Progress Report

Progress in Human 1–9 ª The Author(s) 2015 geography II: ‘Dividing’ Reprints and permission: sagepub.co.uk/journalsPermissions.nav DOI: 10.1177/0309132515581094 phg.sagepub.com

Mark Rosenberg Queen’s University, Canada

Abstract Over the years, various observers of health geography have sought to ‘divide’ the sub-discipline mainly along theoretical lines or to argue for a broadening of its theoretical base. Paralleling the growing theoretical pluralism within health geography has been a growing methodological pluralism. As in other parts of , health have embraced historical research, quantitative and qualitative methods, and computer mapping and geographic information science (GIS). Analysing recent contributions by health geographers, the question I seek to answer is whether the growing theoretical and methodological pluralism has paradoxically led to increasing divisions in the topics of study based mainly, but not solely, on what methods are employed in the research. While there are topical overlaps (e.g. quantitative and qualitative studies of particular vulnerable groups), it is less obvious as to how research using one methodology is informing research using the other methodology.

Keywords health geography, methods, topics of study, quantitative, qualitative

I Introduction mixed methods within particular studies) is routine and even encouraged’. Over the years, various observers of health What has not been so routinely encouraged, geography have sought to ‘divide’ the sub- however, is to reflect on how research topics, discipline, mainly along theoretical lines (e.g. theory and methodology are linked in health Litva and Eyles, 1995), or to argue for a broad- geography. A widely held view is that quantita- ening of its theoretical base (e.g. Andrews et al., tive and qualitative methods are indeed comple- 2014; Carmalt and Faubion, 2010; Curtis and mentary (Winchester and Rofe, 2010: 17), that Riva, 2010a, 2010b; Guthman and Mansfield, quantitative methods can provide the context for 2013). Paralleling the growing theoretical more in-depth qualitative research or, conver- pluralism within health geography has been a sely, that qualitative research can be used to growing methodological pluralism. As in other inform quantitative research. Older antagonisms parts of human geography, health geographers between quantitative and qualitative health have embraced historical research (e.g. Chan- dra et al., 2013; Foley, 2014), quantitative and qualitative methods, and computer mapping Corresponding author: and geographic information science (GIS) or, Mark Rosenberg, Queen’s University, Ontario, Quebec, as Kearns and Collins (2010: 27) put it, ‘a diver- Canada. sity of and creativity of approaches (including Email: [email protected]

Downloaded from phg.sagepub.com at Stockholm University Library on August 13, 2015 2 Progress in Human Geography geographers have arguably melted away, paving it is also almost exclusively focused on issues in the way for a new rapprochement, a less divided higher income countries. In the most recently sub-discipline. If indeed this is the case, and published research involving health geogra- many health geographers believe it to be the phers, only one example was found of a study case, then one might expect to see more exam- on access to health services in the context of a ples of research by health geographers where lower income part of the world. That study the same or at least very similar topics – examined access to reproductive services in subject-matters, substantive foci of study – are rural Africa (Yao et al. 2013). The remainder examined using both quantitative and qualita- of the studies focused mainly on access to pri- tive methodologies. Analysing recent contribu- mary care (e.g. Gibson et al., 2014), screening tions by health geographers, the question that I (e.g. Henry et al., 2013) and preventative ser- seek to answer, therefore, is whether such a vices (e.g. Evans et al., 2013) in the context of growing theoretical and methodological plural- Canada (e.g. Bell et al., 2013), Europe (e.g. ism has paradoxically led not to lessening but Kringos et al.) or the United States (e.g. Wan rather to increasing divisions in topics of study et al., 2013). What is common to all of these based mainly, but not solely, on what methods studies is the emphasis on differential access are being employed by different researchers. among vulnerable populations (e.g. women, the poor, visible minority populations) in contrast to the less vulnerable living in the context of II Quantitative and GIS research where the studies take place. Recent research taking a quantitative or GIS Arguably, the most researched topic in health approach can be grouped into five broad geography over recent years has been the food- topics of study: of in obesity-built environment nexus. While all lower income and higher income countries; might agree that there are clear links between access to health services; the food-obesity- obesity and various negative health outcomes, built environment nexus; health inequalities; there also appears to be a near obsession among and mental health. health geographers with demonstrating links to What is notable is that geographers involved some combination of food deserts (e.g. LeDoux in research on geographies of diseases in lower and Vojnovic, 2013; Shannon, 2014), food and higher income countries share a lot in mirages (Breyer and Voss-Andreae, 2013), common methodologically. Multi-level model- exercise (or the lack thereof) (e.g. Rind et al., ling (e.g. Chum and O’Campo; Messina et al., 2014), active transportation (or the lack thereof) 2013) and network analysis using GIS platforms (e.g. Lachowycz and Jones, 2014) or the built (e.g. Perez-Heydrich et al., 2013; Qi and Du, environment (e.g. Coombes et al., 2013). The 2013) appear to be commonly used methods latest papers on food deserts, exercise, active regardless of the level of development (itself a transportation and the built environment come highly contested notion) of the country of inter- from far and wide (e.g. Australia, Astell-Burt est. What does distinguish the research is that et al., 2013; rural China, Loh and Li, 2013; infectious diseases remain the foci for research Portugal, Nogueira et al., 2013; South Wales, in the lower income countries, whereas non- Sarkar et al., 2013; United States, Su et al., infectious or chronic diseases are the main foci 2014). While the research is increasingly criti- for research in higher income countries (e.g. cal of previous work which tended towards a Herna´ndez et al., 2013; Lemke et al., 2013). new form of environmental determinism or an While access to services contin- almost conspiratorial view of how large food ues as an important theme in health geography, stores and the food industry work together to

Downloaded from phg.sagepub.com at Stockholm University Library on August 13, 2015 Rosenberg 3 make people obese, there remains the need to While the overwhelming focus among sort out the relative and competing importance quantitative health geographers has been on of various health, environmental and social self-rated health and/or morbidity or mortality goals. For example, Widener et al. (2013) argue linked to biological causes, there is a small but how single-occupancy commuting by automo- growing literature which endeavours to link bile might afford better access to supermarkets, mental health outcomes either to the built envi- while Wasfi et al. (2013) argue in favour of ronment or to parts of the population which are using public transit as a way of increasing phys- thought to be particularly vulnerable to mental ical activity. health issues (e.g. adolescents). Similar to the The health inequalities literature stretches research on self-rated health, some research across the life course from newborns (e.g. on mental health outcomes attempts to link poor Norman and Fraser, 2014) to retirement and mental health outcomes to area deprivation (e.g. residential care of the older population (e.g. Fagg et al., 2013; Pearson et al., 2013) or conver- Jonker et al., 2013b). Much of the research is sely to demonstrate that positive built environ- increasingly technical in nature (e.g. Meng ments (e.g. greenspace) may have buffering et al., 2013), seeking to take advantage of newer effects on negative mental health outcomes statistical techniques to address limitations of (e.g. de Vries et al., 2013). Those researchers the more conventional statistical approaches interested in mental health outcomes among used by health geographers in the past (e.g. vulnerable populations have been particularly Hoffmann et al., 2014). Trying to model the role interested in adolescents, their stressors and that small geographic areas play in the explana- negative health behaviours (e.g. Ka´zˇme´r et al., tions of health inequalities remains an important 2014; Twigg and Moon, 2013). topic (e.g. Jonker et al. 2013a), as well as when Summing up the recent trends in quantitative addressing how health inequalities are changing health geography, it might be fair to say that the over time and space (e.g. Green, 2013) and growing sophistication in methods has not been differences between urban and rural populations equalled by an expansion of topics of research, (e.g. Jones and Lake, 2013). Although some although quantitative health geographers have of the studies examine changes over time still responded and contributed to new health and space, they are more likely to use cross- challenges such as growing concerns related to sectional data sets (e.g. Campbell et al., 2014) health and the environment and food-obesity- in contrast to longitudinal data sets where indi- built environment nexus. viduals are explicitly tracked over time and space (e.g. Norman and Boyle, 2014). While socio-economic characteristics, environmental III Qualitative research indexes (e.g. Richardson et al., 2013) and some- While there are some subject overlaps among times social capital (e.g. Neutens et al., 2013) individual papers using qualitative and quan- are used ‘to explain’ geographic variations of titative methods in health geography, the morbidity and mortality in many of the studies, broader substantive themes tackled by qualita- there is little differentiation of the dependent tive health geographers appear to be quite dif- variables beyond age and sex. In only a small ferent from those tackled by quantitative number of examples was analysis of health health geographers. There is also a remarkable inequalities affecting a vulnerable part of the level of eclecticism in topics among qualita- population (e.g. a visible minority or immigrant tive health geographers, especially those group) the subject of the research (e.g. Subedi whose research is focused on issues in higher and Rosenberg, 2014). income countries.

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Recent research carried out in lower income examine how women and men express their countries employing qualitative methods has experiences of obsessive-compulsive disorder mainly focused on the relationships between in virtual space, thereby extending the health health and the environment in contrast to nar- ’s gaze on therapeutic landscapes rowing down to -specific issues – an from the tangible, material world into the world exception being Mkandawire et al. (2013), who of cyberspace. In a paper which also focuses on assess the vulnerability of orphans resulting gender roles, Wilton et al. (2014) argue for the from losing their parents to HIV. More typical need to take into account ‘masculinity’ in is research that focuses on seasonality, safe health geography in a study of drug treatment water, hygiene and health risks in places as programmes. diverse as Nigeria (Oloukoi et al., 2014), Viet- Paralleling quantitative health geographers, nam (Few et al., 2013), and India (O’Reilly and qualitative health geographers have also Louis, 2014). focused on vulnerable populations. Although The influence of therapeutic landscapes and aboriginal peoples are certainly not unique to their positive effects on health and well-being Canada, health geographers in Canada have remains a favoured subject-matter among qua- built up a significant body of research establish- litative health geographers, although theory ing a range of examples of how the Canadian and methods have advanced considerably in government has failed the Aboriginal popula- research on the built environment since the tion, resulting in significantly poorer health out- concept entered the literature in the early comes than are found in the non-Aboriginal 1990s. A small number of examples which population of Canada (e.g. Big-Canoe and Rich- overlap thematically along the food-obesity- mond, 2014; Senese and Wilson, 2013; Skinner built environment nexus were found (e.g. and Masuda, 2013; Tobias and Richmond, Ergler et al., 2013; Thompson et al., 2013; 2014; Willox et al., 2013). Lewis (2014) con- Vo¨lker and Kistemann, 2013). Closely related siders the role that migration plays both in to the food-obesity-built environment nexus facilitating improved or paradoxically negative research, Gatrell (2013) and Andrews et al. health among gay men, while Tobin et al. (2012) have independently argued to extend (2012) examine, using a time-geography frame- thinking on the fixed nature of the built environ- work, the HIV risks of African-American men ment and its therapeutic value to notions of who have sex with other men. A third vulnera- mobility and walkability as therapeutic processes. ble group who have received attention from A particularly unique focus on the built envi- health geographers in recent years are older peo- ronment among qualitative health geographers ple living in rural areas, identified as both care has been a longstanding fascination with the receivers and caregivers (e.g. Herron and Skin- ‘stories’ of mental health providers and recei- ner, 2013; Joseph et al., 2013). vers, shading into an interest in facilities of As suggested in the introduction above, mental health care as therapeutic landscapes Andrews et al. (2014) have argued for rela- (e.g. Curtis et al., 2013; Liggins et al., 2013; tional geographies of health. Andrews et al. Wood et al., 2013a, 2013b). Power (2013) (2013) demonstrate how relationality might focuses on the everyday sense of ‘belonging’ be employed in a study of holistic health prac- in the community among adults with intellec- titioners. Finally, in a paper which epitomizes tual disabilities as a comparative study in two the gulf between quantitative and qualitative very different places – Ireland and British health geographers, Tan (2013) adopts a rela- Columbia. Campbell and Longhurst (2013) add tionality approach to argue that smoking a new direction to this research in seeking to spaces should be reconceptualized as ‘enabling

Downloaded from phg.sagepub.com at Stockholm University Library on August 13, 2015 Rosenberg 5 spaces of wellbeing’, even as researchers aesthetics and cultural norms, a qualitative should not discount the negative physical approach is more likely to yield those insights. health effects of smoking. For quantitative Parenthetically, it might be noted that there are health geographers, smoking is seen strictly few examples of intervention research led by as a negative health behaviour to be taken into health geographers, although there are examples account as a variable in multivariate frame- of health geographers contributing to policy works to explain poor health outcomes. changes at more macro levels. While each of the three explanations is rea- sonable, there is also something unsettling IV Explaining the divides? about them. The explanations help us to under- The debates about the links among ontology, stand the choices that health geographers epistemology and methodology are part of make, but they do not help us to understand the much broader debates to which health geogra- lack of communication between health geo- phers have contributed (e.g. Philo, 2007). In graphers using quantitative and qualitative essence, the personal ontological and episte- approaches. Health geographers should not mological decisions made by the researcher- confuse acceptance with communication and scholar dictate the methodological approach collaboration, and, arguably, this is the chal- for some health geographers. For example, lenge going forward. choosing to research the environmental factors which lead to skin cancer as a disease leads to one set of methodological and data choices, in V Conclusions contrast to research on why some people sun Although most health geographers have tan, which leads to another set of methodologi- become accepting of the findings from both cal choices. quantitative and qualitative research methods, A second response to explain the divides in it remains the case, judging by the number of health geography might be to argue, as Winche- papers recently published, that quantitative ster and Rofe (2010: 17) imply, that qualitative research continues to dominate over qualita- researchers need not be ‘defensive’ in justifying tive research and that, crucially, the substan- their approach while qualitative research can tive foci of those using quantitative methods provide ‘powerful forms of geographical expla- arenotthesameasthosewhousequalitative nation, including analysis, theory building and methods. It might be that some of the papers geographic histories’. Implied within this argu- discussed in this review are parts of larger ment is that the topics of qualitative research mixed methods studies, but few of the papers need not necessarily complement the topics of gave any indication that this was the case. quantitative research. While quantitative health geographers remain A third explanation might reflect the choices focused on disease-specific research, particularly that a health geographer makes about relevancy in lower income countries, on access to health in contrast to curiosity-based research, or services in higher income countries, the food- whether one chooses an idealist theory or a obesity-built environment nexus, and measur- non-idealist theory (see Rosenberg, 2014). If the ing health inequalities at national and regional goal of research is to alter public policy (e.g. to scales, qualitative health geographers appear to reduce skin cancer), decision-makers ultimately be more interested in mental health and health want to know how much an intervention will vulnerability in highly specific populations. cost and how many persons will be affected. If While there are topical overlaps (e.g. quan- the goal is a deeper understanding about titative and qualitative studies of particular

Downloaded from phg.sagepub.com at Stockholm University Library on August 13, 2015 6 Progress in Human Geography vulnerable groups), it is less obvious as to how matter? Annals of the Association of American Geogra- research using one methodology is informing phers 103: 85–105. the research using the other methodology. Big-Canoe K and Richmond CAM (2014) Anishinabe In the early 1990s, in the debates about med- youth perceptions about community health: Toward ical and health geography, the ‘old division’ in environmental repossession. Health & Place 26: 127–135. the sub-discipline, some people defiantly held Breyer B and Voss-Andreae A (2013) Food mirages: Geo- onto to the older label, , and graphic and economic barriers to healthful food access some groups retained both labels to avoid divi- in Portland, Oregon. Health & Place 24: 131–139. sions in their groups (see also Philo, 2007). Campbell M, Ballas D, Dorling D and Mitchell R (2014) Today, health geographers might be wise to Mortality inequalities: Scotland versus England and consider whether a ‘new division’, one perhaps Wales. Health & Place 23: 179–186. unanticipated, is now taking place between Campbell R and Longhurst R (2013) Obsessive–compul- those who adopt quantitative or qualitative sive disorder (OCD): Gendered metaphors, blogs and methodologies, not only based on theory and online forums. The New Zealand Geographer 69: methodology, but also based on the very foci 83–93. of their research – on exactly what subject- Carmalt JC and Faubion T (2010) Normative approaches matters emerge, make sense and/or are selected to critical health geography. Progress in Human Geography 34(3): 292–308. for the researcher’s attention. Coombes E, van Sluijs E and Jones A (2013) Is environ- mental setting associated with the intensity and dura- Acknowledgements tion of children’s physical activity? Findings from the Professor Mark Rosenberg is the Tier I Canada SPEEDY GPS study. Health & Place 20: 62–65. Research Chair in Development Studies. This research Chandra S, Kassens-Noor E, Kuljanin G and Vertalka J was undertaken, in part, thanks to funding from the (2013) A geographic analysis of population density Canada Research Chairs program. The author would thresholds in the influenza pandemic of 1918–19. Inter- also like to express his appreciation to Chris Philo national Journal of Health Geographics 12(9). Avail- for his insightful suggestions and patience. able at: http://www.ij-healthgeographics.com/content/ 12/1/9 (accessed 25 March 2014). References Chum A and O’Campo P (2013) Contextual determinants Andrews GJ, Chen S and Myers S (2014) The ‘taking of cardiovascular diseases: Overcoming the residential place’ of health and wellbeing: Towards non- trap by accounting for non-residential context and dura- representational theory. & tion of exposure. Health & Place 24: 73–79. 108: 210–222. Curtis S and Riva M (2010a) Health geographies I: Com- Andrews GJ, Evans J and McAlister S (2013) ‘Creating plexity theory and human health. Progress in Human the right therapy vibe’: Relational performances in Geography 34(2): 215–223. holistic medicine. Social Science & Medicine 83: Curtis S and Riva M (2010b) Health geographies II: Com- 99–109. plexity and health care systems and policy. Progress in Andrews GJ, Hall E, Evans B and Colls R (2012) Moving Human Geography 34(4): 513–520. beyond walkability: On the potential of health geogra- Curtis S, Gesler W, Wood V, Spencer I, Mason J, Close H phy. Social Science & Medicine 75: 1925–1932. and Reilly J (2013) Compassionate containment? Bal- Astell-Burt T, Feng X, Croteau K and Kolt GS (2013) ancing technical safety and therapy in the design of Influence of neighbourhood ethnic density, diet and psychiatric wards. Social Science & Medicine 97: physical activity on ethnic differences in weight status: 201–209. A study of 214,807 adults in Australia. Social Science De Vries S, van Dillen SME, Groenewegen PP and Spreeu- & Medicine 93: 70–77. wenberg P (2013) Streetscape greenery and health: Bell S, Wilson K, Bissonnette L and Shah T (2013) Access Stress, social cohesion and physical activity as media- to primary health care: Does neighborhood of residence tors. Social Science & Medicine 94: 26–33.

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