Introduction: Transnational Latina Narratives

NOTES

1. It is also worthwhile to note that U.S. Latina narratives of this period in the 1970s and 1980s mainly consisted of Chicana (Mexican American), mainland Puerto Rican woman writers, and a few U.S.-based Cuban writers who were publishing in small presses such as Arté Público Press (formerly Revista Chicana-Riqueña), Bilingual Review, and Third Woman, some initial avenues that were open to ethnic women writers of Latin American heritage/descent. During this time most authors preferred to be identified with their national heritage (e.g., Chicano, Nuyorican, Cuban American), rather than panethnically by adopting a term like “Latina/o.” Since the texts by the women writers in this study share the common theme of transnational migrations, I use the term, “Latina/o,” situationally to refer to the collective, but I use the national identification if the context warrants it in the individual chapters. 2. For a study on U.S. Latina narratives as a Pan-Latina collective that engages postmodernism, ethnicity, and gender, refer to Ellen McCracken’s New Latina Narrative (1999). This critical work approaches Latina narratives within an intercultural context, that is to say, the critic engages narratives by Latina writers as an ethnic group that consists of a diversity of Latin American diasporas. Rather than focus a chapter on the work of individual author, though, McCracken presents a critical paradigm sustained by a variety of Latina writings of the 1980s and 1990s, whereas, I focus my analysis on the intersection of gender, race, and migrations within the transnational context of one post-2000 Latina narrative per chapter. 3. Prominent U.S. Latina narratives of this decade that were mainstreamed include Sandra Cisneros’s Woman Hollering Creek and Other Stories (1991), Ana Castillo’s So Far From God (1993), Denise Chávez’s Face of An Angel (1994), Julia Alvarez’s How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Accents (1991), and Cristina García’s Dreaming in Cuban (1992). The highly influential literary agent who promoted Castillo, Chávez, Cisneros, and Alvarez in this decade is the renowned Susan Bergholz, based in New York City. 4. See Between Woman and Nation (1999) edited by Caplan, Alarcón, and Moallem. This critical collection provides different theories in the multiple definitions of the construction of transnational feminism across global contexts. See also Alexander (1996), Grewal (1994), and Shohat (1998). 5. In the post-2000 period, I would like to draw attention to some fine critical contributions to the study of U.S. Latina narratives, that is to say, chapters, and complete works based on a single national heritage dedicated to a Chicana, Puerto Rican, Cuban American, or Dominican American woman writer’s individual narrative or her collection of works, such 136 Notes as Madsen’s Understanding Contemporary Chicana Literature (2000), Saldívar-Hull’s Feminism on the Border (2000), Brady’s Extinct Lands, Temporal Geographies (2002), Yarbro-Bejarano’s The Wounded Heart (2001), Moya’s chapters on Cherríe Moraga, and Helena María Viramontes in Learning from Experience (2002), Kevane’s Latina chapters in Latino Literature in America (2003), Calderón’s chapters on Sandra Cisneros, and Cherríe Moraga in Narratives of Greater Mexico (2004), Aldama’s chapters on Ana Castillo in Postethnic Narrative Criticism (2003) and Brown on Brown (2005), R. Rodríguez’s chapter on Lucha Corpi in Brown Gumshoes (2005), Sánchez González’s Latina chapters in Boricua Literature (2001), Rebolledo’s The Chronicles of Panchita Villa and Other Guerrilleras (2005), Ortiz’s Cultural Erotics in Cuban America (2007), Di Iorio Sandin’s and Pérez’s Latina chapters in Contemporary U.S. Latino/a Literary Criticism (2007), Dalleo and Machado Sáez’s chapters on Julia Alvarez and Cristina García in The Latino/a Canon and the Emergence of Post-Sixties Literature (2007), and Caminero-Santangelo’s chapters on Julia Alvarez, Ana Castillo, and Demetria Martínez in On Latinidad: U.S. Latino Literature and the Construction of Ethnicity (2007). The main Pan-Latina collection, with a focus on (Latina) women writers, to emerge most recently in this post-2000 decade is Quintana’s Reading U.S. Latina Writers: Remapping American Literature (2003). I would like to add that none of these works treats questions of gender, race, and migrations quite as I will in my study. 6. Some Latina authors in the 1990s did publish family narratives such as Julia Alvarez’s How the García Girls Lost Their Accents (1991) and Cristina García’s Dreaming in Cuban (1992). The characters in these works were often exiled families who left the homeland and the children or younger generation often invented a nostalgic view of the homeland of a previous generation rather than their own. This process is quite different from the transnational crossings that I observe in the Latina texts of this study. 7. Frances Aparicio and José David Saldívar have highlighted the importance of popular culture in assessing the dynamics of power relations based on gender, border, and/or race matters in cultural production. See Listening to Salsa (1998) and Border Matters (1997). 8. See Mignolo’s Local Histories/Global Designs (2000), Bost’s Mulattas and Mestizas (2003), for example. 9. I extend my gratitude to Erlinda Gonzáles-Berry for pointing out this valuable information on im/migration studies in a transnational context. See Glick Schiller, Basch, and Blanc (1994, 1995), and Goldring (2002) for further understanding of transnational migration. In the field of cultural studies, Chabram-Dernersesian maintains that a critical transnationalism “must entertain other types of geopolitical and linguistic complexities . . . that arise from making strategic connections with other people of colour in the Americas (here and there) and from engaging racial, class, sexual and gender dynamics that are often erased when referring to so-called “Spanish-speaking groups” (1999, 183). 10. Paul Gilroy and Stuart Hall are responsible for advancing postcolonial studies through questions of cultural identity and diasporas, especially within the Black British context. In From Bomba to Hip-Hop (2000), Juan Flores reflects on ideas over the Latino imaginary in the context of U.S./Latin American relations of colonization since the nineteenth century. He explains that since the encounter between Western and non-Western cultures and nations in the Americas, beginning with the conquest in the fifteenth century, Latinos, and their ancestors, have always found themselves in positions of forced migration, moti- vated by economic or political forces influenced by law officials. He pays close attention to the transnational aspect of migration for Latinos who have never felt “at home” in any single nation or homeland, but rather had to negotiate at least two locations of residence, living, and settlement, as a result of displacement from Latin America to the United States (198–199). 11. For further Chicano/Latino and postcolonial studies on diasporas, see Calderón (1990, 2004), Dalleo and Machado Sáez (2007), Flores (2000), Hall (1994), Gilroy (1993), Grosfoguel (2005), R. Saldívar (1990, 2006), J.D. Saldívar (1997), and Torres-Saillant (2004, 2006). Notes 137 12. Consider the critical works on Chicana, Puerto Rican, or U.S. Latina narratives by Calderón (1991, 2004), Kevane (2003), Madsen (2000), McCracken (1999), Quintana (2003), Saldívar-Hull (2000), and Sánchez González (2001). 13. See John Chávez’s The Lost Land (1984) and Gonzáles-Berry and Maciel’s The Contested Homeland (2000) for social and historical context of New Mexican history and its particularities. 14. Denise Chávez discussed the impact of Golden Age Mexican cinema first in her interview, “The Spirit of Humor,” in Latina Self-Portraits (2000) and in further follow-up conversations (D. Chávez 2003, 2005). See also Heredia (2008) that expands on Chávez’s transnational feminist border identity. See Menchaca (2007) on race and mestizaje. 15. Cisneros discusses the idea of a global perspective in Caramelo in the interview, “A Home in the Heart,” in Latina Self-Portraits (2000). Also, see Cisneros (1997a, 1998a) in which she discusses belonging to a family of humanity in a global context. See Heredia (2007b) for the relationship between gender and race in the context of transnational travels and migrations between the United States and Peru, which is further elaborated in chapter five of this study. 16. For more inquiry into the musical genre and cultural phenomenon of Salsa, consider Aparicio (1998), Fernández (2001, 2006), Flores (2000), and Sánchez González (2001). 17. Let It Rain Coffee not only addresses Dominican culture, history, and identity in New York City, but it is also important in tracing the consequences of historical migrations across the Caribbean, Asia, and Africa. See the critical readings by Torres-Saillant (2000, 2004, 2006) who discusses the impact of blackness on Dominican identity on the island and mainland. Also, refer to Gilroy (1993) and Hall (1994) for further discussion on diasporas, especially with respect to the notion of the triangular Black Atlantic—Africa, the Caribbean, and England (or Europe/United States). I suggest that a similar migratory pattern can also apply to the Spanish Caribbean, especially with respect to the slave history, cultural/racial erasure, and immigration to, and, emigration from, the Dominican Republic. It is just as significant to incorporate Jenny Sharpe (2003) in this critical paradigm because she takes gender and women’s experiences seriously in her study of the Afro-Caribbean literary tradition. 18. In meeting Arana at the Washington Post in 2007 she discussed the relevance of her two worlds, Peru and the United States, in her life and works. For further reading and understanding of the social and historical context in Peru, see Mariátegui (1971), Mignolo (2000), Oboler (2005a), and Quijano (2000). See Heredia (2007b) for the relationship between gender and race in the context of transnational travels and migrations between the United States and Peru, which is further elaborated in chapter five of this study.

One Denise Chávez’s Loving Pedro Infante (2001): The Making of Transnational Border Community

1. Norma Cantú (Canícula 1997), Sandra Cisneros (“Mexican Movies,” “Bien Pretty,” in Woman Hollering Creek 1991 and Caramelo 2002), Francisco Jiménez (The Circuit 1997), and John Rechy (The Miraculous Day of Amalia Gómez 1994) are among the Chicana/o authors who refer explicitly to Pedro Infante and/or Golden Age Mexican culture in their works, but Chávez actually makes this cultural production a central topic in her novel. 2. The Last of the Menu Girls was published by Vintage in 2004 with a new introduction by Denise Chávez, who explained certain editing revisions that she had made from the origi- nal publication by Arté Público Press in 1985. 3. In 2005, Chávez shared important information with me regarding her mother’s connection with Mexican culture and the arts and its impact on her as she was growing up in Las 138 Notes Cruces, always crossing to other places like Texas and Mexico. She grew up with a strong knowledge of Mexican culture. See also Rebolledo’s essay, “Denise Chávez” (2004) where she mentions her mother’s interest in Mexican culture and taking a course from muralist, Diego Rivera. 4. In The Chronicles of Panchita Villa (2005), Tey Diana Rebolledo examines humor, specifically irony, in Chávez’s Face of an Angel and Loving Pedro Infante, to explain its role in allowing Chávez to discuss taboo topics, such as sex and demystify serious matters, such as religion (169). See also Aldama (2006). 5. For an elaborate discussion on the presence of gossip (chismes) in Chicana narratives, see the chapter on Sandra Cisneros in Mary Pat Brady’s Extinct Lands, Temporal Geographies (2002). 6. See Fox’s The Fence and the River (1999) to understand different kinds of mass media in the representation of the U.S./Mexican geographic border since the Treaty of Guadalupe in 1848 (70, 94, 130–132). 7. I differentiate, to some extent, from using Gloria Anzaldúa’s concept of mestiza consciousness in Borderlands/La frontera (1987) in comparing it to my formation of transnational border feminism. In her work, Anzaldúa maintains that Chicanas owe much to their indigenous roots that informs their hybrid identity by dealing directly with Aztlán and Aztec history and mythology. In Loving Pedro Infante (2001), Chávez speaks more to a transnational consciousness in response to two separate, already formed nations, Mexico and the United States. She dialogues with the cultural production, Golden Age films, as a result of these national boundaries. Also, Chávez’s engagement with the films is a more realistic portrayal of contemporary cultural conflicts and relationships while Anzaldúa is more of an idealist, utopian, and somewhat nostalgic view of Aztlán. 8. In Cinemachismo (2006), de la Mora discusses the importance of forming fan clubs both in Mexico and the United States to pay homage to Pedro Infante and his films. In fact, the first fan club in Mexico is called Club de Admiradores, a title that Chávez adopts in her novel, but she takes it to the extreme by giving it a high number, #256. 9. In Migrating to the Movies (2005), Stewart develops a concept of reconstructive spectatorship that “draws on the notions of fluidity, negotiation, heterogeneity, and polyphony.” She observes that “By placing movie theaters in this constellation [as a reconstructive process], we can imagine how the cinema as a public space functioned as an important corollary (or alternative) to other spaces in which modern Black life was experienced” (100–101). Chávez’s characters in the novel must also negotiate and reconstitute the space of cinema in their lives as Chicanos/Mexicanos. 10. For critical explorations on the role of Chicano/a and/or immigrant and women spectators of film, see Miriam Hansen’s Babel and Babylon (1991), Rosa Linda Fregoso’s The Bronze Screen (1993), and Vicki Ruiz’s article (1993). While Hansen details the response by immigrants and women to films at the beginning of the twentieth century in search of an alternative public space and conformity to a certain degree, the audience in Chavez’s novel is only partly composed of immigrants, but definitely consists of a majority of women who are Chicana but who refuse assimilation to the dominant Anglo culture. In this sense, the spectators in Loving Pedro Infante perform the oppositional discourse put forth by Fregoso and Ruiz. 11. In Celluloid Nationalism (2003), Dever says that “melodrama, as a rhetorical strategy, relies on excess, exaggerations, and a seemingly unending reiteration of its world view. Its history [since the French Revolution] as a modern genre illuminates how it could become such an effective tool in Mexico’s post-revolutionary forge” (79). Furthermore, melodrama could bring Mexico to “national unity” and, like the muralists, Mexican cinema would render “the terms of citizenship in this new nation.” 12. To understand the Golden Age of Mexican cinema, it is helpful to examine the historical period of the time (the 1940s and 1950s) in terms of cultural politics and the nation- state formation of Mexico. During this time, Mexico was undergoing a rapid process of Notes 139 modernization as it nationalized its cultural artifacts—everything from oil to cinema (see Fein 2001, Fox 1999, Monsiváis 1995, and Rubenstein 2001). After having a relatively steady economy in the 1930s under the auspices of President Lázaro Cárdenas, the Mexican government negotiated with the U.S. government and cultural curators (Rockefeller and Whitney) to promote its nationalism in culture and the arts. The United States offered to Mexican cinema directors, producers, and artists not only capital, but also raw materials, in terms of modern technology to advance their state of the arts to help build the Mexican cinema industry. Seth Fein has argued that Pedro Infante became instrumental in the com- modification of selling a certain image of Mexico, that is to say he was a defender of social justice and patriotism in the face of evil and tyranny in the films of this period, which, in World War II meant specifically Germany and Italy. In reality, this transnational circulation of economics was the beginning of the neocolonialist/imperialist relationship between the United States and Latin American countries. As the United States attempted to enforce the rhetoric of the Good Neighbor policy in the name of democracy, it is also extended its economic power to favor nations like Mexico and essentially the implementation of the Golden Age period, and to remain indifferent to neutral countries like Argentina and the decline of its cinema project. Mexico became an important ally due to its geography as the closest Spanish-speaking neighbor and, therefore, its skills of speaking Spanish to control/manip- ulate other audiences in Latin America, who were disappointed with Hollywood’s portrayal of Latin culture (see Fein 2001). 13. Monsiváis elaborates on the function of Mexican cinema of this period. In “Mythologies,” he states: Mexican cinema, above all in the period (1939–1955), makes great use of what is stored in the cultural memory of the people: expressions of love, forms of horror and catharsis, dishonor and excess, shared ideas about poverty and wealth, religious certainties, new forms of sexual appetite and hunger, songs, a sense of humor pet- rified in jokes and amusing, theatrical ways of evoking tradition . . . A modest but implacable cultural revolution is replacing literature as the centre of mass veneration, promoting at the same time, and without contradiction, both literacy and opening up a new space for a new audience, that draws its inspiration both from old customs and from the demands of modernization. (1995, 81) 14. See Aparicio’s introduction and definition of tropicalization in terms of the representation of Latinos and Latinas in both, literature and popular culture. The rhetoric of tropicalization was not enough for wider global Spanish-speaking audiences. It is/was too formulaic, as far as the role of the Latin lover is concerned (Aparicio and Chávez-Silverman, 1997). For more on the Latin lover, see Hansen’s (1991) chapters on Rudolph Valentino. This cultural exploitation of Latino/a images by Hollywood can be considered a colonial phenomenon similar to Edward Said’s cultural critique of European fetishism of Asian/Indian cultures in Orientalism (1979). 15. In A Taco Testimony (2006) Chávez states that for the research on her novel she visited the Colón Theatre on the Texas/Mexico border; it is presently a restaurant. 16. See Gonzáles-Berry and Maciel’s The Contested Homeland (2000) for community building and the formation of coalitions in New Mexico. 17. Since the Chicano movement in the 1960s, Chicana writers have responded to the negative representation of women in various ways. These types of women appear in Golden Age Mexican cinema, such as in the classic Pedro Infante film, Nosotros, los pobres (We, the Poor, 1947). In Mexican film culture of this period, though, the figure of this “fallen” woman is ostracized and castigated, or death befalls her as a form of punishment for her sins of sexual bravado or the shame of having a child out of wedlock or becoming inebriated. Once again, this archetype resembles the image of the vendida/traidora, alluding to Malinche in colonial Mexican history, which critics like Alarcón and Moraga have theorized. See Alarcón’s “Traddutora, Traditora: A Paradigmatic Figure of Chicana Feminism” (1994) and Moraga’s 140 Notes “A Long Line of Vendidas,” in Loving in the War Years (1983) for the treatment of betrayal to the community and the role of translator and traitor. 18. If one looks at the central figure of Ultima in Rudolfo Anaya’s Bless Me, Ultima (1972), one can see a common archetype of the folk healer, usually an indigenous or native woman, who cures and rescues the protagonist, Antonio (or Tere in Chávez’s Loving Pedro Infante 2001), in a moment of intense crisis. 19. See Rubenstein (2001) for a vivid discussion of gender roles in Pedro Infante films and the reception among audiences, both men and women. Also, de la Mora (1998) elaborates on the role of gender in the construction of masculinity in Pedro Infante films. The archetypes of the grandmother, often portrayed by legendary Mexican actress Sara Garcia, the “fallen” woman or femme fatale, the good woman embodied by a virgin, and the religious woman are just a few examples of the females found playing opposite the character of Pedro Infante in his films. 20. de la Mora (2006) and Delgadillo (2006) have made a passing reference to Chávez’s Loving Pedro Infante in their respective works, but they analyze Pedro Infante and focus on his specific films. For this chapter, I probe into how Chávez engages with Golden Age Mexican cinema to delineate the effects on Chicana/o spectators. By examining the Pedro Infante fan club as a critical school of thought, Chávez refers to approximately twenty-six Pedro Infante Mexican films of the Golden Age period in her novel. One should note that this legendary actor not only held his reputation and popularity among the community of the U.S./Mexican borderlands for his physical appearance and working-class origins, but he also exhibited great versatility in the roles he undertook in the films. For example, he began to act as a charro/revolucionario (cowboy/revolutionary) in historical films such as Cuando lloran los valientes (When the Brave Cry, 1945), Dicen que soy mujeriego (They Say I Am a Womanizer, 1948), and Las mujeres de mi general (My General’s Women, 1950), and contin- ued in La vida no vale nada (Life Is Not Worth Anything, 1954), but he also played an urban carpenter in the melodramatic trilogy Nosotros, los pobres (We, the Poor, 1947), Ustedes, los ricos (You, the Rich, 1948), and Pepe, el toro (Pepe, the Boxer, 1952); a nightclub performer in Angelitos negros (Little Black Angels, 1948); an orchestra conductor in Sobre las olas (Above the Waves, 1950); a police officer in A toda máquina (Full Speed Ahead, 1951), and its sequel, Qué te ha dado esa mujer? (What Has That Woman Done to You?, 1951); and finally, in his last role, a Oaxacan indigenous man in Tizoc (1957), for which Infante was posthumously awarded the International Berlin Bear Award for best actor. Other films that Chávez mentions in her novel include the technically experimental, Los tres huastecos (The Three Huastecos, 1948); La mujer que yo perdi (The Woman I Lost, 1949); Los Gavilanes (The Sparrowhawks, 1954); El enamorado (The Boyfriend/Lover, 1951); Gitana, tenías que ser (You Had To Be a Gypsy, 1953); Arriba las mujeres (Go Women, 1943): La oveja negra (The Black Sheep, 1949); No desearás la mujer de tu hijo (You Will Not Desire Your Son’s Wife, 1949); Los hijos de María Morales (The Sons of Maria Morales, 1952); Un rincón cerca del cielo (A Corner near Heaven, 1952); Ahora soy rico (I Am Rich Now, 1952); El inocente (The Innocent, 1955); Vuelven los Garcia (The Garcias Return, 1946); El Gavilán Pollero (The Rooster, 1950); and finally, Islas Marías (María Islands, 1950). 21. In Chicano literature, we see the representation of the gay man, sexuality, and desire in the works of Arturo Islas, John Rechy, Richard Rodriguez, and Michael Nava, for example, but women-of-color feminists, Cherríe Moraga and Gloria Anzaldúa, also discuss, compli- cate, and elaborate the interstices of identity, race, gender, and sexual orientation in their groundbreaking collection, This Bridge Called My Back: Writings by Radical Women of Color (1981). Raúl Coronado and Michael Hames-García have discussed issues pertaining to gay identity and Chicano representation, both in Chicana/o culture and in the mainstream. 22. In popular culture, we have seen how the friendship between a gay man and a straight woman has provided an alternative friendship in social relationships in the U.S. imagina- tion, for example in the hit TV comedy, Will and Grace. 23. See chapter two, on “buddy movies” in Cinemachismo (2006). Notes 141 24. For an understanding of the im/migrant experiences in Chicano/a fiction, consider Viramontes’s Under the Feet of Jesus (1995), Jiménez’s The Circuit (1999), and Castillo’s The Guardians (2007) as sample narratives. 25. See Fox’s last chapter in The Fence and the River (1999) where she discusses the role of a cultural ambassador in cautionary terms. 26. At this special milestone fiftieth anniversary, I met fans from all over the world, including Germany, Venezuela, the United States, and, of course, native Mexicans, some of whom played Pedro Infante songs and others dressed up as memorable characters from films such as Tizoc (1956) and A toda máquina (1952). 27. For a more contemporary understanding and reading of the impact of Pedro Infante, see historical film critic Gustavo García’s La época de oro (1997) and No me parezco a nadie (1994).

Two Sandra Cisneros’s Caramelo (2002): Translating Gender and Genealogy Across the U.S./Mexico Borderlands

1. Cisneros’s poetry collections My Wicked, Wicked Ways (1987) and Loose Woman (1994b) have also appealed to a wide audience. I first saw Cisneros read her poems, “You Bring Out the Mexican in Me” and “Black Lace Bra Kind of Woman,” from the unpublished Loose Woman at the 1992 Modern Language Association conference in New York City when she was presented by Héctor Calderón. She took a full house in the audience by storm, to say the least, as she performed her poetry with great enthusiasm and passion. I extend my deepest gratitude to Sandra Cisneros since then for always answering any questions I had regarding her works, whether in person, through telephone interviews or more recently, via e-mail. 2. By examining the migrations of Chicanos/as to Mexico in the first section of Woman Hollering Creek and the immigrants in selected stories of The House on Mango Street, one notices the genesis of a developing transnational discourse that affects Chicanos and Mexicans in Caramelo. Of noteworthy mention, Cisneros’s earlier works, The House on Mango Street and Women Hollering Creek, provided pioneer narrative models that made mainstream publish- ers and other U.S. Latino/a writers think more of a national public that eventually led to the U.S. Latina boom novels/narratives in the 1990s. In 2009, Cisneros embarks on a nationwide tour for the twenty-fifth anniversary of The House on Mango Street (see www. sandracisneros.com). 3. Cisneros also refers to different personalities of the Golden Age period in stories such as “Mexican Movies” and “Bien Pretty” in Woman Hollering Creek. 4. See Curiel (2003) for information regarding Cisneros’ childhood and strategies for teaching Woman Hollering Creek. For biographical information on Cisneros, also consider Cisneros (1985), Kevane and Heredia (2000), Saldívar-Hull (2000), Calderón (2004), McCracken (2004), and Heredia (2006). 5. During her first trip to Europe, Cisneros formed important female friendships such as Jana in Sarajevo for whom she would write a dedication in her poetry Loose Woman (1994b) before the Bosnian war began in the 1990s. Cisneros also visited key cities such as Venice and Trieste that would be mentioned in My Wicked, Wicked Ways (1987). Her admiration for the Catalan writer, Mercé Rodoreda, for whom she wrote the foreword to the English translation of Camellia Street (1993), took her to Barcelona. She also completed The House on Mango Street on a Greek island. Her migrations within the United States and wider world travels have converted Cisneros into a global citizen with a keen eye for detail in portraying other cultures through a poetic, but critical, sensibility. 142 Notes 6. In the late 1990s, Cisneros had to defend her right to paint her home, the first house she ever owned, in the King William historic neighborhood in San Antonio. While the courts maintained that they did not allow the color, purple, Cisneros claimed that it was periwinkle, which is reminiscent of the colorful homes in the historical neighborhoods of Mexico City, such as Coyoacán where the vibrant, blue house of Frida Kahlo stands; Kahlo’s home is now a museum in Mexico City. See the Oscar-winning film, Frida (2002), directed by Julie Taymor and produced by Salma Hayek. Color is connected to Cisneros’s poetic sensibility in her writing, her use of specific and vibrant colors such as those in the story “Tepeyac” in Woman Hollering Creek and the chapter, “Cinderella/Cenicienta,” in Caramelo, captures the ambience of a specific time and place in Mexico City. The reader can imagine himself in this city as if he were living in the present moment, as opposed to the intended past. 7. In “An Offering of the Power of Language” in The Los Angeles Times (1997a), Cisneros discusses the importance of maintaining cultural traditions such as the Spanish language in spite of opposition and resistance from the dominant culture. She expresses these sentiments while her father is dying of cancer. 8. See the interview, “Junot Díaz” (2007), that award-winning Haitian American writer Edwidge Danticat conducted with Pulitzer Prize–winning Dominican American author, Junot Díaz, where he discusses also using footnotes in The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao (2007) to contest the veracity of official historical discourse and credits Cisneros’s usage in Caramelo (Bomb, 92). 9. On the role of popular culture during Golden Age period in Caramelo, see Heredia (2007a) and Gutiérrez (2007). For popular culture in the U.S. context, see Herrera-Sobek (2007). 10. In the 2000 interview with Kevane and Heredia, Cisneros tells an interesting story about her encounters with Mexicans during visits to the capital of Mexico City. She says that they like to tell “a flower of a story” to people, which for Americans could mean a “lie” because it is not based on an objective reality, but rather subjective perspective on a situation (Öztarhan 2004, 86–87). Cisneros is basically emphasizing different versions of stories that are interweaved as a narrative in Caramelo. At one point in the novel, the ghost of the grandmother, Soledad, comes alive and criticizes Lala for being a harsh storyteller/cuentista who does not give Soledad’s stories a fairy tale–like ending. Lala learns that she must negotiate a kind of realism with fantasy, to please the ghost of the grandmother, or subconscious of Lala. 11. See Bonfil Batalla (2004) to understand how the legacy of colonization and modernization has affected indigenous and mestizo communities in Mexico. 12. Calderón (2004) lists a host of Mexican authors who are in dialogue with Cisneros’s short fiction “Eyes of Zapata” in Woman Hollering Creek. For Caramelo, especially the second section entitled “When I Was Dirt,” I suggest that within that group Cisneros is in more direct dialogue with Mariano Azuela’s Los de abajo (1924), and Juan Rulfo’s Pedro Páramo (1955), but especially Elena Poniatowska’s Hasta no verte, Jesus mío (1969). Within the form of realism, these works critique the establishment and government who dismiss the provin- cial and urban working classes, with respect to issues of land and war similarly to Cisneros’s vision in Caramelo. Monsiváis (2007) also writes about the representation and role of women such as La Adelita in the Mexican Revolution. See films, Las Mujeres de Mi General (1950), La Cucaracha (1959) Como Agua para Chocolate (1993), and Frida (2002) to understand how directors also engage in a discussion of women’s activism, in spite of physical danger and obstacles set before them during the Mexican Revolution of 1910. 13. Curiel provides an excellent discussion of the feminist revision of the Mexican Revolution in Cisneros’s short fiction, “Eyes of Zapata,” in Women Hollering Creek (1991). See Curiel’s “The Genera l ’s Pa nt s: A Ch ica na Fem in ist ( Re)Vision of the Revolut ion in Sa nd ra Cisneros’s ‘Eyes of Zapata’ ” to understand how Cisneros reimagines history (often told/delivered by men) through the marginal character of one of his women, Inés Alfaro. Notes 143 14. See Binder (1985) who transcribes a narrative interview with Cisneros. 15. See México Profundo (2004) for the effects of implementing the casta system in the colonial period. Bonfil Batalla maintains that this hierarchy was more a social question rather than a biological one (78–79). 16. See Saldívar-Hull’s chapter four on Cisneros’s short fiction, “Woman Hollering Creek,” to see how she reconfigures the telenovela form. Also, consider the telenovela, Destilando amor (2007) as a representation of class, regional, and race conflicts in current Mexico. 17. See chapter two in García’s Mexicans in the Midwest (1996). 18. In Mexican Chicago (2008b), Arredondo argues that even among the national group of Mexicans who migrated to Chicago before World War II, great diversity existed based on class, language, generation, and gender norms, among other factors. Arredondo (2008a) focuses on how mass culture and consumerism influenced Mexican immigrant and Mexican American women like Zoila in Caramelo to afford them “new freedoms” in socializing, the work force and other areas of the public sphere. 19. See Castillo’s Massacre of the Dreamers (1994) where she traces the significance of Mexicans in the Midwest and their cultural connections with Mexico that do not conform to the assimilation model. 20. See García’s chapters three and four for questions regarding labor in Mexicans in the Midwest (1996). 21. This quote comes from the chapter “Someday My Prince Popocatépetl Will Come” in Caramelo. Cisneros read a version of this chapter before she participated in a lively televised interview with Dorothy Allison (1997b), in a program sponsored by the Lannan Foundation. Both, the literary passage and Cisneros’s performance of the reading before a public, demon- strate her firm commitment to voice the situation of immigrants in the United States. The film My Family (Mi familia, 1995), directed by Gregory Nava, has a very well-known scene of deportation of Mexican residents and Mexican American citizens. Similar to Caramelo, the film exposes the hypocrisy and racism by the U.S. government in scapegoating people of Mexican descent, a violation of their civic and legal rights in the United States. More recently in the mass media, the award-winning television program Ugly Betty (2007), produced by Salma Hayek, also critiques the United States for threatening people with deportation back to Mexico, especially in the character of the father, Ignacio Suárez. 22. See Yampolsky (1993, 1998) where she captures photographs of Mexican indigenous women wearing rebozos. 23. See Frida (2002). The pioneer bohemian Mexican painter, Frida Kahlo, wore many rebozos throughout her life because she wished to acknowledge the indigenous heritage on her Oaxacan mother’s side and did so on the day she married. She exchanged her traditional Western wear of a white bridal dress for an indigenous woman’s multicolored rebozo. Color has another significance for Cisneros as well as she uses the symbol of the multicolored rebozo (shawl) that the protagonist Lala wears proudly. Essentially, Cisneros is playing with the ideas of mestizaje—the blending of colors that alludes to the mixing of ethnicities and races. 24. In e-mail correspondence (2007), Cisneros shared pertinent information regarding Mexican culture and literature while writing Caramelo that have helped me enormously in researching collections such as The Traditional Architecture of Mexico (1993) and The Edge of Time: Photographs of Mexico (1998) by Mariana Yampolsky. One notices a cultural dialogue between Yampolsky’s visual representation of Mexican indigenous women in photography and Cisneros’s literary representation of indigenous and mestiza women in Caramelo. I would like to emphasize that I have only focused on one photographer and a few samples of her work, but there are more. The photography collections, Las Soldaderas: Women of the Mexican Revolution (1999) by Poniatowska and Compañeras de México: Women Photograph Women (1990) by Conger and Poniatowska, also resemble the Mexican Revolution that Cisneros represents in the second section of Caramelo. Cisneros and Poniatowska both 144 Notes capture the emotions of this turbulent time through visual and literary representations that center on indigenous people from the provinces and the urban working class in Mexico City fighting for social justice, often unacknowledged in official history. In comparing these visual and literary texts, both authors form a transnational alliance in recuperating a subaltern subjectivity from the past. Interestingly, Cisneros and Poniatowska were photo- graphed together on the U.S. side (Schuessler 2007, 245). 25. See Castillo (1994) for a discussion of the cultural symbol of La Virgen de Guadalupe for Chicanas, a perspective that differs from Rodríguez’s conventional interpretation in Our Lady of Guadalupe (1994). Also, Cisneros (1996) comments on her hybrid spiritual identity as a Budalupista, merging an indigenous Virgen de Guadalupe with Eastern philosophy. She explains that she is not interested in “the Lupe of 1531,” but the one in the 1990s who has shaped Chicanas and mexicanas of today (46–51). 26. Refer to “A Woman of No Consequence” in Living Chicana Theory (Cisneros 1997c). 27. In e-mail correspondence (2007), Cisneros shared that she also read Mexican writer and critic Carlos Fuentes’s Buried Mirror: Reflections on Spain and the New World (1999) while writing Caramelo. While Fuentes dedicates his work to the parallel history of Spain and the Americas, Cisneros focuses more on the U.S./Mexico borderlands with global allu- sions. Although Fuentes explores the historical relationship between Latin America and Spain since the colonial period, he does not shy away from critiquing U.S. globalization with respect to the immigration situation along the U.S./Mexico border in the last chapter “Hispanic USA” (342). Although Fuentes uses a historical discourse to account for the significance of Mexican labor in the United States and Cisneros writes a novel to unveil the unknown stories of immigrant workers and their families who come to the United States in the Reyes genealogy, both authors blur the boundaries between fiction and history. 28. In terms of community collaboration and contribution, Cisneros is both a literary and social activist who is the founder of the Macondo Foundation and the Alfredo Cisneros del Moral Foundation. See www.sandracisneros.com. 29. In the Literary San Antonio section of the King William Historic District Web site, Cisneros is featured as “San Antonio’s most famous literary personality,” mentioning her story, “Bien Pretty,” from Woman Hollering Creek and a photograph of her house when it was periwinkle. See www.accd.edu/sac/english/mcquien/htmlfils/kingwill.htm. 30. See Cisneros’s “The Genius of Creative Flexibility” (1998).

Three Marta Moreno Vega’s When the Spirits Dance Mambo: Growing Up Nuyorican in El Barrio (2004): The Diasporic Formation of an Afro-Latina Identity

1. As far as Puerto Rican literature in English is concerned, very few novels, if any, discuss the impact of black culture and gender as a result of transnational migrations in the hybrid identity of Puerto Ricans in the United States. See Sánchez for a discussion of how Piri Thomas’s classic novel Down These Mean Streets (1967) does address some aspect of black Puerto Rican identity from a masculine perspective. Also, see Luis (1997) for an earlier analysis of Thomas’s work. Sánchez González positions Down These Mean Streets and Mohr’s Nilda (1973) as new Nuyorican narratives of the civil rights movement. Mohr’s Nilda and the later El Bronx Remembered (1975) introduce gender concerns in connection to class, but these narratives do not delve into black woman’s identity. Sánchez González also traces a literary history of Boricua letters of working-class background from activist Luisa Capetillo, to Afro-Puerto Rican Arturo Schomburg, and the first Afro-Puerto Rican female writer Notes 145 and librarian, Pura Teresa Belpré, who mainly wrote children’s literature. The term Boricua refers to the indigenous taíno name given to the island of Puerto Rico, Borinquen. Boricua is also a term of identity and pride used by both Puerto Rican islanders and mainlanders (i.e., Chicano for Mexican Americans or politically conscious and progressive Mexicans who ally themselves with the history and politics of the Chicano movement). More recently, Ernesto Quiñónez’s Chango’s Fire (2004) addresses Santería to some extent through a somewhat “eccentric” Afro-Cuban character, Papelito. The Puerto Rican parents in this novel, for example, are Pentecostal and are not influenced by other religions until the end of the novel when they accept Papelito for rescuing them from a fire. The mother at first perceives Papito as the embodiment of the devil in her Pentecostal religion. In Nuyorican poetry, however, Hernández Cruz’s Tropicalizations (1976), Esteves’ Bluestown Mockingbird Mambo (1990), and Laviera’s AmeRican (2003) and Mixturao (2008) exemplify representations of the African heritage as an integral component of Puerto Rican identity in the United States. Of a similar generation, the activists, the Young Lords, took some of their ideas for social change and justice from the Black Panthers in the 1960s and 1970s. 2. I would like to express my gratitude to Marta Moreno Vega for allowing me to view the documentary Cuando los espíritus bailan mambo/When the Spirits Dance Mambo at the Caribbean Cultural Center in New York City and granting me an informative and lively interview in July 2007. 3. See The Altar of My Soul (2000) for further understanding of Vega’s spiritual journey in becoming a priestess and learning about African-based religions, La Regla de Ocha. Regarding her own grandmother’s influence, Vega (2000) states that “Although my grandmother shared little information regarding her sacred beliefs, rituals, and ceremonies, she did inspire my search for a religion that touched my soul” (35). Also, in the documentary, Cuando los espíritus bailan mambo, Vega points out that Fidel Castro did believe in the power of the orishas, even though he prohibited any kind of organized religion after he took control of the government in Cuba. Many political differences emerged under Castro and his revolution of 1959 that reflected contradictions for black identity and culture in Cuba. Also, see Falola and Childs (2004) regarding the influence of Yoruba culture in different parts of the Caribbean and the United States. 4. See Pérez y González’s Puerto Ricans in the United States (2000) and Negrón-Muntaner’s introduction to None of the Above (2007). 5. See Aparicio (1998) and Flores (2000) for further discussion on musical genres, bomba and plena, especially as it relates to the African heritage in Puerto Rico and the mainland United States. See Fernández (2003, 2006) for the evolution of Latin Jazz. See Flores (2000) and Rivera (2004) for the emergence of hip-hop in Afro-Puerto Rican culture in New York City. 6. The term, Afro-Latina or, specifically, Afro-Puerto Rican, refers to people of African and Latin American (Puerto Rican) descent who are born, raised, or reside in the U.S. mainland. In addition to Latino/a and Latin American culture, they also identify with an African heritage. Sánchez González, Laó-Montes (2007, 2008), and Torres-Saillant (2007a) have used this term in similar cultural and social contexts. 7. See Negrón-Muntaner’s chapter on West Side Story in Boricua Pop (2004) for a full discussion on various female images constructed, fabricated, and staged by Hollywood. 8. Afro-Cuban Salsa singer Celia Cruz also invokes African-based words in songs like “Changó.” 9. See Oscar Hijuelos’s Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love (1990) for references to the Palladium as a cultural dance and entertainment center for Latinos who, dreaming of becoming musicians, first arrived in New York City after World War II. 10. See Vega’s The Altar of My Soul (2000) and Wedel’s Santería Healing (2004) for an understanding of the role of La Regla de Ocha/Santería in cultural and psychological well-being. 11. See Hernández Hiraldo’s Black Puerto Rican Identity and Religious Experience (2006) for a historical and social context of Loíza Aldea (2–3, 46–49, 99–101). Originally a Taíno Arawak Indian settlement, this town bordering on the Atlantic coast soon became a labor center 146 Notes for slaves originating from the west coast of Africa, the Yorubas, the Congos, and the Angolos, among other African ethnic groups. Fugitive black slaves from different parts of the Caribbean, such as Haiti, settled in Loíza as well after the revolution of independence in 1804 in the early nineteenth century. Known today for its tourism, Loíza Aldea also emphasizes its “uniquely African traditions.” 12. According to Hernández Hiraldo (2006), the U.S. colonization of Puerto Rico in 1898 affected religious practices in profound ways that differ from most of the Hispanic Caribbean and Latin American nations. He says, “The implementation of the U.S. political system and the principle of separation of state and church, highly inf luenced by an existing atmosphere of Euro-American liberal ideas (which in Spain prompted the creation in 1868 of a decree that allowed freedom of worship), caused the Catholic Church to lose its political privi- leges, its control over education, and many of its physical properties . . . All of this benefited the evangelizing interests of the North American Protestants, who were a majority in the United States” (75). 13. See Quiñónez’s Chango’s Fire (2004) and note 1 for parents’ practice of Pentecostalism. 14. See Duany’s “Neither White, Nor Black: The Representations of Racial Identity among Puerto Ricans on the Island and in the U.S. Mainland” (2005). 15. It was ironic that the directors of West Side Story (1960) hired Natalie Wood, an American descendent of a European ethnic group, to portray the Latina protagonist of the film, rather than the supporting actress, Puerto Rican Rita Moreno, who was the first Latina Oscar- supporting actress in 1961. 16. In July 2007, Vega mentioned to me that Dunham was a powerful influence on her as a person because she was able to do what she pleased, a role model. Dandridge’s importance is also revealed through the portrayal by African American actress Halle Berry, the first Oscar-winning African American actress. 17. In For Love or Country: The Arturo Sandoval Story (2000), the character of Dizzy Gillespie reveals to the Arturo Sandoval character the significance of African-based musical instru- ments for the slaves in Cuba during the colonial period. Unlike other nations of the Americas, the slaves in Cuba were the only ones who were able to keep their drums that allowed them to practice their spirituality and hence, music. 18. See Fernández’s Latin Jazz (2003) and From Afro-Cuban Rhythms to Latin Jazz (2006) for a historical background on the emergence of the musical genre Latin jazz from different national influences through the common denominator of its African heritage. For a shorter synthesis, see Heredia (2005) on Latin jazz. 19. According to Aparicio, “Celia Cruz’s musical repertoire is indeed an expression of afrocu- banismo. Afro-Cuban vernacular poetics, including popular religious beliefs such as Santería, popular oral traditions such as pregones and street slang, are the stylistic and discursive sub- stance of many of Celia’s songs” (1999, 363). See also Aparicio (2002). 20. In Calle 54 (2000), legendary Puerto Rican Tito Puente illustrates in a memorable scene a historical mural that pays tribute to the pioneers of the Afro-Cuban and Latin jazz movements across the U.S./Caribbean borderlands, including Chano Pozo, Mario Bauzá, Dizzy Gillespie; however, Puente does not show any female singers or musicians as contributing artists and voices to these musical movements. Gender inequality prevails in the entertainment business as well. 21. Much like the Castillo brothers in Oscar Hijuelos’s Mambo Kings Play Songs of Love (1990). In the film version, the character of Cruz portrays a Santería priestess who calls on the God of Fire, Changó, and the Goddess of the Sea, Yemayá, two forces that complement one another in the spiritual healing of one of the Castillo brothers. In her own life, Cruz also followed a transmigratory trajectory of musicians who wished to perform to receive as much exposure as possible. 22. The poem “Píntame angelitos negros” has been translated into the title of a film, Angelitos Negros (1948), starring legendary Mexican actor, Pedro Infante. See chapter one of this book Notes 147 for discussion of the Chicana response in Denise Chávez’s Loving Pedro Infante (2001). Also, see Delgadillo (2006) for the evolution of this poem into African American music as a form of empowerment, as sung by Eartha Kitt. 23. Afro-Latino musicians were often segregated according to their race. They worked with African Americans (i.e., Dizzy Gillespie, Duke Ellington), usually in Harlem, or mainstream American musicians (i.e., Glenn Miller, Benny Goodman), usually in midtown or downtown, New York City. 24. Rosie Pérez first received recognition as an actress in a supporting role in Spike Lee’s Do the Right Thing (1989). Often considered African American, Pérez is actually Puerto Rican, born in Brooklyn, New York City. 25. During her travels, Vega noticed that in some societies that practiced La Regla de Ocha, such as Brazil, women were allowed to be priestesses, but not so in Cuba, where gender social codes were strictly enforced when it came to religious authority and dissemination of knowledge. See The Altar of My Soul (2000) for more elaboration. 26. In July 2007 Vega explained how Music and Art High School was the most transformative experience in her life. 27. In the 1950s in the United States, television media in English expands during this period with programs, such as I Love Lucy (1951–1960), that celebrate the romantic bolero and fast-paced mambo performed by its Cuban protagonist, Ricky Ricardo, but the medium of radio exposes listeners to a wider spectrum of Afro-Caribbean talents. 28. In the film, El Cantante (2007), starring Puerto Ricans Jennifer López and Marc Anthony, Salsa pioneer Héctor Lavoe turns to Santería for a moment in his life to find spiritual com- fort and solace and pays tribute by invoking the orishas in his music, as well.

Four Angie Cruz’s Let It Rain Coffee (2005): A Diasporic Response to Multiracial Dominican Migrations

1. According to Milagros Ricourt, “Dominican Americans are a group of individuals that are becoming aware that they are a permanent community in New York City. Dominican Americans are second-generation Dominicans, naturalized individuals, and adults who migrated to the United States as children who feel they belong in New York City. They do have an identity of being Dominican but more commonly-and accurately-of being Dominican-Americans. Not all Dominicans, however, share this identity. Many Dominicans are ‘new immigrants,’ Dominicans who have less than five years of residency in the United States. New immigrants usually have more loyalties to the Dominican Republic than the United States, and they still dream of returning to their homeland. Other immigrants are those who have more than five years of residency in the Untied States, yet aspire to main- tain a dual identity, with loyalties to both the Dominican Republic and the United States” (2002, 6). 2. I would like to thank Angie Cruz for meeting with me in July 2007 to discuss her novels, travels, and the Dominican Republic in Washington Heights, New York City. Other Dominican American/Dominican diasporic writers include Nelly Rosario (Song of the Water Saints 2003) and Loida Maritza Pérez (Geographies of Home 1999). What distinguishes Angie Cruz and her contemporaries from Julia Alvarez is that they take race and gender matters into consideration in the construction of a Dominican diasporic identity from a personal, as well as a literary, perspective in their novels. According to Coonrod Martínez, this group of Dominican American authors can be identified as a new generation. She explains, “Their works inaugurate a generation that is neither Dominican nor American, forging a sort of Dominican-New York identity, akin to the Nuyorican. The majority of 148 Notes Dominican immigrants are working-class people; they cluster in the lowest tiers of the labor market and rank among the lowest-paid groups of the U.S.” (in “Between the Island and the Tenements,” 2007, 109). See also Josefina Báez’s Dominicanish (2000). 3. Cruz explains how reading Malcolm X and slave narratives in college transformed her social consciousness with respect to people of African descent in the United States, especially Dominican Americans whose island relatives have a long history of cultural denial when it comes to race issues (Torres-Saillant 2000). Her affiliations with Caribbean writers, be it on the islands or in the diaspora, result from the historical process of what Paul Gilroy has termed the “Black Atlantic.” While Afro-Caribbean writers may identify as descendants of black slaves, the difference with the Dominican context is that the colonial heritage stems from Haiti and Spain rather than England. 4. Among several issues, Cruz discussed the gentrification of her neighborhood, Washington Heights. In fact, the community had to protest vigorously the conversion of the historical Audubon Ballroom building, where Malcolm X was assassinated, into another shopping mall. It holds a mural in honor of his accomplishments (Cruz 2007a). 5. See LaTorre’s “Shifting Borders: An Interview with Angie Cruz” in Latino Studies (2007b). 6. See Sagás’s Race and Politics in the Dominican Republic (2000) that traces the origins of antihaitianismo from the colonial period through Balaguer’s presidency. 7. See Candelario’s chapter on beauty salons and the politics of hair care in Black Behind the Ears (2007a). 8. See Ana Aparicio’s chapter on racial discourse in Dominican Americans and the Politics of Empowerment (2006). In 1999, the president of the Dominican Republic organized buses along the Dominican/Haitian border to return Haitians and their children to Haiti to “clean up” the Dominican Republic of any Haitian influence. 9. In the introduction of Black Behind the Ears (2007a), Candelario explains the strategic use of terms indio and anti-haitiano in identifying the self in Dominican national discourse. She says, “Thus, rather than use the discourses of negritude to understand and represent themselves, Dominicans use language that affirms their ‘Indian’ heritage—Indio, Indio oscuro, Indio claro, trigueno—and signals their resistance to foreign authority, whether Spanish or Haitian, and their autochthonous claims to sovereignty while accounting for the prepon- derance of medium to dark skin tones and complexions in the populations” (5). 10. See Danticat’s The Farming of Bones (1999), Díaz’s The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao (2007), and Rosario’s Song for the Water Saints (2003) as examples of other writers of the Afro-Caribbean diaspora who provide an alternative historical discourse to the Trujillo dictatorship and its effects in the 1937 massacre on Haitians and Dominicans living at the border. 11. See Fuentes’s The Buried Mirror (1999, 326) that explains the nature of the United States’s relationship with the Dominican Republic during the Good Neighbor Policy period that coincided with Trujillo’s presidency. Roosevelt supported Trujillo because he brought sta- bility to the island, even if it was through military force. See Roorda’s (1998) as well. 12. In the 1980s, Spanish translations of popular U.S. nighttime soap operas, such as the hit, Dallas, began to reach every household in Latin America with a television. The United States was not only responsible for providing entertainment, but also for influencing and deluding the masses on the representation of the American Dream. 13. Moya Pons (1995) details the events leading up to the U.S. invasion in the Dominican Republic in 1916 that also coincide with World War I and the role that Germany had in the Caribbean, especially in terms of trading. The United States feared Germany’s influence and possible occupation of the Dominican Republic so they decided to take matters into their own hands. 14. Critics have commented on Haitian/Dominican race relations and the consequences for African descent people on both sides of the national border in the massacre of 1937. Notes 149 For further critical commentary, see Moya Pons (1995), Roorda (1998), Suárez (2006), and Torres-Saillant (2000, 2006). See Cuban author Alejo Carpentier’s El reino de este mundo (1969) for a literary representation of the Haitian revolution and independence in 1804. Carpentier also supported the ideals of the Cuban Revolution and socialism. 15. See Sang (2004) on the presence and migration of the Chinese to the Dominican Republic to understand the heritage of Don Chan in Let It Rain Coffee (2005). 16. When slavery of African descent people ended, elite Dominican businessmen took it upon themselves to make other ethnic groups serve them, such as the Chinese. See Moya Pons (1995) and Torres-Saillant (2000, 2006) for further elaboration on the history of slavery in the Dominican Republic. See Gilroy’s chapter one in The Black Atlantic to understand the involuntary transnational voyages of African slaves. 17. For more information on the impact of tourism and prostitution in the Dominican Republic, see Moya Pons (1995) and Cabezas (2005) for the impact on women. In Cruz’s first novel, Soledad (2001), the character of the mother engages in prostitution, which eventually leads to her immigration to the United States after 1965. 18. See Torres-Saillant’s (2000). He ascribes Hispaniola as the first Spanish settlement by Christopher Columbus in the New World. Interestingly enough, Díaz’s The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao (2007) alludes to Columbus as responsible for bringing a curse unto the island of Hispaniola at the beginning of his novel, thereby critiquing European conquest and its negative effects (i.e., diseases, decimations, and labor exploitation) on the native people of the island. 19. See Sang (2004) on the presence and migration of the Chinese into the Dominican Republic. 20. See the second part of chapter three in The Latino/a Canon and the Emergence of Post-Sixties Literature (2007). 21. In Duany’s Quisqueya on the Hudson (1994), he focuses specifically on the community of Washington Heights as a transnational one, as well as the inaugural volume of the CUNY Dominican Studies Institute’s series entitled Dominican Research Monographs. See also Torres- Saillant and Hernández (1998). 22. See Ana Aparicio (2006) and Ricourt (2002) for their close examinations and different views on the causes of poverty for Dominican communities in the United States, especially in New York City and other nearby cities where Dominican immigrants reside. 23. See Ana Aparicio (2006) and the film Manito (2002) for the role of the legal system in scapegoating Latino youth. 24. See Díaz’s The Brief Wondrous Life of Oscar Wao (2007) where the protagonist Oscar Wao, a nerdy teenager dominicano, unfortunately dies as a tragic hero at the hands of criminals. 25. In July 2007, Cruz comments on the dangers of consumer culture in the United States and how that is packaged to less empowered countries such as the Dominican Republic, especially to a public that may depend on television as the only form of entertainment and, at times, news and education. 26. See Ana Aparicio (2006) for further discussion on the politics of police brutality based on race and institutional discrimination in Washington Heights, New York City. She basically argues that this system contributes to the criminalization of youth of color like Dominican Americans. 27. For visual representations of the unjust treatment of youth by the legal system in film, see the classic Zoot Suit (1981) based on the play by Chicano playwright Luis Valdez and more recently, Manito (2002). In the more current film, the brother is on his way to college and serves as a role model in the Dominican community in New York City, but ends up with a tragic end. The legal system condones, rather than sympathizes with, the innocent Dominican adolescent who used a weapon to defend himself and helpless girlfriend against gang members. The American legal system, however, does not recognize his defensive efforts and prefers to lock him up as if he were a longtime criminal. Raising Victor Vargas 150 Notes (2004) and Washington Heights (2002) are other films that portray the younger generation of Dominican Americans in New York City in the post-1990s decade in a much lighter and more positive tone. These films belong more to the coming-of-age genre. 28. In chapter five of Black Behind the Ears (2007a), Candelario elaborates on the politics of hair and racial identity. See also Candelario (2007b). 29. See chapter seven in From Bomba to Hip-Hop (2000) where Flores discusses how a diversity of Latino groups contributes to the idea of a “New Nueva York,” especially Dominican and Dominican Americans. This leads to the development of a Pan-Latino identity and community. 30. As youngsters, Hush and Dallas playfully kissed one another, an experience that made Dallas reflect closely on their friendship and perhaps unresolved lesbian tendencies. Similar to the Soledad-Caramel friendship in Soledad (2001), Cruz does not shy away from voicing the sexual desires and awakening of young girls who need to explore their choices. 31. See Dalleo and Machado Sáez’s chapter three in The Latino/a Canon and the Emergence of Post- Sixties Literature (2007) where they mention briefly the scene in Let It Rain Coffee that refers to Miraluz’s activism on the island and how she motivates other women to take control of their lives, rather than obey a tyrannical boss. 32. See Cruz’s note before the novel Let It Rain Coffee begins where she acknowledges inspiration from Juan Luis Guerra’s song, “Ojalá que llueva café.” The Mexican rock en español group Café Tacuba also performs a version of this song.

Five Marie Arana’s American Chica (2001): Circular Voyages in the U.S./Peruvian Archipelago

1. I would like to extend my gratitude to Marie Arana not only for granting me a conversation in July 2007, at the Washington Post, but also for answering and clarifying any questions I had over e-mail regarding her works and other Peruvian matters. I first met Arana at an engaging and lively reading she delivered at A Clean Well-Lighted Place bookstore in San Francisco in June 2003. 2. See Bella Stander (February/March 2007) where Arana discusses her family’s initial negative reaction to American Chica for revealing “family secrets,” which she also emphasized with me again in 2007. 3. See Oboler’s “South Americans” (2005b, 147) in reference to Chilean and Peruvian immigrants during the Gold Rush period in northern California. See Falconi and Mazzotti (2008, 2–3) who discuss the increase in Peruvian immigration to places such as Paterson, New Jersey, which has become a “thriving community.” See Espitia (2004, 264–269) for patterns of South American immigration since 1960. See also Vélez-Ibañez and Sampaio (2002). 4. See Soy Andina (2005) as a young Peruvian American woman from Queens, New York, travels to Peru to reclaim her Andean heritage through dance and music. 5. See the introduction and Zevallos-Aguilar’s chapter in Falconi and Mazzotti’s The Other Latinos: Central and South Americans in the United States (2008). For another perspective on the origins through a chronology of South American and Central American literary contributions, see Torres-Saillant (2007b). 6. See Arana’s essay “Daniel Alarcón: Writing North, Pointing South” (2006b). She explains the intermediary position that writers like Daniel Alarcón (and herself, I would add) hold because they write about Peru in English from the position of the north. 7. Arana is evidently in cultural and literary dialogue with Mariátegui’s Seven Interpretive Essays on Peru (1971), Matto de Turner’s Birds without a Nest (1996), and Palma’s Tradiciones Notes 151 peruanas (1975) because all are preoccupied with race and social issues as represented in Peruvian society; however, Arana extends the transnational literary conversation to the United States with respect to her first work, American Chica. 8. If one looks at the nation-building period of different South American republics in the nineteenth century, the ethnic/racial makeup of each nation is distinctive. For example, Argentine president Sarmiento sent orders to exterminate the native indigenous populations of la pampa in the River Plate region, mainly Argentina, because he wished to build a citizenry and nation mainly made up of European immigrants, those of Spanish and Italian backgrounds, to move Argentina toward modernization and progress, similar to the United States’s Manifest Destiny. Anibal Quijano (2000) explains, After independence, the dominants in the countries of the Southern Cone, as was the case in the United States, considered the conquest of the territories that the indigenous peoples populated, as well as the extermination of these inhabitants, necessary as an expeditious form of homogenizing the national population and facil- itating the process of constituting a modern nation-state “a la europea.” (562) On the other hand, a nation like Peru has a completely different history, one of mestizaje, somewhat similar to Mexico, in which indigenous communities existed and, until the present, form part of the national imaginary and political consciousness that defines Peru. After the Spanish Conquest, the Spaniards mixed racially with the indigenous, though not always having legitimate children, to form mestizos, the first well-known author of the period being, El Inca Garcilaso de la Vega. This is not to say that racism and hatred toward the indigenous have been completely eliminated in Peru; however, an ethnic/racial genocide did not occur as it did in Argentina. Furthermore, mestizos mixed further with African descent and Asian descent citizens of Peru as Arana illustrates in American Chica. 9. See Quijano’s essay “Coloniality of Power,” where he develops a theory arguing that globalization and neocolonialism are extensions of the Spanish Conquest, considering that questions of power are intrinsically tied to economic dependency and social hierarchies, especially with reference to Peru’s marginal groups, blacks, mestizos, and the indigenous. He also points to a fundamental paradox in the formation of modern nation-states in Latin America: independent states of colonial societies. (565) These ideas resonate with Frantz Fanon’s call for liberation from precolonial nations in Africa in The Wretched of the Earth. 10. See Klein and Vinson III (2007, 23–28, 136–137) to trace the origins of African slavery in Peru. When Afro-Peruvians and other ethnic groups had children, they could be considered mulattos or sambos. In American Chica Arana also sheds light on the Peruvian government’s role in importing Barbadian laborers who worked like slaves from the Caribbean to manage the indigenous labor in the Putumayo region (at the border between Peru and Colombia) during the rubber boom. It is ironic that a Barbadian slave must be punished for refusing to whip a helpless, indigenous woman worker who devoted her attention to feeding her baby before work. Since the Barbadian refused to whip this woman, the mestizos punished him physically while the woman witnessed the murder of her baby at the hands of the Peruvian overseer. Arana critiques the hierarchy of labor exploitation of black Caribbeans and indigenous people in the Amazon, regardless of whether they are mother and child. This social injustice does not differ too greatly from that of the Incas during the Spanish Conquest (2001, 47). 11. See Oboler’s Ethnic Labels, Latino Lives (1995), where she problematizes the homogenizing term “Hispanic.” 12. See Mariátegui’s chapter in indigenismo in Seven Interpretative Essays, where he posits a social- ist model for the liberation of the indigenous natives of Peru, but then contradicts himself when he subjugates and exoticizes other ethnic and racial groups, African and Asian descent Peruvians. Oboler (2005a) also takes up the race question in more contemporary Peruvian society as she takes a survey via interviews with a cross-spectrum of people. 13. See Espitia (2004) for the “Brain Drain” generation of immigrants (257–280). 152 Notes 14. See Paerregaard (2005) on the role of religion in preserving Peruvian cultural practices such as El Señor de los Milagros processions, celebrated by Peruvian migrants in U.S. cities with sizeable Peruvians populations, a transnational phenomenon. 15. According to historian Higgins (2005), “In 1870, the gulley leading down to the beach [in Barranco] was turned into an attractive promenade, the Bajada de los Baños, and a few years later, a wooden bridge, the Puente de los Suspiros (Bridge of Sighs) was erected over it. At the end of the bridge, in the little square in front of the Ermita, stands a bust of singer and songwriter Chabuca Granda, who celebrated the bridge in one of her compositions” (203–204). He also adds that “Since the 1980s Barranco has been transformed into Lima’s bohemian quarter and much of the older housing has been refurbished and turned into public establishments such as art galleries, cafés, bars, and clubs. It has become a place where young writers and artists congregate and take part in cultural activities like experimental theatre and literary recitals” (205). In American Chica, Arana certainly captures the romance of this bridge in Barranco, past and present. 16. In Arguedas’s Deep Rivers (translated from Los ríos profundos), the protagonist, a young male Ernesto, is raised and influenced by Andean culture through language, music, and spirituality. While both, Ernesto and Marisi, belong to a Western culture and are racially European descent Peruvians, it is telling that they are affected by the cultural memory of Andean spirituality and storytelling. 17. See chapter three in Van Vleet’s Narrative, Gender, and the Intimacies of Power in the Andes (2008) where she defines Pachamama as the mother of fertility. Arana also refers to the apus as a powerful force that may guide her as she undertakes an adventurous endeavor in exploring the Andes by plane like a condor (2007d). This animal is also a symbol of the sky and highly revered in Incan civilization. 18. See Paerregaard (2005). 19. See Arana’s “The Stones She Carries” (2007c). Arana still believes in the power of nature and thus has developed a hobby in collecting rocks wherever she may be traveling in the United States or abroad. 20. In “Winging It in the Andes” (2007d), Arana explains her adventures and explorations of the Andes from the sky, another perspective she had never experienced until 2006. BIBLIOGRAPHY

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From Caramelo. Copyright©2002 by Sandra Cisneros. Published by Vintage Books in paperback in 2003 and originally in hardcover by Alfred A. Knopf, Inc. Reprinted by permission of Susan Bergholz Literary Services, New York and Lamy, NM. All rights reserved. Copyright©2000 by Sandra Cisneros. First published in LATINA SELF-PORTRAITS, edited by Bridget Kevane and Juanita Heredia, published by University of New Mexico Press in 2002. Reprinted by permission of Susan Bergholz Literary Services, New York and Lamy, NM. All rights reserved. INDEX

abuelita (grandmother), 124–25, 127–28 Arana, Marie (Marie Arana’s mother), African diaspora, 5, 8–10, 27, 62, 76, 81, 111, 116–28 84–87, 106 Arana, Marie (Marisi), 2–4, 6, 9–12, 131 “Afro Latina” or “Afro Puerto Rican,” abuelita (grandmother) of, 124–25, use of the terms, 145n6 127–28 Alarcón, Daniel, 112, 150n6 in Asia, 110 Alarcón, Norma, 6, 17, 135n4, 139n17 author’s meeting with, 137n18 Aldama, Frederick, 136n5, 138n4 birthplace of, 109 Alexander, Jacqui, 6, 135n4 book editor at Washington Post, Alfaro Olympia (Omí Sanyá), 76 110–11 Alfaro, Xiomara, 75–76 Cellophane, 109, 112 Allison, Dorothy, 143n21 childhood of, 109, 116–19 Alvarez, Julia, 85, 91, 109, 135n3, in Lima, 109, 120, 124, 129 136n5–6, 147n2 Lima Nights, 109, 112 Anaya, Rudolfo, 13–14, 140n18 marriages of, 122 Anders, Gigi, 111 in New Jersey, 109, 128–29 Angelitos Negros (film), 24, 27–28, 31 in New York, 128 Anthony, Marc, 147n28 at Northwestern University, 109 antihaitianismo (anti-Haitianism), 88, as a señorita de Lima, 124, 127 148n6 at University of Hong Kong, 110 Anzaldúa, Gloria, 17, 107, 138n7, visit to United States, 116–17, 127 140n21 in Washington, D. C., 129 Aparicio, Ana, 148n8, 149n22–23, Arana, Marie: American Chica: Two 149n26 Worlds, One Childhood: Aparicio, Frances, 62, 75–76, 136n7, politics of gender and race in, 137n16, 139n14, 145n5, 146n19 120–24 apus (a strong force from nature), 123, Santa Rosa de Lima in, 120 152n17 El Señor de los Milagros in, 120, Arana, Jorge (father of Marie), 110, 152n14 118–19, 124–26 skin color in, 117–18 Arana, Julio César (great-grandfather of slavery critiqued in, 151n10 Marie Arana), 110, 114–15 transnational migrations in, 111 168 Index Argentina, 139n12, 151n8 Capetillo, Luisa, 144n1 Argueda, José María, 152n16 Cárdenas, Lázaro, 139n12 Arnaz, Desi, 19, 127n27 Caribbean Cultural Center (New York), arrabales (working-class 64, 84, 145n2 neighborhoods), 19 Carpentier, Alejo, 149n14 Arredondo, Gabriela, 47, 143n18 castas (social caste system), 40, 143n15 Arriba las Mujeres (film), 26 Castellanos, Rosario, 19 Azuela, Mariano, 142n12 Castillo, Ana, 47, 135n3, 136n5, 141n24, 143n19, 144n25 Báez, Josefina, 148n2 Castro, Fidel, 75, 145n3 Balaguer, Joaquín, 85, 92, 94–95, 148n6 Catholicism, 24, 29, 31, 42, 53, 56–57, Basch, Linda, 4, 136n9 68–69, 73, 83, 88–89, 119, 123, Batista, Fulgencio, 94 125, 146n12 Bauzá, Mario, 146n20 Chabram-Dernersesian, Angie, 136n9 Belpré, Pura Teresa, 145n1 Chávez, Denise, 2–4, 6, 9–10, 35, 41, Benitez, Rafael, 76 64, 70, 99, 109, 131 Benmayor, Rina, 49 author’s meeting with, 34 Bergholz, Susan, 135n3 awards for, 14 Berry, Halle, 146n16 The Contested Homeland: A Chicano Bhabha, Homi, 129 History of New Mexico, 15 Binder, Wolfgang, 143n14 as director of Border Book Blanc, Cristina Szanton, 136n9 Festival, 34 Blanco, Andrés Eloy, 76–77 drama training of, 14 Bonfil Batalla, Guillermo, 42, 45, education of, 13–14 142n11, 143n15 Face of An Angel, 13, 23, 29, 135n3 Border Book Festival, 34 on humor, 14–15 border feminism, transnational, 16–18, Las Cruces, New Mexico 20, 24, 27–33 (birthplace), 13, 15–16, 34 “Boricua,” use of the term, 145n1 Last of the Menu Girls, The, 14, 23 Bost, Suzanne, 8 on Pedro Infante’s films, 18 Brady, Mary Pat, 136n5, 138n5 meets Rudolfo Anaya, 13–14 mother of, 14, 137–8n3 Cabezas, Amalia Lucía, 149n17 terms “Chicana/Chicano” and Calderón, Héctor, 33, 38, 45, 136n5, “Mexicana/Mexicano” used by, 136n11, 137n12, 141n1, 141n4, 26, 41 142n12 transnational border feminism of, 10, Caminero-Santangelo, Marta, 136n5 16–18, 20, 24, 27–33 Campbell, Marie. See Arana, Marie Chávez, Denise: Loving Pedro Infante: Campbell as bridging Chicano and Mexican Canclini, Néstor García, 21 cultural discourses, 10, 24, 33 Candelario, Ginetta E. B., 148n6, fan club in, 18, 20–24, 27–28, 30, 34, 148n9, 150n28 140n20 El Cantante (film), 147n28 humor in, 138n4 Cantinflas (Mario Moreno), 32 Infante as cultural icon in, 17–18, 22, Cantú, Norma, 137n1 24, 28 Index 169 Infante’s flaws in, 28 Cisneros, Sandra: Caramelo, or, Puro masculinity in, 28–30 Cuento: Mexican culture in, 31–32 Chicago as setting in, 39, 46–49, 51, politics of gender in, 10, 21–24, 55–56 26–28, 30–31, 57 colonial legacy in, 40–47 Rio Grande in, 32 footnotes used in, 38, 142n8 role of film in, 5, 10, 18–21, historical discourse critiqued in, 24–27, 99 38–39 social consciousness in, 25–26 imaginary Mexico in, 39–41 spirituality in, 22–24 mestizaje (mixed race) in, 41–42 Chávez, John, 137n13 Mexico City as setting in, 39, 41, Chicago: 43–50, 55–57, 120, 142n6, 144n24 history of Mexicans in, 10, 47–52, migration in, 47–52 143n18 as mimicry of telenovelas, 37 as setting in Caramelo (Cisneros), 39, politics of gender and race in, 35, 46–49, 51, 55–56 37–46, 50, 52–59 Childs, Matt D., 145n3 rebozo in, 46, 48, 53, 57, 59, 143n23 Cisneros, Sandra, 2–4, 6, 9–11, 17, 64, reviews of, 37–38 71, 109, 120, 129, 131–32 skin color in, 41, 46, 48 as activist, 144n28 storytelling in, 142n10 in Chicago, 36, 38 truth in, 38–39 childhood of, 36, 38–39 Cisneros, Sandra: Woman Hollering Creek compared with Chávez, 35, 57 and Other Stories, 35, 135n3, 141n2, in Europe, 36, 141n5 141n4, 143n16 as a global citizen, 141n5 “Bien Pretty,” 137n1, 141n3, 144n29 on global connections and “Eyes of Zapata,” 43, 55, 142n12–13 perspectives, 37, 137n15 “Mericans,” 45, 50 home of, 60, 142n6 “Mexican Movies,” 137n1, 141n3 The House on Mango Street, 35–36, “Never Marry a Mexican,” 45 141n2, 141n5 “Tepeyac,” 142n6 at Iowa Writers’ Workshop, 36 colonialism, 3, 6–8, 11, 131–32 as keynote speaker at the Tenth in Cuba, 146n17 Annual Latina Letters conference, in Dominican Republic, 87–88, 59–60 148n3 literary director of the Guadalupe in Mexico, 15, 17, 49, 42, 45, 52–54, Cultural Arts Center, 36–37 139n17, 143n14 migrations and travels of, 36–40 in Peru, 114–16, 126 NEA fellowship recipient, 36 in Puerto Rico, 78 parents of, 36 slavery and, 68 poetry of, 141n1, 141n5 Spanish, 3, 64, 83, 87–88, 113–14, in San Antonio, 36–37 151n9 summer visits to Mexico City, 36, U. S., 78, 83 38–39, 41 Columbus, Christopher, 88, 95, 149n18 as transnational ambassador, Conger, Amy, 143n24 35, 37 consumerism, 97, 99, 143n18, 149n25 170 Index Coonrod Martínez, Elizabeth, 147n2 Dever, Susan, 138n11 Coronado, Raúl, 140n21 Di Iorio Sandín, Lyn, 136n5 Cosby, Bill, 86 El Día de los Muertos (the day of the Cruz, Angie, 2–4, 6, 9–11, 129, 131 dead), 83 author’s meeting with, 108 diasporas, 52, 135n2, 136n10–11, birthplace of, 85 137n17 on consumerism, 149n25 African, 5, 8–10, 27, 62, 76, 81, at the Fashion Institute of 84–87, 106 Technology, 86 Dominican, 11, 85, 87–89, 94, founder of WILL (Women in 100–104, 107 Literature and Letters), 87 Peruvian, 125, 127–30 influence of Bill Cosby, 86 Puerto Rican, 11, 64, 72 at New York University, 87 Díaz, Junot, 85, 142n8, 148n10, 149n18, Soledad, 11, 85, 89, 101 149n24 at SUNY, Binghamton, 86–87 Dominican diaspora, 11, 85, 87–89, 94, Cruz, Angie: Let It Rain Coffee, 5, 11 100–104, 107 consumer culture in, 97, 99 Dominican Republic: Cruz on, 90 Chinese immigration to, 93, 107, politics of gender and race in, 149n15, 149n19 100–104 diaspora, 11, 85, 87–89, 94, social alienation in, 98 100–104, 107 transnational genealogy in, 93 history of, 86–93 transnational migration in, 105–108 migratory experience of, 85 Washington Heights in, 85–87, 89, slavery in, 86, 93, 137n17, 148n3, 91–92, 97–102, 105, 108 149n16 Cruz, Celia, 75–76, 82, 84 U. S. invasion of, 8, 148n13 Cuban Revolution, 88, 92, 96, 149n14 Douglass, Frederick, 86 cuentista (storyteller), 38, 44, 142n10 Duany, Jorge, 63, 146n14, 149n21 cuentos (fictional stories), 17, 38 Dunham, Katherine, 74, 76, 146n16 Curiel, Barbara, 55, 141n4, 142n13 Eidse, Faith, 112–13 Dallas (television series), 92, 96, 99, El Barrio (Spanish Harlem), 3, 5, 11, 148n12 62–65, 67–68, 72, 78–79 Dalleo, Raphael, 136n5, 136n11, Ellington, Duke, 147n23 150n31 Espitia, Marilyn, 151n13 Dandridge, Dorothy, 74, 146n16 Esteves, Sandra María, 145n1 Danticat, Edwidge, 87, 142n8, 148n10 Davis, Mike, 129 Falconi, José Luis, 150n3, 150n5 de Barrios, Domitila, 17 Falola, Toyin, 145n3 de la Mora, Sergio, 30, 138n8, fanfarrón (a show-off), 49 140n19–20 Fanon, Frantz, 151n9 de la Renta, Oscar, 86 Fein, Seth, 139n12 del Rio, Dolores, 32 Felix, Maria, 32 Delgadillo, Theresa, 140n20, 147n22 feminism, transnational border, 16–18, deportation, 51, 143n21 20, 24, 27–33 Index 171 Fernández, Raúl , 137n16, 145n5, hair and racial identity, 77, 88, 117, 146n18 148n7, 150n28 Flores, Juan, 72, 136n10, 137n16, 145n5, Haiti, 69, 85, 87–89, 91, 93, 95, 106, 150n29 146n11, 148n3, 148n8–10, Flores, William V., 49 148–49n14 folk healer, archetype of, 140n18 Haitian Revolution, 88, 149n14 Fox, Claire, 138n6, 139n12, 141n25 Hall, Stuart, 136n10, 137n17 Fregoso, Rosa Linda, 138n10 Hames-García, Michael, 140n21 French Revolution, 88, 138n11 Hansen, Miriam, 25, 138n10, 139n14 Frida (film), 142n6, 142n12, 143n22 Hass, Robert, 130 Fuentes, Carlos, 19, 144n27, 148n11 Hayek, Salma, 142n6, 143n21 Hayworth, Rita, 32 García, Ana María, 78 Heredia, Juanita, 14, 18, 37–39, 56, García, Cristina, 93, 109, 135n3, 136n5–6 137n18, 141n4, 142n9, 142n10, García, Gustavo, 141n27 143n24, 146n18 García, Juan, 47, 143n17, 143n20 Hernández Cruz, Victor, 145n1 García, Sara, 140n19 Hernández Hiraldo, Samiri, 67, 145n11, gay identity, 30, 140n21 146n12 Gillespie, Dizzy, 146n17, 146n20, Herrera-Sobek, María, 142n9 147n23 Hershfield, Joanne, 19–20 Gilroy, Paul, 5, 136n10–11, 137n17, Higgins, James, 152n15 148n3, 149n16 Hijuelos, Oscar, 145n9, 146n21 Gimbel, Wendy, 111 “Hispanic,” use of the term, 116, 151n11 Glick Schiller, Nina, 4, 136n9 Hispaniola, 87–89, 149n18 globalization, 35, 54, 107, 131, 144n27, Hollywood’s portrayal of Latin culture, 151n9 19, 32, 38, 139n12, 139n14 Golden Age Mexican cinema (1936–56), Hollywood’s portrayal of womanhood, 10, 13, 16–22, 24–25, 28, 30, 74–75, 145n7 32–34, 38, 138n7, 138n12, 139n13, Hull House (Chicago), 47 141n3 Goldring, Luin, 136n9 I Love Lucy (television series), 19, 147n27 Gonzáles-Berry, Erlinda, 14–15, 136n9 im/migration: González, Bill Johnson, 46 “American Dream” for, 39, 99, González y Reutilio, Celina, 75 149n13 Good Neighbor Policy, 139n12, 148n11 Chinese, 93, 107, 149n15, 149n19 Goodman, Benny, 147n23 Dominican, 9, 11, 85, 87, 92, 96, 98, gossip, 138n5 104–108, 149n22 Granda, Chabuca, 152n15 labor force, 10, 47–48 Grewal, Inderpal, 7, 135n4 Mexican, 10, 15–16, 38–40, 47–52, Grillo, Graciela, 75, 77 143n18 Grosfoguel, Ramón, 136n11 Peruvian, 109, 111–20, 150n3, Guarnizo, Luis Eduardo, 4 152n14 Guerra, Juan Luis, 106, 150n32 popular culture and, 73–79 Guerrero, Elisabeth, 55 Puerto Rican, 61–65, 68 Gutiérrez, David, 142n9 See also transnational migration 172 Index Infante, Pedro: 24–27 Mariátegui, José Carlos, 137n18, 150n7, Chávez on, 18 151n12 as culture icon, 17–18, 22, 24, 28, 33 mass media, 70, 92, 99, 138n6, 143n21 death of, 17, 30, 33 Mazella, David, 38 films of, 24–28, 30–31, 139n17, Mazzotti, José Antonio, 150n3, 150n5 140n20, 141n26, 146n22 McCracken, Ellen, 39, 135n2, 137n12, flaws of, 28 141n4 wives of, 21 Menchaca, Martha, 137n14 See also Chávez, Denise: Loving Pedro Menchú, Rigoberta, 17 Infante mestiza consciousness, 138n7 Islas, Arturo, 140n21 mestizaje (mixed race), 8–9, 16, 32, 40–42, 52, 137n14, 143n23, 151n8 Jiménez, Francisco, 137n1, 141n24 Mexican Revolution (1910), 8, 19, 26, Jones Act of 1917, 64 42–43, 49, 52, 53, 55, 142n12–13, 143n24 Kahlo, Frida, 142n6, 143n23 Mexico: Kaplan, Caren, 6–7, 135n4 colonialism in, 15, 17, 49, 42, 45, Kevane, Bridget, 14, 18, 37–39, 56, 52–54, 139n17, 143n14 136n5, 137n12, 141n4, 142n10 culture of, 10, 13, 31–36, 40, 47, 49, Kitt, Eartha, 147n22 52–56, 137n3, 143n24 Klein, Herbert S., 151n10 immigration from Chicago to, 10, 47–52, 143n18 Laó-Montes, Agustín, 8, 145n6 slavery in, 40–41 Las Cruces, New Mexico, 13, 15–16, 34 See also Golden Age Mexican cinema Latin Jazz, 11, 62, 74–75, 77, 83, 145n5, (1936–56) 146n18, 146n20 Mexico’s Cinema, 19 “Latina/o,” use of the term, 135n1 Mexico City: Laviera, Tato, 145n1 arrabales (working-class Llosa, Mario Vargas, 112 neighborhoods) in, 19 López, Adriana, 38 author’s visit to, 32–33, 60 López, Jennifer, 147n28 in Caramelo (Cisneros), 39, 41, 43–50, Louverture, Toussaint, 88 55–57, 120, 142n6, 144n24 Luis, William, 144n1 Cisneros in, 10, 36, 142n10 as a colonial city, 125 Machado Sáez, Elena, 136n5, 136n11, in Loving Pedro Infante (Chávez), 150n31 19–20, 26 Machito, 75–77, 81–82 painted homes in, 142n6 Maciel, David, 14–15, 19–20, 137n13, as a transcendental city, 57 139n16 Mignolo, Walter, 112, 136n8, 137n18 Madsen, Deborah, 136n5, 137n12 migration, transnational, 3–6, 8–9, Malcolm X, 86–87, 107, 148n3–4 11, 39, 49, 52–53, 65, 89, 92–93, Mambo, 11, 62, 66, 74–76, 81–82, 96, 136n9, 143n18. See also 147n27 im/migration Manguel, Alberto, 111 Miller, Glenn, 147n23 Manito (film), 149n23, 149n27 Miranda, Carmen, 19, 75 Index 173 Moallem, Minoo, 6, 135n4 Peru: Mohanty, Chandra, 7, 54 Bridge of Sighs (Puente de los Mohr, Nicholasa, 61, 144n1 Suspiros) in, 120, 152n15 Monsiváis, Carlos, 19, 55, 139n12–13, history of mestizaje in, 151n8 142n12 im/migration, 109, 111–20, 150n3, Moraga, Cherríe, 29, 107, 116, 139n17, 152n14 140n21 Marie Arana in Lima, 109, 120, Morales, Iris, 78 124, 129 Moreno, Mario (Cantinflas), 32 Peruvian diaspora, 125, 127–30 Moreno, Rita, 146n15 Piazzolla, Astor, 59 Moya, Paula, 136n5 pishtacos (indigenous ghosts), 122 Moya Pons, Frank, 148n13, 149n14, Poniatowska, Elena, 54–55, 142n12, 149n16–17 143–44n24 Mujeres de Mi General, Las (film), 24, 26 popular culture, 2–4, 7, 10, 16, 19–20, mulattos, 27, 40, 88–89, 92, 151n10 31–37, 73–79, 96, 136n7, 139n14, 140n22, 142n9 Nava, Gregory, 143n21 Pozo, Chano, 146n20 Nava, Michael, 140n21 Prado, Pérez, 74–75 Negrón-Muntaner, Frances, 72, 145n4, Presley, Elvis, 30 145n7 Puente, Tito, 75–76, 81–82, 84, 146n20 neocolonialism, 12, 114, 139n12, 151n9 Puerto Rican diaspora, 11, 64, 72 New Mexico, 2, 13, 15–18, 22, 31, Puerto Rico: 33–34 colonialism in, 78 Noriega, Chon, 20 popular culture and, 73–79 Nosotros, Los Pobres (film), 31 race and religion in, 67–68 Nueva España (present Mexico), 40, 53 slavery in, 62, 69 Nuyorican identity, 61–62, 135n1, Spanish Harlem and, 62–65, 67–68, 147n2 72, 78–79 U. S. occupation and colonization of Oboler, Suzanne, 51, 111, 124, 137n18, (1898), 8, 146n12 150n3, 151n11–12 puro cuento (pure truth), 38 orishas (goddesses/gods of nature), 62, 69, 145n3, 147n28 qosqo (center), 123 Öztarhan, Esra Sahtiyanci, 142n10 Quiñónez, Ernesto, 145n1, 146n13 Quintana, Alvina, 136n5, 137n12 Pachamama, 123–24 Quijano, Aníbal, 137n18, 151n8–9 Paerregaard, Karsten, 152n14, 152n18 Palladium Ballroom, 66, 98, 145n9 Raising Victor Vargas (film), 149n27 Paredes, Américo, 4–5 Rebolledo, Tey Diana, 136n5, 138n3–4 Paz, Octavio, 19 rebozos (shawls), 46, 48, 52–53, 57, 59, Pérez, Loida Maritza, 147n2 143n22–23 Pérez, Richard, 136n5 Rechy, John, 137n1, 140n21 Pérez, Rosie, 78–79, 147n24 La Regla de Ocha (the law of the Pérez y González, Maria E., 145n4 orishas), 62, 67, 77, 83, 147n25. See Pérez-Torres, Rafael, 8, 160 also Santería (the Way of the Saints) 174 Index Ricourt, Milagros, 147n1, 149n22 Schomburg, Arturo, 144n1 Rivera, Diego, 138n3 El Señor de los Milagros, 120, 152n14 Rivera, Raquel, 145n5 September 11, 2001, terrorist attacks of, Rodoreda, Mercé, 141n5 37, 51 Rodríguez, Arsenio, 75 Sharpe, Jenny, 83, 137n17 Rodriguez, Ismael, 33 Shea, Renee H., 54 Rodríguez, Ralph, 136n5 Shohat, Ella, 54, 135n4 Rodríguez, Richard, 140n21 Sichel, Nina, 112–13 Rodríguez, Tito, 75, 81 slave narratives, 86, 148n3 Roorda, Eric Paul, 148n11, 149n14 slaves and slavery: Roosevelt, Franklin D., 94, 148n11 assimilation of, 68–69 Rosario, Nelly, 147n2, 148n10 in Cuba, 63, 76, 79, 146n17 Rouse, Roger, 39–40 in the Dominican Republic, 86, 93, Rubenstein, Anne, 30, 33, 139n12, 137n17, 148n3, 149n16 140n19 in Haiti, 88, 146n11 Ruiz, Vicki, 138n10 Incan, 114–15 Rulfo, Juan, 19 influence on music, 64, 83 Rushdie, Salman, 39 in Mexico, 40–41 in Peru, 151n10 Sagás, Ernesto, 148n6 in Puerto Rico, 62, 69 Said, Edward, 39, 58–59, 139n14 Smith, Michael Peter, 4 Saldaña-Portillo, María Josefina, 12 soldadera (soldier woman), 26, 55 Saldívar, José David, 20, 136n7, Spanish American War, 64 136n11 Spanish Conquest, 3, 11, 12, 45, 51, Saldívar, Ramón, 4–6, 136n11 114–15, 125, 151n8–10 Saldívar-Hull, Sonia, 17, 136n5, 137n12, Spanish Harlem (El Barrio), 3, 5, 11, 141n4, 143n16 62–65, 67–68, 72, 78–79 Salsa, 11, 75, 81, 137n16, 147n28 spiritismo (spirits of the ancestors), 62, Sampaio, Anna, 150n3 64, 83 Sánchez, Marta, 61, 144n1 Stander, Bella, 150n2 Sánchez González, Lisa, 136n5, 137n12, Stewart, Jacqueline, 25, 138n9 144n1, 145n6 Suárez, Lucía, 92, 149n14 Sang, Mu-Kien Adriana, 149n15, 149n19 Taymor, Julie, 142n6 Santa Rosa de Lima, 120 telenovelas (Spanish soap operas), 33, 37, Santa Teresa de Avila, 23–24 46–47 Santería (the Way of the Saints), 62–64, Teresa de Avila, Saint. See Santa Teresa 66, 68–69, 73, 76, 79, 145n1, de Avila 145n10, 146n19, 147n28. See also Thomas, Piri, 61, 144n1 La Regla de Ocha (the law of A Toda Máquina (film), 24, 30 the orisha) Torres-Saillant, Silvio, 8, 86, 88, 92, Sarmiento, Domingo Faustino, 136n11, 137n17, 145n6, 148n3, 151n8 149n14, 149n16, 149n18, 149n21, Sayers, Valerie, 38 150n5 Index 175 transnational ambassadors, 9, 14, Spanish Harlem and, 62–65, 67–68, 32, 35, 64, 83–84, 121, 132, 72, 78–79 141n25 as transnational ambassador, 64, transnational border feminism, 16–20, 84–85 24, 27–33, 138n7 visit to Cuba, 63 transnational migration, 3–6, 8–9, 11, Vega, Marta Moreno: When the Spirits 39, 52–53, 65, 89, 92–93, 96, Dance Mambo: Growing Up 136n9 Nuyorican in El Barrio: transnational studies, 4 Abuela Luisa, role of, 65–69, 72–74, transnationalism, definition of, 4 82–83 Treaty of Guadalupe (1848), 8, 15, El Barrio (Spanish Harlem) in, 43, 94 62–65, 67–68, 72, 78–79 Tres Huastecos, Los (film), 31 Music and Art High School in, tropicalization, 19, 75, 139n14 79–83 Trujillo, Rafael, 88, 91–92, 94–96, politics of gender and race in, 148n10–11 69–73, 75 popular culture in, 73–79 Ugly Betty (television series), 143n21 power dynamics in, 70 Santería in, 62–64, 66–69, 73, 76–77, Valdez, Luis, 149n27 79, 83 Valentino, Rudolfo, 32, 139n14 transnational migration in, 65 Van Vleet, Krista E., 152n17 Vélez-Ibañez, Carlos G., 150n3 Vasconcelos, José, 19 vendida/traidora, image of, 139n17 Vega, Marta Moreno, 2–4, 6, 9–11, 131 Villa, Raúl Homero, 51 The Altar of My Soul; The Living Vinson III, Ben, 151n10 Traditions of Santería, 62–63, 69, Viramontes, Helena Maria, 17, 136n5, 83, 145n3, 145n10, 147n25 141n24 author’s meeting with, 84 La Virgen de Guadalupe, 26, 56, 57, 60, birthplace of, 62 144n25 on Castro, 143n3 Viruell-Fuentes, Edna, 25–26 childhood of, 64 Cuando los espíritus bailan mambo Washington Heights (film), 150n27 (documentary), 63–64, 79, 83–84, Washington Heights (New York City), 145n3 3, 11, 85–87, 89, 91–92, 97–102, education of, 62 105, 108, 148n4, 149n21, founder of the Caribbean Culture 149n26 Center/African Diaspora Wedel, Johan, 145n10 Institute, 63 West Side Story, 65, 73–74, 145n7, on her grandmother’s influence, 146n15 145n3 West, Cornel, 8 at Music and Art High School, Wheatley, Phyllis, 86 147n26 women, representations of, 74–75, as priestess, 64, 79, 83–84, 145n3 139n17, 140n19, 145n7 on Santería, 62 Wood, Natalie, 146n15 176 Index World War I, 148n13 Yo Soy Boricua (documentary), 78–79 World War II, 8, 42, 48, 51, 61, 65, 110, Young Lords activism, 65, 78, 139n12 145n1

Yampolsky, Mariana, 54–55, 143n22, Zevallos-Aguilar, Ulises J., 111–12, 143n24 150n5 Yarbro-Bejarano, Yvonne, 136n5 Zoot Suit (film), 149n27