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The Age of Yodo River Water in the Seto Inland

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The Age of Yodo River Water in the Seto Inland Journal of Marine Systems 191 (2019) 24–37 Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Journal of Marine Systems journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jmarsys The age of Yodo River water in the Seto Inland Sea T ⁎ Haiyan Wanga,c, Xinyu Guob, , Zhe Liuc,1 a National Marine Environmental Forecasting Center, Beijing 100081, China b Center for Marine Environmental Studies, Ehime University, Matsuyama 790-8577, Japan c Key Laboratory of Marine Environment and Ecology (Ocean University of China), Ministry of Education, Qingdao 266100, China ARTICLE INFO ABSTRACT Keywords: The age of Yodo River water, the largest river flowing in the Seto Inland Sea (SIS), was calculated using the Water age constituent-oriented age and residence time theory (CART) in order to understand the long-term material CART transport and environmental issues in this semi-enclosed sea. The Yodo River water was found to have a mean Yodo River age of 152 days for the entire SIS. Inside the SIS, the age of Yodo River water shows spatial variation ranging Seto Inland Sea from 97 days in Osaka Bay, 199 days in the Harima-Nada, and 450 days in other areas. The age of Yodo River water shows an apparent seasonal variation in the SIS. Tracing water from the Yodo River reveals two pathways for its movement around Osaka Bay: one brings ~5/8 river water directly into the Kii Channel through the Kitan Strait; the other brings ~3/8 river water into the Harima-Nada through the Akashi Strait that eventually enters the Kii Channel through the Naruto Strait. The mean age of Yodo River water is 128 days at the Kitan Strait, 125 days at the Akashi Strait, 203 days at the Naruto Strait, and 271 days at the Bisan Strait. The above esti- mation considers the return of old Yodo River water into Osaka Bay that does not change the spatial distribution of Yodo River water age inside Osaka Bay but increases the value of water age by ~80%. Without tidal forcing, the mean ages of Yodo River water in Osaka Bay and the Harima-Nada increase by 6% and 51%, respectively, and nearly all the Yodo River water flows directly into the Kii Channel through the Kitan Strait. Without con- sidering baroclinic forcing, the mean ages of Yodo River water in Osaka Bay and the Harima-Nada increases by 52% and 51%, respectively, while the influence of local winds and the Yodo River discharge on the age of Yodo River water are negligible. 1. Introduction Chesapeake Bay, Pearl River estuary (Ren et al., 2014), Changjiang estuary (Wang et al., 2010, 2015), and Columbia River estuary (Karna The age of river water at a specified location in a coastal sea is and Baptista, 2016), (2) semi-enclosed seas, e.g., Baltic Sea (Meier, defined as the time elapsed since the river water leaves the river mouth, 2007) and Bohai Sea (Liu et al., 2012; Li et al., 2017), and (3) shelf seas, where its age is prescribed as zero, to its arrival at the location of in- e.g., New York Bight (Zhang et al., 2010). These studies provide useful terest (Bolin and Rodhe, 1973; Takeoka, 1984a). Much land-based information for the characteristics of freshwater and nutrient transport nutrients and pollutants discharge into a coastal sea from a river mouth in these areas, and the influences of natural dynamic processes (e.g., and then travel with the river water inside the sea. The age of river tide, local winds, density, and normal change of river discharge) and water, as an important auxiliary variable to describe the transport human activities (e.g., river water regulation event and waterway timescales, can help us to understand the environmental issues in constructions) on the river water age. coastal sea areas. The Seto Inland Sea (SIS) is a semi-enclosed sea (Fig. 1a) located in Many researchers have simulated the age of river water based on the the western part of Japan. The SIS contains several basins, including constituent-oriented age and residence time theory (CART, see www. Osaka Bay and the Harima-Nada, which are separated by narrow straits, climate.be/cart; Deleersnijder et al., 2001). The study areas to which e.g., the Akashi Strait and Bisan Strait. The SIS connects to the Kii and this theory has been applied covers (1) river estuaries, e.g., York River Bungo Channels in the Pacific Ocean through the Kitan Strait, Naruto estuary (Shen and Haas, 2004), James River estuary (Shen and Lin, Strait, and Hayasui Strait. Many rivers discharge into the SIS, and the 2006), and Rappahannock River estuary (Gong et al., 2009)in Yodo River, directly flowing into Osaka Bay, is the largest of these ⁎ Corresponding author at: Center for Marine Environmental Studies, Ehime University, 2-5 Bunkyo-Cho, Matsuyama 790-8577, Japan. E-mail address: [email protected] (X. Guo). 1 Present affiliation: Department of Earth Sciences, National Natural Science Foundation of China. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmarsys.2018.12.001 Received 19 August 2018; Received in revised form 28 November 2018; Accepted 2 December 2018 Available online 06 December 2018 0924-7963/ © 2018 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. H. Wang et al. Journal of Marine Systems 191 (2019) 24–37 Fig. 1. (a) Bathymetry of the Seto Inland Sea (SIS) (unit: meter). The SIS is separated into several basins, such as the Harima-Nada and Osaka Bay, which are connected to each other through narrow straits (e.g., Bisan Strait and Akashi Strait). The SIS connects the Bungo Channel with Hayasui Strait, and connects the Kii Channel with the Naruto Strait and Kitan Strait. The SIS opens to the Pacific Ocean via the Bungo and Kii Channels. The black star represents the location of the river mouth of the Yodo River, and the black dots represent the locations of the river mouths of other rivers. The black lines labeled OB1 and OB2 are two open boundaries. (b) Line AB denotes the section along which concentration and age of Yodo River water in Osaka Bay are presented in Fig. 4. Line CD in the Harima-Nada and Line EF in Osaka Bay denote the sections along which concentration, age, and current are presented in Fig. 8 and Fig. 9, respectively. rivers. Benefiting from human efforts, the present concentrations of we present the spatial and seasonal variations of age of Yodo River nutrients and phytoplankton in the SIS have significantly decreased water and its pathways in the SIS. In Section 4, we discuss how the compared with those during the 1970s, and the SIS is gradually chan- dynamic factors (e.g., tide, local winds, baroclinic forcing, and Yodo ging from eutrophic to oligotrophic (Yamamoto, 2003; Nishikawa et al., River discharge) and returned Yodo River water affect the water age 2010). using a set of sensitivity experiments. We summarize this study in There are only a few studies on the transport timescales such as Section 5. residence time in the SIS. The residence time of a water parcel at a specified location in the domain is defined as how long the water parcel, starting from this location, will remain in the domain before 2. Model description exiting (Zimmerman, 1976; Takeoka, 1984a), and is the complement of water age. In theory, under steady conditions, the average residence 2.1. Hydrodynamic model time of water parcel in the entire domain can be translated into the average age of water parcel in the entire domain, and the average re- The hydrodynamic model is based on the Princeton Ocean Model sidence time of newly entered water parcel in the domain can be (Mellor, 2004), and has been used by Chang et al. (2009) to study the translated into the average age of water parcel at the outlet of the do- seasonal variations of circulation in the SIS. The model has a horizontal main (Takeoka, 1984a). Takeoka (1984b) gives the values of average resolution of about 1 km (1/120 degree in meridional direction and 1/ residence time of five water volumes in the entire SIS under the M2 tide 80 degree in zonal direction), and 21 sigma levels in the vertical di- in the steady state. The average residence time in the entire SIS de- rection. The time step is 4 s for the external mode and 120 s for the monstrates a decreasing trend in the following order: sea water internal mode. (460 days), total water (consists of river water and sea water) In order to reproduce the climatological state with seasonal varia- (440 days), river water (250 days), newly entered river water tions in the hydrodynamic model, monthly atmospheric forcing (e.g., (230 days), and newly entered sea water (39 days). The hydrodynamic local winds, heat flux, precipitation, and evaporation), monthly dis- field used in Takeoka (1984b) is from a laboratory model, which in- charges from 21 major rivers (Fig. 1a), and monthly salinity, water cluded tidal forcing but neglected earth rotation, wind forcing, and temperature, normal velocity, and tidal forcing at the two open baroclinic forcing. Since the wind- or buoyancy-driven subtidal currents boundaries (OB1 and OB2, Fig. 1a) were used. The monthly mean of − in the SIS are usually more than 0.1 ms 1 (Chang et al., 2009), we each of these forcing is set at the middle day of each month, and the cannot ignore their influences on transport time of water. value at a given time step between two monthly mean values is inter- In this study, embedding a water age calculation module (Liu et al., polated linearly. Chang et al. (2009) presented a detailed description 2012) into a hydrodynamic numerical model designed to reproduce the and validation of the hydrodynamic model.
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