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AUTHOR Barry, Nancy H. TITLE The Effects of Different Practice Techniques Upon Technical Accuracy and in Student Instrumental Performance. PUB DATE 90 NOTE 7p PUB TYPE Journal Articles (080) Reports Research /Technical (143) JOURNAL CIT Research Perspectives in Music Education; v44 nl p4-8 Fall 1990

EDRS PRICE MF01/PC01 Plus Postage. DESCRIPTORS *Educational Research; *High School Students; Music Activities; *Music Education; Music Teachers; Music Techniques; *Performance; Statistical Analysis; Teaching Methods IDENTIFIERS *Instrumental Music

ABSTRACT The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of different practice conditionsupon technical accuracy and musicality of student instrumental performance. Highschool instrumental students attending summer musiccamps at the Florida State University were randomly assigned toone of three different practice groups: (a) teacher-designed practice (n=22), inwhich subjects used practice procedures recommended by musicinstrIxtors; (b) student-designed practice (n=19), in whichsubjects developed their own structured practice method; and (c) freepractice (n=20), in which subjects practiced in their "usual manner."The same experimental etude was used for both pre- and posttestdata collection. Subjects in all groupswere assigned to an individual practice room for two fifteen-minute practice sessionsone day apart. The differences between pre-test and posttestscores for pitch, rhythm, general technical accuracy, and general musicaleffect were calculated for each subject ant the resulting gainscores were analyzed via the Kruskal-Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance. Significant differences (N=61,, less than .05) were observed among the three groups for the number of individual pitcherrors recorded and for the technical rating. lunn's Multiple ComparisonProcedure revealed significant differences (n=61,p less than .05) between each of the three groups for both pitcherrors and technical ratings. Similar trends were observed in thescores for rhythmic accuracy and for overall rating for musicality. Results of thisstudy suggest that subjects using a structured approach to practice (teacherand student methods) were able to correctmore performance errors than those subjects not using a specific method (free practice).(Author)

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TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)." THE EFFECTS OF DIFFERENTPRACTICE TECHNIQUES UPON TECHNICAL ACCURACY ANDMUSICALITY IN STUDENT INSTRUMENTAL MUSIC PERFORMANCE By Nancy H. Barry, Florida State University

sions one day apart. The differences between pre-testand Abstract posttest scores for pitch, rhythm, general technical accuracy, The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of and general musical effect were calculated for eachsubject different practice conditions upon technical accuracy and and the resulting gain scores were analyzed via theKruskal- musicality of student instrumental performance. High school Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance. Significant differences instrumental students attending summer music camps at the (IY =61,12<.05) were observed among the three groupsfor the Honda State University were randomly assigned to one of number of individual pitch errors recorded and for the tech- three different practice groups: (a) teacher - designed practice nical rating. Dunn's Multiple Comparison Procedure (n-22), in which subjects used practice procedures recom- revealed significant differences (L=61, p<.05) between each mended by music instructors, (b) student-designed practice of the three groups for both pitch errors ants technical ratings. (n-19), in which subjects developed their own structured Similar trends were observed in the scores for rhythmic practice method, and (c) free practice (n-20), inwhich accuracy and for overall rating for musicality.Results of this subjects practiced in their ''usual manner." The same ex- study suggest that subjects using a structured approach to perimental etude was used for both pre- and posttest data practice (teacher and student methods) were able to correct collection. Subjects in all groups were assigned to an in- more performance errors than thosesubjects not using a dividual practice room for two fifteen-minute practice ses- specific method (free practice).

tion of "how to" guides for effective musical practice. These essays The importance of a structured, organized approach to practice provide interesting descriptions of practice methods that have is a familiar topic to music educators. Practice strategiesadvocated "worked" for a given instructo: in a given situation. Without in recent literature include mapping: empirical evidence, however it is difficult to determine which A Gestalt approach to learning starts from the basic method will be most effective for a particular population. A search structure and gradually fills in the details,instead of starting of the literature revealed relatively few research studies pertaining with details and adding more until the whole structure is directly to musical practice. pieced together. Itis in direct opposition to the one- measure-at-a-time approach many students take, where the A technique referred to as "mental practice" involvingcognitive accumulation of details without awareness of the whole rehearsal of a skill without physical activity has been the subject results in a patchy performance that lacks unity, direction, of numerous studies in physical education and sports psychology. and musical meaning" (Shockley, 1986, p. 21). In a review of mental practice literature. Weinberg(1982) reported seventy articles. His summary of this researchrevealed the follow- DeRoche (1987) suggested a specific approach to musical prac- tice stressing the importance of slow repetition of newmaterials. ing conclusions: He pointed out that "students need guidance toestablish practice 1. Mental practice combined with physical practice is more habits" (p.58). A specific practice strategy described byMinahan effective than either mental practice or physical practice alone. (1986) includes warm-up, hyper-consciousness, concentration on 2. Mental practice is most effective during the early stage of musical details, second run-through, and homework. learning or during the later stage. popular In The Inner Game ofMusic(Green & Gallwey 1986), a 3. There may be an optimal time for the length of the mental text professing "to reduce mental interferencesthat inhibit the full expression of human potential" (p. vii), the authors discuss many practice interval. aspects of musical performance and practiceincluding the value 4. When imagining themselves performing, individuals should of listing specific learning goals for the practice session.Gordon's try to "feel" themselves going through the movements. Systematic Approach to Daily Practice for Trumpet(1968) is 5. Mental practice seems to be associated with muscular respon- "designed to systematically develop strength and musclecoordina- ses in the muscles that would actuallyperform the movement (p. tion along with wind control so that the studentwill play naturally and easily" (p. 4). Another commercial publication byKaplan 203). (1985) takes a time management approach to practiceand One study investigating the effectiveness of mental practice in provides daily and weekly practice logs, summary sheets, practice a music setting was carried out by Ross(1985). The relative profile graphs, and technique, repertoire, and performance effectiveness of mental practice in improving perfor- achievement sheets designed specifically for practice organiza- mance was examined by comparing theperformance of trom- tion. bonists (N-30) randomly assigned to one of five experimental practice conditions: (a) all physical practice in which subjects The aforementioned literature is representative of the profifera-

RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES 4 No. 1 Fall 1990 physiCally performed an etude three times, (b) all mental practice groups was significantly better than that of subjects in the singing in which subjects attempted to mentally performthe etude three group. times, (c) a combination of physical and mentalpractice in which subjects physically played the etudetwo times, attempting a men- The effect of a practice reporton practice time and musical tal trial between them, (d) mentalpractice with simulated slide performance was investigated by Wagner (1975).In this study, 48 movement in which subjects were instructed to hold theirtrom- music students were randomly selected and askedto play an etude bone in normal playing position whilemoving the slide to the of their choice. Subjects were randomlyassigned to one of four correct positions, mentally practicing instead of actuallyplaying groups. Subjects in Group 1 completed practicereports for eight the etude, and (e) a controlgroup in which subjects did not weeks. Subjects in Group 2 completed practicereports during practice the etude and instead read an article aboutthe importance weeks one and two and weeks five and six.Subjects in Group 3 of sight-reading music well. Pretest andposttest performances of filled out practice reports only during weeks fiveand six. Subject the etude were evaluatedon the basis of one point for each assigned to Group 4 (controlgroup ) did not receive practice measure of the etude played correctly. The relative improvements reports. After the eight-week experimental period, each subject of each of the five groupswere compared. Significant differences was asked to play a second etude. Each student performancewas were found between combined practice andno practice, com- assigned a number and rated bya panel of three judges. Results bined practice and mental practice, and physicalpractice and no indicated that all groups improved frompre- to posttest and that practice. These findings were consistent with researchin physical Group 3 practiced significantly more than Groups1 and 2 during education in that combined practice resultedin higher scores than weeks five and six of the experiment. Therewere, however, no mental practice or no practice, and physicalpractice resulted in significant differences in scoresamong groups. These findings higher scores than no practice. suggest that use of a practice report alone doesnot significantly effect musical performance. Subjects in Music educators acknowledge practice Group 3 practiced sig- as a vital element in the nificantly more than subjects in Groups 1or 2, but they did not development of basic musical skills (e.g.,Applebaum & Ap- perform significantly better. This plebaum, 1972; Fox, 1974; Holz & Jacobi, 1966; suggests that musical perfor- Leimer, 1972; mance and improvement are not solely determined by theamount Merrick, 1958; Westp6-1, 1990). Specific referencesto practice, of time practiced. however, are noticeable absent frommany standard music refer- ences (e.g., Apel, 1972; Sadie, 1980). Another study dealing with the amount ofpractice time (Wolfe, 1984) examined the use of behavioral Zurcher(1972) investigated the use of contracts in motivating a cassette practice tapes student to practice. An individualcontract was prepared for each (model) by beginning instrumentalists.Forty-three beginning of three private students. A multiple elementary brass students were randomly assigned baseline design across to an ex- subjects was used to determine the effect of theuse of contingency perimental group or a control group for the first week of practice. contracts on practice behavior. Results indicated that theamount The groups rotated treatmentson subsequent weeks. During the of daily practice time per week increased foreach student during experimental treatment sessions, subjects receiveda method the contract condition. Follow-up data indicated book, a cassette player, anda cassette tape containing instructions, that, for two of the subjects, practice criterion continuedto be reached without the reminders, and model "play-along" performancesof the music use of the structured contract. performed on the subject's own instrument.Posttests of assigned material were administered and recordedduring weekly 15- Santana(1978) attempted to developa method for time-efficient minute individual lessons. Results indicated thatmodel-supportive skill acquisition in instrumental musicstudy. This method em- practice was significantly more effective thantraditional practice phasized "technical development undertime-controlled situa- on gross pitch discrimination, pitch matching, rhythmic dis- tions, with carefully staged and gradedprogress measured crimination, and time spent in practice. metronomically and remediated immediatelythrough prescribed procedures" (p.ii). The method was evaluatedthrough a series of A recorded model was also used ina study by Rosenthal, individual and group experiments. A preliminaryinvestigation Wilson, Evans, and Greenwalt (1988). Thisexperiment examined revealed no significant correlation betweenteacher-judged perfor- the effects of five different practiceconditions on advanced mance achievement and the amount of timean individual spent instrumentalists' performanceaccuracy. Subjects were assigned to practicing. One test involving individualuniversity students one of five experimental practice conditions: (a) modeling,in revealed a signific nt reduction of which subjects used their practice time practice time required to to listen to a recording of prepare an etude to criteria for those students using the the etude with the written music available; (b) practice singing, in which method. A separate study involved three subjects used their practice time groups of high school to sing the etude; (c) silent students assigned to one of three conditions: analysis, in which subjects used their time no instruction, to silently study the teacher modeling ;nstruction, or instruction music; (d) free practice, in which subjects practiced in the practice method. the etude by Performances were scored accordingto the number of errors with continuously playing their instruments; and (e)control, in which no more than one error per measure at criteriontempo. Results of subjects practiced a different etude beforeplaying the experimen- this study indicated significantly higher tal etude (sight-reading). Subjects' performance scores for performances were evaluated those students assigned to the practice on the basis of correct notes, rhythms, articulation, phrasing, method group. A third test and of the method with agroup of junior high students revealed tempo. Rhythmic accuracy scores were highest for subjectsIn the significant improvement in performancescores when post-instruc- silent analysis group, whosescores were significantly higher than tion scores were compared withscores after instruction in the those of the singing and controlgroups. Subjects in the practice practice method. Performanceswere scored on the basis of one and modeling groups phrasingscores were significantly higher error per measure with total errors subtracted from100. than those of subjects in the singing and controlgroups. Tempo accuracy of subjects in the modeling, practice, and silent analysis Music educators certainly recognize theimportance of practice for musical development andprogress. The existence of many RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES No. 1 Fall 1990 5 popular essays and books stressing the value of various ap- Methods and Procedures proaches to practice attest to this. There are, however relatively The melody used for evaluating the subjects' performance on few research studies designed to investigate and isolate specific the dependent variable soft pitch accuracy, rhythmic accuracy, variables involved in musical practice and the way those variables technique, and musicality was selected from Develop Sight Read- effect student progress. The present study was designed to deter- ing by Dufresne (1972, p.4). This particular source wasselected mine the effect of three different practice techniques upon tech- nical accuracy and musicality of student instrumental for the following reasons (a) appropriate difficulty level for the target population, (b) parts available for all instruments,(c) not performance. part of the standard high school repertoire, and,therefore, not Purpose likely to be familiar to the subjects, and (d) variety of rhythmic and melodic patterns present in a relatively short etude. The purpose of the present study was to determine the effect of (a) teacher-designed practice techniques, (b) student - designed High school instrumental students attending summer music practice techniques, and (c) free practice upon technical accuracy camps at the Florida State University wereselected as subjects and musicality of student instrumental performance. Four null (&84). As a pretest, all subjects were asked to sight-read the hypotheses were tested: experimental etude. Subjects were tested individually in a private room. All subjects' performances were taped forlater evaluation 1. There will be no differences in the number of pitches played using a BX-300 Discrete Head Cassette Deck recorder with Maxell correctly among subjects using teacher-designed practice techni- IEC Type II High Bias Cr02 tape. Subjects were also asked to ques, subjects using self-designed practicetechniques, and sub- complete a brief questionnaire. jects assigned to free practice. Subjects were randomly assigned to one of three different 2. There will be no differences in the number of rhythms played groups. One experimental group (z-28) wasinstructed to use a correctly among subjects using teacher-designed practice techni- specific practice procedure recommended by experienced music ques, subjects using self-designed practicetechniques, and sub- instructors. Fourteen instrumental music instructors were asked to jects assigned to free practice. list in order and describe the steps involved in the efficient practice 3. There will be no differences in ratings for technical accuracy of a new piece of music. The steps were rated according to the among subjects using teacher-designed practicetechniques, sub- number of times each step's relative position in the instructor's list. jects using self-designed practice techniques, and subjects as- A structured practice technique representing a consensus of all 14 music instructors' suggestions was developed by listing the steps signed to free practice. in order from highest to lowest rating. 4. There will be no differences in ratings for musicality among subjects using teacher-designed practice techniques, subjects Subjects in a second experimental group (n-28) were asked to using self-designed practice techniques, and subjects assigned to develop their own structured al:T. roach to practice. A set of general free practice. directions was devised to aide these subjects in this task. An alpha level of .05 was selected for rejection of the null The third group served as a control (n-28). Subjects in this "how to practice." These hypotheses. group received no special instruction in students were instructed to "practice this etude in your usual Definition of Terms manner." Correct Pitch. Correct performance of the pitch componentof Subjects in the teacher method group and the student method music notation was rated with one point awarded for each note group participated in a 15-minute group meetingduring which played without error. The term "pitch" usually implies "intona- procedures for the particular group were explained and questions tion." In the present study, however, "pitch " was considered were answered. Subjects in all groups were assigned to anin- correct if two independent judges perceived that thesubject dividual practice room. Envelopes containing special instructions, "played the correct note." a pencil (for marking music and completing portionsof the instruc- tion sheets). and a copy of the experimental etude were distributed Correct Rhythm. Correct performance of the rhythm com- to the two experimental groups. Subjects in the control group judges ponent or' music notation was rated by two independent received a copy of the etude. All materials were collected after with one point awarded for each rhythmic note value played fifteen minutes. This procedure was repeated on a rotating without error. schedule so that each group of subjects had a total of two fifteen - Musicality. Musicality refers to appropriate interpretation and minute practice sessions one day apart. All subjects were performance of music in regard to phrasing, tempo, dynamics, and posttested under physical conditions identical to the pretest. A expression. Musicality was evaluated on a rating scale of 1(poor) second questionnaire was administered at this time. to 10 (excellent) by two independent judges. Results Technique. Musical technique involves many skills, but in the present study technique is defined as the aspect of musicperfor- The results of the present study suggest that subjects using a mance involving correct articulation,technical fluency, and cor- structured approach to practice (teacher method and student rect execution of the pitch and rhythm componentsof music method) were able to correct more performance errors than those notation. Technical accuracy was evaluated on a rating scale of 1 subjects not using a specific method (free practice). (poor) to 10 (excellent) by two Independent judges. Some subjects did not complete all phases of the experiment. Data from those subjects were not included in the final analysis. This resulted in 22 subjects (8 male, 14 female) in the group using

6 No. 1Fall 1990 RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES the teacher recommended method, 19 subjects(5 male, 14 female) 3. Between four and nine years of previous musical in the group using the student developed method, experience and 20 subjects (including piano and/or voice lessons)was reported by most (7 male, 13 female) in the controlgroup. Each subject's performan subjects (82.6%). ces on the pretest and posttest were evaluatedon a note-by-note basis by two independent judges. The number ofindividual pitch 4. Most subjects (74%) reported between threeand six years of and rhythm errors was recorded separately for eachperformance. experience on the used for thepresent experi- Judges also rated each performanceon the basis of general tech- ment. nical accuracy and musicalityon a scale of one to ten. Judge Practice techniques reported by students varied.Practicing reliability (agreements divided byagreements plus disagree- small sections of the piece (52%), reading throughthe entire piece ments) was 93% for pitch, 91% for rhythm, 91% fortechnique, and (50.82%, studying the key and time signature (41%), 90% for musicality. and visual study of the music (notes, rhythms, dynamics,etc.) oefore playing The difference between pretest andposttest scores was calcu- (31%) were the practice strategies mentionedmost often, lated for pitch, rhythm, technique, and musicalityfor each subject All groups were relatively homogeneous. and the resulting gain scores were analyzed Crosstabulations via the Kruskal-Wallis using the SPSS program for Crosstables revealed One-Way Analysis of Variance using Basic Statistical no significant Subroutines differences among groups (p) forage, sex, years of musical ex- (Dynacomp, Inc., 1983) software with the Sanyo1250 MBC com- perience, or years of experience on present windinstrument. puter. Four separate statistical tests were conductedto test each of the four null hypotheses. Significant differences (n=61,p.<.05) The second questionnaire was administeredto determine were observed among the three groups for the number ofin- whether or not subjects attemptedto follow instructions. Results dividual pitch errors recorded and for the technicalrating. Dunn's of this questionnaire wereas follows: Multiple Comparison Procedure was used following the Kruskal- 1. The majority of the subjects (90%) stated that Wallis to determine whichmeans were significantly different they did not discuss details of the experiments with otherstudents. (Table 2). Significant differences (I1=61,<.05) were found be- tween each of the three groups for both pitcherrors and technical 2. Most subjects (82%) reported that they attemptedto follow ratings. all ins truction.s for their group.

3. Sixty-two percent of the subjects stated that,as a result of the Table 1 present experiment, they planned to change theway they practice. Crosstabulation of group by the question regardingwhether Kruskal-Wallis One-Way Analysis of Variance forPitch, subjects attempted to follow all Instructions Rhythm, Technique, and Musicality by Group revealed that five of the ten subjects responding "no"to this item were in the free Rating .fte.. lea practice group. Additional crosstabulation revealedthat 50% of the subjects in the teacher method group, 20% ofthe subjects in the Pitch 7.23 5.99 2 student method group, and 40% of the subjectsin the free practice Rhythm 2.40 5.99 2 group reported intentions to change current practice habitsas a result of their participation in theexperiment. Technique 10.69 5.99 2

Musicality 256 5.99 2 Discussion Results of the Kruskal-Wallis One-WayAnalysis of Variance Table 2 indicated significant differencesamong subjects' gain scores for pitch accuracy and for overall technicalrating. Dunn's Multiple Comparison Procedure revealed significant Treatment Means for Pitch, Rhythm, Technique,and mean differences be- Musicality Gain Scores tween subjects in the teacher methodgroup and subjects in the student method group, subjects in the teachermethod group and the free practice group, and subjects . it)t Vrtt in the student method group Rating Metho4 0*Od. and the free practice group for bothpitch and technique scores. Similar trends were observed in thescores for rhythmic accuracy Pitch 20.59 11.13 9.40 and for overall rating for musicality.Statistical results, however, were not significant for those sets of scores. Rhythm 12.02 9.18 8.55 The possibility that students assigned Technique 1.26 .66 .04 to the free practice group might already be using a structuredpractice method from a book, Musicality .83 .50 .28 teacher, or of self-design was taken intoconsideration. Results of a pretest questionnaire, however, did not indicate thatany of the Responses to the two questionnaireswere recorded and subjects in the present experimentwere using a consistent and analyzed using the SPSS (1984) program for frequencies. Results structured approach to practice. All15-minute practice sessions of the pretest questionnaire provided the following information: were self-monitored. An importance consideration,therefore, is whether subjects did indeed follow the 1. Most subjects (70%) were between 14 and 15years of age. instructions required to their particular group. Onan anonymous posttest questionnaire, 2. The majority of the subjects were female (67%). 10 (16%) of the subjects stated that they didnot follow all instruc- tions. Since evaluation of the threepractice conditions was con- tingent upon the subjects' use of theparticular method to which

RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES No. 1 Fall 1990 7 they were assigned, this must be taken I. tto consideration when Appelbaum, S. & Applebaum, S. (1972). The Way They Play. reviewing the results of the present study. Neptune City, N.J. Paganiniana Publications. DeRoche, D. (1987, January). Stressing fundamentals. The In- Another caveat concerning this study involves the evaluation strumentalist pp. 56-60. of student performance. The overall ratings for technique and musicality were obviously quite subjective. Ratings for pitch and Dufresne, G. (1972). Develop Sight Reading (R.L. Voisin, ed.). New rhythmic accuracy involved counting individual errors. There was York: Charles Colin. some disagreement between judges, however,reflecting that even Dynacomp, Inc. (1983) Basic Statistical Subroutines (Computer these relatively straightforward tasks were not without some de- program). Rochester, N.Y. gree of subjectivity. This was particularly the case when asubject Fox, F. (1974). Essentials of Brass Playing. Pittsburgh: Volkwein made a series of pitch and rhythmic errors, or when portions of Bros., Inc. the etude were omitted, making it quite difficult for the judges to Gordon, C. (1968). Sys,ematic Approach to Daily Practice for pinpoint exactly where errors occurred. Ongoing research in Trumpet. New York: Carl Fischer. computer technology should ultimately provide the music Green, B., & Gallwey, W.T. (1986). The Inner Game of Music. educator/researcher with more effective cools for objective evalua- Garden City, New York: Anchor Press. tion of technical performance accuracy. Holz, E.A., & Jacobi, R.E. (1966). Teaching Band Instruments to Gain scores for pitch accuracy, rhythmic accuracy, musicality, Beginners. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. and technique for subjects in the teacher method group and the Kaplan, B. (1985). The Musician's Practice Log. New York: Per- student method group were consistently higher than gain scores ception Development Techniques. foi subjects in the free practice group. This suggests that some form of structure, whether of teacher design or of student design, is Leimer, K. & Gieseking, W. (1972). Piano Technique. New York: conducive to more efficient musical practice. Gain scores for Dover Publications. subjects in the teacher method group were consistently higher Merrick, F. (1958). Practicing the Piano. London: Barrie and than gain scores for subjects in the student method and free Rockl iff. practice groups. The specific step-by-step nature of the teacher Minahan, J.A. 91986). The art and science of practicing. Music method may have contributed to the significantly higher gain Educators Journal, 72 (7), 22-24. scores for the teacher method compared to thestudent-developed Rosenthal, R.K., Wilson, M., Evans, M., & Greenwalt, L. (1988). method. It is probable that these students simply did not have Effects of different practice conditions on advanced instrumentalists' sufficient musical experience to devise a structured practice performance accuracy. Journal of Research in Music Education, 36, method as efficient and comprehensive as the method based upon 250-257. the recommendations of 14 studio teachers with an average of 19 Ross, S.L. (1985). The effectiveness of mental practice in improving years of teaching experience. It is important to notethat the the performance of college trombonists. Journal of research in Music purpose of this study was not to endorse a particularmethod of Education, 33, 221-230. practice, but rather to explore the differences among a highly structured approach, a student-devised approach, and the Sadie, W. (Ed.). '(1980). The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. Lond: Macmillan, students' usual approach to practice. The teacher method used for the present study represents a relatively generic structured ap- Santana, E.L. (1978). Time-efficient skill acquisition in instrumen- proach to music practice. It is likely that use of any logical step- tal music study. (Doctoral dissertation, Florida State University, 1978). by-step approach would produce similar results. Dissertation Abstracts International, 40 (02), 732-A. Shockcley, R. (1986). A new approach to memorization. Clavier, Much additional research is needed to ascertain the optimal pp. 20-23. conditions and techniques for time-efficient music practice. Ques- SPSS Statisticalpackagefor the social sciences (version 9.0) !Com- tions for future consideration include: puter Program] (1984). 1. What are the minimum and maximum time periods for Wagner, M.J. (1975). the effect of a practice report on practice time efficient on-task music practice and how do those thresholds vary and musical performance. In C.K. Madsen, R.D. Greer, & C.H. Mad- as a function of age and musical experience? sen, Eds.), Research in Music Behavior: Modifying Music Behavior in the Classroom (pp. 125-130). New York: Teachers College Press. 2. What specific practice activities result in the most efficient use of the practice session? Weinberg, R.S. (1982). The relationship between mental prepara- tion strategies and motor performance: a review and critique. Quest, 3. Is it possible to "customize" a structured practice method for 33(2), 195-213. the strengths and weaknesses of an individual student? Westphal, F.W. (1990). Guide to Teaching Woodwinds (5th ed.) 4. Are there certain activities that are essential to all efficient Dubuque, Iowa: Wm. C. Brown Co. practice sessions or does this vary with the individual? Wolfe, D.E. (1984). The use of behavioral contracts in music instruction. In C.K. Madsen & C.A. Prickett (Eds.), Applications of Future research in this area may yield diagnostic tools and Research in Music Behavior (pp. 43-50). Tuscaloosa, Alabama: specific procedures for the development of a time-efficient, struc- University of Alabama Press. tured approach to music practice. Zurcher, W. (1972). The effect of model-supportive practice on References beginning brass instrumentalists. In C.K. Madsen, R.D. Greer, & C.H. Madsen (Eds.), Research in Music Behavior: Modifying Music Be- Apel, W. (1972). Harvard Dictionary of Music (2nd Ed.). havior in the Classroom (pp. 125-130). New York: Teachers College Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. Press.

8 No. 1- Fall 1990 RESEARCH PERSPECTIVES