long ments to show limitations of the wide- based materials, Martys, with Raymond Phan published a review of the litera-

263 ture in 1996; in it, he presented the States, with ACI as the secretariat. ance construction materials of all evidence that high-strength concrete The committee and its subcommittees major categories. In 1995, a successful has a greater tendency than normal- gained new life when ACI took on the NIST Material Science and strength concrete to spall rapidly in a responsibility in 1995; in response to a Engineering Laboratory-led program- fire [30]. Then, to provide a technical recommendation from Frohnsdorff, a matic initiative for materials research base for guidelines for assessing fire- new subcommittee, SC7, Service Life brought increased funding to BFRL for related risks in using high-strength Design of Concrete Structures, was set a high-performance construction concrete, Phan, with Randy Lawson up in TC71 in 2001. materials program, with high-perform- and Frank Davis, carried out an exten- ance concrete as a major component. sive series of experiments to investigate In 1990, BFRL and ACI cosponsored a The concrete program was later the effects of heating to high tempera- workshop on high-performance con- renamed the Partnership for High- tures on the mechanical behavior of crete, that resulted in publication, by Performance Concrete Technology, or concretes of different formulations, Clifton and Carino, of the report, A the HYPERCON Program for short both unconstrained and under a com- National Plan for High-Performance [35]. pressive load [31]. The experimental Concrete [33]. The use of the term work was accompanied by computer “high-performance concrete” in the simulations of internal pressure caused title of the workshop was one of the The program goal was: by evaporation of water as the concrete first uses of a term that is now in In partnership with industry, to was heated. Some of the simulations, common use and which has helped enable reliable application of like some of the tests, included con- give concrete technology an high-performance concrete in cretes containing small volume frac- improved image. (Subsequently, tions of thermoplastic fibers; results of Frohnsdorff led the task group that buildings and the civil infrastruc- the simulations carried out by Bentz defined the term for the ACI.) The ture by developing, demonstrat- supported reports that inclusions of plan helped set the pattern for ing, and providing assistance in thermoplastic fibers could reduce the BFRL’s later concrete research as implementing a computer-inte- spalling tendency [32]. The results of well as influencing the National Plan the BFRL research are providing the for High-Performance Construction grated knowledge system incorpo- technical basis for guidelines on the Materials and Systems published by rating verified multi-attribute fire resistance of concrete being draft- CERF (the Civil Engineering models for predicting and opti- ed in the ACI Committee 216, Fire Research Foundation) in 1993 [34]. mizing the performance and life- Resistance and Fire Protection of Preparation of the CERF plan was cycle cost of HPC. Structures, chaired by Phan. led by a committee chaired by Richard Wright, with Frohnsdorff On the international standards level, leading the subcommittee on high- BFRL, through the efforts of James performance concrete, and John Gross The remarkable progress made Gross, was instrumental in arranging, the subcommittee on high-perform- towards the achievement of this goal is in the mid-90s, for the secretariat of ance steel; the plan recommended for- a result of collaboration among all the ISO Technical Committee TC71 on mation of an industry council to facili- units of BFRL-the Divisions and the Concrete, Reinforced Concrete, and tate implementation of the plan. This Office of Applied Economics. Prestressed Concrete to be transferred was the genesis of the CONMAT from Austria, where it had been dor- Council set up by CERF in 1994 to In another important activity started in mant for many years, to the United promote research on high-perform- 1995, Shyam Sunder worked with

264 William Plenge of ACI to develop, (SHRP), aids identification of causes of and editing of the first version of the with broad industry support, a white distress in concrete highway bridges ACI Guide to Selection and Use of paper proposing establishment of a and pavements, and suggests repair Cements [42]. Building on this, $100M focus area on high-perform- methods and materials. Three thou- Frohnsdorff is now leading an ACI ance concrete in NIST’s Advanced sand copies of the HWYCON software inter-committee coordinating group Technology Program (ATP). Although and manual were issued by the overseeing development of a Web- the proposal could not be accepted Transportation Research Board in based interoperable version of the because of an unexpected reduction in 1993, with copies being distributed to Guide. If acceptable to ACI, this could the funds available to the ATP, sus- Departments of Transportation of all become ACI’s first interoperable com- tained industry enthusiasm for it 50 states. HWYCON was judged to be mittee document. The coordinating resulted, in 1997, in ACI’s formation one of the top three products from the group includes representatives of ACI of a Strategic Development Council $100M, 5 year, SHRP program. Committees 225, 235, and 236. (SDC) to provide a mechanism for formation of consortia to advance con- In the 1990s, to help advance the In 1996, Bentz, Clifton, and Snyder crete technology [36]. In 2000, the materials science of concrete, BFRL published a prototype computer-inte- SDC, of which BFRL was a charter successfully recommended the estab- grated knowledge system (CIKS) for member, published Vision 2030 [37] lishment of four ACI committees. The predicting the service life of steel-rein- to put on record industry leaders’ committees, and their first chairmen, forced concrete exposed to chlorides, vision of what the concrete industry were: ACI 126, Database Formats for as in a concrete bridge deck [43]. The could, and should, be like by the Year Concrete Material Property Data CIKS gave results that, according to 2030. Drafting of the “vision” (chair, Frohnsdorff); ACI 235, bridge engineers with the New York required strong cooperation from all Knowledge-Based Systems and Department of Transportation segments of the industry that is being Mathematical Modeling of Materials (NYDoT), were of the correct order of continued with the drafting of a (chair, Kaetzel); ACI 236, Materials magnitude observed in NYDoT research road map to lead to achieve- Science of Concrete (chair, David bridges. The CIKS was later used in ment of the vision. Lange, University of Illinois); and ACI conjunction with the life-cycle costing 365, Service Life Prediction (chair, model, BridgeLCC [44], that Mark While simulation models have been a Clifton); ACI 236, and its subcommit- Ehlen had developed to aid decisions major element of BFRL’s concrete tee 236A, Rheology, are now both concerning the use of high-perform- research, other applications of infor- chaired by Ferraris. These committees ance concrete, or other innovative mation technology have also been produced the first recommended for- materials, in highway bridge decks. important. The first widely-used mats for concrete materials property knowledge-based expert system for use data (39), the first ACI state-of-the-art Just as life-cycle cost is normally as a decision-support tool relating to report on service life prediction of important when considering the use of concrete was HWYCON (for HighWaY concrete [40], the previously-men- high-performance concrete, or any CONcrete) [38]. It was developed by tioned report on the international innovative material, so, in the future, Larry Kaetzel and Clifton in consulta- comparison of concrete rheometers life-cycle analyses to estimate life-cycle tion with the late Paul Klieger of the [24], and a report on computerized (“cradle-to-grave”) environmental Portland Cement Association. knowledge in concrete technology impacts will be important in material HWYCON, which was produced [41]. Much earlier, in 1985, as chair of selection. The BEES (Building for under the National Academy’s ACI Committee 225 on Hydraulic Economic and Environmental Strategic Highway Research Program Cement, Frohnsdorff led the writing Sustainability) software [45], devel-

265 oped by Barbara Lippiatt to aid such decisions, has been applied by her to life-cycle analyses of concretes formulated with and without supplementary cementing materials (fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag). Inclusion of BEES enhanced the HYPERCON Program and justified adding some important words to the last sentence of the goal statement: The VCCTL program will make it possible to predict the properties of concrete listed on the right-hand side from knowledge of the materials and processing conditions listed on the other three sides (from …… optimizing the performance, life-cycle Reference 47). cost, and life-cycle environmental impact of HPC. admixtures for concrete. It is expected making the performance of concrete that, as the VCCTL concept is further predictable, thereby revolutionizing In 1995, Frohnsdorff, Clifton, developed, it will be applicable to pre- concrete technology. Garboczi, and Bentz published a paper diction of the performance of concrete entitled, “Virtual Cement and in service in the field. References Concrete” [46], in which they specu- 1. James R. Wright, “The Performance lated on the possibility of predicting Throughout the period of this history, Approach: History and Status,” Performance Concept in Buildings, Proceedings the performance of cement and con- most of the research mentioned was of the Joint RILEM-ASTM-CIB Symposium, crete from knowledge of the chemistry carried out in BFRL’s Inorganic B. Foster (ed.), NBS Special Publication and physics of the system. In 1999, Building Materials Group. Until 1999 SP 361, v. 2, National Bureau of under the HYPERCON Program, when he died, the Group was ably led Standards, pp 847-853, 1972. Bentz initiated a pioneering project, by James Clifton. Clifton was a prolific 2. ASTM C1157-92, “Standard the Virtual Cement and Concrete author who transferred his enthusiasm, Performance Specification for Blended Hydraulic Cement,” Annual Book of ASTM Testing Laboratory (VCCTL), to bring and gave wise guidance, to his Group Standards, v. 4.01, ASTM, West this about and use the results of in its efforts to advance concrete tech- Consohocken, PA, 1993. BFRL’s theoretical and experimental nology. It was a great loss when he 3. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff, Paul W. Brown, research to reduce the amount of cost- died, but his outstanding Group, now and James R. Clifton, Possible ly long-term testing in concrete labo- led by a worthy successor, Edward Contributions of Cement and Concrete ratories, whether for research purposes Garboczi, remains as a living tribute to Technology to Energy Conservation by the Year or for mixture design and quality 2000, NBS Special Publication SP 542, his leadership [48]. National Bureau of Standards, 1979. assurance. The attractiveness of the In summary, during 1974 to 2000, 4. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff, James. R. VCCTL concept, as documented in the BFRL’s research on the materials Clifton, and Paul W. Brown, “History user’s guide written by Bentz and aspects of concrete grew from a small and Status of Standards Relating to Glenn Forney [47], was shown when a NEL Director’s Reserve project in Alkalis in Hydraulic Cements,” Cement VCCTL Consortium was established in 1978, to a competence project in Standards and Trends, P.K. Mehta (ed.), Special Technical Publication STP 663, 2001 with six industrial participants, 1981, and to the world-leading pro- pp 16-34, ASTM, West Consohocken, including units of three of the world’s gram in the computational materials PA, 1979. largest cement companies and the two science of concrete by 2000, where it 5. James M. Pommersheim and James. R. largest U.S. manufacturers of chemical was well-placed to achieve its goal of Clifton, “Mathematical Modeling of

266 Tricalcium Silicate Hydration,” Cement Calibration and Analysis of Cement Clinker Standards and Technology, 2000. and Concrete Research, v. 9, pp 765-770, Phases, NISTIR 89-4164, National 22. Kenneth A. Snyder, Chiara F. Ferraris, 1979. Institute of Standards and Technology, Nicos S. Martys, and Edward J. 6. Hamlin M. Jennings and S. K. Johnson, 1989. Garboczi, “Using Impedance “Simulation of Microstructure 14. ASTM C 1365-98, “Standard Test Spectroscopy to Assess the Viability of Development During the Hydration of a Method for Determination of the the Rapid Chloride Test for Determining Cement Compound,” J. Amer. Ceram. Proportion of Phases in Portland Concrete Conductivity,” J. Res. NIST, v. Soc., v. 69, pp 790-795, 1986. Cement and Portland-Cement Clinker 105, no. 4, pp 497-509, National 7. Edward J. Garboczi, Dale P. Bentz, J. D. using X-Ray Powder Diffraction Institute of Standards and Technology, Shane, T. O. Mason, and Hamlin M. Analysis,” Annual Book of ASTM Standards, 2000. Jennings, “Effect of the Transition Zone v. 4.01, ASTM, West Consohocken, PA, 23. Chiara F. Ferraris, F. de Larrard, and on the Conductivity of Portland Cement 1999. Nicos S. Martys., “Fresh Concrete Mortars,” J. Amer. Ceram. Soc., v. 83, pp 15. ASTM C 1356M-96, “Standard Test Rheology,” Material Science of Concrete, J.P. 1137-1144, 2000. Method for Quantitative Determination Skalny (ed.), American Ceramic Society, 8. Dale P. Bentz, “Three-Dimensional of Phases in Portland Cement Clinker by Westerville, OH, v. 6, pp 215-241, Computer Simulation of Portland Microscopical Point-Count Procedure,” 2001. Cement Hydration and Microstructure Annual Book of ASTM Standards, v. 4.01, 24. Chiara F. Ferraris, and L. Brower, (eds.), Development,” J. Amer. Ceram. Soc., v. 80, ASTM, West Consohocken, PA, 1997. Comparison of Concrete Rheometers: pp 3-21, 1997. 16. Paul E. Stutzman, “Cement Clinker International Tests at LCPC (Nantes, France) 9. Dale P. Bentz, E. Schlangen, and Edward Characterization by Scanning Electron in October 2000, NISTIR 6819, National J. Garboczi, “Computer Simulation of Microscopy,” Cement, Concrete, and Institute of Standards and Technology, Interfacial Zone Microstructure and its Aggregates, v. 13, no. 2, pp 109-114, 2001. Effect on the Properties of Cement- 1991. 25. Nicos S. Martys and Raymond D. Based Composites,” Materials Science of 17. Paul E. Stutzman and S. Leigh, Phase Mountain, “Velocity Verlet Algorithm for Concrete, J. P. Skalny and S. Mindess Composition of the NIST Reference Clinkers by Dissipative-Particle-Dynamics-Based (eds.), American Ceramic Society, Optical Microscopy and X-Ray Powder Model of Suspensions,” Physical Review E, Westerville, OH, v. 6, pp 155-199, Diffraction, NIST Technical Note 1441, v. 59, no. 3, pp 3733-3736, March, 1995. National Institute of Standards and 1999. 10. Edward J. Garboczi and Dale P. Bentz, Technology, 2002. 26. K. W. Meeks and Nicolas J. Carino, “Microstructure-Property Relationships 18. Nicolas J. Carino, and R. C. Tank, Curing of High-Performance Concrete: Report in Concrete: From Nanometers to “Maturity Functions for Concretes Made on the State-of-the-Art, NISTIR 6295, Centimeters,” 2nd Canmet / ACI with Various Cements and Admixtures,” National Institute of Standards and International Symposium on Advances in ACI Materials Journal, v. 89, no. 2, pp Technology, 1999. Concrete Technology, Supplementary Papers, 188-196, March/April, 1992. 27. K. W. Meeks and Nicolas J. Carino, 1995, Las Vegas, NV, V.M. Malhotra 19. Kenneth A. Snyder and James R. Clifton, Curing of High-Performance Concrete: Phase (ed.), pp 573-585, 1995. 4SIGHT Manual: A Computer Program for 1 Study, NISTIR 6505, National 11. Edward J. Garboczi, and Dale P. Bentz, Modelling Degradation of Underground Low Institute of Standards and Technology, “Modelling of the Microstructure and Level Waste Concrete Vaults, NISTIR 5612, 2001. Transport Properties of Concrete,” National Institute of Standards and 28. Dale P. Bentz, and K. K. Hansen, Construction and Building Materials, v. 10, Technology, 1995. “Preliminary Observations of Water no. 5, pp 293-300, 1996. 20. Paul E. Stutzman, Deterioration of Iowa Movement in Cement Pastes During 12. Edward J. Garboczi, Dale P. Bentz, Highway Concrete Pavements: A Petrographic Curing Using X-Ray Absorption,” Cement Kenneth A. Snyder, Nicos Martys, and Study, NISTIR 6399, National Institute and Concrete Research, v. 30, pp 1157- Chiara F. Ferraris, An Electronic of Standards and Technology, 1999. 1168, 2000. Monograph: Modelling and Measuring the 21. Dale P. Bentz, A Computer Model to Predict 29. Dale P. Bentz, and Kenneth A. Snyder, Structure and Properties of Cement-Based the Surface Temperature and Time-of-Wetness “Protected Paste Volume in Concrete: Materials, http://ciks.cbt.nist.gov/garboczi. of Concrete Pavements and Bridge Decks, Extension to Internal Curing Using 13. Leslie Struble and H. Kanare, Cooperative NISTIR 6551, National Institute of Saturated Lightweight Fine Aggregate,”

267 Communication, Cement and Concrete Sherbrooke University, Sherbrooke, Materials Journal, v. 82, no. 6, pp 901- Research, v. 29, pp 1863-1867, 1999. Quebec, Canada, pp 51-73, 1998. 929, 1985. 30. Long T. Phan, Fire Performance of High- 36. R. N. White, “Stimulating R&D in the 43. Dale P. Bentz, James R. Clifton, and Strength Concrete: A Report of the State-of- Concrete Industry; ACI’s Strategic Kenneth A Snyder, “A Prototype the Art, NISTIR 5934, National Development Council,” President’s Computer-Integrated Knowledge Institute of Standards and Technology, Memo, Concrete International, v. 19, p 5, System: Predicting Service Life of 1996. 1997. Chloride-Exposed, Steel-Reinforced 31. Long T. Phan, J. R. Lawson, and Frank 37. Vision 2030: A Vision for the U.S. Concrete Concrete,” Concrete International, v. 18, L. Davis, “Heating, Spalling Industry, January 2001, a document pre- pp 42-47, 1996. Characteristics, and Residual Properties pared for, and distributed in an edition 44. Mark A. Ehlen, BridgeLCC User’s of High Performance Concrete,” of 3000 copies by, the Strategic Manual: Life-Cycle Costing Software for Proceedings, 15th Joint Panel Meeting, Fire Development Council of the American Preliminary Bridge Design, NISTIR 6298, Research and Safety, U.S./Japan Government Concrete Institute. (Note the document National Institute of Standards and Cooperative Program on Natural Resources carries no bibliographic information on Technology, 1999. (UJNR), March 1-7, 2000, San Antonio, the author or editor, nor on the publish- 45. Barbara C. Lippiatt, BEES 2.0: Building TX, S. L. Bryner (ed.), v. 2, pp 389-398, er and the place and date of publica- for Environmental and Economic 2000. tion). Sustainability Technical Manual and User 32. Dale P. Bentz, “Fibers, Percolation, and 38. Lawrence J. Kaetzel, James R. Clifton, P. Guide, NISTIR 6520, National Institute Spalling of High-Performance Klieger, and Kenneth A. Snyder, Highway of Standards and Technology, 2000. Concrete,” ACI Materials Journal, v. 97, Concrete (HWYCON) Expert System User 46. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff, James R. no. 3, pp 351-359, 2000. Reference and Enhancement Guide, NISTIR Clifton, Edward J. Garboczi, and Dale P. 33. Nicolas J. Carino, and James R. Clifton, 5184, National Institute of Standards Bentz, “Virtual Cement and Concrete,” Outline of a National Plan on High- and Technology, 1993. Proceedings, Emerging Technologies Performance Concrete: Report on the 39. “Guide to a Recommended Format for Symposium on Cement in the 21st Century, NIST/ACI Workshop, May 16-18, 1990, Concrete in a Materials Property March 1995, Portland Cement NISTIR 4465, National Institute of Database,” ACI 126.3R-99, Manual of Association, Skokie, IL, 1995. Standards and Technology, 1990. Concrete Practice 2001, Part 1, American 47. Dale P. Bentz, and Glenn P. Forney, 34. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff, and John L. Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, User’s Guide to the NIST Virtual Cement and Gross, (eds.), “High-Performance MI, 2001. Concrete Testing Laboratory, Version 1.0, Construction Materials and Systems: An 40. “Service-Life Prediction - State-of-the- NISTIR 6583, National Institute of Essential Program for America and Its Art Report,” ACI 365.1R-00, Manual of Standards and Technology, 2000. Infrastructure,” Technical Report 93- Concrete Practice 2001, Part 1, American 48. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff, Tribute to James 5011, Civil Engineering Research Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, R. Clifton (1933-1999), in “Modelling Foundation, Washington, DC, April, MI, 2001. Service Life and Life-Cycle Cost of 1993. 41. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff and Lawrence J. Steel-Reinforced Concrete,” Report from 35. Geoffrey J. Frohnsdorff, “The Kaetzel, “Computerizing Concrete the NIST/ACI/ASTM Workshop Held in Partnership for High-Performance Technology Knowledge,” Concrete Gaithersburg, MD, November 9-10, 1998, Concrete Technology,” Proceedings, International, v. 21, pp 74-76, 1999. NISTIR 6327, National Institute of International Symposium on High 42. “Guide to the Selection and Use of Standards and Technology, pp ix-x, Performance and Reactive Powder Concrete, Hydraulic Cements,” ACI 225R, ACI 1999.

268 14. STANDARDS AND 14CODES

14.1 HOUSING In the early 1990s it remained evident STANDARDS that prescriptive U.S. codes and stan- Historically, the Building Research dards were barriers to housing innova- Program at NBS had a strong compo- tion [2]. Also, there was much interest nent addressing technology and stan- in export of U.S. building products, dards for housing. Following housing systems and knowledge, but Operation BREAKTHROUGH of the there were no international perform- early 70s, CBT continued housing ance standards as the basis for sale of research at the request of and with the these products. U.S. housing innova- support of the Department of Housing tion was limited and occurred mostly in and Urban Development (HUD). relation to amenities and popular styles rather than in the development of long- In order to stimulate technical innova- term performance and increased value. tion in housing, a project led by While the housing industry has per- Thomas Faison was undertaken to formed well in the United States, it has develop Performance Standards for had very limited success in exporting Special and Innovative Construction. housing systems, housing products, and This document was prepared to pro- housing know-how. vide a performance approach to the more prescriptive Minimum Property To a large extent, the constraints on Standards of HUD. The results were acceptance of housing innovation in published in 1977 as an NBS Interim the United States and the acceptance Report [1]. Numerous HUD-spon- of U.S. products and know-how in the sored projects continued over the global marketplace could be overcome years. Of particular note were projects by the development of consensus per- on mobile home performance, lead formance criteria for housing. An paint mitigation, wind and earthquake international consensus would need to performance and structural require- recognize differences in cultural and ments, and energy conservation and economic capability and would specifi- plumbing system requirements. cally address innovation; i.e., nonstan-

269 dard products and systems. The best developed and applied to this stan- Durability, Maintainability and opportunity to develop such a consen- dards program was based upon specific Accessibility. Since that time the com- sus would be in the development of criteria with a rigorous methodology mittee expanded the list to include national and international performance dependent upon quantitative criteria, Security, Economics, Adaptability and standards for housing. measurable responses, and objective Sustainability. evaluation. A program to develop a comprehensive The Building and Fire Research set of national and international per- At the October 1995 meeting of the Laboratory (BFRL) of NIST took the formance standards for specifying and ASTM E6, Performance of Buildings, technical lead in the development of evaluating dwelling construction was James Gross made a proposal for a prestandardization documents with proposed by BFRL. This goal had two new standards activity on Performance assistance from consultants, both in objectives: Standards for Dwellings which was the drafting of documents and in their endorsed along with the concept of review [4)]. Further, this activity iden- providing a technical advisory group to tified research needed to fill gaps • stimulate and remove barri- ISO, providing that ISO develops a found in the development of these ers to innovation in the counterpart standards activity. A simi- prestandardization documents. The design and construction of lar proposal had been discussed with documents themselves were based U.S. housing; and ISO. An introductory meeting to upon current building technology and launch standards development was the state-of -the-art with further • provide the basis for conducted in March 1996 at the regu- research undertaken for maintenance increased global trade in lar semiannual meeting of ASTM E6 in and improvement of these standards housing products, compo- Orlando. over time. nents, systems, and know- how. In October 1996, the first working ISO is a worldwide federation of meeting of ASTM Committee E6.66 national standards bodies that pro- was held in New Orleans, James Gross motes standardization to facilitate the Performance has meant different was elected chairman. The Building exchange of goods and services. ISO is things to different people, including and Fire Research Laboratory of NIST the major international organization those in the field of construction. For provided a report for Committee confor the development of building and purposes of this work, the perform- sideration entitled Resource construction standards with approxi- ance concept was defined as a frame- Document for Performance Standards mately 30 technical committees devot- work for specifying and evaluating for One and Two Family Dwellings. ed to building and construction. These qualities of building products and sys- The report had been prepared with the comprise approximately 20 percent of tems to meet user needs without limit- assistance of consultant, David Hattis. all the ISO standards committees. One ing ways and means [3]. The Committee decided to develop a of the standards committees in ISO is series of Standard Guides around the TC 59 - Buildings. TC 59 is a broad- Some considered the performance attribute chapters in the Resource based committee quite comparable to concept to be based upon general goals Document. These were Functionality, ASTM E6 on Performance of with nonquantitative objectives and Structural Safety and Serviceability, Buildings. In an April 1995 meeting of subjective evaluation, which might be Fire Safety, Accident Safety, Health and the full committee of TC 59, an infor- termed the “wish list” approach. Hygiene, Indoor Environment, mal proposal was presented to develop However, the performance concept, as Illumination, Acoustics, Aesthetics, performance standards for dwellings

270 with the possibility that this activity BFRL. Following Gross’ retirement in thermal performance, and the could be within TC 59. TC 59 1997, Joel Zingeser led BFRL’s hous- response of mobile homes to fire. approved, in principle, this informal ing research and standards activities HUD funding was the primary spon- proposal providing a formal proposal which were diminished substantially sor for this research in support of its was made and the activity was assigned with Zingeser’s departure from BFRL Federal Manufactured Home to TC 59. in 2000. Construction and Safety Standard. However NIST and other Federal In May 1996 at a meeting of ISO TC References agencies also supported the program. 59 Subcommittee 3 in Stockholm, a 1. Thomas K. Faison, Performance Criteria new Working Group on Performance Resource Document for Innovative Damage to housing in the Wilkes- Standards for One and Two Family Construction, NBSIR 77-1316, National Barre, Pennsylvania area caused by Dwellings was approved (WG 10). Bureau of Standards, 1977. 2. James G. Gross, “International Hurricane Agnes in 1972 provided an Australia and the United States took Harmonization of Standards,” Prospects opportunity to study the performance this action following expressed support for International Engineering Practice, of over 17,000 mobiles homes which for this activity. Australia was assigned American Society of Civil Engineers, were used as temporary housing by the the responsibility of conveyor. In 1998 pp 35-44, 1990. U.S. Department of Housing and the activity was raised to subcommittee 3. James G. Gross, “Developments in the Urban Development (HUD) following Application of the Performance Concept status (ISO-TC59-SC15). The princi- the disaster. Comprehensive mainte- in Building,” Applications of the Performance pal work to date has been on nance records were available for these Structural Safety and Serviceability and Concept in Building, CIB-ASTM-ISO- RILEM 3rd International Symposium. mobile homes which represented a Durability guides. Volume 1, Proceedings. National broad population of manufacturers, Building Research Institute, Tel-Aviv, locations of manufacture, and ages of The ASTM E6.66 subcommittee has Israel, R. Becker and M. Paciuk, Editors, units. The objective of the project was continued to develop standard guides, pp 1/1-11, 1996. to study the performance records of four of which reached the balloting 4. Joel P. Zingeser, “Performance Standards the units to (1) identify and document process by January 2001. Main com- for Dwellings: Advances and mobile home performance problems, mittee E6 had approved the Durability Opportunities Nationally and (2) determine the relationship of the Guide, and the Indoor Air Quality, Internationally,” NIST/NCSBCS Joint Technical and Research Conference, National Economics and Functionality guides identified problems to provisions of Conference of States on Building Codes were in the ASTM balloting process. the ANSI A119.1 Standard for Mobile and Standards, Herndon, VA, pp 1-12, Homes, and (3) identify areas of need- Task groups were named to develop 1997. the Fire Safety and Acoustic standard ed research. The results of this study guides. [1,2,3] were used by HUD to prepare 14.2 MOBILE HOME the Federal Manufactured Home RESEARCH James Gross was a sustained and force- Construction and Safety Standard to ful proponent of housing research in BFRL conducted research on mobile which mobile homes are currently CBT and BFRL in his successive homes (currently known as manufac- constructed. This research resulted in capacities as chief of the Office of tured housing) in the mid to late James Gross and James Pielert receiv- Housing Technology, chief of the 1970s as concerns surfaced about their ing a Department of Commerce Silver Building Economics and Regulatory safety and durability. Research was Metal in 1977 for “significant contri- Technology Division, deputy director conducted in the areas of maintenance butions in increasing the safety, livabili- of CBT and associate director of and durability, structural performance, ty, and durability of mobile homes.”

271 In summary, BFRL’s research has had a major impact on improving the quality and performance of manufactured housing which is a significant portion of the nation’s housing stock.

References 1. James H. Pielert, William E. Greene, and Leo F. Skoda, Performance of Mobile Research aimed at providing windstorm protection for manufactured homes’ located in hurricane-prone Homes - Summary Report, NBSIR 76- regions. 1058, National Bureau of Standards, 1976. The BFRL Structures Division con- Richard Bright and Richard Bukowski 2. Leo F. Skoda, James H. Pielert, William ducted research on the structural per- [11]. The 17,000 mobile homes used E. Greene, and William G. Street, formance of mobile homes when sub- as temporary housing in Wilkes-Barre Performance of Mobile Homes - A Field jected to wind, flood and seismic after Hurricane Agnes were used to Inspection Study, NBSIR 75-688, National Bureau of Standards, 1975. forces. In addition to NIST funding, evaluate the effectiveness of smoke 3. W. G. Street, William E. Green, Leo F. this research was supported by HUD detectors. Each unit was equipped Skoda, and James H. Pielert, A and the U.S. Agency for International with a smoke detector and fire safety Compilation of Problems Related to the Development. Richard Marshall con- performance was closely monitored. Performance of Mobile Homes, NBSIR 75- ducted research on the effects of wind Based on the resulting excellent fire 690, National Bureau of Standards, on mobile homes including both wind loss history, the mobile home industry 1975. tunnel [4] and full scale testing of in 1975 voluntarily adopted the 4. Richard D. Marshall, “Wind Forces on a instrumented units [5]. This research requirement that a smoke detector be Mobile Home - An Assessment of Wind lead to recommended changes to the placed in each unit. This preceded Tunnel Simulations,” Proceedings of Fifth Federal Manufactured Home ordinances requiring smoke detectors U.S. Conference on Wind Engineering, Texas Tech University, Texas, November 1985. Construction and Safety Standard [6]. in conventional housing. BFRL’s fire 5. Richard D. Marshall and Robert A. Felix Yokel led a research team investi- related research resulted in recom- Crist, Measurements of Wind Loads and Tie- gating the performance of mobile mendations for changes to the Federal down Forces on Mobile Homes, NIST home foundation systems when sub- Manufactured Home Construction and Special Publication 477, National jected to wind, flood and seismic Safety Standard [12]. Bureau of Standards, 1977. forces [7,8]. 6. Richard D. Marshall, Wind Provisions of the Mobile home research in the Building Manufactured Home Construction and Safety Research in BFRL on the performance Environment Division led by Douglas Standards: A Review and Recommendations of mobile homes in fires involved a Burch was concerned with interior ven- for Improvement, NISTIR 5189, National series of full-scale fire tests under the tilation requirements and controlling Institute of Standards and Technology, 1993. direction of Edward Budnick. Specific moisture build-up in walls and roofs in 7. Felix Y. Yokel, Charles W. Yancey, and L. issues investigated included fire spread various climatic conditions [13,14]. A. Mullen, A Study of Reaction Forces on along a mobile home corridor [9] and Much of this research was funded by Mobile Home Foundations Caused By Wind interior finish as a fire safety consider- HUD and resulted in changes to the and Flood Loads, NIST Building Science ation [10]. Fire detector issues related Federal Manufactured Home Series 132, National Bureau of to mobile homes were investigated by Construction and Safety Standard. Standards, 1984.

272 8. Felix Y. Yokel, Riley M. Chung, and and industry. Such reuse is beneficial Technical Note 998 [3] identified the Charles W. Yancy, NBS Studies of Mobile since it avoids the dislocations of raz- following specific technical needs to Home Foundations, NBSIR 81-2238, ing structures and building from the support the building rehabilitation National Bureau of Standards, 1981. ground up, and provides urban variety process: 9. Richard W. Bukowski, Fire Spread Along a and continuity with our past. a) techniques for evaluating the con- Mobile Home Corridor, NBSIR 76-1021, dition of existing buildings; National Bureau of Standards, 1976. The Building Economics and 10. Richard W. Bukowski, “Interior Finish as b) guidance on the selection of Regulatory Technology Division under a Potential Fire Safety Engineering appropriate materials and repair Design Parameter in Mobile Home the leadership of James Gross initiated methods; Construction, Society of Fire Protection a project to study how building regula- c) methods for identifying, ranking, Engineers,” TR 77-04, Engineering an tions and the regulatory process and scheduling required mainte- End to Residential Life Loss Seminar, impact building rehabilitation. The nance and repair activities; and Washington, D.C., May 17, 1977. building code is the primary regulatory d) methods for predicting remaining device used to assure that minimum 11. Richard W. Bukowski, Investigation of the service life of materials and systems. Effects of Heating and Air Conditioning on requirements for public health, safety, the Performance of Smoke Detectors in Mobile and welfare are met in the design and In response to the first need, NIST Homes - Final Report, NISTIR 79-1915, construction of buildings. Initial work prepared NBSIR 80-2171 which con- National Bureau of Standards, 1979. in this area was on the impact of tained available methods for assessing 12. Edward K. Budnick, Mobile Home Fire building code provisions on the reha- Studies: Summary and Recommendation, bilitation of historic buildings [1]. building components and systems [5]. NBSIR 79-1720, National Bureau of Testimony given at Senate hearings in At the urging of NIST in 1983, ASCE Standards, 1977. 1978 pointed out that building codes formed a standards committee to 13. Douglas M. Burch, Controlling Moisture in oriented toward new construction respond to the need for information on the Roof Cavities of Manufactured Housing, impede rehabilitation work by adding the condition assessment of building NISTIR 4916, National Institute of unnecessary project costs (estimated at [6]. The scope of the committee was Standards and Technology, 1992. “to identify specific needs and to devel- 14. Douglas M. Burch and Anton TenWolde, 10 percent to 20 percent of total proj- op consensus standards for the condi- Manufactured Housing Walls That Provide ect costs), delaying project approval Satisfactory Moisture Performance in All times (as much as 16 months over tion assessment and evaluation of exist- Climates, NISTIR 5558, National comparable new construction proj- ing buildings including both the docu- Institute of Standards and Technology, ects), and discouraging otherwise fea- mentation of available methods and the 1995. sible rehabilitation projects [2]. formulation of new procedures.”

14.3 BUILDING BFRL began a study in 1977 to deter- Under the chairmanship of James REHABILITATION mine the need for improved regulations Pielert of NIST, ASCE 11 “Standard for rehabilitation of existing buildings. STANDARDS Guideline for Structural Condition Several reports were published [3,4] Assessment of Existing Buildings” was In the late 1970s, there was increased which included, among other recom- published in 1990, and an updated awareness of the need to more fully mendations, the need to develop tech- standard was published in 1999 [7]. utilize existing buildings. It was recog- nical information pertaining to the ASCE 11 quickly became one of the nized that existing structures were building rehabilitation process and to most popular ASCE standards. The assets that can be renewed creatively to prepare improved regulations for reha- committee also prepared ASCE 30 provide shelter for people, commerce, bilitation of existing buildings. “Standard Guideline for Condition

273 Assessment of the Building Envelope” of States on Building Codes and Nationally Applicable Recommended in 2000 [8]. Standards (NCSBCS) with support of Rehabilitation Provisions (NARRP). NIST, the Commonwealth of NIST Technical Note 998 concluded Massachusetts, and seven other inter- In summary, NIST has had a significant that the building code and its enforce- ested organizations. NIST support was impact on the more efficient reuse of ment were impediments to the reha- provided by James Gross and James the nations’ building stock by providing bilitation of buildings. At the time, Pielert. The objective of the project resources needed to make technical application of existing codes for new was to produce an interim code docu- decisions, and by supporting the devel- construction to buildings being consid- ment containing code provisions for opment of innovative regulatory ered for rehabilitation was based on alterations and additions to existing approaches to building rehabilitation. the dollar amount of work being buildings. The final draft of the inter- planned. An example of such a im code provisions was completed in References requirement is the “25-50 percent August 1978, and after various work- 1. Patrick W. Cooke and M. Green, Survey of rule” which can be summarized as fol- shops and code hearings, was incorpo- Building Code Provisions for Historic lows. The alteration must be restored rated as Article 22 of the Structures, NBS Technical Note 918, National Bureau of Standards, 1976. to at least its original condition if the Massachusetts State Building Code in 2. Impact of Building Codes on Housing renovations are less than 25 percent of June 1979 [9]. Experience with Article Rehabilitation, Hearings Before the Committee the building’s value. When the 22 showed that it allowed building on Banking, Housing and Urban Affairs - amount of renovation is between 25 officials more leeway in accepting United States Senate, March 24, 1978. percent and 50 percent, it is up to the design alternatives when rehabilitating 3. James G. Gross, James H. Pielert, and building official which portion of the buildings, reduced the number of Patrick W. Cooke, Impact of Building Regulations on Rehabilitation - Status and renovation must conform to new con- appeals on modifications to existing Technical Needs, Technical Note 998, struction requirements. When the buildings, and generally expedited the National Bureau of Standards, 1979. amount of renovation exceeds 50 per- rehabilitation process. 4. Sandra A Berry, Editor, Proceedings of the cent, the entire building must be National Conference on Regulatory Aspects of brought up to new construction stan- The concept included in Article 22 of Building Rehabilitation, NBS Special dards. These requirements, which the Massachusetts State Building Code Publication 549, National Bureau of Standards, 1979. often delay or prohibit rehabilitation has had a significant impact on build- 5. F. H. Lerchen, James H. Pielert, and activities, exert a negative impact on ing codes in the United States. Thomas K. Faison, Selected Methods for both public safety and quality of the Variations of the approach have been Condition Assessment of Structural, HVAC, existing building stock. incorporated by the International Plumbing and Electrical Systems in Existing Conference of Building Officials Buildings, NBSIR 80-2171, National After reviewing NIST Technical Note (ICBO) in their Uniform Code for Bureau of Standards, 1980. 6. James H. Pielert, C. Baumert, and M. 998, the Massachusetts State Building Building Conservation [10]. The State Green, ASCE Standards on Structural Code Commission, with enthusiastic of New Jersey adopted rehabilitation Condition Assessment and Rehabilitation of support of then Governor Michael code provisions that provide a method Buildings, ASTM STP 1258, S.J. Kelly, Dukakis, determined that the State to balance the need for code compli- Ed., Standards for Preservation and could benefit from a review of its ance and the need to encourage and Rehabilitation, ASTM, W. Conshohocken, PA, pp 126-136, 1996. existing building code and the adop- permit building rehabilitation. These 7. SEI/ASCE 11-1999, Standard Guideline for tion of building rehabilitation regula- concepts were expanded by the U.S. Structural Condition Assessment of Existing tions. A project was started under the Department of Housing and Urban Buildings, American Society of Civil leadership of the National Conference Development which developed the Engineers, Structural Engineering

274 Institute, Reston, VA, 1999. and systems for use in detention and 8. SEI/ASCE 30-2000, Standard Guideline for correctional facilities. the Condition Assessment of the Building Envelope, American Society of Civil During the first year of the study, the Engineers, Structural Engineering Institute, Reston, VA, 2000. primary focus was on determining the 9. James H. Pielert, Removing Regulatory state-of-the-art in the design of deten- Restraints to Building Rehabilitation: The tion and correctional facilities. Specific Massachusetts Experience, NBS Special emphasis was placed on identifying Publication 623, National Bureau of performance problems associated with Robert Dikkers, program manager for correction- Standards, 1981. various materials, equipment and sys- al facilities standards. 10. M. Green, “History of Building Code tems, as well as reviewing available Regulations for Existing Buildings in guidelines, standards, etc. which are or previously used by NBS for industrial- the United States,” Proceedings of the ized housing systems [2] and solar Pacific Rim Conference and Second can be used by architects and correc- energy systems [3], had the following International Conference on Performance- tional officials in the planning and Based Codes and Fire Safety Design Methods, design of new correctional facilities. objectives: (1) establish performance pp 40-47, May 3-9, 1998. During the conduct of the study, valu- criteria for materials, equipment and able information, comments, and rec- systems which are consistent with the 14.4 DETENTION AND ommendations were received from security and custody levels used in CORRECTIONAL many individuals involved in the plan- detention and correctional facilities; and (2) establish standard performance FACILITIES ning, design and operation of jails and prisons. measures with regard to security, safety, Because of the rapid increase in new and durability of materials, equipment jail and prison construction in the The conclusions and recommendations and systems. The preliminary per- 1980s, and the lack of performance of the initial study were published in formance criteria were prepared with criteria and standards for building 1987 [1]. In brief, it was concluded the assistance of several consultants materials, equipment and systems, that were many important criteria and and were published in 1989 [4]. They many correctional agencies have expe- standards that needed to be developed covered the following three areas: (1) rienced equipment and system per- for improving the state-of-the-art of facility and site - facility mission, secu- formance problems in their facilities. selecting materials, equipment and sys- rity levels, operational considerations, In some instances, these problems tems for use in detention and correc- and site selection; (2) perimeter sys- have necessitated expensive facility tional facilities. Nineteen criteria and tems - climate and site, perimeter retrofits, repairs, or other fixes. In standards development activities were fencing, and intrusion detection sys- September 1986, the National identified and prioritized by a review tems; and (3) building systems - struc- Institute of Corrections (NIC), U.S. committee of correctional officials, tural systems, doors, windows, glazing, Department of Justice, initiated a consultants, and designers. One of the locks and locking systems, control cen- study at NBS, which was led by Robert high priority activities, performance ter, alarm, and communication sys- Dikkers. The general objective of the criteria for detention and correctional tems. After additional development, study was to develop guidelines, test facilities, was selected and funded by the performance criteria were intend- methods and the technical bases for NIC for study in the second year. ed to serve as a technical resource and standards which would assist in the reference for correctional officials, selection, application, and mainte- Performance criteria, which were architects, engineers, material and nance of building materials, equipment developed using a performance format equipment manufactures, contractors,

275 and standards writing organizations. ernors in 1967 in response to “the continues to prosper carrying out pro- The criteria were also expected to need for intergovernmental reforms in grams on behalf of the States. NCS- benefit jail and prison programs by the area of building codes,” as recom- BCS in 2000 had a staff of 70 people. providing a technical performance mended by the Advisory Commission assessment base from which project on Intergovernmental Relations. In 1978 NCSBCS and NBS entered specifications and uniform methods into a Memorandum of Understanding for evaluating materials, equipment, From the inception of NCSBCS to that detailed a series of areas in which and systems could be developed. October 1976, the National Bureau of each organization would provide the Standards provided NCSBCS other with mutual support. James G. References Secretariat services. These services Gross, who had managed the NCSBCS 1. Robert D. Dikkers and Belinda, C. included administrative and technical secretariat at NBS, was named senior Reeder, Standards for Building Materials, support. The authority to furnish this technical advisor to the conference Equipment and Systems Used in Detention support is contained in the NIST under this agreement. The purposes of and Correctional Facilities, NBSIR 87- 3687, National Bureau of Standards, Organic Act. NBS Building Science this agreement were to: (1) set forth a 1987. Series 75 provides background on the commitment of continued mutual sup- 2. Guide Criteria for the Design and Evaluation formation of the National Conference port between NBS and NCSBCS; (2) of: Operation Breakthrough, Housing of States on Building Codes and establish a procedure for appropriate Systems, A Preliminary Report, Volume 1, Standards. Also, discussed is the work- joint Program planning and continued Multifamily High Rise, 4 Volumes, ing relationship with CBT during the technical cooperation between the two (Supersedes NBS Report 10 200 Dated period when NBS provided the secre- organizations; (3) outline the general March 1, 1970), National Bureau of Standards, 1970. tariat and staff for the NCSBCS. conditions under which NBS and 3. Performance Criteria for Solar Heating and NCSBCS cooperative efforts will be Cooling Systems in Residential Buildings, By 1976 with growth and develop- formulated and conducted; and (4) set NBS Building Science Series 147, ment, NCSBCS matured to the stage forth those technical and other servic- National Bureau of Standards, 1982. of becoming an incorporated entity es to be provided either organization 4. Robert D. Dikkers, Robert J, Husmann, with administrative self-sufficiency and by the other. James H. Webster, John P. Sorg, Richard independence. When NCSBCS A. Holmes, Preliminary Performance Criteria for Building Materials, Equipment and entered into contractual agreements Through this cooperative effort, both Systems Used in Detention and Correctional with HUD to develop a National organizations continued to work Facilities, NISTIR 89-4027, National Mobile Home Regulatory Program and together toward the common goal of Institute of Standards and Technology, monitor the enforcement under the improving the building regulatory sys- 1989. National Mobile Home Construction tem through the application of and Safety Act of 1974 and other research and technology. This con- 14.5 NATIONAL Federal Government agencies, it real- tributed to the public welfare by pro- CONFERENCE OF ized, as did NBS, that administrative viding a safer, more healthful built STATES ON and logistical support by NBS should environment at less cost. BFRL and BUILDING CODES be transferred to NCSBCS, while NCSBCS also cooperated to improve technical research support should be the international competitive climate AND STANDARDS enhanced so as to further the goals of for U.S. industry by providing technol- The National Conference of States on both organizations. In September ogy and regulatory procedures to Building Codes and Standards (NCS- 1976, NCSBCS opened offices in remove barriers to the export of build- BCS) was formed by the nation’s gov- McLean, Virginia. The organization ing products, systems, and know-how.

276 Both organizations contributed to tions spelled out in this agreement, a nomic development in states and local- international acceptable standards and jurisdiction may call on NIST to inves- ities by helping each level of govern- mutual recognition procedures that tigate major structural failures. ment (federal, state, and local) adopt help U.S. industry and professionals and implement streamlined adminis- gain access to global markets. In 1996 NIST and NCSBCS signed an trative procedures, processes, rules, agreement under which the Parties and regulations. The project is intend- Many technical studies and much seek to assist the U.S. construction ed to eliminate existing areas of regu- research have been carried out in the industry in major markets to avoid latory overlap and inefficiency, which Building and Fire Research Laboratory technical barriers to trade and to pro- have created barriers to safe, afford- (BFRL) as direct result of stated needs mote the application of U.S. technolo- able, and environmentally sound con- by NCSBCS. Examples of such pro- gy through the development of appro- struction. Through this effort, the grams include the Laboratory priate building and construction prac- project also is designed to support Evaluation and Accreditation Program, tices, codes, specifications and stan- U.S. international economic competi- Coordinated Evaluation System, dards. It is intended that these efforts tiveness in the construction industry. Uniform Regulation of Manufactured will assist in bringing about the estab- Buildings and Mobile Homes, design lishment of U.S. building and con- Among the goals of the 5 year project standards for wind and seismic resist- struction codes and standards in inter- are a 60 percent reduction of the regu- ance, programs to reduce moisture national markets. Major projects were latory processing time for construction problems in buildings, and programs undertaken to assist Saudi Arabia and projects and support for the fulfillment to reduce loss of life and property the Caribbean region. The project with of the National Partners in from fire. The use of these results by Saudi Arabia produced a draft building Homeownership Goals and the NCSBCS has contributed to the NIST code for Saudi Arabia based upon the National Construction Goals for the goal of transferring research findings Uniform Building Code produced with National Science and Technology and up-to-date technology to the the administrative and technical sup- Council. The project examined over States and ultimately the building port of ICBO. A Caribbean Region 200 building regulatory processes and owner and user. Conference was held in 1997 during procedures. Fifty-nine models for which numerous recommendations improvement have been approved by Beginning in 1976 NCSBCS and NIST were put forth to improve building the project participants for implemen- sponsored 15 joint technical research regulations in the region. Some of the tation. Several states are using the conferences addressing improvement recommendations have been acted approved models. of the building regulatory system. The upon, particularly those recommend- results were published. Some of these ing revision of regulations and prac- 14.6 METRICATION FOR conference proceedings are available tices to provide greater hurricane CONSTRUCTION from NCSBCS. resistance in buildings. The Metric Conversion Act of 1975 In 1986, NCSBCS, NBS, The In 1996 NCSBCS, with support from (Public Law 94-168) established a American Society of Civil Engineers NIST and the cooperation of over 50 United States Metric Board to provide (ASCE) and The Association of Major public and private organizations, planning, coordination and public edu- City Building Officials (AMBCO) embarked upon the Building cation for the voluntary conversion to signed and released a “Model Regulatory Streamlining project. The metric measurement from U.S. cus- Agreement on the Investigation of project’s mission is to enhance public tomary units of measurement. At that Structural Failures.” Under the condi- safety, environmental quality, and eco- time there was considerable enthusiasm

277 in the building industry for conversion to the Metric (SI) system of measurement. The building industry and the States as represented by the National Conference of States on Building Codes and Standards requested NBS to develop a program to assist in the conversion. A series of CBT reports on metric conversions for the construction sector.

Early it was recognized that one benefit of metrication was the opportunity mover in Australia’s conversion. In late standard that is widely used and refer- to select new sizes and dimensions so 1976, CBT arranged a contractual enced through 2000. that products would fit in a coordinat- agreement with the Australian governed way to reduce job site cutting and ment to have Mr. Milton serve as a To assist the building community to fitting which would reduce waste and guest worker in the CBT Building locate definitive information on metri- save time and money. In 1975 CBT Economics and Regulatory Technology cation and dimensional coordination, a started a project “Coordinated Metric Division to assist the U.S. in metric bibliography was prepared and pub- Dimensions for Building” to develop conversion. This arrangement contin- lished as a NBS Special Publication [3]. information to help industry select ued for three years during which Mr. new product sizes in a systematic coor- Milton provided technical studies on In 1977 at the American Institute of dinated manner so as to foster efficien- dimensional coordination and planning Architects headquarters, the AMNC cy in the building process. Also, the for metric conversion to assist the Design and Construction Products CBT accepted the role of secretariat building community. Sectors (CBT held secretariats) spon- for the Design, Codes and Standards sored a joint conference to develop and the Products Sectors of the The first effort was to identify poten- background and information on build- Construction Industries Coordinating tial conversion problems in the con- ing standards in the metric building Committee of the American National struction codes and standards sector. world and to examine the opportunity Metric Council (ANMC). The results of this study, conducted by for an industry-wide system of dimen- Charles T. Mahaffey, were published as sional coordination. Three interna- Although the U.S. was the first nation NBS Technical Note 915[1]. tional speakers were featured. The to go to the decimal monetary system, conference proceedings were published it is the last major nation to go to the In response to a request by ASTM at the request of the attendees’ [4]. metric system of measurement. Thus, Committee E6-Performance of Many nations recognized the unique there was opportunity to learn from Building Constructions and the opportunities presented by a common others such as England, Australia and American National Metric Council, measurement system (SI). A study was Canada. Hans Milton was Chairman of Hans Milton prepared a conducted to identify developments the Government Construction Sector Recommended Practice for the Use of which would impact the U.S. con- Committee on Metric Conversion in Metric (SI) Units in Building Design struction community, particularly those Australia from 1970 to 1975. Australia and Construction [2]. The study related to international trade and com- completed its metric conversion prob- results were widely circulated for competitiveness. Of much interest were lem in a most effective manner. ment and were processed by ASTM European activities and standards Milton was recognized as the prime Committee E6 to become an ASTM development through ISO Technical

278 Committee TC-59-Building The National Institute of Building In response to requests from ASTM Construction. The identified interna- Sciences requested a comprehensive Committee E6-Performance of tional trends and developments were report to provide information on then Building Construction, CBT prepared distributed to the building community current technical issues and status of two draft standards addressing recom- and presented to the National Institute metric conversion in the construction mended practice for use of metric of Building Sciences (NIBS) [5]. industries as background for a units in building design and construc- December 1980 national conference tion [10] and guidance for scales used During 1977 and 1978, Hans Milton “Metric Conversion in the Construction in building drawings [11] which, after was in high demand as a speaker at Community.” This report was given to going through the consensus process, national building community meetings. all attendees and widely circulated in became ASTM standards. These stan- Ten of his papers, each prepared for a the construction community [9]. dards are still promulgated by ASTM different audience, were edited into an and are widely referenced. Also, CBT authoritative compendium of informa- Although metrication was not widely led the revision of two standards to tion on various aspects of metrication embraced by the construction commu- include metric dimensions [12,13]. from managing the change to training nity, some progress continued. In 1988 and specific product format [6]. Congress amended the Metric References Conversion Act of 1975 by the 1. Charles T. Mahaffey, Metrication Problems in the Construction Codes and Standards The Naval Facilities Engineering Omnibus Trade and Competitiveness Act (P.L. 100-408). This act made the Sector, NBS Technical Note 915, Command (NAVFAC) requested and National Bureau of Standards, 1976. metric system the preferred system of partially funded a study to provide a 2. Hans J. Milton, Recommended Practice for rational basis for the evaluation and measurement for the United States. the Use of Metric (SI) Units in Building The subsequent issue of the selection of preferred numerical values Design and Construction, NBS Technical Presidential Order 12770, required Note 938, National Bureau of Standards, associated with metric sizes and quan- the federal agencies to convert federal 1977. tities. This study was published as a procurement to the metric system. 3. R. E. Clark and C. L. Roat, Metrication NBS Technical Note [7]. This led to the formation of the and Dimensional Coordination - A Selected Bibliography, NBS Special Publication Construction Metric Council of the To aid decision making relative to U.S. 458, National Bureau of Standards, National Institute of Building Sciences. 1977. standards on dimensional coordination, James G. Gross, who had managed the 4. Sandra A. Berry and Hans J. Milton, a study was conducted of related stan- Metrication for Construction Program Metric Dimensional Coordination - The Issues dards from other countries, regions and as Chief of the CBT Office of Building and Precedent, NBS Special Publication ISO. Standards from over 50 countries Standards and Codes and Chief of the 504, National Bureau of Standards, 1978. were identified. The study showed Building Economics and Regulatory widespread adoption of 100 mm as a 5. Charles T. Mahaffey, International Trends Technology Division, was named to the and Developments of Importance to the Metric basic building module. Fortunately, this Board of Directors. The Construction Plans of The U.S. Construction Community, dimension is close to the U.S. accepted Metric Council continues to lead met- NBS Technical Note 976, National building module of 4 inches. The study rication for construction. It publishes Bureau of Standards, 1978. was sponsored by the Office of Policy the “Construction Metrication” quar- 6. Hans J. Milton, Metrication in Building Development and Research of the terly newsletter. This newsletter is Design and Construction - A Compendium of 10 papers, NBS Special Publication 530, Department of Housing and Urban available free to interested parties. National Bureau of Standards, 1978. Renewal and was published as a NBS The documents referenced herein con- 7. Hans J. Milton, The Selection of Preferred Special Publication [8]. tinue to serve as a valuable resource. Metric Values for Design and Construction,

279 NBS Technical Note 990, National software should not be a barrier to the method for outlining and indexing Bureau of Standards, 1978. updating of standards. From the mid standards [4]. 8. Hans J. Milton, International and National 70s throughout the 80s, CBT conduct- Standards on Dimensional Coordination, Modular Coordination, Tolerances and Joints ed and sponsored research on methods Harris worked closely with the team in Buildings, NBS Special Publication to assist standards writers in the for- developing the tentative seismic provi- 595, National Bureau of Standards, mulation and expression of standards sions to assist in achieving a complete, 1980. and to assist developers of computer- clear, correct and well organized docu- 9. Hans J. Milton and Sandra A. Berry, aided design software in the correct ment. The experience gained in this Metric Conversion and in the Construction implementation of relevant standards. effort was shared with the standards Industries - Technical Issues and Status, NBS community through a cover story in Special Publication 598, National Bureau of Standards, 1980. Steven Fenves pioneered research on ASTM’s Standardization News [5]. 10. ASTM E621-98, Standard Practice for the the formulation, expression and appli- When Harris left CBT in 1981 to start Use of Metric Units in Building Design and cation of standards while at the his own consulting engineering prac- Construction, American Society for Testing University of Illinois in the 60s. tice in Denver, the work on modeling and Materials, 1998. Richard Wright had collaborated in standards was continued by Frederick 11. ASTM E713-98, Standard Guide for some of this research and involved Stahl and Kent Reed. A computer soft- Selection of Scales for Metric Building CBT in the work when he became ware system and tutorial was devel- Drawings, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1998. director in 1974. The content of a oped and published for Standards 12. ASTM E577-98, Standard Guide for standard was examined at four levels: Analysis, Synthesis and Expression Dimensional Coordination of Rectilinear the organizational network relating the (SASE) [6] to make the techniques Building Parts And Systems, American requirements to be satisfied, the infor- available to standards developers. Society for Testing and Materials, 1998. mation network connecting interrelat- 13. ASTM E835/E835M-98, Standard Guide ed provisions, the detailed level repre- Cooperative research with Professor for Modular Coordination of Clay and senting individual provisions in the Leonard Lopez of the University of Concrete Masonry Units, American Society for Testing and Materials, 1998. form of decision logic tables, and the Illinois explored interfacing machine lowest level consisting of the input data representations of standards with com- 14.7 MODELING for use of the standard [1]. As a guest puter-aided design programs. This was researcher at CBT, 1975-76, Fenves STANDARDS called the Standards Interface for studied the application of these tech- Computer-Aided Design (SICAD). The A standard should be complete (deal niques to the formulation of perform- objective was to separate programming explicitly with all instances within its ance standards [2], mentored col- of the standard, which would best be intended scope), clear (unambiguous leagues in the use of these techniques done by the standard’s developer, from in each instance as to whether the in CBT’s work and was co-investigator programming of the computer-aided standard is complied with or not), cor- in the application of the techniques to design system. Then the machine rep- rect (provide the outcome intended by the development of a next-generation resentations of standards would repre- the standard’s writers), and well organ- standard for the seismic design of sent the standards correctly (a CAD ized (guide the user to all provisions buildings [3]. James Robert Harris programmer less familiar with the applicable to the instance). Moreover, joined BFRL in 1975 to conduct these standard would be quite likely to mis- standards should be correctly incorpo- studies and received the Ph.D. from interpret it). Also, a standard would rated in computer-aided design soft- the University of Illinois in 1980 for not be “hard wired” into the comput- ware, and the difficulties in incorpo- applying the sciences of classification er-aided design system so that it could rating revisions of standards in such and linguistics to develop a systematic readily be used with different stan-

280 dards (such as for different countries) American Institute of Steel Introduction to SASE: Standards Analysis, or updated as the standard was Construction in the development of its Synthesis and Expression, NBSIR 87-3513, improved. Moreover, the standards standard for load and resistance factor National Bureau of Standards, 1987. 7. Leonard A. Lopez, S. L. Elam, and Kent development organizations could mar- design of steel structures. The A. Reed, “Software Concept for ket the machine representations of American Association of State Highway Checking Engineering Designs for their standards rather than ceding this and Transportation Officials applied Conformance with Codes and market to CAD software developers. the SICAD methods in its bridge Standards,” Engineering with Computers, 5, Lopez and colleagues developed and design system. However, the princi- pp 63-78, 1989. demonstrated the SICAD capability ples and techniques are not yet widely 8. Steven J. Fenves, J. H. Garrett, H. Killekote, K. H. Law, and Kent A. Reed, [7]. An important lesson learned in implemented. They are well docu- “Computer Representations of Design this research was the desirability of mented and available to assist those Standards and Building Codes: U.S. standard representations of the infor- involved in development of standards Perspective,” The International Journal of mation contained in computer-aided and computer aided design systems. Construction Information Technology, 3, pp design systems for buildings, which 13-34, 1995. greatly reduced the amount of work References required to develop SICAD implemen- 1. Steven J. Fenves and Richard N. Wright, 14.8 FIRE STANDARDS tation. This need resonated with the The Representation and Use of Design Specifications, NBS TN 940, National Advancement of fire standards has emerging national and international Bureau of Standards, 1977. been a continuing effort of CFR and efforts to develop information inter- 2. Steven J. Fenves, K. Rankin and H. K. BFRL. Research results are delivered change protocols in the mechanical Tejuja, The Structure of Building to practice through improvements in and electronics manufacturing sectors. Specifications, NBS Building Science standards of ASTM; the National Fire Series 90, National Bureau of Standards, Protection Association; the American CBT work on modeling standards 1976. 3. James R. Harris, Steven J. Fenves, and Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and dropped to a very low level as the Richard N. Wright, “Logical Analysis of Air Conditioning Engineers; the Computer Integrated Construction Tentative Seismic Design Provisions,” International Standards Organization; Group focused its work on informa- Journal of the Structural Division, etc. Need for improvement of stan- tion interface protocols for exchange American Society of Civil Engineers, dards have been major drivers of the 107, 1981. of data in architecture, engineering NBS/NIST fire research program. and construction in the late 80s. 4. James R. Harris and Richard N. Wright, Organization of Building Standards: Department of Commerce Awards for Fenves and colleagues summarized the Systematic Techniques for Scope and advances in fire standards include the work at CBT and elsewhere and Arrangement, NBS Building Science Series Gold Medal to Alexander Robertson in assessed its impact [8]. CBT tried 136, National Bureau of Standards, 1976 for career contributions, and the without success in the 80s to interest a 1981. Bronze Medal to Richard Peacock in major standards developing organiza- 5. James R. Harris, Steven J. Fenves and 1987 for safety of solid fuel heating Richard N. Wright, “New Tools for tion to conduct a pilot application of Standards Writers,” Standardization News, appliances. Daniel Gross received the SASE in the development or revision 8, pp 10-16, 1980. NBS Rosa Award in 1987 for his of a major standard, but Fenves did 6. Steven J. Fenves, Richard N. Wright, career contributions to fire hazard test apply the techniques with the Frederick L. Stahl, and Kent A. Reed, method standards.

281

1515. STRUCTURES

15.1 STRUCTURAL Failure investigations generally do not FAILURE involve structural research, though INVESTIGATIONS they may show needs for research when loadings or mechanisms of fail- 15.1.1 INTRODUCTION ure are found to be inadequately Investigations of the causes of struc- understood. Why then should tural failures were a particularly NBS/NIST do failure investigations? important part of the CBT program There is a substantial sub-discipline of from 1975 to 1990. Failure investiga- forensic engineering and architectural tions are distinguished from disaster firms available to conduct failure investigations, which also were impor- investigations for a fee. Congressional tant for CBT and BRFL and are hearings [1] made it very clear why described in the next section, by their NBS/NIST should investigate techni- focus on a particular structure and by cally or politically important structural the absence of an extreme loading. failures. Private investigations generally The importance of failure investiga- were funded by a party involved in tions has both technical and pubic pol- legal action related to the failure, and icy dimensions. Technically, it is therefore viewed as biased. Also, the important to understand the physical reports of private investigations gener- causes of a failure, determine whether ally are sealed by the court as part of existing standards are adequate to pre- the resolution of the case and become vent such failures or whether the stan- unavailable to those not directly dards require revision, and disseminate involved in the case, but who wish to these findings to the profession to understand causes in order to avoid avoid repetitions of the failure. Public repetitions. policy attention is characteristic for major failures as the press, political As a result of important, successful leaders, concerned groups such as structural failure investigations con- construction labor unions, and the ducted by CBT, in cooperation with general public become concerned the Department of Labor’s about the safety of the class of struc- Occupational Safety and Health ture involved in the failure. Administration (OSHA), and at the

283 request of local government authori- ciative of the structural failure ties, NBS was given a legislative man- investigations conducted by CBT. date for structural failure investigations This awareness of the quality and in its authorization legislation for fiscal importance of CBT’s work were year 1986 [2]. significant in Congressional The National Bureau of Standards, on rejection of the Reagan its own initiative, but only after consul- Administration’s proposals for tation with local authorities, may initi- each and every fiscal year from ate and conduct investigations to deter- 1984 through 1990 to eliminate mine the causes of structural failures in or cut in half CBT. structures which are used or occupied by the general public. 15.1.2 SKYLINE PLAZA APARTMENT Even with this legislation, NBS/NIST TOWER AND PARK- lacked authority to demand access to a ING GARAGE failure site and information about the At 2:30 pm on Friday, March 2, The progressive collapse of this apartment building under construction was triggered by the failure of an upper story structure. Thus for effective investiga- 1973, a portion of the apartment floor as a result of premature removal of formwork. tions of private buildings, local govern- tower collapsed for its full height mental authorities would need to use while concreting was underway their regulatory powers to provide on its 24th floor and shoring removal required since OSHA had only six access for NBS to the site and data. was underway on its 22nd floor, and months in which to file charges For federal facilities, NBS/NIST would the impact of the debris caused a hori- related to violations. need the authorities of the responsible zontal progressive collapse of the entire federal agency. For failures during con- parking garage under construction The tower was of reinforced concrete struction that injure or kill workers, adjacent to the tower [4]. Fourteen flat plate construction and planned for OSHA has the necessary authority for construction workers were killed, four 26 stories. The parking garage access and often engaged CBT to in the garage and ten in the tower, and planned for four levels was of unbond- investigate on its behalf. another 34 were injured. ed, post tensioned flat plate concrete construction with construction under- To implement its authorization for Initiative is important in failure investi- way for slab B-2, the second level from structural failures investigations, CBT gations. Upon learning of the accident the top. worked with the National Conference from the news, staff of CBT’s of States for Building Codes and Structures Division went to the nearby The investigation of the tower collapse Standards (NCSBCS) to develop a site in the Division’s van, gained access included studies of the status and con- model agreement for a local govern- for initial reconnaissance, and made dition of the shoring, the properties of ment and NBS to collaborate in an contact with OSHA’s inspection team. the concrete and reinforcing steel, and investigation [3]. However, in the peri- On Monday, March 5, 1973, OSHA finite element analyses of the flexural od of this history, through 2000, this requested NBS to ascertain the cause and shearing stresses in the slab. It was agreement was not used. of the collapse and to determine determined that premature removal of whether non-compliance with OSHA shoring on the 22nd floor caused The building community, Congress and standards had contributed to the col- punching shear failure of the slab the general public were highly appre- lapse. A rapid investigation was around one or more columns at the

284 23rd floor. The weight of the debris structed at the Pleasants power station, sufficient strength to support these resulted in failures of the lower floors collapsed with the formwork and scaf- loads. This failure demonstrated dra- for the full height of the building. folding it supported. CBT investiga- matically the importance of measuring Numerous violations of OSHA stan- tors arrived at the site on April 29, in-place concrete strengths before initi- dards had contributed to the collapse. 1978, in response to a request by ating a critical construction operation. E.V. Leyendecker and George Fattal OSHA to assist in the investigation of H.S. Lew received the Bronze Medal produced a very complete report that the collapse and determine its most Award of the Department of became a model for subsequent failure probable investigations and stimulated study of cause. CBT the maturity (strength gain with time conducted and temperature) of concrete and field, labo- shoring practices to improve safety of ratory and concrete construction. analytical studies [5] Understanding of the horizontal pro- and had gressive collapse in the parking garage access to was more challenging. The nominal data from panel dimension was 9 m x 8 m (spac- OSHA and ing between columns in the two prin- the con- cipal directions) and the garage had a structor. total plan area of 12 by 11 panels 104 m x 91 m. The falling debris impacted The tower only two or so of the 132 panels, but had reached Collapse of a portion of a reinforced concrete hyperbolic cooling tower. all collapsed by shearing about the a height of columns, which remained standing 61 m of its planned 131 m. Construction was with the slabs pancaked at the column Commerce in 1980 for his leadership underway on the 29th lift using scaf- bases. Because of the importance of of the investigation, and the Silver folding supported only by the concrete this failure, NBS funded a detailed, Medal Award in 1982 for his develop- of the 28th lift which had been placed near full scale, laboratory investigation ment of construction safety guidelines the previous day. Detailed studies were of the performance of the unbonded to reduce risks of future failures due to made of the patented construction sys- immature concrete. post tensioned slab and columns. tem, site operations, properties of the However, the laboratory testing did concrete and other materials, compo- not reproduce the failure observed in nents of the concrete hoisting and 15.1.4 HARBOUR CAY the field. scaffolding system, loads acting at the CONDOMINIUM time of collapse, and of the forces gen- The Harbour Cay Condominium, a 15.1.3 COOLING TOWER AT erated in the reinforced concrete shell five-story flat-plate reinforced con- WILLOW ISLAND, WV in comparison to its strength. The crete building under construction, col- Shortly after 10 am on April 27, 1978, conclusion was that the most probable lapsed shortly after 3 pm on March 51 workers were killed when the top cause of the collapse was imposition of 27, 1981, killing 11 workers and portion of a reinforced concrete the construction loads on the concrete injuring another 23. The collapse hyperbolic cooling tower, being con- of the 28th lift before it had gained occurred during placement of the roof

285 slab at the column was placed visited Kansas City on July 21 and met lower than specified further with the Mayor and other City offi- reducing the punching shear cials. On July 22, Mayor Berkley for- resistance. mally requested that NBS independently ascertain the probable cause of While the slab thickness was the collapse of the walkways. less than the building code specified, the slab thickness and However, access to the site and data reinforcement placement speci- relevant to the failure were not easily fied in the structural drawings attained. Kansas City provided access would have provided sufficient to its regulatory data, but did not use punching shear resistance to its authority to provide access to pri- Post disaster investigation report of Harbour Cay withstand the construction vate data. Edward Pfrang, chief of Condominium collapse. loads. A careful analysis of the CBT’s Structures Division, worked reinforcement shop drawings by forcefully and skillfully with the press, George Fattal and Nicholas attorneys for plaintiffs and defendants, slab. OSHA requested NBS assistance Carino revealed that incorrect bar sup- and the courts to obtain access to the in investigation of the most probable port chairs were used in critical por- site, the remnants of the skywalks and cause of the collapse. The NBS investi- tions of the slab. debris, and construction documenta- gators arrived on site on March 28, tion. However, access never was gained 1981, but were limited to general 15.1.5 KANSAS CITY HYATT to structural calculations and change observations of the site until search and REGENCY WALKWAYS orders involving the skywalk structural COLLAPSE rescue operations, which substantially system. modified the debris, were completed. On Friday July 17, 1981, at 7:05 pm two suspended walkways within the The skywalks that fell had crossed the The investigation [6] included review atrium area of the Hyatt Regency atrium at the fourth and second floor of contract drawings and specifica- Hotel in Kansas City, MO collapsed levels [7]. The fourth floor skywalk tions, observations of the site and during a dance. One hundred thirteen was suspended by hanger rods con- debris, review of OSHA’s interviews people died and 186 were injured. In necting the skywalk’s crossbeams to with witnesses to the collapse, tests of terms of loss of life and injuries, this the trusses supporting the atrium roof. the strength of concrete and reinforc- was the most devastating structural The second floor skywalk was immedi- ing steel, and analyses of the loads act- collapse to have taken place in the ately beneath the fourth floor skywalk ing at the time of collapse, forces United States. On Monday July 20, and suspended by hanger rods con- induced in the structure and the 1981, Senator Thomas Eagleton on nected to the crossbeams in the fourth resistance of the structure. The most Missouri contacted Ernest Ambler, floor skywalk. Evidence from observers probable cause of collapse was a com- director of NBS, to request that tech- and debris revealed that the bolts and bination of design and construction nical assistance be provided to Kansas washers transferring the loads of the errors: the design did not consider the City. Ambler agreed, and later in the second and fourth floor skywalks to possibility of punching shear failure day Kansas City Mayor Richard Berkley the hanger rods had deformed the and therefore specified a slab thickness requested technical assistance. Two fourth floor crossbeams and pulled of 203 mm when 277 mm was NBS structural research engineers, through the crossbeams allowing the required; top reinforcing steel in the Edward Pfrang and Richard Marshall, fourth floor skywalk to fall with its sus-

286 photographs from the accident site. Laboratory studies were conducted of mockups to represent conditions at the time of failure, and of actual specimens from the debris. Analytical studies determined the response of the skywalks to the loads at the time of collapse.

The investigation revealed that the Collapsed walkways in the Hyatt Regency Hotel atrium. original design for connection of the crossbeams to the hanger rods, which pended second floor skywalk to the in a warehouse, weighed debris to had the hanger rods running continu- atrium floor below. ascertain the weights of the walkways, ously through the fourth floor cross- removed selected materials for labora- beams to the second floor crossbeams, CBT, with support from the NBS tory testing, reviewed documents from was not in accord with applicable Center for Materials Science, inspected design and construction, videos made codes and standards and had only 53 the atrium area and the debris stored just before and after the collapse, and percent of the required capacity. The design had been changed to suspend Editorial from the Kansas City Times on February 27, 1982 the second floor skywalk from the fourth floor skywalk, rather than on On July 18, 1981, no one in this area was prepared mentally or technically to investigate the causes or causes of Kansas City’s worst disaster. Two days later, Sen. Thomas F. Eagleton, continuous hanger rods, resulting in a followed by Mayor Richard L. Berkly, Sen. John C. Danforth and Rep. Richard Bolling, doubling of the forces that had to be called on the National Bureau of Standards in Gaithersburg, Md., to investigate the collapse transferred from the fourth floor of the Hyatt Regency sky walks. crossbeams to the hanger rods. This For those politicians it was second nature to turn to the unique resources of the federal gov- doubling of the force on an already ernment for a thorough and impartial study that no party involved - not the city, the hotel inadequate connection was the cause owner, the builder or anyone else - could have provided. The mandate of the NBS is “to of the collapse. strengthen and advance the nation’s science and technology and to facilitate their effective application for the public benefit.” The NBS is singularly suited to investigate such complex The investigation received much pub- disasters as the Hyatt. lic attention and CBT’s work was In the Hyatt investigation, the client is the public of the entire country, the people who use highly commended (sidebar). CBT buildings in the course of their lives. The NBS study is paid for with taxpayers’ money and staff, notably Richard Marshall and the results are matters of public record, for all interested parties to see and learn from. E.V. Leyendecker, worked very effec- Ultimately, the results of the study could revolutionize building design and inspection proce- tively under intense scrutiny by the dures. Such a move would start from a broader base of public acceptance because of the press and attorneys. Matt Heyman, impartial manner in which the NBS team worked to meet its primary obligation to satisfy chief of NBS’s Public Information the public’s right to know what happened and why. Division, was very helpful in dealing Imagine how different the results of the Hyatt study might have been had no pool of experts with the press and guiding CBT’s staff existed at the NBS headquarters. Imagine where the public would be had there been no such in their interactions. specialized federal agency for this confused, bewildered city to turn to in its time of great need.

287 The building community was greatly interested in the investigation for both the physical causes of the failure and for the failures in the building process that had allowed the severe deficiencies in design and construction to have escaped attention. Edward Pfrang’s effectiveness in the investigation and dissemination of its results was a significant factor in his being offered and accepting the position of Executive Collapse of a concrete highway ramp under construction. Director of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) in 1983. In unable to support its own weight and integrity of the new U.S. Embassy 1982, he and Richard Marshall was supported by a temporary support Office Building in Moscow?” The received the Gold Medal of the U.S. system know as “falsework.” The con- answer was “yes.” “Could you do it in Department of Commerce for their clusion was that cracking of a concrete six months for $500,000?” The leadership of the investigation. The pad supporting a falsework tower was answer was “we do not yet know building community’s concern to the triggering mechanism of the col- enough about the situation to make an improve its processes to avoid such lapse. Deficiencies contributing to the estimate.” Anyhow, a few days later defects and accidents in the future led collapse were: omission of wedges The Continuing Appropriations Act for to ASCE’s development of a Manual of between falsework stringers and cross- Fiscal Year 1987, Public Law 99-591, Professional Practice [8]. beams, inadequate strength of the con- directed the NBS to conduct an inde- crete pads, lack of stabilization of false- pendent assessment of the new U.S. 15.1.6 RILEY ROAD work towers against longitudinal move- Embassy Office Building in Moscow, in INTERCHANGE RAMP, ment, and poor weld quality in U- six months and for $500,000. The EAST CHICAGO, heads supporting cross beams at the assessment was to include “an assess- INDIANA top of the falsework towers. This ment of the current structure and rec- On April 15, 1982, thirteen workers investigation highlighted the impor- ommendations and cost estimates for were killed and fifteen injured in the tance of careful consideration of the correcting any structural flaws and collapse of a highway ramp under con- design of all components of the tem- construction defects.” Though no struction in East Chicago, Indiana. porary support system used in con- structural failure occurred, this study is OSHA requested technical assistance crete construction. included here because of its similarity from NBS to determine the cause of the to a failure investigation in both the failure. CBT structural engineers arrived 15.1.7 STRUCTURAL technical work and the high visibility on the site on April 17. The investiga- ASSESSMENT OF THE and priority given the investigation [10]. tion [9] included site investigation, NEW U.S. EMBASSY experimental and analytical studies. OFFICE BUILDING IN Under terms of a 1972 agreement MOSCOW between the U.S. and the Soviet The ramp was being built by the On September 24, 1986, CBT director Union, the Soviets were responsible method known as cast-in-place, pre- Richard Wright was called by staff of for the detailed design and construc- stressed, post-tensioned concrete. At the Senate Appropriations Committee. tion of the Embassy Office Building the time of the collapse, the ramp was “Could you assess the structural with a Soviet building system widely

288 used in Moscow. This system is com- diter, to arrange for access to prised mostly of precast reinforced data on the building available in concrete structural elements. The gen- the U.S. and for access to sup- eral design was prepared by U.S. firms plies in Moscow. Kramer skill- from 1973 to 1976, construction at fully used the Congressional pri- the site began in 1979, structural fram- ority to obtain the permissions ing was in place in June 1982, exterior and resources needed for suc- walls were substantially complete in cess of the investigation. November 1983, but construction was suspended in August 1985, except for Security and logistical restric- placement of a temporary roof in tions limited the number of November 1986. Construction was CBT staff who could visit the suspended because of concern for elec- site and have full access to data tronic security in the building (but on the building. Nicholas Carino NBS investigators were instructed to was the leader of the project, observe nothing related to electronic and William Stone, whose rock security). However, official U.S. climbing expertise provided CBT investigator Nicholas Carino, research structural engi- inspections of the building had important access to the struc- neer, uses a borescope to examine the condition of the joint between segments of precast columns in the U.S. Embassy observed apparent structural defects so ture, also was fully involved in the investigation. Mary Office Building in Moscow. The investigation revealed many NBS was instructed to provide “an cases where large voids were present in the joints between Sansalone provided detailed assessment of the current structure and precast structural members. recommendations and cost estimates review of the structural plans for correcting any structural flaws and and calculations and prepared ing the calculations, plans and infor- construction defects.” summaries for use at the site. Alexander Rosenbaum, an émigré well mation available in the U.S. informed on Soviet design and con- Fortunately, the building was heated. Access to the site and data were diffi- struction practices, was engaged to The initial visit provided an overview cult to attain. The U.S. and Soviet assist in studying the calculations, plans of the condition of the structure and Union were in a process of expelling and characteristics of the building sys- building. This information provided each other’s diplomats, Soviet workers tem. Because management involvement insights for planning the investigations had been withdrawn from the Embassy was needed in the project and site during the second site visit from making it difficult to support NBS work, Richard Wright participated with February 17 to March 6, 1987, and investigators on the site, the U.S. State technical emphasis on structural steel for laboratory studies of typical details Department was restricting official vis- aspects, and James Gross, deputy direc- prior to the second site visit. Carino, itors to Moscow, and the Soviet Union tor of CBT, participated with technical Stone and the rest of the project team was not eager to permit entries. NBS emphasis on masonry aspects. put in long hours in the field and labo- management realized the importance ratory to meet the project deadline of the assignment and assigned Samuel With a tight deadline and a Moscow with a well-received report. Kramer, deputy director of the winter approaching, it was frustrating National Engineering Laboratory, to be unable to visit the site until The investigation found that structural widely acquainted with Congress and December 17-19, 1986, but there was materials and components used in the federal agencies, and an inspired expe- much useful work to be done in study- building were of generally good quality,

289 but important deficiencies existed that should be corrected before the building would be occupied. It had been hard to find a properly grouted connection between pre-cast concrete columns, or a properly completed connection between pre-cast concrete shear wall panels and adjacent panels or columns. All such connections required inspection and completion. The design had not considered resist- Appearance of the L’Ambiance Plaza apartment building that collapsed during construction. ance to progressive collapse; recommendations were made for enhancing ground, and then lifted by jacks on tory reports, and project correspon- this resistance. The costs for the reme- the steel columns to their final posi- dence; laboratory tests of samples dial measures were estimated to be less tions. At the time of the collapse, removed from the collapsed struc- than $2 million and to take less than a three levels of parking garage slabs ture; data from a subsurface investi- year to accomplish, if the work were and six levels of floor slabs were in gation of the site after the collapse; done in the Washington, DC area. place in the east tower, three levels of and analytical studies of the stability parking garage slabs and three levels of the columns and forces induced in Some critics felt that progressive col- of floor slabs were in place in the the slabs and connections during the lapse should not be an issue, but sub- west tower, and a package of three lifting operations. sequent U.S. experience with terrorist slabs was being placed in a temporary attacks has shown its importance. The position in the west tower. In the col- The most probable cause was deter- building has been modified for elec- lapse, all of the slabs fell. mined to be excessive deformation of tronic security, repaired and placed in a shearhead that connected the jacking service. Nicholas Carino received the OSHA requested technical assistance rods to the package of three slabs, from NBS in determining the most Silver Medal Award of the Department which led to the slipping off of a jack- probable cause of the failure on April of Commerce in 1987 for his leader- ing rod, which increased loads on adja- 24, 1987; CBT engineers led by ship of the investigation. cent jacking rods causing them to slip Charles Culver, chief of the Structures off or fracture, which led to failure of Division, arrived on site at 6:00 pm the slabs, whose debris caused lower 15.1.8 L’AMBIANCE PLAZA that same day. While priority was given slabs to also fall, which led to general BUILDING COLLAPSE to rescue efforts, CBT collected data collapse of the west tower, which led The L’Ambiance Plaza apartment on the nature of the failure of various building under construction in structural elements. In its investigation to collapse of the adjacent east tower, Bridgeport, Connecticut collapsed at [11], CBT used: information on the probably as a result of impacts of about 1:30 pm on April 23, 1987, construction procedures and collapse debris or pulling action from the west killing 28 construction workers. The from interviews of survivors and wit- tower. The mechanism of shearhead building was being constructed by the nesses conducted by OSHA; project deformation and slipping off of the lift slab method. Two-way reinforced documentation including design jacking rod was reproduced in the lab- and post-tensioned concrete slabs for specifications, plans, shop drawings, oratory within the range of loadings floors and roof were cast on the construction records, testing labora- used in the lifting operations.

290 Much controversy arose about the cause of this failure. A number of papers were published in the American Society of Civil Engineers’ Journal of Performance of Constructed Facilities (12) and alternative hypotheses discussed [13]. OSHA showed its confidence in the investigation by engaging Culver to become director of its Office of Construction and Engineering in Brittle fracture propagation occurring in tank caused it to rupture and spill its full contents into the 1988. However, this did become the neighboring Monongahela River. final CBT construction failure investigation for OSHA because, under Marshall of Allegheny County and the might be in service with steels of inad- Culver’s leadership, OSHA subse- Governor of Pennsylvania requested equate fracture toughness for their quently conducted its own investiga- NBS to conduct an independent tech- conditions of use. tions. As a result of the failure and the nical investigation into the cause of the lessons learned in its investigations, the collapse. The Ashland Petroleum John Gross of CBT led the investiga- American Society of Civil Engineers Company provided full access to the tion for NBS and John Smith of the established a Task Committee on Lift site and its data on the tank and its use Institute for Materials Science and Slab Construction to develop guide- to NBS’s and others’ investigations. Engineering led its metallurgical lines for successful lift slab construc- aspects. tion and OSHA published new rules Data were obtained from NBS field on this construction method. observations, laboratory and analytical References studies [14], from the investigation of 1. Structural Failures in Public Facilities, 15.1.9 ASHLAND OIL STORAGE the Pennsylvania Tank Collapse Task Committee on Science and Technology, TANK COLLAPSE House Report 98-621, March 15, 1984. Force appointed by the Governor, and 2. NBS Authorization for Fiscal Year 1986, 15 On January 2, 1988, a 15.6 million from the Battelle Columbus Division U.S.C. 281a. liter capacity oil storage tank at the investigation sponsored by Ashland. 3. D. M. Hammerman, President, Model Ashland Petroleum Company Floreffe The cause of the failure was deter- Agreement on the Investigation of Structural Terminal near West Elizabeth, mined to be brittle fracture initiating Failures, Memorandum, National Pennsylvania collapsed as it was being from a flaw existing prior to the Conference of States on Building Codes and Standards, Herndon, VA, March 25, filled to capacity for the first time reconstruction of the tank. Complete 1986. since it was reconstructed at the site rupture of the tank occurred because 4. E.V. Leyendecker and S. George Fattal, after more than 40 years of service in its steel was of inadequate toughness at Investigation of the Skyline Plaza Collapse in Cleveland Ohio. The contents flowed the operating temperature to prevent Fairfax County, Virginia, BSS 94, National into the Monongahela River approxi- brittle fracture propagation. The steel Bureau of Standards, 1977. mately 40 km upstream from did not meet the standards of the 5. H. S. Lew, S. George Fattal, J. R. Shaver, Timothy A. Reinhold, and B. J. Hunt, Pittsburgh and contaminated the water American Petroleum Institute which Investigation of Construction Failure of supplies of many communities on the were effective at the time of recon- Reinforced Concrete Cooling Tower at Willow Monongahela and Ohio rivers. struction of the tank. Concern was Island, WV, BSS 148, National Bureau of Congressman Doug Walgren, the Fire expressed for the risk that other tanks Standards, September 1982.

291 6. H.S. Lew, Nicholas J. Carino, S. George 14. John G. Gross, Felix Y. Yokel, Richard N. such as executive orders for imple- Fattal, and M.E. Batts, Investigation of Wright, A. Hunter Fanney, J. H. Smith, mentation of seismic design and con- Construction Failure of Harbour Cay G. E. Hicho and T. R. Shives, struction practices. Condominium in Cocoa Beach, Florida, BSS Investigation into the Ashland Oil Storage 145, National Bureau of Standards, 1982. Tank Collapse on January 2, 1988, NBSIR The disaster investigations cited here 7. Richard D. Marshall, Edward O. Pfrang, 88-3792, National Bureau of Standards, did not include research or in-depth E.V. Leyendecker, Kyle A. Woodward, R. P. 1988. Reed, M. B. Kasen, and T. R. Shives, technical studies needed to develop technical bases for improvements in Investigation of the Kansas City Hyatt Regency 15.2 DISASTER Walkways Collapse, BSS 143, National practice. Rather, they cited evidence of Bureau of Standards, 1982. INVESTIGATIONS the harmful consequences of not using 8. Quality in the Constructed Project: A 15.2.1 INTRODUCTION up-to-date wind or seismic design and Guideline for Owners, Designers and construction practices, and identified Constructors, American Society of Civil Post disaster investigations were opportunities to learn from the per- Engineers, 1988. important to BFRL and its predecessor formance of structures in the extreme 9. Nicholas J. Carino, H.S. Lew, William C. organizations for both technical and environment. They did lead to much Stone, Riley M. Chung and J.R. public policy reasons. Technically, an research, by CBR/BFRL and others, to Hoblitzell, Investigation of Construction extreme wind, earthquake or confla- address issues identified in the investi- Failure of the Riley Road Interchange Ramp, gration would test the performance of East Chicago, Indiana, NBSIR 82-2583, gations. From the 1989 Loma Prieta structures and fire protection systems National Bureau of Standards, 1982. and the 1994 Northridge earthquakes 10. Nicholas J. Carino, John G. Gross, at a scale impossible in the laboratory. substantial supplemental appropria- William C. Stone, M. Sansalone, Felix Y. Investigations allow confirmation of tions from Congress were received to Yokel, E. Simiu, Eric M. Hendrickson, engineering knowledge and practice or address the research needs identified. Robert G. Mathey, C.F. Scribner, and identification of unanticipated mecha- R.N. Wright, Structural Assessment of the nisms of failure and needs for research. Post disaster investigations by NBS New U.S. Embassy Office Building in Moscow, Politically, a disaster would focus pub- began in 1969 with the investigation of NBSIR 87-3637, National Bureau of lic and policy makers attention on the Hurricane Camille and continued with Standards, 1987. importance of good structural per- 11. Charles G. Culver, Charles F. Scribner, investigation of tornado damage in formance to gain impetus for imple- Richard D. Marshall, Felix Y. Yokel, John Lubbock, Texas in 1970, the San G. Gross, Charles W. Yancey, and Eric M. mentation of improved practices, such Fernando Earthquake in 1971, and the Hendrickson, Investigation of L’Ambiance as up to date wind or seismic design flooding from Hurricane Agnes in Plaza Building Collapse in Bridgeport, and construction practices, or for 1972. These are covered in earlier his- Connecticut, NBSIR 87-3640, National research and development of improved tories of building research at NBS. Bureau of Standards, 1987. practices when the best available were Under the leadership of Edward Pfrang 12. K. L. Carper, “L’Ambiance Plaza shown not to prevent unacceptable for the San Fernando Earthquake, NBS Construction Collapse,” Journal of losses. Thus, disaster investigations showed the advantages in private and Performance of Constructed Facilities, v6, n4, have been the impetus for sustained public policy attention of being the pp 209-210, November 1992. program funding, such as the National first to publish a substantive report. 13. Discussion and closure for D. A. Cuoco, D. B. Peraza, and T. Z. Scarangelo, Earthquake Hazards Reduction However, subsequent managers and “Investigation of L’Ambiance Plaza Program, for significant one-time staff were unwilling to devote the neces- Building Collapse,” Journal of Performance funding to respond to needs for sary energy and resources, and break of Constructed Facilities, v8, n2, pp 160- improvements of practice revealed by commitments to other deadlines, to 168, May 1994. the disaster, and for public policies maintain this advantage.

292 15.2.2 WIND INVESTIGATIONS Richard Marshall joined NBS in 1968 and devoted his career, until retirement in 1996, to field and laboratory studies of wind forces and effects on structures. He led many important wind disaster investigations. Following the December 25, 1974 Cyclone Tracy in Darwin, Australia, he collaborated with Australian authorities in investigation of the loads on damages to build- Structural damages to low-rise commercial and residential constructions caused by the 1997 Jarrel, ings [1]. Findings for residential build- Texas tornado included the partial collapse of the roof of a supermarket. The roof was supported by ings were very applicable to U.S. prac- open-web steel trusses. tice: wall sheathing must be strong and well attached to function in transmittal code. Properly designed and con- velocity averaged over the time of lateral forces, and roofs must be structed buildings indeed showed min- required for a particle to travel 1.6 firmly connected to walls and walls to imal damages. Wind velocities in the km, about 30 seconds, and measured foundations in order to hold structures Virgin Islands exceeded code levels, at a height of 10 m above the ground. together. Although about 80 percent of but the code levels were grossly inade- The NOAA figure was for a short dura- the city’s houses were severely dam- quate for the wind hazard and should tion gust in a very localized “micro- aged by winds estimated to range from be increased. burst” area of high intensity wind. 49 m/s to 76 m/s (3 s gust at 10 m Most of the damages and losses were above ground) well constructed build- Hurricane Andrew struck south due to structures not being built in ings were observed to have performed Florida on August 24, 1992, to cause accord with the existing building well. Sound design and construction an estimated $25 billion in damage. codes. NIST’s review requirements did can minimize damages. Marshall was co-leader of a joint inves- not allow Marshall and Rossiter to be tigation by the Wind Engineering authors of the WERC report, but Marshall participated in the National Research Council (WERC) and NIST. Marshall did conduct follow-up studies Academies’ investigation of the effects Walter Rossiter of NIST also partici- for the Department of Housing and of Hurricane Hugo in 1989 on Puerto pated in the studies of damages to Urban Development (HUD) to rec- Rico, the Virgin Islands and roofing. The investigation concluded ommend improved wind resistant Charleston, SC [2, 3]. Hugo was the that wind speeds, related to engineer- standards for manufactured (“mobile”) costliest hurricane to date to impact ing design conditions, were between homes [4]. After much controversy, the United States. Marshall’s investiga- 49 m/s and 56 m/s , while the current these standards were adopted in tion focused on the Virgin Islands and engineering standards and codes called HUD’s mandatory standard for manu- Puerto Rico and on estimation of the for between 51 m/s and 53 m/s. These factured homes and have substantially wind forces from limited meteorologi- findings led to disagreements with the reduced wind vulnerability at modest cal measurements and from assess- National Oceanic and Atmospheric cost. ments of damages based on the quali- Administration (NOAA) authorities ties of construction. It showed that who estimated peak wind velocities of Tornado wind velocities also tend to be wind velocities in Puerto Rico were 89 m/s. Actually, both were correct. estimated at very high levels by the less than specified in the building The engineering design wind was the National Weather Service giving the

293 impression that extensive damages are inevitable “acts of God.” Indeed wind velocities at the edge of the funnel can be very high and impractical to resist in small buildings, but funnels are narrow and velocities drop off rapidly beyond the funnel so that well constructed small buildings can survive something less than a direct hit. Long Phan and Emil Simiu investigated Collapsed steel water tower in Spencer, South Dakota due to the May 30, 1998 Spencer tornado. damages in the Jarrell, Texas tornado of May 27, 1997 [5] to assess the wind that can be used to improve construc- these effects, where structural asym- speeds and Fujita (F) Class of the tor- tion practices. The picture shows the metry concentrated distortions, or nado. The area had no building code complete collapse of a water tower in where bridge piers were non-ductile. and the destroyed buildings had con- Spencer. nections of roofs to walls and walls to The Mexico earthquake of September foundations that would not meet an 15.2.3 EARTHQUAKE 19, 1985, was of great interest to the appropriate building code. The dam- INVESTIGATIONS U.S. because severe damages occurred ages were consistent with an F3 torna- The Miyagi-ken-oki, Japan, Earthquake to modern buildings located at a large do with speeds ranging from 71 m/s to of June 12, 1978, was of great interest distance of 386 km from a great earth- 92 m/s rather than the F5 of 117 m/s to the U.S. because the earthquake was quake of Richter magnitude 8.1. Such to 142 m/s tornado identified by the large, Richter magnitude 7.4, provided conditions could occur in the United National Weather Service. design level shaking to many modern States: for Chicago from a repeat of On May 30, 1998, at 8:38pm (CDT), structures including an operating the great 1811-12 New Madrid, MO a violent tornado struck the town of nuclear power reactor, and was well earthquakes, for California cities in Spencer, South Dakota, a small farm instrumented to allow good compari- response to a great earthquake on the community approximately 72 km west son of structural performance to the San Andreas fault, or for the Pacific of Sioux Falls, leaving 6 dead, more actual ground shaking. Because of Northwest from a great earthquake in than 150 injured, and nearly 90 per- CBT’s leadership in the creation and the subduction zone off shore. cent of a total 195 structures in the operation of the U.S-Japan Panel on Therefore, the CBT-led Interagency six-by-seven blocks community Wind and Seismic Effects, a multi-dis- Committee on Seismic Safety in destroyed. Following the passage of ciplinary, multi-agency, U.S. team Construction (ICSSC) organized a this tornado, BFRL researchers visited received access and Japanese govern- multi-agency, multii-disciplinary team Spencer and conducted aerial and ment support in investigating the to investigate the earthquake [7]. The ground surveys to document structural earthquake [6]. Structural perform- investigation showed that amplifica- damage. Post disaster investigations ance was generally good, for instance tions of motion in areas of deep, soft provide valuable information on the the nuclear reactor was similar to U.S. soil deposits were responsible for the responses of structures to extreme designs and was undamaged. Damages most severe damages. Standards and loads. Complete documentation of were concentrated where deep, soft codes for the U.S. needed updating to instances of successful or poor per- soil conditions amplified motions, sug- account for such foundation condi- formance can yield valuable lessons gesting that design criteria consider tions. William Stone received the

294 Bronze Medal Award of the Department of Commerce in 1987 for his leadership of the investigation.

The magnitude 7.1 Loma Prieta, California earthquake of October 17, 1989, which caused extensive damages in the San Francisco Bay area at a distance of 96 km from the epicenter, showed the relevance of the Mexico A failure of supporting columns resulted in the collapse of the bi-level I-880 Viaduct during the 1989 City experience. Again, damages were Loma Prieta Earthquake in the San Francisco area. concentrated in areas of deep, soft soil deposits as shown by the investigation for structural behavior he showed ing an earthquake was demonstrated; of the CBT-led ICSSC [8] and others. remarkable capabilities to elicit the a BFRL-led workshop [10] developed Severe damages occurred to bridge cooperation of emergency manage- recommendations for research and structures and loss of water supplies ment authorities, team members, improvement of practices. The exposed San Francisco to the threat of other investigators and the representa- President issued another ICSSC-devel- conflagration like that of 1906. tives of the organizations responsible oped Executive Order to assess the Fortunately, winds were light and the for the facilities being studied. seismic risks produced by existing haz- fires did not spread. Congress and the ardous federal or federally leased Administration proved much more The magnitude 6.8 Northridge, buildings. sensitive to U.S. experience than to California earthquake of January 17, warnings from foreign earthquakes and 1994, caused severe damages. The The magnitude 6.9 Kobe, Japan earth- provided substantial supplemental investigation of the BFRL-led ICSSC quake of January 17, 1995 took 6,000 funding to study seismological aspects [9] and others showed that most dam- lives and caused economic losses esti- and building performance to develop ages occurred to structures already mated at over $200 billion. Because recommendations for improvements of known to be inadequate. However, the earthquake was exemplary of what standards for new and existing struc- there was a big surprise in the brittle a close in earthquake could do to a tures. The President also issued an behavior of modern welded steel frame modern city, the BFRL-led U.S. side Executive Order, which had been buildings, and a demonstrated need to of the U.S.-Japan Panel on Wind and drafted years before by the ICSSC, to improve standards for deformation call for application of up-to-date seis- compatibility of structural members. Seismic Effects conducted an investiga- mic standards in the design and con- Major supplemental funding was pro- tion of the performance of structures, struction of federal and federally vided for studies of design criteria for lifelines and fire protection systems in leased, assisted or regulated new build- new welded steel frames and for retro- the earthquake [11]. The findings and ing construction. fit criteria for existing welded steel recommendations of the study identi- frames, and for improvement of the fied research and improvements in H.S. Lew led the investigations of the performance of new and existing practice to reduce urban earthquake Loma Prieta earthquake and the subse- bridges. (BFRL’s work on welded steel disasters, and are being addressed in quent Northridge and Kobe earth- frames is described in section 15.12.) ongoing U.S. and Japanese earthquake quakes. In addition to his good sense Again the risk of conflagration follow- risk reduction programs.

295 References Nelson, and Richard N. Wright, ance to these forces. The framers of 1. Richard D. Marshall, Engineering Aspects of Performance of Structures During the Loma these documents on which the struc- Cyclone Tracy - Darwin Australia, 1974, Prieta Earthquake of October 17, 1989, SP tural engineer places so much reliance BSS 86, National Bureau of Standards, 778, National Institute of Standards and Technology, 1990. must address the question: “How safe 1976. is safe enough?” on behalf of society as 2. Richard D. Marshall, Surface Wind 9. Diana Todd, Nicholas Carino, Riley M. Speeds and Property Damage, Hurricane Chung, H. S. Lew, Andrew W. Taylor, a whole. Code development is a grave Hugo: Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and William D. Walton, James D. Cooper, responsibility and, for the most part, Charleston, South Carolina, September 17- and R. Nimis, 1994 Northridge has been done well since failures of 22, 1989, National Research Council, Earthquake: Performance of Structures, constructed facilities are rare. On the Washington, DC, pp 82-114, 1994. Lifelines and Fire Protection Systems, SP 862, other hand, such failures, when they 3. Richard D. Marshall, Lessons Learned by a National Institute of Standards and do occur, are highly visible and their Technology, 1994. Wind Engineer, Hurricane Hugo One Year consequences are severe in human and 10. Riley M. Chung, Nora H. Jason, Bijan Later, Proceedings of a Symposium and economic terms for all involved. Public Forum, Charleston, SC, American Mohraz, F. W. Mowrer, and William D. Society of Civil Engineers, New York, Walton, editors, Post Earthquake Fire and 1990. Lifelines Workshop; Long Beach, California At the root of the structural safety 4. Richard D. Marshall, Wind Load Provisions January 30-31, 1995 Proceedings, SP 889, problem is the uncertain nature of the of the Manufactured Home Construction and National Institute of Standards and man-made and environmental forces Safety Standards: A Review and Technology, 1995. that act on structures, of material Recommendations for Improvement, NISTIR 11. Riley Chung, D. Ballantyne, Roger strengths, and of structural analysis 5189, National Institute of Standards Borcherdt, Ian Buckle, E. Comeau, James Cooper, J. Hayes, T. Holzer, H.S. procedures that, even in this computer and Technology, 1993. age, are no more than models of reali- 5. Long T. Phan and Emil Simiu, The Fujita Lew, E.V. Leyendecker, Daniel ty. The natural consequence of uncer- Tornado Intensity Scale: A Critique Based on Madrzykowski, Jack Moehle, Thomas Observations of the Jarrell Tornado of May O’Rourke, A. Schiff, L-H. Sheng, M. P. tainty is risk. Structural engineering, as 27, 1997, TN 1426, National Institute Singh, William Stone, Andrew Taylor, M. applied to civil construction and in of Standards and Technology, 1998. Whitney, and J. Wilcoski, The January contrast to other engineering fields, 6. A. Gerald Brady, James D. Cooper, 17, 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu (Kobe) relies heavily on analysis and computa- Bruce R. Ellingwood, H. H. Fowler, E. Earthquake: Performance of Structures, tion rather than on testing because of Lifelines, and Fire Protection Systems, SP L. Harp, D. K. Keefer, C. M. the scale and uniqueness of typical civil Wentworth, and P. I. Yanev, An 901, National Institute of Standards and Technology, July 1996. projects in both public and private sec- Investigation of the Miyagi-ken-oki, Japan, tors. Structural codes are linked to Earthquake of June 12, 1978, SP 592, computational methods of safety National Bureau of Standards, 1980. 15.3 STRUCTURAL 7. William C. Stone, Felix Y. Yokel, RELIABILITY assessment, and their primary purpose Mehmet Celebi, T. Hanks, and E. V. is to manage risk and maintain safety Leyendecker, Engineering Aspects of the Structural codes and standards provide of buildings, bridges and other facili- September 19, 1985 Mexico Earthquake, the foundation of good engineering ties at socially acceptable levels. BSS 165, National Bureau of Standards, practice and a framework for address- 1987. ing safety and serviceability issues in Until the 1960s, the safety criteria in 8. H. S. Lew, E. V. Leyendecker, P. C. structural design. They identify natural structural codes were based on allow- Thenhaus, K. W. Campbell, M. G. Hopper, S. L. Hanson, S. T. and man-made forces that must be able stress principles. The structural Algermissen, D. M. Perkins, Felix Y. considered, define magnitudes of these system being designed was analyzed Yokel, Nicholas J. Carino, William C. forces for design, and prescribe meth- under the assumption that it behaved Stone, James D. Cooper, Harold E. ods for determining structural resist- elastically (the fact that structures sel-

296 dom behave elastically to failure was The late 1960s also witnessed the structural load requirements must be disregarded). Uncertainties were beginnings of the move toward a new independent of construction technolo- addressed by requiring that the com- philosophy toward structural design in gy to facilitate design with different puted stresses did not exceed a limit- the United States, Canada and construction materials. ing stress (at yielding, rupture, insta- Western Europe. The shortcomings of bility) divided by a factor of safety. allowable stress design were recognized At this time, the Secretariat for These factors of safety were selected in many quarters, and a search was American National Standard subjectively; one might, for example, underway for more rational approach- Committee A58 on Minimum Design identify the load acting on a structure es to distinguish between conditions Loads for Buildings and Other and then design the structure so that (termed limit states) directly related to Structures was administered in the the elastic stresses due to that load acceptable structural performance, to Structures Division of the Center for remain below 60 percent of the stress ensure safety under rare but high-haz- Building Technology. The antecedents at yield (implying a factor of safety of ard conditions, and to maintain func- 5/3). Of course, no one knew what the tion under day-to-day conditions. at NBS for this standard dated back to risk of failure was for such a structure. Concurrently, the new field of struc- 1924, when the Building and Materials The factor of safety of 5/3 simply rep- tural reliability was developing around Division published a report under the resented a value judgment on the part the notion that many of the uncertain- auspices of the Department of of the standard-writers, based on past ties in loads and strengths could be Commerce Building Code Committee experience. During the past century, modeled probabilistically. Advances on Minimum Live Loads. Research on with the advent of formal structural were being made in first-order reliabil- probabilistic methods in structural calculations, the trend in the factor of ity analysis, stochastic load modeling standards and codes was a central safety generally has been downward. and supporting statistical databases. thrust in the CBT throughout the Several probabilistic code formats were 1970s, with the work of Charles This judgmental approach to safety suggested, including an early version of Culver and Bruce Ellingwood in prob- works well as long as the technology Load and Resistance Factor Design abilistic analysis of live and fire loads being dealt with is stable or evolves (LRFD) for steel buildings. However, [1,2], of E.V. Leyendecker and slowly and there is opportunity to these early proposals were relatively Ellingwood on provisions for general learn from experience in the standard narrow in scope, and dealt with single structural integrity to reduce risks of development process. Occasionally, of construction technologies in isolation progressive collapse [3], of Ellingwood course, engineers become overconfi- from one another. With this lack of on wind and snow loads [4] and load dent, ignorance catches up or con- coordination, there was a risk that as combinations for reinforced concrete struction practice overreaches the state different standard-writing groups design [5], and of Emil Simiu, Richard of the art, and failures occur. More moved toward probability-based limit Marshall, James Filliben and in wind than in most other engineering disci- states design, each would develop load plines, the profession of structural requirements independently, and that loads [6]. This work stood at the inter- engineering seems to have progressed these load requirements would be section of research and practice; its by learning from its mistakes. To the mutually incompatible in structural products were internationally recog- discomfort of many structural engi- engineering practice, where construc- nized in both research and professional neers, this learning process usually tion technologies usually are mixed. communities and incorporated in the takes place in the public arena. Leaders of the profession agreed that A58 standard.

297 Various standard-writing groups in the 1980. Subsequent develop- United States agreed that the A58 mental work on probability- Standard was the logical place for based codes in the United material-independent load criteria to States in such diverse applica- appear. In 1978, Ellingwood accepted tions as buildings, bridges, off- the challenge of leading the develop- shore structures, navigation ment of a set of common probability- facilities, and nuclear power based load requirements for limit plants in the intervening two states design that would be compatible decades all can be traced back with all common construction tech- to this one seminal document. nologies. He arranged for three other leaders in reliability-based structural The probability-based load cri- codes, Professors Theodore Galambos, teria in NBS Special James MacGregor, and C. Allin Cornell Publication 577 were first NBS SP 577 joint authored by Bruce Ellingwood, research (father of NIST’s 2001 Nobel Prize implemented through the vol- structural engineer, CBT on probability based load criterion winner, Eric Cornell), to join him at untary consensus process in the for A58[7]. NBS during the summer of 1979 to 1982 edition of American develop a set of load requirements National Standard A58. They have It required a thorough re-examination using advanced structural reliability appeared in all editions of that of the philosophical and technical analysis methods and statistical data- Standard (the standard has been pub- underpinnings of the current bases for bases. The objectives of this joint lished as American Society of Civil structural design, as well as the devel- effort were to: Engineers (ASCE) Standard 7 since opment of supporting statistical data- • recommend a set of load factors and 1985) since then, most recently ASCE bases. Much of this supporting load combinations for inclusion in Standard 7-98, and have remained research is still utilized in code devel- the A58 Standard that would be essentially unchanged since 1982.They opment and improvement activities appropriate for all types of building have been adopted by reference in all worldwide. It has become the basis construction (e.g., structural steel, standards and specifications for limit for structural design as it is now prac- reinforced and prestressed concrete, states design in the United States, ticed by professional engineers in the engineered wood, masonry, cold- including the American Institute of United States. formed steel and aluminum), and Steel Construction’s LRFD • provide a methodology for various Specification for Steel Structures It is unlikely that these probability- material specification groups to (1986, 1994 and 2000 editions), based load criteria efforts would have select resistance criteria consistent ASCE Standard 16-95 on LRFD for been completed and implemented in with the A58 load requirements and Engineered Wood Construction, and professional practice successfully had their own specific performance American Concrete Institute Standard they been managed by any other than objectives. 318-96 (Appendix B). They also have CBT/NBS. CBT was viewed as repre- been adopted in the International senting the structural engineering The product of this collaboration was, Building Code 2000, the new single community at large rather than any Development of a Probability-based model code in the United States. In one special interest group. The load Load Criterion for American National retrospect, the move toward probabili- criteria were completed successfully Standard A58, NBS Special Publication ty-based limit states design may seem because they were developed by engi- 577 [7], which was published in June, like a small step, but in fact it was not. neering researchers who were familiar,

298 first of all, with the structural engi- other areas of structural load modeling most prestigious of ASCE’s prizes, and neering issues involved, as well as with during the past two decades. is awarded annually to the paper(s) the reliability tools necessary for ana- that the ASCE Awards Committee and lyzing uncertainty and safety. The probabilistic approach to structur- the Board of Directors judge most sig- al safety embodied in this ground- nificant and meritorious for the In a more general sense, the load crite- breaking activity continues to resonate advancement of the civil engineering ria that were developed in this study in the structural engineering commu- profession. Also, in 1980, Ellingwood and reported in NBS Special nity. The aftermath of natural and received the Silver Medal of the Publication 577 have had a profound man-made disasters during the past Department of Commerce for his influence on structural codes used two decades, rapid evolution of design work on common load factors for worldwide in design of buildings and and construction methods, introduc- structural design. For an application other structures. The approach taken - tion of new technologies, and height- of the approach to the punching shear developing supporting statistical data- ened expectations on the part of the resistance of lightweight concrete bases, calibrating to existing practice, public, all have made judgmental structures exposed to ice loadings, and calculating load and resistance fac- approaches to ensuring safety of the Long Phan received the Department of tors to achieve desired reliability levels built environment increasingly difficult Commerce Bronze Medal Award in - was followed in a subsequent to defend. The traditional practice of 1990. National Cooperative Highway setting safety factors and revising codes Research Program study to develop solely based on experience does not References limit states design procedures for high- work in this environment, where such 1. Charles G. Culver, Survey Results for Live way bridges, now published as an trial and error approaches to managing Loads and Fire Loads in Office Buildings, American Association of State Highway uncertainty and safety may have unac- BSS 85, National Bureau of Standards, 1976. and Transportation Officials standard. ceptable consequences. In an era in 2. Bruce R. Ellingwood and Charles Culver, The National Building Code of Canada which standards for public safety are “Analysis of Live Loads in Office will adopt a similar approach to com- set in an increasingly public forum, Buildings,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE 103(8), bining loads in its 2000 edition. more systematic and quantitative pp 1551-1560, 1977. approaches to engineering for public 3. E. V. Leyendecker and Bruce R. Standard development organizations in safety are essential. The probabilistic Ellingwood, Design Methods for Reducing other countries, including Australia, approach addresses this need, and in the Risk of Progressive Collapse in Buildings, New Zealand, South Africa, Japan, and the past two decades has been widely BSS 98, National Bureau of Standards, 1977. Western Europe (through the accepted worldwide as a new para- 4. Bruce R. Ellingwood, “Wind and Snow Eurocodes) have adopted similar load digm, for design of new structures and Load Statistics for Probabilistic Design,” combination requirements for struc- evaluation of existing facilities. NBS J. Struct. Div., ASCE 107(7), pp 1345- tural design. The NBS Special Special Publication 577 was the path- 1349, 1981. Publication 577 load combinations breaking study in this area. 5. Bruce R. Ellingwood, “Reliability-based have been recognized internationally as Criteria for Reinforced Concrete the first developed using modern A number of archival publications were Design,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE 105(4):713- probability-based load combination prepared from the NBS study. Most 727, 1978. 6. Emil Simiu, M. Changery, and James J. analysis techniques. They have stood notably, references 8 and 9 were Filliben, “Extreme Wind Speeds at 129 the test of time, and only minor awarded the American Society of Civil Stations in the Contiguous United changes have been required as a result Engineers’ Norman Medal in 1983. States,” J. Struct. Div., ASCE 1064, pp of additional research and advances in The Norman Medal is the oldest and 809-817, 1980.

299 7. Bruce R. Ellingwood, Theodore V. CBT researchers recognized the need In the early CBT work, the initial con- Galambos, James G. MacGregor and C. for a simple field method to estimate crete temperature was the same for all Allin Cornell, Development of a Probability- in-place concrete strength to allow specimens, and the specimens were based Load Criterion for American National critical construction operations to be moved into different constant-temper- Standard A58, NBS Special Publication 577, National Bureau of Standards, done safely. In 1975, H. S. Lew of the ature chambers after molding. In a 1980. Building Safety Section and Thomas subsequent study, Lew and Charles 8. Theodore V. Galambos, Bruce R. Reichard of the Structures Section Volz, a student at The University of Ellingwood, James G. MacGregor, and embarked on a study of a relatively Texas at Austin, examined the applica- C. Allin Cornell, “Probability-based new approach known as the maturity bility of the maturity method under Load Combinations: Assessment of method. The maturity method relies simulated field conditions [4]. In this Current Design Practice,” J. Struct. on the measured temperature history case, specimens were stored outdoors Engrg., ASCE 108(5), pp 959-977, 1982. of the concrete to estimate strength and companion specimens were placed 9. Bruce R. Ellingwood, James G. MacGregor, Theodore V. Galambos, and development during the curing period. in a standard curing chamber. The C. Allin Cornell, “Probability-based The temperature history is used to cal- objective was to determine whether Load Combinations: Load Factors and culate a quantity called the maturity the strength-maturity relationships for Load Combinations,” J. Struct. Engrg., index. For each concrete mixture, the the field-cured specimens were the ASCE 108(5), pp 978-997, 1982. relationship between strength and the same as those for the companion labo- 10. Bruce R. Ellingwood, “Probability Based maturity index is established before- ratory-cured specimens. The results Load Criteria for Structural Design,” A hand. The strength relationship and revealed that this was not the case. In Century of Excellence in Measurements, the measured in-place maturity index Standards and Technology, SP 958, the CBT research, a traditional equa- National Institute of Standards and are used to estimate the in-place tion was used to compute the maturity Technology, pp 283-288, 2001. strength. The method originated in index from the temperature history. England in the early 1950s, but was not used in U.S. practice. 15.4 The Maturity On April 27, 1978, there was a major Method construction failure of a cooling tower The initial CBT research confirmed that being constructed in Willow Island, On March 2, 1973, portions of a the maturity method could be used to WV. OSHA again requested NBS to multi-story apparent building, under represent the development of concrete assist in determining the technical construction in Fairfax County, Va., strength (and other mechanical proper- cause of the failure (see section 15.1.3 suffered a progressive collapse (see ties) under different curing tempera- above). The CBT investigators con- section 15.1.2 above and [1]). The tures [2,3]. One of the publications [3] cluded that the most likely cause of the Occupational Safety and Health reported on a rigorous analysis of the collapse was insufficient concrete Administration requested the assis- relationships between the water-cement strength to support the applied con- tance of NBS in determining the tech- ratio of the concrete and the parame- struction loads [5]. This failure con- nical cause of the collapse. The report ters in a proposed equation for the vinced CBT researchers of the urgent prepared by the CBT investigators strength-maturity relationship. In 1980, need for standards on estimating in- concluded that the most probable the American Concrete Institute recog- place concrete strength during con- cause of the failure was premature nized the significance of the CBT struction. Thus the Structures Division removal of formwork that resulted in research and awarded Lew and began an in-depth study of the maturi- stresses exceeding the capacity of the Reichard the prestigious Wason Medal ty method and other applicable meth- relatively young concrete [1]. for Materials Research. ods. The objective of the work on the

300 maturity method was to gain an under- for any new student of the maturity Volz, “Early Age Temperature Effects on standing of the cause of the discrepan- method. The latest BFRL research Concrete Strength Prediction by the cies in the earlier work [5]. Nicholas J. effort was published in 1992 [14], and Maturity Method,” J. American Concrete Institute, 80, pp 93-101, 1983. Carino, a new member of the it demonstrated that the method could 6. Nicholas J. Carino, Temperature Effects on Structures Division staff, led this work. be applied to mixtures with low water- the Strength-Maturity Relation of Mortar, He approached the problem from a cement ratios, which are typical of NBSIR 81-2244, National Bureau of point of view more theoretical than high-performance concrete. Standards, 1981. that of the previous work. By making 7. Nicholas J. Carino and H. S. Lew, use of new data analysis tools, Carino In the late 1990s, the Federal Highway “Temperature Effects on Strength- established a deeper understanding of Administration publicized the maturity Maturity Relations of Mortar,” J. the maturity method and explained method, along with other technologies American Concrete Institute, 80, pp 177- 182, 1983. the cause of the previous discrepancies for testing concrete, to state highway 8. Nicholas J. Carino, “Maturity Functions [6-9]. In 1983, NBS recognized his departments throughout the U.S. As a for Concrete,” Proceedings, RILEM contributions and awarded Carino the result, in 2000 many state highway International Conference on Concrete at Early Bronze Medal of the Department of departments were adopting ASTM C Ages (Paris), Ecole Nationale des Ponts et Commerce. In 1984, armed with this 1074 into their standard specifications. Chausses, Paris, Vol. I, pp 123-128, new understanding, Carino proposed a Widespread use of in-place test meth- 1982. draft standard practice on the use of ods, such as the maturity method, will 9. Nicholas J. Carino, “The Maturity the maturity method. In 1987, ASTM result in safer and more economical Method: Theory and Application,” J Cement, Concrete, and Aggregates (ASTM), Practice C 1074 was adopted [10]. concrete construction. 6 (2), pp 61-73, 1984. 10. ASTM C 1074, “Practice for Estimating In 1986, Rajesh C. Tank, a PhD stu- References Concrete Strength by the Maturity dent at Polytechnic University 1. E. V. Leyendecker and S. George Fattal, Method,” 2000 Annual Book of ASTM (Brooklyn, N.Y.), joined NBS as a Investigation of the Skyline Plaza Collapse in Standards Vol. 04.02, ASTM, West Fairfax County, Virginia, Building Science Conshohocken, PA, 2000. guest worker and collaborated with Series 94, National Bureau of Standards, 11. Rajesh C. Tank and Nicholas J. Carino, Carino on further developing the 1977. “Rate Constant Functions for Strength maturity method. The work resulted in 2. H. S. Lew and Thomas W. Reichard, Development of Concrete,” ACI Materials two publications [11,12]. One of these “Mechanical Properties of Concrete at J., 88, pp 74-83, 1991. Early Ages,” J. American Concrete Institute, [12] reported on the temperature 12. Nicholas J. Carino and Rajesh C. Tank, 75, pp 533-542, 1978. dependence of strength development “Maturity Functions for Concrete Made of different concrete mixtures. The 3. H. S. Lew and Thomas W. Reichard, “Prediction of Strength of Concrete with Various Cements and Admixtures,” American Concrete Institute recog- from Maturity,” Accelerated Strength ACI Materials J., 89, pp 188-196, 1992. nized the significance of their work Testing, V.M. Malhotra, ed., SP-56, 13. Nicholas J. Carino, “The Maturity and awarded Tank and Carino the American Concrete Institute, Detroit, Method,” Handbook on Nondestructive 1994 Wason Medal for Materials MI, pp 229-248, 1978. Testing of Concrete, V.M. Malhotra and Nicholas J. Carino, eds. CRC Press, Research. 4. H. S. Lew, S. George Fattal, J. R. Shaver, Timothy A. Reinhold, and B. J. Hunt, Boca Raton, FL, pp 101-146, 1991. Investigation of Construction Failure of 14. Nicholas J. Carino, Lawrence I. Knab, In 1991, Carino published a book Reinforced Cooling Tower at Willow Island, and James R. Clifton, Applicability of the chapter [13] that provided a compre- WV, Building Science Series 148, Maturity Method to High-Performance hensive review of the maturity method. National Bureau of Standards, 1982. Concrete, NISTIR-4819, National Institute This chapter is regarded as the “bible” 5. Nicholas J. Carino, H. S. Lew, and C. K. of Standards and Technology, 1992.

301 15.5 THE IMPACT-ECHO METHOD In 1983, the focus of CBT research on in-place testing of concrete shifted toward the detection of internal defects. Despite the advances in nondestructive testing of metals, there was no simple reliable method for locating flaws in concrete. Based on a review of The impact-echo method: mechanical impact is used to generate stress waves and a receiver next to the impact point measures the resulting surface motion. Analysis of the measured surface motion permits available techniques, it was decided to detection of subsurface defect. pursue a test method based on stress waves because their propagation in a Mary Sansalone, a PhD student from combination with steel balls to pro- solid is affected directly by mechanical Cornell University, provided expertise duce the required short duration properties [1]. The technique that was in finite element modeling; and Nelson impacts. The American Concrete developed became known as the N. Hsu, of the Manufacturing Institute (ACI) recognized quickly the impact-echo method [2], and its prin- Engineering Laboratory (MEL), pro- significance of the new approach ciple is illustrated in the figure below. vided expertise in wave propagation. underlying the CBT research. In 1986, Mechanical impact on the surface is Second, the availability of numerical Carino was awarded the ACI Wason used to generate a high-energy stress modeling tools permitted the Medal for Materials Research for a pulse that travels into the concrete. researchers to simulate stress wave paper that reviewed the fundamentals The pulse is reflected by an internal propagation under different test condi- of wave propagation in concrete and defect and travels back toward the sur- tions. The numerical simulations summarized the first series of con- face where a receiver close to the established the scientific basis for the trolled-flaw studies [3]. The next sig- impact point monitors its arrival. The impact-echo method and permitted nificant development was the use of pulse continues to undergo multiple the development of optimum testing the fast Fourier transform technique to reflections between the defect and the configurations. Third, a new point-dis- convert the recorded time domain surface. Thus a resonant condition is placement transducer, which was waveforms [4] into the frequency created and the frequency of arrival of developed by Thomas Proctor of MEL domain [5]. This development simpli- the pulse is determined. Knowing the as a reference for calibrating acoustic fied signal interpretation. Next, exten- stress wave speed in the concrete, the emission transducers, turned out to be sive simulations of different test condi- measured frequency can be used to ideal for impact-echo testing. Fourth, tions were carried out by using a state- calculate the flaw depth. the researchers took advantage of of-the-art stress-wave propagation developments in signal processing and code developed at the Lawrence This research effort was highly success- used frequency analysis of the recorded Livermore National Laboratory. In ful due to a combination of factors. signals. Finally, the basic capabilities of 1987, Sansalone and Carino received First, the research team was composed the method were established by a the CBT Communicator Award for a of individuals with different capabilities combination of numerical studies and series of papers that summarized the and backgrounds. Nicholas J. Carino, companion controlled-flaw studies. results of these simulations [6-9]. At the team leader from the Structures the same time, Stephen Pessiki, a grad- Division, provided expertise in con- The initial success was the result of uate student from Cornell University, crete technology and test methods; using Proctor’s point transducer in demonstrated the feasibility of using

302 At the conclusion of the CBT Bureau of Standards, 1984. effort in the late 1980s, 2. Nicholas J. Carino, “Laboratory Study of Sansalone continued the Flaw Detection in Concrete by the research at Cornell University. Pulse-Echo Method,” In Situ/Nondestructive Testing of Concrete, V.M. Advances resulting from the Malhotra, ed., SP-82, American Cornell work included develop- Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, ing a PC-based field test system, MI, pp 557-579, 1984. extending the application to 3. Mary Sansalone, and Nicholas J. Carino, more complex structures, and Impact-Echo: A Method for Flaw Detection in establishing a technology trans- Concrete Using Transient Stress Waves, fer program to train new users. NBSIR 86-3452, National Bureau of Eventually, Sansalone published Standards, 1986. 4. Nicholas J. Carino, Mary Sansalone, and a book to document, in one N. N. Hsu, “A Point Source - Point place, the theory and capabili- Receiver Technique for Flaw Detection Nicholas J. Carino, research structural engineer, and Mary ties of the impact-echo method in Concrete,” J. American Concrete Sansalone, graduate student, are shown performing some of [15]. Institute, 83, pp 199-208, 1986. the initial tests that led to the development of the impact- 5. Nicholas J. Carino, Mary Sansalone, and echo. Sansalone is about to create an impact by dropping a In 1996, Carino and Sansalone N. N. Hsu, “Flaw Detection in Concrete steel ball next to the point displacement transducer and collaborated on the develop- by Frequency Spectrum Analysis of Carino is ready to observe the resulting surface motion dis- ment of a draft standard on the Impact-Echo Waveforms,” International played on a waveform analyzer. Advances in Nondestructive Testing, W.J. use of the impact-echo method McGonnagle, ed., Gordon & Breach to measure the thickness of the impact-echo method to monitor Science Publishers, New York, pp 117- plate-like concrete structures. Carino setting and early-age strength develop- 146, 1986. championed the draft standard 6. Mary Sansalone, Nicholas J. Carino, and ment of concrete [10]. through the ASTM standardization N. N. Hsu, “A Finite Element Study of process, and in 1998, Test Method C Transient Wave Propagation in Plates,” J. Another key aspect of the CBT 1383 was approved [16]. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand., 92, pp 267-278, research was a series of laboratory 1987. controlled-flaw studies that verified the 7. Mary Sansalone, Nicholas J. Carino, and The CBT research leading to the N. N. Hsu, “A Finite Element Study of results of the numerical simulations impact-echo method is an excellent the Interaction of Transient Stress Waves and demonstrated the breadth of example of how a multi-disciplinary with Planar Flaws,” J. Res. Natl. Bur. applicability of the impact-echo team can solve a difficult problem. The Stand., 92, pp 279-290, 1987. method [11-14]. One of the studies combination of theory, simulation, and 8. Mary Sansalone., and Nicholas J. Carino, “Transient Impact Response of Thick dealt with the detection of delamina- experimental verification provided a solid foundation for what is being rec- Circular Plates,” J. Res. Natl. Bur. Stand., tions in concrete slabs, such as bridge 92, pp 355-367, 1987. ognized worldwide as a powerful tool decks, that result from corrosion of 9. Mary Sansalone and Nicholas J. Carino, for “seeing” into concrete. the reinforcement. In 1991, the “Transient Impact Response of Plates American Concrete Institute awarded Containing Flaws,” J. Res. Natl. Bur. References Stand., 92, 369-381, 1987. Sansalone and Carino the Wason 1. Nicholas J. Carino and Mary Sansalone, 10. S. P. Pessiki and Nicholas J. Carino, Medal for Materials Research for their Pulse-Echo Method for Flaw Detection in Measurement of the Setting Time and Strength paper on the delamination study [11]. Concrete, Technical Note 1199, National of Concrete by the Impact-echo Method,

303 NBSIR 87-3575, National Bureau of 15.6.1 ENGINEERING unrealistic, and (b) helped to intro- Standards, 1987. MICROMETEOROLOGY duce an improved distributional model 11. Mary Sansalone and Nicholas J. Carino, NIST has initiated the use in wind in subsequent versions of the standard “Detecting Delaminations in Concrete [2]. Following the development in the Slabs with and without Overlays Using engineering of consistent descriptions 1970s of novel approaches to extreme the Impact-Echo Method,” J. American of the atmospheric boundary layer, Concrete Institute, 86, 175-184, 1989. based on first fluid dynamics principles value estimation, NIST showed that, at 12. Mary Sansalone and Nicholas J. Carino, and state-of-the-art meteorological most locations, extreme wind speeds “Impact-Echo Method: Detecting research. Those descriptions pertain have finite, rather than infinite upper Honeycombing, the Depth of Surface- to: the mean wind speed profile in the tails. This finding allowed the develop- Opening Cracks, and Ungrouted Ducts,” surface layer and the dependence of ment of structural reliability models Concrete International, Vol. 10 (4), 38-46, the surface layer height upon wind resulting for the first time in realistic 1988. speed and terrain roughness; the estimates of safety margins and failure 13. Mary Sansalone and Nicholas J. Carino, dependence on elevation of the spec- probabilities for structures subjected “Laboratory and Field Study of the to strong winds. Impact-Echo Method for Flaw Detection trum of the longitudinal turbulent in Concrete,” Nondestructive Testing of wind speed fluctuations, which affects Concrete, Ed. H.S. Lew, ed., ACI SP-112, tall building design; the shape of the 15.6.3 BLUFF BODY American Concrete Institute, pp 1-20, spectrum for the very low frequencies AERODYNAMICS AND 1988. of interest in deep-water offshore plat- WIND TUNNEL TESTING 14. Nicholas J. Carino and Mary Sansalone, form applications; and the dependence CRITERIA “Detecting Voids in Metal Tendon Ducts of the mean wind profile upon the DEVELOPMENT Using the Impact-Echo Method,” ACI centripetal accelerations inherent in NIST has developed full-scale meas- Materials Journal, Vol. 89, No. 3, pp 296- cyclostrophic flows modeling hurricane urement techniques and obtained full- 303, May-June, 1992. winds [1]. scale wind pressure measurements 15. Mary Sansalone and William B. Street, Impact-Echo: Nondestructive Testing of used all over the world for the calibra- Concrete and Masonry, Bullbrier Press, 15.6.2 EXTREME WIND tion of wind tunnel measurements and Jersey Shore, PA, 1997. CLIMATOLOGY the development of standard provi- 16. ASTM C 1383, “Test Method for The reliability of structures subjected sions on wind pressures [3, 4]. NIST Measuring the P-Wave Speed and the to strong wind loads depends upon the has also contributed to the develop- Thickness of Concrete Plates Using the ratio between the design wind speeds ment of performance criteria for wind Impact-Echo Method,” 2000 Annual specified in standards - usually wind tunnels simulating the turbulent Book of ASTM Standards Vol. 04.02, atmospheric boundary layers. ASTM, West Conshohocken, PA, 2000. speeds with a 50 year mean recurrence interval - and the extreme wind speeds 15.6.4 WIND LOADS ON 15.6 WIND ENGINEERING causing structural damage or failure. This ratio depends upon the length of LOW-RISE BUILDINGS Since the late 1960s to the 1990s wind the upper tail of the extreme wind dis- During 1973-1976, under an Agency engineering technology has been tribution. Using advanced statistical for International Development con- advanced by NIST through theoretical, techniques, NIST (a) showed that tract, NIST developed information on experimental, and computational extreme wind speed distributions used design pressure coefficients for low- research. in the ANSI A58-1972 Standard were rise buildings used to improve the

304 1976 Rome Film Festival for that account for the imperfect spatial documentaries. correlation of the wind pressures and their stochastic variability in time. Raufaste and Marshall created Because wind speed fluctuations have an advisory committee of large energies at frequencies close to Philippine officials from 15 pub- the fundamental frequencies of vibra- lic and private sector organization of compliant deep-water offshore tions who collaborated with platforms, it was widely believed for NBS to improve the wind-resist- such platforms resonant effects due to ance of low-rise structures. the wind loading are prohibitively They donated four test buildings large. NIST developed a time-domain at three field sites. The analysis used in conjunction with non- Philippine Weather Bureau and linear hydrodynamic damping models, the University of Philippines which showed that resonant amplifica- were two key contributors. In tion effects due to wind loading are in Richard D. Marshall, research structural engineer, with addition, representatives from fact relatively small [7]. NIST’s Philippine Weather Bureau technician installing a pressure two of the four geographic wind approach was adopted for use by the transducer to one of the wind test houses at the Quezon prone areas contributed to this American Petroleum Institute. City, Philippines field test site. work. Jamilur Choudhury of the Bangladesh University of 15.6.6 STRUCTURAL Engineering and Technology RELIABILITY AND A58.1 Standard (now ASCE 7). represented the Bay of Bengal POST-DISASTER Richard D. Marshall served as princi- countries and Alfrico Adams, a private INVESTIGATIONS pal investigator and Noel Raufaste as civil engineering practitioner, heavily Owing primarily to inadequate program coordinator. The research involved in codes and standards of the extreme wind modeling, early reliabili- findings resulted in improvements to Caribbean, represented the Caribbean ty models yielded the unrealistic result basic design data concerning the Countries. They contributed to the that the estimated failure probability of effects of extreme winds on low-rise, research and transferred findings to structures subjected to wind loads is low-cost housing and other public their respective parts of the world. The one if not two orders of magnitude service buildings in developing coun- other two wind prone geographic lower under wind than under gravity tries. It developed improved design areas: Southeast Asia and the US east loads. NIST’s later results on extreme criteria for building details. And it and gulf coasts were represented by wind distribution tails made it possible developed and demonstrated a the Philippines and the US through to show that this is not the case and to methodology to assist suburban and the NBS study. develop realistic estimates of wind load rural building design for local wind factors and of probabilities of failure climate. A variety of reports were 15.6.5 STRUCTURAL due to wind loads [8]. NIST has also published on this project [5]. Among DYNAMICS shown that standard wind loading pro- the products of this project notewor- NIST developed linear models of the visions for the design of structures in thy was the film High Wind Study [6] resonant and non-resonant effects of hurricane-prone regions were inade- that was awarded 2nd place in the wind loading on high-rise structures quate, and led the effort to improve

305 standard provisions accordingly. COSTS FOR STRUC- American Society of Civil Engineers Structural reliability and performance TURES SUBJECTED TO named Richard Marshall the first models have been scrutinized by using WIND LOADING recipient of the Walter J. Moore, Jr. observations of damage obtained dur- Conventional standard provisions are Award for excellence in and dedication ing numerous, highly effective post- based on wind loading simplified rep- to the development of structural engi- disaster investigations. resentations designed to accommodate neering codes and standards. In 2001, slide-rule or pocket calculator capabil- the Americas Conference on Wind 15.6.7 GLASS BEHAVIOR ities. NIST has developed an IT-based Engineering created the Outstanding UNDER FLUCTUATING methodology for the direct and practi- Wind Engineering Ph.D. Award in WIND LOADS cal use in design of unadulterated wind memory of Richard Marshall. Using state-of-the art fracture models tunnel records of fluctuating wind pressures measured simultaneously at References in conjunction with nonlinear analyses 1. Emil Simiu, V. C. Patel and J. F. Nash, hundreds of points on the building of stresses induced by fluctuating wind et. al., “Mean Speed Profiles of loads on glass panels, as well as innova- surface [11]. By helping to eliminate Hurricane Winds,” Journal of the tive approaches to experimental glass material where it is superfluous and Engineering Mechanics Division, ASCE, strength characterization [9], NIST add it where it is needed, this method- v102, nEM2, pp 265-273, 1976. research was influential in the develop- ology makes possible risk-consistent 2. Emil Simiu and James J. Filliben, ment of new standard provisions for designs resulting in safer structures at “Probability Distributions of Extreme glass panels subjected to wind loads. lower costs. NIST also used this Wind Speeds,” Journal of the Structural methodology in conjunction with Division, ASCE, v102, nST9, pp 161- 1877, 1976. 15.6.8 DEVELOPMENT OF time-domain nonlinear approaches to obtain for the first time in the history 3. Richard D. Marshall, The Measurement of CRITERIA ON Wind Loads on a Full Scale Mobile Home, TORNADO WIND of structural engineering realistic ultimate capacities of structures subjected NBSIR 77-1289, National Bureau of SPEEDS AND Standards, 1977. TORNADO-BORNE to fluctuating wind loads. 4. Timothy A. Reinhold, “Wind Tunnel MISSILES SPEEDS Modeling for Civil Engineering 15.6.10 EDUCATION AND Applications,” Proceedings International NIST developed criteria on tornado- PRACTICE Workshop on Wind Tunnel Modeling, borne missile speeds adopted by the Simiu and Professor Robert Scanlan Cambridge University Press, 1982. Nuclear Regulatory Commission for 5. Building to Resist the Effect of Wind in five the design of nuclear power plants have synthesized wind engineering knowledge and practice for use in grad- volumes [10]. NIST also initiated on-going • Richard D. Marshall, Noel J. Raufaste, research to modify the Fujita tornado uate education and by practicing engi- and Stephen A. Kliment, Building to intensity scale so observations of torna- neers in a world-recognized book [12]. Resist the Effect of Wind in five volumes do-induced damage can lead to more Volume 1: Overview, Building Science realistic estimates of tornado speeds 15.6.11 AWARDS Series 100-1, National Bureau of than had been previously the case. In addition to the awards noted above Standards, 1977. for individual papers and activities, the • Emil Simiu and Richard D. Marshall, Building to Resist the Effect of Wind in five 15.6.9 DEVELOPMENT OF National Society of Professional volumes Volume 2: Estimation of Extreme PERFORMANCE Engineers named Emil Simiu Federal Wind Speeds and Guide to the CRITERIA ASSURING Engineer of the year 1984 for his con- Determination of Wind Forces, Building HIGHER SAFETY tributions to knowledge and practice Science Series 100-2, National Bureau LEVELS AND LOWER in wind engineering. In 1999, the of Standards, 1977.

306 • S. George Fattal, G. E. Sherwood, and 15.7 CHAOTIC T. L. Wilkinson, Building to Resist the Effect of Wind in five volumes Volume 3: A DYNAMICS Guide for Improved Masonry and Timber Chaotic dynamics research at BFRL Connections in Buildings, Building benefited at various stages from NIST Science Series 100-3, National Bureau of Standards, 1977. work on the behavior of nonlinear • Joseph G. Kowalski, Building to Resist electronics and mechanical engineering the Effect of Wind in five volumes Volume systems. It was motivated primarily by 4: Forecasting the Economics of Housing structural engineering and hydroelas- Emil Simiu, leader in wind research and chaotic needs: A Methodological Guide, Building ticity modeling problems related to the structural dynamics. Science Series 100-4, National Bureau of Standards, 1977. design of deep water compliant off- • Stephen A. Kliment, Building to Resist shore platforms. oscillator [1]. The competence project the Effect of Wind in five volumes Volume subsequently focused on the effect of 5: Housing in Extreme Winds: Socio-eco- R. L. Kautz of the Electronics and stochastic excitation on the behavior of nomic and Architectural Considerations, Electrical Engineering Laboratory systems whose deterministic counter- Building Science Series 100-5, (Boulder) performed a series of stud- National Bureau of Standards, 1977. parts can exhibit chaotic behavior. 6. Noel J. Raufaste, High Wind Study, ies of the dynamics of the Josephson National Bureau of Standards, 1976. junction, a multistable system that can Experimental work on hydroelastic 7. Emil Simiu and S. D. Leigh, “Turbulent exhibit chaotic behavior. The studies systems, conducted by BFRL at the Wind and Tension Leg Platform Surge,” were supported mathematically and David Taylor Research Center showed Journal of Structural Engineering, ASCE, computationally by H. Fowler of the that stochastic excitation of multistable v110, pp 785-802, 1984. Information Technology Laboratory systems can promote dynamics indis- 8. Emil Simiu and J. Shaver, Wind Loading and Reliability-Based Design, Wind (ITL), who also helped BFRL chaotic tinguishable in practice from chaotic Engineering, Pergamon Press, NY 1980. dynamics research efforts. M. A. behavior. Theoretical research by 9. Dorothy A. Reed and Emil Simiu, Wind Davies and C. J. Evans of the Center BFRL with M. R. Frey of the Statistical Loading and Strength of Cladding Glass, BSS for Manufacturing Engineering, with T. Engineering Division, ITL, confirmed 154, National Bureau of Standards, J. Burns of ITL, studied the dynamics the validity of this finding for a wide 1983. class of physically realizable multistable 10. Emil Simiu and M. Cordes, Tornado- of chip formation in machining hard Borne Missile Speeds, NBSIR 76-1050, metals, and D. G. Sterling of stochastic systems whose deterministic National Bureau of Standards, 1976. ITL/Boulder studied the hitherto counterparts possess a Melnikov func- 11. Emil Simiu and T. Staphopolous, unknown phenomenon of the synchro- tion [2]. The research made use of “Codification of Wind Loads on nization of the motions of chaotic sys- classical approximations of stochastic Buildings Using Bluff Body tems. BFRL benefited from interac- processes by finite periodic or quasi- Aerodynamics and Climatological Data Bases,” Journal of Wind Engineering and tions with most of these authors. periodic sums of harmonic terms with Industrial Aerodynamics, v 69-71, 99, pp random parameters, which allow the 497-506, 1997. In particular, Emil Simiu and G. R. application of the Melnikov approach - 12. Emil Simiu and Robert H. Scanlan Cook of BFRL and T. J. Burns of ITL - originally devised for periodically or (1996). Wind Effects on Structures: collaborated within the framework of a quasiperiodically excited systems -- to Fundamentals and Design Applications, NIST competence building project on physically realizable systems with sto- Third Ed., Wiley-Interscience, 1996 (Russian translation: Soizdat, Moscow, computational and mathematical chastic excitation. This work led to 1981; Chinese translation: Tongji Univ. aspects of the chaotic behavior of a the development of a unified Press, 1991) deterministic model of a galloping Melnikov-based approach to the study

307 assess the effect of vides detailed examples of applications the noise color in naval architecture, oceanography, upon the propensity structural/mechanical engineering, of the system to control theory, physics, and neuro- experience jumps physiology. over its potential barrier(s). References 1. Emil Simiu and Graham R. Cook, With Office of “Empirical Fluid-elastic Models and Naval Research Chaotic Galloping: A Case Study,” J. support, the sto- Sound Vibr. 154, pp 45-66, 1992. 2. Michael R. Frey and Emil Simiu, chastic Melnikov “Noise-induced chaos and phase space approach was used flux,” Physica D 63, pp 321-340, 1993. in a wide variety of 3. Emil Simiu, “Melnikov Process for applications, Stochastically Perturbed Slowly Varying including: the gen- Oscillators: Application to a Model of (a) Non-chaotic and (b) chaotic time histories induced in a bistable eration by turbulent Wind-driven Coastal Currents,” J. Appl. dynamical system by dichotomous noise excitation. wind of along-shore Mech. 63, pp 429-436, 1996. currents in ocean 4. Emil Simiu and Marek Franaszek, “Melnikov-based Open-loop Control of flow over a corru- of the dynamics of both deterministic Escape for a Class of Nonlinear and stochastic dynamical systems, and gated bottom, open-loop control, Systems,” ASME J. Dynamical Systems, the conclusion that deterministic and buckled column snap-through, sto- Measurement, and Control, 119, pp 590- stochastic excitations play similar roles chastic resonance, acceptable cut-off 594, 1997. in the promotion of chaos. frequencies for experimentally generat- 5. Marek Franaszek and Emil Simiu, ed colored noise excitation, and the “Noise-induced Snap-through of Buckled Column With Continuously To the Melnikov function defined for chaotic behavior of auditory nerve fiber dynamics [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Distributed Mass: A Chaotic Dynamics the deterministic systems there corre- Approach,” Int. J. Non-linear Mech., 31, sponds in their stochastic counterparts pp 861-869, 1996. a Melnikov process. Melnikov process- The BFRL research provided basic 6. Marek Franaszek and Emil Simiu, es were subsequently used in studies of material for what is believed to be the “Stochastic resonance: A chaotic dynam- the chaotic behavior of systems with first monograph in the literature on ics approach,” Phys. Rev. E 54, pp 1288- additive Gaussian noise, non-Gaussian the study of transitions in stochastic 1304, 1996. infinitely-tailed noise, state-dependent systems from a chaotic dynamics point 7. Marek Franaszek and Emil Simiu, (parametric) noise, and dichotomous of view [8]. The monograph is “Auditory nerve fiber modeling: A sto- noise. designed for use by engineering, chastic Melnikov approach,” Phys. Rev. physics, and life sciences researchers E57, pp 5870-5876, 1998. 8. Emil Simiu, Chaotic Transitions in The spectral density of the Melnikov whose primary interest is in applica- Deterministic And Stochastic Dynamical process was shown to be equal to the tions. It covers the basic requisite Systems: Melnikov Processes And their spectral density of the excitation times material on the chaotic and stochastic Application in Engineering, Physics, and the square of a system-specific transfer dynamics of a wide class of nonlinear Neurophysiology, Princeton University function. This relation can be used to planar multistable systems, and pro- Press, Princeton, NJ, 2002.

308 15.8 THE NATIONAL Office of Emergency Preparedness sistent loadings and resistance expres- EARTHQUAKE (OEP) of the Executive Office of the sions for all types of buildings and all HAZARDS President [1]. They worked with Ugo building materials to achieve consistent REDUCTION Morelli of OEP, Charles Thiel of NSF levels of safety. Since national standards and Arthur Zeizel of HUD on needs were and are generally materials specif- PROGRAM for collaborative efforts to research, ic, a comprehensive program, involving The National Earthquake Hazards develop and implement building prac- all professional and materials interests, Reduction Program (NEHRP) was tices for disaster mitigation. was needed to achieve nationally appli- authorized by the Earthquake Hazards cable provisions for all types of build- Reduction Act of 1977, Public Law Charles Thiel was able to exploit the ings and building materials. 95-124, to “reduce the risks of life flexibility of the Research Applied to and property from future earthquakes National Needs (RANN) program of NSF and NBS continued in 1973 to in the United States through the estab- NSF to fund private sector and univer- sponsor a study by ATC of a two-level lishment and maintenance of an effec- sity participants through NBS to pre- seismic design approach based in prin- tive earthquake hazards reduction pro- pare improved seismic design and ciple on that used for the seismic gram.” Its implementation plan was construction provisions. NSF and NBS design of nuclear facilities: a damage issued by the Executive Office of the proceeded to convene and fund a threshold spectrum representing President on June 22, 1978. CBT and national workshop to define a cooper- earthquake motions having a moderate ative program on Building Practices for BFRL have played significant roles in probability (50 percent) of being Disaster Mitigation (OEP was being exceeded during the design life (70 the development and accomplishments eliminated as President Nixon stream- years) of the structure, and a collapse of NEHRP. NEHRP has been an lined his Executive Office and HUD threshold spectrum having a low prob- extraordinary, and often exemplary, was unable to provide co-sponsorship). ability (10 percent) of being exceeded collaboration between federal agencies, The Structural Engineers Association during the design life. An engineering state and local governments and the of California organized the Applied panel developed design provisions private sector. Technology Council (ATC) to provide adapted from the 1973 Uniform a mechanism to conduct studies for Building Code, and each of eleven 15.8.1 BACKGROUND the improvement of building practices; buildings was redesigned according to CBT’s predecessor, the Division of its first such study was an input to the the design provisions by the one of ten Building Research, began work in workshop on procedures and criteria firms that originally designed it. The earthquake hazard reduction with its for earthquake resistant design. The study [3] found the approach workable organization in 1969 of the U.S./Japan workshop [2] evaluated current prac- but challenging for designers to grasp. Panel on Wind and Seismic Effects tices, defined opportunities to improve under the U.S./Japan Program on practices based on documented In 1974, NSF and NBS funded ATC to Natural Resources, and its investiga- research findings, recommended pro- present the current state of knowledge tion of the performance of structures fessional and public policy actions for in the fields of engineering seismology in the 1971 San Fernando, California implementation of improved practices and engineering practice for seismic earthquake. Both of these activities and identified gaps in knowledge design and construction of buildings. were led by Edward Pfrang. Later in requiring further research. ATC convened 85 recognized experts 1971, Richard Wright and Samuel led by Roland Sharpe, project director, Kramer represented NBS in the Seismic design and construction provi- who had extensive experience in seis- Disaster Preparedness study of the sions for buildings needed to use con- mic design and in development of seis-

309 mic design provisions, and Nathan the President to develop the National bining the Defense Civil Preparedness Newmark, chairman of the project Earthquake Hazards Reduction Agency, the Federal Insurance Agency, steering group, who was head of Civil Program (NEHRP) in response to the the Federal Disaster Assistance Engineering at the University of Act. Charles Thiel represented NSF Administration, and the U.S. Fire Illinois and a leader in earthquake and Charles Culver represented NBS Administration, and designated as the engineering research. Charles Culver of on the working group. The memoran- lead agency for NEHRP. Its role was to CBT oversaw the project for NBS. The dum of transmittal and program docu- provide leadership in coordinating provisions were intended to enable ment [5] are somewhat incoherent earthquake hazards reduction activities new and existing buildings to: reflecting the conflict between the in the appropriate federal agencies and 1. Resist minor earthquakes without working group’s desire for an effective to assist State and local governments in damage, program and the Administration’s con- planning and implementing their own 2. Resist moderate earthquakes with- cern for controlling costs. programs. The other principal agencies out significant structural damage, were the U.S. Geological Survey but with some non-structural In the NEHRP, NBS was assigned: (USGS), charged to conduct research damage, • Development of seismic design and on the nature of earthquakes, earth- 3. Resist major or severe earthquakes construction standards for consider- quake prediction, hazards evaluation without failure of the structural ation and subsequent adoption in and delineation, and induced seismici- framework of the building or its Federal construction, and encour- ty, to evaluate earthquake predictions, component members and equip- agement for the adoption of and prepare national seismic risk ment, and to maintain life safety. improved seismic provisions in State maps; the National Science Foundation The resulting provisions [4] were a sig- and local building codes. (NSF), charged to support fundamen- nificant advance on existing provisions • Assist and cooperate with the tal research studies on earthquakes, and were not recommended for adop- Department of Housing and Urban and basic and applied research on Development, other federal agencies earthquake engineering and policy; and tion in building codes until a detailed (particularly those involved in NBS with the role cited above. evaluation was made of their workabil- research), National Institute of ity, practicability and potential eco- Building Sciences, professional FEMA, USGS, and NSF requested nomic impact. Charles Culver received organizations, model code groups, and received budget increases to sup- the Silver Medal of the Department of and State and local building depart- port their roles. NBS requested Commerce in 1977 for his leadership ments, in continuing the develop- FEMA to fund through the FEMA of the project. ment, testing, and improvement of budget the development, testing and model seismic design and construc- adoption of seismic design and con- 15.8.2 ESTABLISHMENT OF tion provisions suitable for incorpo- struction standards. NEHRP ration in local codes, standards, and Congressman George Brown and practices. 15.8.3 SEISMIC STANDARDS Senator Alan Cranston, both of • Research on performance criteria FOR BUILDINGS California, led the Congressional and supporting measurement tech- Efforts to develop nationally applicable efforts to produce the Earthquake nology for earthquake resistant seismic design and construction provi- Hazard Reduction Act of 1977. Karl construction. sions suitable for adoption by model Steinbrugge, an insurance industry building codes and state and local gov- expert in seismic damages, led a work- The Federal Emergency Management ernments continued while NEHRP ing group in the Executive Office of Agency (FEMA) was formed by com- was being planned. With funding from

310 NSF, NBS consulted 30 private sector Commerce in 1986. The review of the referenced by seismic design and con- organizations to develop a plan for tentative seismic provisions provided struction standards. assessment and implementation of the an excellent opportunity for CBT staff tentative provisions [7]. Charles Thiel to become familiar with the state of BSSC completed The NEHRP transferred to FEMA to lead its earth- the art of knowledge and practice, Recommended Provisions for Seismic quake hazard mitigation activities and their peers in research and practice, Regulations for New Buildings in supported the organization in 1979 of and priority needs for research. CBT 1985, and was funded by FEMA to the Building Seismic Safety Council participants included: Louis Cattaneo, continue their evolution in subsequent (BSSC), under the auspices of the Robert Chapman, Riley Chung, Patrick editions of 1988, 1991, 1994, 1997, National Institute of Building Sciences Cooke, Bruce Ellingwood, Thomas and 2000. There was no immediate (NIBS), to convene the expertise and Faison, H.S. Lew, Richard Marshall, movement, following their issuance in interests needed to develop nationally James Pielert, Timothy Reinhold, 1985, towards adoption of the applicable and acceptable seismic Lawrence Salamone, James Shaver, Recommended Provisions by national design and construction provisions. Stephen Weber, Kyle Woodward, and standards and model building codes. Ugo Morelli joined FEMA to become Charles Yancey. Weber’s study, reveal- As described in the following section the program officer for the effort, and ing the modest cost implications of the on ICSSC, CBT/BFRL was influential James Smith became executive director recommended provisions [11] as in achieving adoption of the of BSSC. As BSSC came up to speed, determined by the trial designs, was Recommended Provisions. and working with private sector and crucial to the subsequent issuance of other agency experts convened by the Executive Order requiring use of 15.8.4 INTERAGENCY BSSC, CBT provided technical support the provisions in federal construction COMMITTEE ON for review and refinement of the tenta- and in adoption of the provisions in SEISMIC SAFETY IN CONSTRUCTION tive provisions [8], planning the trial national standards and model building design program for the tentative provi- codes. At the start of NEHRP the White sions [9], and preparing amendments House directed FEMA to form an to the tentative provisions for use in Since NBS had relinquished the fund- Interagency Committee on Seismic the trial designs [10]. ing of seismic standards studies to Safety in Construction (ICSSC) to FEMA, and FEMA came to consider it assist the more than 30 federal agen- E.V. Leyendecker led the Structures more cost effective to fund BSSC to cies involved in construction in imple- Division’s Earthquake Engineering provide the technical secretariats for menting earthquake hazards reduction Group through the exciting initial the various technical committees elements in their ongoing programs. years of NEHRP working effectively developing the provisions, CBT partic- ICSSC was assigned the only output with colleagues in other federal agen- ipation declined. James Harris, who milestone for the program: to develop cies and the private sector and leading left CBT in 1981 for private practice seismic design standards for federal both earthquake engineering research in structural engineering, continued to construction and initiate their testing and participation in the development be active in BSSC and ASCE standard- by federal construction agencies by of seismic design and construction ization activities and has become a 1980. ICSSC, with FEMA funding provisions for buildings. In recognition nationally recognized leader. E.V. CBT to provide its technical secretari- of these efforts, Leyendecker received Leyendecker, who left CBT in 1986 to at, met this milestone [6]. Charles the Bronze Medal of the Department join the USGS, continued throughout Thiel of FEMA chaired ICSSC from its of Commerce in 1981, and the Silver the 1990s to play a lead role in devel- inception in 1978 until he left federal Medal of the Department of opment of the seismic hazard maps service in 1982. Richard Wright of

311 CBT then chaired ICSSC until he assisted or regulated buildings for goal of making adequate seismic resist- retired from federal service in 1999. which up to date standards had been ance available for all new U.S. building Subsequently, Shyam Sunder of NIST prepared (by BSSC and ICSSC) and construction was achieved. has chaired ICSSC and Steven for which the cost implications had Cauffman has provided its secretariat. been shown to be modest by trial Diana Todd joined the CBT staff in designs. 1990 to provide dynamic leadership The federal agencies wished (by federal for the ISCSC secretariat. ICSSC was policy and for efficiency and economy) The October 17, 1989, Loma Prieta much involved in support to federal to use the same seismic design and earthquake in California renewed pub- agencies in implementation of EO construction practices for its construc- lic, Administration, and Congressional 12699 for new buildings [14], support tion as were generally used in the pri- interest in seismic safety. Using the for the assessment of the equivalency vate sector and referenced by state and ICSSC-developed proposal at hand, of model building codes to the BSSC local building codes. However, legisla- the President issued Executive Order provisions [15] and the development tion and Administration policy also 12699, Seismic Safety of Federal and of proposals for changes to the model required the federal agencies to use up Federally Assisted or Regulated New codes, and in developing standards to date seismic design and construc- Building Construction, on January 5, [16], and a proposal for an imple- tion practices, and private sector con- 1990. Federal agencies were able to menting executive order, for the seis- sensus procedures for voluntary stan- proceed immediately to use ICSSC or mic safety of existing federal buildings. dards and model codes could be BSSC provisions for their own build- FEMA provided sustained support for slowed by proprietary concerns. ings. Broader effect on seismic safety BSSC in developing guidelines for seis- Therefore, ICSSC worked with the was achieved by the requirement that mic evaluation and strengthening of private sector in the BSSC and simul- federally assisted construction, such as existing buildings and for ICSSC in taneously developed and tested its own new homes with FHA or VA mort- developing policies and practices for provisions [6,12] to have a viable gages, be designed and constructed evaluation and strengthening of exist- alternative if the BSSC effort failed. using standards considered appropriate ing federal buildings. For his leadership in this work, James by ICSSC. This federal mandate actu- Harris received the Department of ally was welcomed by the national Following the January 17, 1994, Commerce Bronze Medal Award in standards organizations and model Northridge Earthquake, the President 1981 for this accomplishment. building codes since it provided incen- issued Executive Order 12941, Seismic tive for state and local governments to Safety of Existing Federally Owned or In accord with the direction of the adopt and enforce up to date standards Leased Buildings, on December 1, NEHRP Program Plan [5], ICSSC and codes to be eligible for federally 1994. It adopted the standards [16] proceeded to develop a proposed assisted construction. ICSSC, BSSC and called for agencies to inventory Executive Order [13] requiring use of and its member standards and model their owned and leased buildings and up to date seismic provisions in federal code organizations, collaborated to estimate the costs of mitigating unac- construction. The original proposed show equivalence of the 1991 Uniform ceptable seismic risks. ICSSC devel- Executive Order, developed through Building Code to the 1988 BSSC oped guidance to the federal agencies many ballots by ICSSC agencies, cov- Provisions and to develop and adopt on implementation of the executive ered new and existing buildings and changes based on the 1988 BSSC order [17] and collaborated with BSSC lifelines. As consideration proceeded in Provisions in the 1992 supplements to in a trial design program, using federal the White House, its scope was the SBCC Standard and BOCA buildings, of the costs implementing reduced to new federal and federally National Building Codes. The NEHRP the BSSC-produced NEHRP

312 Guidelines for the Seismic 15.8.5 EARTHQUAKE year research program for a National Rehabilitation of Buildings. ENGINEERING Earthquake Engineering Experimental EXPERIMENTAL Facility (NEEEF). In September 2000, FEMA submitted, FACILITIES A Report to the Congress: Toward At the request of the White House The report of the NRC Panel [23] Earthquake Resistant Federal Office of Technology Policy, the concluded; Buildings, to the Office of National Research Council (NRC) in … it is now clear to the panel that the Management and Budget. This report 1984 organized a committee led by H. National Bureau of Standards’ current included an inventory of Federal approach, which focuses on a particu- Norman Abramson and published a Buildings, compiled by John Hayes and lar facility, cannot be continued report on Earthquake Engineering Steve Sweeney of the U.S. Army Civil because of broader issues and needs Facilities and Instrumentation [21]. It Engineering Research Laboratory. The that must first be considered in such a concluded: report, prepared by Degenkolb feasibility study. The irreducible need for full-scale data Engineers under the leadership of Ugo on the behavior of earthquake-impacted Morelli of FEMA and Chris Poland of Essentially, the Beavers panel disagreed Degenkolb Engineers. During its multistory structures requires that the with the Abramson panel that there preparation, the report was extensively nation have experimental facilities able should be a plan for a single, major, reviewed and commented on by the to test such structures across a range national facility. Apparently, the princi- ICSSC. from damage initiation to collapse. pal research universities objected that at most one of their number (the facili- ICSSC Subcommittee 1 (Standards for It recommended: ty might go to a national laboratory New and Existing Buildings), under The federal government should under- instead of a university) would monopo- the leadership of H. S. Lew drafted an take, on an accelerated basis, planning lize the state of the art earthquake Executive Order entitled, Seismic aimed at developing a major national engineering experimental facilities. Rehabilitation of Federal Buildings, to earthquake engineering While the NEEEF study did not need implement the recommendations of experimental/test facility. to focus on a single facility, NEHRP the Report to Congress. Ugo Morelli was not hearing good support from the of FEMA and Charles Gutberlet of the FEMA, NSF and NBS funded CBT in earthquake community for its continu- U. S. Army Corps of Engineers pre- 1985 to conduct the planning. CBT ation by CBT; hence, it was terminated. pared the draft Executive Order. The defined a four year, four phase study Executive Order was approved by the covering research needs, facility char- The need for improvement of U.S. ICSSC Full Committee and submitted acteristics, siting and management. earthquake engineering experimental by FEMA to the Office of Management The first phase, research needs, facilities remained and was highlighted and Budget with the Report to included collecting background data, by uncertainties in understanding of Congress in September 2000. commissioning research needs recom- structures performance in the 1989 mendations from six expert consult- Loma Prieta and 1994 Northridge ICSSC organized federal teams to ants, a workshop of researchers, pro- earthquakes. The 1994 reauthorization investigate performance of buildings fessionals and industry representatives of NEHRP (PL 103-374) called for and lifelines in important earthquakes to define research needs, and commis- the President to “conduct an assess- [18, 19, 20] and developed recom- sioning another NRC Panel, chaired by ment of earthquake engineering mendations for ICSSC activities to James Beavers, to advise in the study. research and testing capabilities in the mitigate effects of future earthquakes. The CBT report [22] presented a five United States.” Informed by the expe-

313 rience ten years before, NSF and NIST plan, including precise timetables and revised plan that was approved by the commissioned the Earthquake budget estimates, for developing and White House and submitted to Engineering Research Institute to per- adopting, in consultation with appro- Congress [26]. It called for working form the assessment [24], which was priate private sector organizations, with the private sector to develop chaired by Daniel Abrams with James design and construction standards for guidelines and standards for lifelines, Beavers as project manager. It gave lifelines. The plan shall include recom- but did not give a schedule or estimate highest priority to modernizing exist- mendations of ways Federal regulatory funding required. Then, under the aus- ing laboratories and led to the $84 authority could be used to expedite the pices of the Interagency Committee on million George W. Brown, Jr. Network implementation of such standards. Seismic Safety in Construction for Earthquake Engineering Simulation (ICSSC) a Lifeline Policymakers (NEES) that NSF began in 2000. In response to the mandate, FEMA Workshop was held by the American funded NIST/BFRL to conduct the Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) (27) 15.8.6 STANDARDS FOR planning. FEMA organized a Steering which estimated that a five year pro- LIFELINES Group chaired by Ronald Eguchi, then gram amounting $16 million was chairman of the Technical Council on Lifelines are the transportation (high- required. FEMA has supported the Lifeline Earthquake Engineering, to ways, airports, railways, waterways, formation by ASCE of the American advise on the planning. The Steering ports and harbors) and utility systems Lifeline Alliance to work on the devel- Group approved the process for plan- (electric power, gas and liquid fuels, opment of guidelines and standards for ning which included commissioning lifelines. telecommunication, water, and sewer) drafts for the various lifeline types that support most human activities. from private sector experts and hold- 15.8.7 NEHRP MANAGEMENT Lifeline failures during earthquakes ing a planning workshop from cause losses of life, property, and September 25-27, 1991, of over 50 CBT/BFRL as a principal agency in income as well as environmental dam- experts predominantly from the pri- NEHRP was fully involved in its plan- ages. Lifeline failures also result in vate sector and academia. The resulting ning and management activities. These post-earthquake fires, hinder emer- plan [25] called for an 8 year program included several cycles of strategic gency and rescue operations, and delay totaling $54.7 million dollars. planning and planning for special sup- recovery and reconstruction. While by Implementation would be primarily plementary research funding following 1990, there were up to date seismic through the existing voluntary stan- the 1989 Loma Prieta and 1994 provisions available for building codes, dards system with an Executive Order Northridge earthquakes to assure there were no nationally accepted stan- requiring federal agencies to adopt and exploitation of the opportunities to dards or guidelines for lifelines except use seismic standards for federal and improve knowledge and practice from for highway structures and nuclear federally assisted or regulated new and lessons that could be learned by study- facilities. Public Law 101-614, the existing lifelines. ing earthquake mechanisms, perform- 1990 National Earthquake Hazards ance of structures, societal behavior Reduction Program Reauthorization A draft plan, based on the workshop and emergency management proce- Act stated: report, was reviewed by the NEHRP dures in the earthquakes. CBT/BFRL’s The Director of the Agency (FEMA), in Advisory Committee in January 1992, influence on plans and public policies consultation with the Director of the and was not supported by the Advisory was proportionally much greater than National Institute of Standards and Committee or FEMA. FEMA and its two percent share in NEHRP Technology, shall submit to Congress, NIST worked with a subgroup of the appropriations because its representa- not later than June 30, 1992, a Advisory Committee to develop a tives for planning and Congressional

314 testimony were knowledgeable in 11. Stephen F. Weber, Cost Impact of the Performance of Structures, Lifelines and Fire earthquake engineering. NEHRP Recommended Provisions on the Protection Systems, NIST SP 901 (ICSSC Design and Construction of Buildings, Societal TR-18), National Institute of Standards Implications of Improved Seismic Safety and Technology, 1996. References Provisions for New Buildings: Selected 21. Earthquake Engineering Facilities and 1. Disaster Preparedness, Report to Congress, Readings, Building Seismic Safety Instrumentation, National Research Office of Emergency Preparedness, Council, 1985. Council, 1984. Executive Office of the President, 12. Seismic Design Guidelines for Federal 22. C. Scribner and Charles Culver, National January 1972. Buildings, NBSIR 87-3524 (ICSSC RP- Earthquake Engineering Experimental Facility 2. Richard N. Wright, Samuel Kramer, and 1), National Bureau of Standards, 1987. Study: Phase One - Large Scale Testing Needs, Charles Culver, Building Practices for 13. Charles Yancey and Joseph Greenberg, NBS SP 729, National Bureau of Disaster Mitigation, Building Science Guidelines and Procedures for Implementation Standards, 1987. Series 46, National Bureau of Standards, of Executive Order on Seismic Safety, NBSIR 23. Review of Phase I of the National Earthquake 1973. 88-3711 (ICSSC RP-2), National Engineering Experimental Facility Study, 3. An Evaluation of a Response Spectrum Bureau of Standards, 1988. Approach to Seismic Design of Buildings, 14. Diana Todd, Guidelines and Procedures for National Research Council, 1987. Applied Technology Council, 1974. Implementation of Executive Order on Seismic 24. Assessment of Earthquake Engineering 4. “Tentative Provisions for the Safety, NISTIR 4635 (ICSSC RP-2.1), Research and Testing Capabilities in the Development of Seismic Regulations for National Institute of Standards and United States, Publication WP-01, Buildings,” Applied Technology Council Technology, 1991. Earthquake Engineering Research Publication ATC 3-06, NBS SP 510, NSF 15. Council of American Building Officials, Institute, September 1995. Publication pp 78-8, 1978. Assessment of the Seismic Provisions of Model 25. Proceedings of a Workshop on Developing and 5. The National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Building Codes, NISTGCR 92-617, Adopting Seismic Design and Construction Program, Executive Office of the National Institute of Standards and Standards for Lifelines, NISTIR 5907, President, June 22, 1978. Technology, 1992. National Institute of Standards and 6. James Harris and E. V. Leyendecker, 16. Diana Todd, Standards of Seismic Safety for Technology, 1996. Draft Seismic Standard for Federal Buildings, Existing Federally Owned or Leased Buildings, 26. Plan for Developing and Adopting Seismic ICSSC TR-1, NBSIR 81-2195, National NISTIR 5734 (ICSS RP-5), National Design Guidelines and Standards for Lifelines, Bureau of Standards, 1981. Institute of Standards and Technology, Federal Emergency Management Agency, 7. Charles Culver, et. al., Plan for the 1994. FEMA 271, September 1995. 17. Diana Todd and Ann Bieniawski, ICSSC Assessment and Implementation of Seismic 27. Bijan Mohraz and Riley Chung, Guidance on Implementing Executive Order Design Provisions for Buildings, NBSIR 78- Recommendations of the Lifeline Policy Makers 12941 on Seismic Safety of Existing Federally 1549, National Bureau of Standards, Owned or Leased Buildings, NISTIR 5734 Workshop, NISTIR 6085 (ICSSC TR-19), 1978. (ICSSC RP-5), National Institute of National Institute of Standards and 8. Review and Refinement of ATC 3-06 Standards and Technology, 1995. Technology, 1997. Tentative Seismic Provisions, NBSIR 80- 18. Performance of Structures During the Loma 2111-1 to 9, National Bureau of Prieta Earthquake of October 17, 1989, 15.9 EARTHQUAKE Standards, 1980. NIST SP 778 (ICSSC TR-11), National 9. Plan for a Trial Design Program to Assess Institute of Standards and Technology, RESEARCH Amended ATC 3-06 Tentative Provisions for 1990. 15.9.1 SOIL LIQUEFACTION the Development of Seismic Regulations for 19. Diana Todd, et. al., 1994 Northridge Buildings, NBSIR 82-2589, National Earthquake: Performance of Structures, CBT formed a Geotechnical section Bureau of Standards, 1982. Lifelines and Fire Protection Systems, NIST led by Felix Yokel in the mid 70s as 10. Amendments to ATC 3-06 Tentative Provisions SP 862 (ICSSC TR-14), National part of the Structures and Materials for the Development of Seismic Regulations for Institute of Standards and Technology, Buildings for Use in Trial Designs, NBSIR 1994. Division. One of it major focuses was 82-2626, National Bureau of Standards, 20. Riley Chung, et. al., The January 17, the prediction of soil liquefaction 1982. 1995 Hyogoken-Nanbu (Kobe) Earthquake, under strong ground shaking which

315 had been shown to be a major factor Ronald Andrus to in damages to buildings and lifelines. resume geotechnical Yokel recruited William Kovacs, Riley research. Andrus and Chung, and Larry Salomone to join Chung performed CBT and involved external experts important work to such as Ricardo Dobry in the section’s develop the shear research. The widely used Standard wave velocity Penetration Test (SPT) had been method [4] for pre- shown to correlate with liquefaction dicting liquefaction potential, but variability in the test potential. However, procedures made predictions unreli- restricted funding in able. A thorough study of the test pro- the late 90s caused cedures and the energy delivered to BFRL again to ter- the sampling device [1] led to recom- minate geotechnical mendations to improve ASTM research since it Standard D1586 for the test and could not support a reduced variability of results. world class program. Cooperation with Japanese researchers In spite of limited through the US/Japan Panel of Wind resources and work and Seismic Effects led to joint studies that started and of US and Japanese testing procedures stopped, twice, [2] so that Japanese data on liquefac- CBT’s and BFRL’s tion in earthquakes could be used with researchers succeed- Full-scale test of bridge column performed in BFRL’s large-scale structural U.S. data and test methods for predic- ed in making major test facility with its 53 MN universal structural testing machine that tion of seismic liquefaction potential of contributions to reli- can test structural components up to 17.7 m in height. soil deposits. Laboratory and field able and economical studies of pore water pressure build up methods for identi- Large Scale Bridge Column Project was in shaken soils led to identification of fying liquefaction susceptible soil initiated by the Center for Building in the critical cyclic strain as the mecha- deposits. the early 1980s to provide the neces- nism leading to liquefaction [3]. sary verification. This project, led by 15.9.2 BRIDGE COLUMN William Stone, consisted of two full- Threats to the existence of CBT and REINFORCING scale bridge column tests; one column REQUIREMENTS cuts in its funding in the 80s led to the was designed to fail in flexure and the departure of most of its geotechnical As a result of the 1971 San Fernando other was designed to fail in shear. The engineers and the end of the section. earthquake, design requirements for columns were designed to the CAL- With increased funding for earthquake bridge columns in seismic zones were TRANS (California Department of engineering at NIST following the modified. This included new require- Transportation) specifications. The 1989 Loma Prieta and 1994 ments for the anchorage of longitudi- challenges arose from the size of the Northridge earthquakes, Riley Chung nal reinforcing steel into foundations. test specimens and the need to apply returned to BFRL to lead its However, the adequacy of these design lateral (seismic) loads in addition to Earthquake Group and recruited modifications was not verified. The vertical (gravity) loads. The tests were

316 designed to use the existing 53 MN lapsed in the 1964 Anchorage, universal testing machine to apply the Alaska earthquake. vertical load to simulate the mass of the bridge superstructure. A 14 m Therefore, in 1987, CBT initiat- high post-tensioned reaction wall and ed a project to study the per- rail system had to be constructed for formance and development of the application of the lateral loads. moment-resisting precast beam- The series of column tests was the column connections. The chal- first of its kind and as such, provided lenge was to develop a connec- important benchmark data [5]. The tion that was economical, easy tests verified the adequacy of the to construct, and capable of revised CALTRANS design specifica- resisting the cyclic inelastic tions. In addition, Geraldine Cheok deformation caused by earth- Thirty-nine-story precast concrete building in tested companion 1/6-scale bridge quake loadings. Based on initial San Francisco. columns and the results indicated that tests in the study, a post-ten- the behavior of full-scale bridge sioned precast connection In addition, the American Concrete columns could be extrapolated from appeared to be viable. These early Institute (ACI), which is responsible small-scale bridge column tests. This results caught the interest of Charles for the national standard for reinforced finding suggests that the high costs Pankow Builders, which provided concrete structures, developed a provi- associated with full-scale tests are not funding through the American sional standard for this system. Several always necessary and less expensive Concrete Institute Concrete Research structures using the hybrid connec- small-scale tests may be sufficient. Foundation to further develop the tions have been constructed and sever- post-tensioned concept. Close collab- al more are under consideration. The 15.9.3 PRECAST CONCRETE oration between William C. Stone, hybrid connection allowed for con- FRAMES Geraldine S. Cheok, and H. S. Lew of struction of a $128-million, 39-story Precast concrete frame construction NIST, Dean Stephan and David building in San Francisco (see drawing). has not been used extensively in high Seagren of Pankow Builders, and John This building will be the tallest con- seismic regions of the United States, Stanton of the University of crete frame building to be built in a despite its potential benefits in con- Washington, resulted in three different high seismic region. Recognition of the struction speed and quality control. designs. The most viable design com- innovation of the work was reflected in This is because building code require- bined the use of low strength reinforc- the awards received - ACI Structural ments (e.g., Uniform Building Code, ing steel and high strength prestressing Research Award for Cheok and Stone UBC) have been based on past experi- steel - a hybrid connection. Based on in 1997, Department of Commerce ence with cast-in-place construction tests conducted by NIST [6], design Bronze Medal for Cheok in 1997, and regard precast construction as an guidelines for precast hybrid connec- Finalist in Civil Engineering Research “undefined structural system” which tions were developed. These guidelines Foundation Charles Pankow Award for must be shown to be equivalent to and results were used to obtain Innovation in 1998, Maryland Young cast-in-place systems and to provide approval from the International Engineer Award for Cheok in 1997, sufficient lateral force resistance and Conference of Building Officials and Department of Commerce Silver energy absorption capacity. Also, a pre- Evaluation Service for the construction Medal for Cheok, Lew and Stone in cast concrete framed structure col- of hybrid connections in seismic zones. 2001.

317 15.9.4 REHABILITATION OF the weld joints into the beams, thus two sets of testing guidelines and has WELDED STEEL enabling the structure to absorb the worked to experimentally verify the MOMENT FRAME earthquake’s energy in a non-brittle guidelines completeness. CONNECTIONS manner. AISC Design Guide No. 12 Steel framed buildings traditionally has been cited by the FEMA docu- BFRL researchers began the effort with have been considered to be among the ment, Recommended Seismic the development of guidelines for test- most seismic resistant structural sys- Evaluation and Upgrade Criteria for ing seismic isolation systems [(8] enti- tems. The January 17, 1994 Existing Welded Steel Moment Frame tled: Guidelines for Pre-Qualification, Prototype, and Quality Control Testing Northridge earthquake, however, Buildings. John Gross received the of Seismic Isolation Systems. Harry W. caused unexpected damage to many Bronze Medal Award of the Shenton, III, developed this set of welded steel moment frame buildings. Department of Commerce in 2001 for guidelines, in consultation with a tech- In general, the damage was confined to his leadership of this study. nical review committee that consisted beam-to-column connections that suf- of designers, manufactures, and acade- fered brittle fracture in the flange 15.9.5 TEST METHODS FOR micians who are experts in the field. A welds. In response to these failures, PASSIVE AND ACTIVE draft of the guidelines was reviewed by NIST initiated research into methods SEISMIC ENERGY a broader group of seismic isolation to modify existing buildings to improve ABSORPTION experts, and their comments were their seismic performance. A collabo- Structural control devices, such as seis- incorporated into the final version of rative research effort led by John Gross mic isolation and passive energy dissi- the guidelines. The American Society of was undertaken and involved Nestor pators, have been installed in numer- Civil Engineers (ASCE) is in the Iwankiw of AISC, Michael Engelhardt ous structures throughout the world process of developing a national con- of The University of Texas, Chia-Ming and have proven to be effective in sensus standard based on the NIST- Uang of the University of California, reducing both motions and forces dur- developed isolation device testing San Diego, and Kazuhiko Kasai of ing earthquakes and strong winds. Still guidelines. The consensus standard is Lehigh University. Three methods to these devices are generally produced in currently (2002) in the balloting phase. reduce the stresses at the beam-to-col- small quantities, specifically for each umn connection were studied: 1) application. To guarantee that the To verify the completeness of the isola- welded haunch, 2) reduced beam sec- devices will perform as the designer tion testing guidelines, Andrew Taylor, tion, and 3) bolted bracket. Eighteen expected, many building codes and working with Gregory Bradley and full-scale tests were conducted on sub- guidelines recommend that the devices Peter Chang, both from the University assemblages representing interior be tested before installation. While of Maryland, began experimental tests joints, both with and without a con- some of these standards describe a on elastomeric isolators. They per- crete floor slab. The result of this limited number of specific tests, widely formed a series of tests to determine multi-year effort was the publication of accepted test standards do not yet the bearing’s ultimate compressive comprehensive guidelines for the seis- exist. Before his untimely death in strength, failure mode, and the effects mic rehabilitation of existing welded 1993, Albert Lin recognized the need of model scale on the response [9]. steel frame buildings - AISC Design for comprehensive and consistent test The experimental results were com- Guide No. 12 [7]. The guidelines pro- standards. Such standards are useful to pared with numerical simulations, and vide experimentally-validated response designers, manufactures, and contrac- used to improve the accuracy of the prediction models and design equa- tors, since they will make the process numerical models. The effort is con- tions for the three connection modifi- of validating these devices consistent. tinuing with a series of tests that will cation concepts that shift loading from To address the issue, BFRL developed be performed on isolators with known

318 manufacturing flaws. These tests will developed improved also investigate how accurately such design procedures for flaws can be numerically modeled and passive dampers [10], how adversely they affect the perform- which are intended to ance of the isolators. The results of replace current proce- Full-scale test of welded haunch modification to steel moment frame these tests are expected to expose any dures that may produce connection inconsistencies, omissions, or other non-conservative designs Bridge Columns Subjected to Cyclic Loading, unforeseen problems with the testing in some cases. Research on semi- Building Science Series 166, National procedures, and will provide useful active control devices and the on-going Institute of Standards and Technology, data for the development of perform- collaboration with researchers at the Gaithersburg, 1989. ance-based seismic design. Polytechnic School of Tunisia is leading 6. William C. Stone, Geraldine S. Cheok, to advancements in non-linear control and J. F. Stanton, “Performance of Hybrid Moment-Resisting Precast While seismic isolation is generally laws and control of non-linear struc- Beam-Column Concrete Connections accepted by earthquake engineering tures [11]. Andrew Taylor received the Subjected to Cyclic Loading,” ACI profession and recognized in the build- Bronze Medal Award of the Structural Journal, Vol. 92, No. 2, ing codes in high-seismic areas, passive Department of Commerce in 1996 for American Concrete Institute, Detroit, structural dampers are still gaining his contributions to development of MI, March-April, pp 229-249, 1995. acceptance and semi-active devices are the testing guidelines. 7. John L. Gross, Michael D. Engelhardt, still in the development phase. To Chia-Ming Uang, K. Kasai, and Nestor Iwankiw, “Modification of Existing address the needs related to these References 1. William D. Kovacs, Lawrence A. Welded Steel Moment Frame newer technologies, BFRL research is Connections for Seismic Resistance,” continuing with efforts to develop and Salomone, and Felix Y. Yokel, Energy Measurement in the Standard Penetration AISC Design Guide Series, No. 12, improve test methods, design proce- Test, BSS 135, National Bureau of American Institute of Steel dures, and analytical tools for passive Standards, 1981. Construction, Chicago, IL, 1999. and semi-active structural dampers. 2. William D. Kovacs and Lawrence A. 8. Harry W. Shenton, Guidelines for Pre- Fahim Sadek and Michael A. Riley fol- Salomone, Field Evaluation of SPT Qualification, Prototype and Quality Control (Standard Penetration Test) Energy, Testing of Seismic Base Isolation Systems, lowed a procedure similar to that used NISTIR 5800, National Institute of to develop the isolation device testing Equipment and Methods in Japan Compared with the SPT in the United States, NBSIR Standards and Technology, 1996. process of developing these guidelines. 84-2910, National Bureau of Standards, 9. G. L. Bradley, Andrew W. Taylor, and P. Analytical results led to better methods 1984. C. Chang, Ultimate Capacity Testing of for determining the number of equiva- 3. Ricardo Dobry, R. S. Ladd, Felix Y. Laminated Elastomeric Base Isolation Bearings lent cycles necessary for testing struc- Yokel, Riley M. Chung and D. Powell, under Axial Loading, NISTIR 6002, tural control devices. Prediction of Pore Water Pressure Buildup and National Institute of Standards and Liquefaction of Sands During Earthquakes by Technology, 1997. the Cyclic Strain Method, BSS 138, 10. Fahim H. Sadek, Bijan Mohraz, and In addition to the development of test- National Bureau of Standards, 1982. Michael A. Riley, “Linear Static and ing guidelines, this program has pro- 4. Ronald D. Andrus, K. H. Stokoe, and Dynamic Procedures for Structures with duced a wide variety of other structur- Riley M. Chung, Draft Guidelines for Velocity-Dependent Supplemental al control related documents. Work by Evaluating Liquefaction Resistance Using Dampers,” Journal of Structural Fahim Sadek, Riley Chung, Andrew Shear Wave Velocity Measurements and Engineering, ASCE, pp 887-895, 2000. 11. Fahim H. Sadek and Bijan Mohraz, Taylor, and Bijan Mohraz of SMU led Simplified Procedures, NISTIR 6277, National Institute of Standards and “Semi-Active Control Algorithms for to publication of an innovative, simpli- Technology, 1999. Structures with Variable Dampers,” fied method for designing tuned mass 5. William C. Stone and Geraldine S. Journal of Engineering Mechanics, ASCE dampers. BFRL researchers have also Cheok, Inelastic Behavior of Full-Scale 1998.

319

AAPPENDIX

CBT/CFR/BFRL Data RNW 12/20/02 1975 1976 1977 1978 1979 1980 1981 1982 1983 1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 CBT Direct $M 4.2 3.8 3.8 3.6 3.9 3.8 4.4 4.4 4.3 4.4 4.3 4.1 3.8 3.9 3.6 5.1 Total $M 11.2 11.9 12.2 12.4 13.2 14.7 13.6 12.4 12.5 12.6 12.6 11.6 10.4 9.5 10.3 10.8 WY 205 229 209 180 189 199 182 138 146 139 134 128 102 89 84 89 Staff 211 217 235 249 208 162 152 145 164 153 128 115 111 109

CFR Direct $M 3.3 3.2 4.6 4.7 5 5.1 5.7 5.1 5.7 5.8 6.1 5.8 5.6 5.9 6 6 Total $M 5.8 5.7 7.1 7.1 7.8 8.2 8.8 7.9 8.7 8.9 8.4 8.9 8.9 8.9 9.2 9.2 WY 91 92 95 94 89 87 83 78 77 Staff 118 114 116 120 123 100 97 103 108 86 100 94 81 83 84

1976 data adjusted to represent four quarters rather than the five quarters of the transition to the new fiscal year.

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 BFRL Direct $M 10.7 11 12.3 14.6 20.3 18.6 21.5 19.8 19.4 17.9 Total $M 20.9 22.2 23 26.5 30.5 27.2 30 28.7 28.5 29.1 WY 177 179 179 184 192 185 180 173 174 164 Staff 195 200 196 200 216 208 206 194 184 182

Staff data do not include research associates from industry and guest workers from universities and other laboratories. Generally, these professionals amounted to some 60 additional work years.

321 322 bAPPENDIX

CBT/CFR/BFRL NBS/NIST/DoC Awards Names Award Year Reason Ryan, John Bronze 1975 Total Energy Snell, Jack Silver 1975 Energy Conservation Mathey, Robert Silver, jt 1975 Coated Rebars Clifton, James Silver, jt 1975 Coated Rebars Achenbach, Paul Gold 1975 Energy Document Anderson, Erik Bronze 1976 Concrete Durability Berger, Harvey Bronze 1976 Lead Paint Castle, L. Jocelyn Bronze 1976 Administration Parker, William Bronze 1976 Laboratory Scale Fire Tests Quintiere, James Bronze 1976 Room Fire Growth Bright, Richard Silver 1976 Smoke Detectors Hill, James Silver 1976 Solar Test Methods Petersen, Stephen Silver 1976 Energy Dollars Robertson, Alexander Gold 1976 Fire Standards Cattaneo, Louis Bronze 1977 Guard Rail Safety Standards Embree, Edward Bronze 1977 Electrical Connections Overheating Fattal, S. George Bronze 1977 Guard Rail Safety Standards Hunt, Charles Bronze 1977 Air Exchange Measurement Jason, Nora Bronze 1977 FRIS - Fire Research Information Service Berry, Sandra Crittenden 1977 NCSBCS Conferences Culver, Charles Silver 1977 Seismic Standards Rockett, John Silver 1977 Fire Modeling Ruegg, Rosalie Silver 1977 Solar Economics Pielert, James Silver, jt 1977 Mobile Home Performance Gross, James Silver, jt 1977 Mobile Home Performance Lyons, John Gold 1977 CFR creation Bailey, William Bronze 1978 Laboratory Support

323 Names Award Year Reason Robertson, Alexander Rosa 1978 Flammability Test Method Huggett, Clayton Silver 1978 Flame Inhibition Kelly, George Silver 1978 Energy labeling of AC and HP Marshall, Harold Silver 1978 Economics research leadership Winger, James Silver 1978 Furniture and Fabric Flammability Standards Buchbinder, Benjamin Bronze 1979 Decision analysis for fire safety Lee, Thomas Bronze 1979 Smoke Chamber Test Method Nelson, Harold Safety 1979 CFR safety program Pierman, Brian Safety 1979 CBT safety program Benjamin, Irwin Silver 1979 FSES and adoption of fire standards in codes Dikkers, Robert Silver 1979 Solar performance criteria Burch, Douglas Bronze 1980 Attic insulation and ventilation Grot, Richard Bronze 1980 Weatherization field measurements Kaetzel, Lawrence Bronze 1980 Laboratory automation Lew, Hai-Sang Bronze 1980 Willow Island investigation Masters, Larry Bronze 1980 Service Live Prediction standard Raufaste, Noel Bronze 1980 CBT information publications Roberts, Willard Bronze 1980 Solar materials tests Streed, Elmer Bronze 1980 Solar collector test methods Waksman, David Bronze 1980 Solar performance standards for durability Krasny, John Bronze 1980 Self extinguishing cigarettes Loftness, Joseph Bronze 1980 Cigarette ignition resistance of mattresses Clark, Elizabeth Safety 1980 Materials laboratory safety Ellingwood, Bruce Silver 1980 Probability-based load criteria Cullen, William Gold 1980 Roofing Standards Kusuda, Tamami Gold 1980 NBSLD - National Bureau of Standards Load Detection Program Cherry, Sonya Bronze 1981 Grants administration Harris, James R. Bronze 1981 Seismic standards for federal buidings Jones, Robert Bronze 1981 Guarded Hot Plate management Leyendecker, EV Bronze 1981 Seismic provisions review and refinement Simiu, Emil Bronze 1981 Wind load research and book Trechsel, Heinz Bronze 1981 Residential energy conservation installation standards Jones, Robert Meas.Services 1981 Guarded Hot Plate management Didion, David Silver 1981 Seasonal performance of heating and cooling systems Pfrang, Edward Silver 1981 Performance criteria for housing Chapman, Robert Bronze 1982 FSES software Hurley, Warren Bronze 1982 Appliance test method data acquisition

324 Names Award Year Reason Kashiwagi, Takashi Bronze 1982 Radiative ignition Raines, James Bronze 1982 Laboratory automation Frohnsdorff, Geoffrey Silver 1982 Blended cements standards Lew, Hai-Sang Silver 1982 Construction safety guidelines Nelson, Harold Silver 1982 FSES Quintiere, James Silver 1982 Fire growth modeling Wright, Richard Gold 1982 CBT restructuring Marshall, Richard Gold, jt 1982 Hyatt investigation Pfrang, Edward Gold, jt 1982 Hyatt investigation Brown, Paul Bronze 1983 Cement hydration data Carino, Nicholas Bronze 1983 Concrete Maturity method McCaffrey, Bernard Bronze 1983 Large plume experiment and theory Rankin, Frank Bronze 1983 3D testing facility Walton, George Bronze 1983 Thermal Analysis computer program Collins, Belinda Bronze 1984 Color rendering for safety symbols Twilley, William Bronze 1984 Cone calorimeter design and construction Woodward, Kyle Bronze 1984 3D testing facility Simiu, Emil Silver 1984 Wind research Horner, Barbara Bronze 1985 Secretarial service Mulholland, George Bronze 1985 Smoke particle generation and growth Yancey, Charles EEO 1985 Recruiting minority students Baum, Howard Gold, jt 1985 LES room model Rehm, Ronald Gold, jt 1985 LES room model Babrauskas, Vytenis Bronze 1986 Cone calorimeter and heat release rate Ohlemiller, Thomas Bronze 1986 Smoldering combustion Yaniv, Simone Bronze 1986 Characterization of semi-reverberant rooms Lyons, John Condon 1986 Scientific American book "Fire" Lawson, J. Randall Safety 1986 Gas well blowout studies Mathey, Robert Safety 1986 CBT program Leyendecker, EV Silver 1986 BSSC recommended seismic provisions Peacock, Richard Bronze 1987 Safety of solid fuel heating appliances Stone, William Bronze 1987 Mexico earthquake investigation Gross, Daniel Rosa 1987 Fire hazard test method standards Smyth, Kermit Condon 1987 Chemistry of molecular growth processes in flames Didion, David Appl. Res. 1987 Refrigerant mixtures Levine, Robert EEO 1987 Recruiting minority engineers and scientists Carino, Nicholas Silver 1987 Moscow embassy investigation

325 Names Award Year Reason Didion, David Gold 1987 Refrigerant mixtures Snell, Jack Gold 1987 Puerto Rico fire code and Dupont Plaza investigation Fanney, Hunter Bronze 1988 Solar hot water test methods Didion, David Condon, jt 1988 Quest for alternatives McLinden, Mark Condon, jt 1988 Quest for alternatives Persily, Andrew Bronze 1989 IAQ measurements Simiu, Emil Gold 1989 Wind and wave effects on off shore platforms Nelson, Harold Gold 1989 FSES in Life Safety Code Evans, David Bronze 1990 Sprinkler response prediction Phan, Long Bronze 1990 Punching shear resistance of lightweight concrete Twilley, William Safety 1990 Controlled atmosphere cone calorimeter Braun, Emil Silver, jt 1990 Hazard I Bukowski, Richard Silver, jt 1990 Hazard I Forney, Lynn Silver, jt 1990 Hazard I Jones, Walter Silver, jt 1990 Hazard I Peacock, Richard Silver, jt 1990 Hazard I Cramer, Deborah Bronze 1991 Secretarial service Domanski, Piotr Bronze 1991 Cycle II for refrigerant combinations Pitts, William Bronze 1991 Turbulent combustion measurements Kashiwagi, Takashi Appl Res 1991 Thermal degradation of PMMA Kashiwagi, Takashi Silver 1991 Characterization of flame spread Bushby, Steven Bronze 1992 BACnet Flood, Carolyn Bronze 1992 Secretarial service Babrauskas, Vytenis Rosa 1992 Cone calorimeter and HRR Smyth, Kermit Silver 1992 Measuring chemical structure of flames Nyden, Marc Bronze 1993 Computational molecular dynamics Walton, William Bronze 1993 Tests of burning oil spills Danner, William Bronze, jt 1993 STEP Methodologies Palmer, Mark Bronze, jt 1993 STEP Methodologies Fleegle, Nancy Bronze 1994 Secretarial service McKnight, Mary Bronze 1994 Coatings practices Nguyen, Tinh Bronze 1994 Modeling degradation of coatings Hill, James Gold 1994 Environmental systems research and management Reed, Kent Silver, jt 1994 Initial Release of STEP Gann, Richard Silver 1994 Cigarette ignition propensity Kedzierski, Mark Bronze 1995 Measurement of refrigerant heat transfer Didion, David Slichter, jt 1995 Alternative refrigerants

326 Names Award Year Reason Domanski, Piotr Slichter, jt 1995 Alternative refrigerants Kedzierski, Mark Slichter, jt 1995 Alternative refrigerants Evans, David Silver 1995 Burning oil spills Grosshandler, William Silver 1995 Alternative fire suppressants Martin, Jonathan Bronze 1996 Service life prediction methods Taylor, Andrew Bronze 1996 Test method for seismic base isolation Bushby, Steven Slichter 1996 BACnet Pitts, William Silver 1996 CO yields in combustion Cheok, Geraldine Bronze 1997 Pankow frame Roadarmel, Gary Safety jt 1997 Large scale fire tests Delauter, Laurean Safety jt 1997 Large scale fire tests Bentz, Dale Bronze 1998 Concrete modeling Bryner, Sheilda Bronze 1998 Secretarial service Dougherty, Brian Bronze 1999 Test methods for heat pumps and air conditioners Gilman, Jeffrey Bronze 1999 Nanotechnology for fire resistant polymers Jason, Nora Bronze, jt 1999 Fire on the Web Forney, Glenn Bronze, jt 1999 Fire on the Web Ehlen, Mark Bronze 2000 Bridge LCC Yang, Jiann Bronze 2000 Suppression effectiveness of liquid agents Butler, Kathryn EEO, jt 2000 BFRL Diversity Committee Bryner, Nelson EEO, jt 2000 BFRL Diversity Committee Kashiwagi, Takashi Gold 2000 Flame retardants principles and models Gross, John Bronze 2001 Rehabilitation of welded steel frames Madryzkowski, Daniel Bronze 2001 Large field fire tests McGrattin, Kevin Silver, jt 2001 Fire dynamics simulations Forney, Glenn Silver, jt 2001 Fire dynamics simulations Cheok, Geraldine Silver, jt 2001 Pankow frame Stone, William Silver, jt 2001 Pankow frame Lew, Hai-Sang Silver, jt 2001 Pankow frame

327