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Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-00013-1 - Discoveries of the Census of Marine Life: Making Ocean Life Count Paul V. R. Snelgrove Index More information

INDEX

abundance of species, 235, 239 see also kelps; seaweeds abyssal plains, 23 allopatric speciation, 127 bedrock, 35 allozymes, 48 bioregions, 182 Alphaproteobacteria, 147 biota, 14, 35, 54, 182 Alvin submersible, 50–1, 75–6, 175–8 new species, 45 see also submersibles, manned nutrients, 35, 34–5 American lobster, 5, 104 species distribution, 188 ammonium cycling, 152 water pressure, 35 Amperima rosea, 191 Abyssochrysidae, 176 amphipods, 6, 17, 33 acidification of oceans, 106, 136, 153, 194, Antarctic, 127 223, 237 Arctic, 33, 128, 130, 132, 133 Acipenser medirostris, 161 Amundsen Sea, 135 Acipenser transmontanus, 161 anadromous fishes, 80, 157, 161 acoustic sensors, 72, 73, 77–8 anchovies, 156, 165, 211 arrays of, 150, 158 anglerfish, 7 hydrophones, 78, 80 Antarctic Circumpolar Current, 126, 129 imaging, 235 Antarctic Convergence, 126, 127, multibeam, 74 129, 137 and sampling, 77 Antarctic marbled rockcod, 124 tags, 80 Antarctic Ocean,31 Aequorea macrodactyla, 150 area, 124 Africa, unknown marine bacteria, 152 fauna, 100 biodiversity, 31, 135 Alaria fistulosa, 101 biological isolation, 126 albacore tuna, 165 continental shelf, 30, 126, 132, 135 albatrosses, 5, 73, 165, 237 ecoregions, 124 Aleutian Islands, 16 fisheries, 136 alewife, 27, 216 human influence, 124 Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, 10 Larsen B area, 130, 184 algae, 128, 152 national claims, 136–7

© in this web service Cambridge University Press www.cambridge.org Cambridge University Press 978-1-107-00013-1 - Discoveries of the Census of Marine Life: Making Ocean Life Count Paul V. R. Snelgrove Index More information

256 Index

Antarctic Ocean (cont.) seeps, 188 national research, 124 standard research methodology, 83 new species, 45 warming, 133, 135, 156 pelagic species, 129 whales, 129, 133 seal tagging, 98 see also polar oceans slope biodiversity, 181 Arctica islandica, longevity, 5 tourism, 136 Argentina, 97 tropic emergence, 126–7 Aristotle, 47 warming, 136 Astrotoma agassizii, 126 see also Southern Ocean Atlantic gray whales, 217 Antimora rostrata, 190 auks, 86, 121, 217 apex predators, 221, 223 Aulacoctena, 122 aquaria, 98 Aureophycus aleuticus, 97 Archaea Austrodoris kerguelenensis, 127 abundance, 152 Aurora Australis, 184 ammonium cycling, 152 Australia, fisheries decline, 215–16 Arctic, xiii, 134, 135 Austropallene cornigera, 123 numbers of, 146 Ausubel, Jesse, 10, 16, 76 in vents, 37 Autonomous Benthic Explorer archeology, evidence from, 107, 211, 212, (ABE), 196 214, 218–19 Autonomous Reef Monitoring archival tags, 81 Structure (ARMS), 83, 98, 103, 110 Arctic Ocean Diversity (ArcOD) project, autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs), xiii, 14 xiv, 24, 72, 239 Arctic biogeographical history, 126 Autonomous Benthic Explorer, 196 collaboration, 124, 134, 237 REMUS, 51 methodology and sampling standards, untethered, 76 83, 134 Azores, 36 new species, 132–3 project research conditions, 121 bacteria, 9, 150 Arctic Council, 237 Arctic, xiii, 134, 135 Arctic Ocean, xiii, 14, 30, 50 diversity of, xiii area, 124 nitrogen-fixing, 153 biodiversity, 31, 102 numbers of, xiii cod, 130 in vents, 37 continental shelf, 124–6, 132 bacterial respiration, 180 deep-ocean biodiversity, 135 bait, 75 differences from Antarctic, 126 Baja California, 166, 237 ecoregions, 124 Balaena mysticetus, longevity, 5 fisheries, 136 Baltic Sea, herring, 211, 214 human influence, 124 Banco Chinchorro reef, 104 hydrothermal vents, 135 barcoding, xii–xiii, 48, 74, ice cover, 128–9, 135 82–3 ice-water interface, biota, 128 ArcOD project, 134 light penetration, 128, 129 CAML project, 134 microbes, xiii, 152 CMarZ project, 82, 154–5 migration into, 126 CReefs project, 102–3 prospecting in, 136 coral reef organisms, 102–3

Index 257

future development of, 239 “blue highways,” 164 method for, 52–3 blue mussels, 53 naming of new species, 103 blue sharks, 165 whalefish, 56 blue whales, 124, 165 zooplankton, 82, 154–5 bluefin tuna, 6, 79 Barents Sea fisheries, 136, 211 migration, 5, 163, 164, 165 barges, 161 in northern European, 220–1 bathyal habitats, 58 size decline, 219 bathymetry, 48 blue-green bacteria see Cyanobacteria bathypelagic zones, exploration bongo nets, 50 of, 238 bottles, 50, 74 Bay of Fundy, 211 Bouchet, Philippe, 61 Beagle, voyage of, 48, 49 bowhead whale, longevity, 5 Beaufort Sea, 33, 50 box corer, 50 Beebe, William, 175 Brazil, seagrass beds, 100 Benguela Current, zooplankton, 156 break points, 100–1 benthic boundary layer, new species, 132 brine pools, 180 Benthoctopus rigbyae, 17 Britain, fisheries decline, 215 Bering Strait, 126 brittle stars, 126, 132, 184 Beverton, R. J. H., 216 bryozoans, 5, 133 billfish, latitudinal diversity, 155 bubble gum coral, 108 binomial nomenclature, 47 Bucklin, Ann, 74 biodiversity bull kelp, 110 Census discoveries, 233–5 bycatch, 221–3, 237 definition, 8 global estimate, 9–10 Caboto, Giovanni (John Cabot), 48, 214 see also under individual ecosystems; Calanus finmarchicus, 129 organisms and projects calcareous sponges, 133 Biogeography of Deep-Water Chemosynthetic California Current, 164, 165–6, 189 Ecosystems (ChEss) project, 14, 178 California Marine Sanctuaries chemosynthetic environment protection, 237 cameras, 71, 75, 77 hydrothermal vent investigation HabCam, 112 code, 237 torpedo, 77 sampling, 76 video, 75, 76 vent discoveries, 188 CAML see Census of Antarctic Marine Life biologging, 25, 34, 78, 80–2 project see also tagging Canada Basin, 33, 122, 132, 133 biological oceanography, xi Canadian Healthy Oceans Network (CHONe), bipolar species, 134, 152 184, 242 bivalve mollusks, 126, 180, 183 Canary Current, 189 Black Sea, 152, 156, 184 canyons, 34, 189, 193 black smoker vents, 76 capelin, 129 see also hydrothermal vents Captain Arutyunov mud volcano, 16 black-footed albatross, 165, 237 carbon cycling, 147, 152, 154, 184, 190 Block, Barbara, 81 carbon dioxide, x, 194, 223 blue chromis, 17, 104 Caretta caretta, migration, 163 blue crabs, 79 Caribbean, 46, 53, 59, 100 blue hake, 190 Carson, Rachel, 8, 10

258 Index

Cashes Ledge, 100 cerianthid anemones, 110 CEAMARC 2008 joint expedition, 123 chaetognath arrow worms, 154, 155 CeDAMar see Census of Diversity of Abyssal Challenger expedition, 48, 49, 72 Marine Life project Champsocephalus gunnari, 124 CenSeam see Global Census of Marine Life on Chelonia mydas, longevity, 5 Seamounts project chemical oceanography, xi Census of Antarctic Marine Life (CAML) chemicals, sensing of, 72, 76 project, xiii, 14 chemosynthetic environment protection, 237 collaboration, 124 Chesapeake oyster beds, 217 launch of, 133–4 ChEss see Biogeography of Deep-Water new species, 133 Chemosynthetic Ecosystems project and Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems, 237 Chile, 100, 101 Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems (CReefs) chimneys, 191 project, xiii, 14, 95 Chinese ocean biota, species checklists, 83 reef management tools, 237 chinook salmon, 157–62, 160–1 and reef monitoring structure, 83 chlorophyll, 81, 101–2, 148 sampling methods, 102–7, 103–6 Chromis abyssus, 17 Census of Diversity of Abyssal Marine Life Chromis cyanea, 104 (CeDAMar) project, 14, 178 Chuckchi Sea, 133, 136 corers, 75 cinema, 76–7 and endemic abyssal species, 193 clams, 3, 191 manganese nodule area conservation, 237 Clarke, Arthur C., 3 new Antarctic species, 133 climate change, 54 Porcupine Abyssal Plain study, 190 see also global warming standardized sampling, 83, 180 Clione limacina, 122 taxonomic revision, 183 Clupea harengus, 129, 211 Census of Marine Life Cluzaud, Jacques, 76 applications and results, 236–7, 241 CMarZ see Census of Marine Zooplankton future developments, 242 project inception, 9 cnidarians, longevity, 5 national participation, 12, 13 coastal zones, 25–30 objectives, 11 biomass decline, 219 project study areas, 15 Census projects, 95–7 projects, 12, 15 hypoxia, 223 rediscovered species, 235 latitudinal biodiversity, 155 research method, xi–xii new species, 45 species discovered, 12–13, Cobscook Bay, 101 16–17, 155 cod zooplankton barcoding, 155 Arctic, 33, 128 Census of Marine Zooplankton (CMarZ) as medieval staple, 214 project, xiii, 14 farming of, 224 and evolutionary relationships, 87 Newfoundland decline, 29, 211, 214, and holoplankton, 153–4 215, 223 methods, 154 size decline, 218 sampling, 45 coho salmon, 160, 216 species identiﬁcation, 61–2, 74, 82, 83 COI barcoding see barcoding cephalopods, 101, 155, 181 “cold spots,” xii, 13 see also octopuses; squid cold-water corals, 36, 221 ceratoid anglerﬁsh, 7 Columbus, 48, 72

Index 259

COMARGE see Continental Margin bleaching, 106 Ecosystems on a Worldwide Scale project bubblegum, 108 comb jellies, 122, 156 cold-water, 36, 221 Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic deep-water, 35, 108, 130, 180, 185 Marine Living Resources, 237 diversity hot spots, 101 conductivity–temperature–depth (CTD) Gulf of Maine, 108 sensors, 50, 81 identification, 53 Congo River Canyon, 189 sea corn, 108 contaminants see pollutants on seamounts, 190 Continental Margin Ecosystems on a in Southern Ocean, 180 Worldwide Scale (COMARGE) project, 14 corers, 75, 197 sampling devices, 75, 180 Cousteau, Jacques, 8 dataset compatibility, 179, 183 cownose rays, 223 deep-sea biodiversity, 182 crabs, 16, 45, 79 continental margins, 14, 179 CReefs see Census of Coral Reef Ecosystems continental shelf, 23, 186 project continental slope, 23 Crenarchaeota, 152 and land runoff, 35 crustaceans, 45, 126, 188 mid-slope peak diversity, 181 Curaçao, 5 Nova Scotia, 36 curtain sensors, 12 nutrient supply, 179 Cyanobacteria, 147–52 sampling, 186 Cyphoma gibbosum, 7 continuous plankton recorders, 155, 239 cytochrome oxidase I (COI), 53, 82, 102–3 Convention on Biological Diversity, 237 Cook, James, 48, 74 dams, 160–1, 237 copepods damselfish, 17 Arctic, 17, 129, 133, 151 Darwin, Charles, 48, 49 Black Sea, 156 data rescue, 54, 240 calanoid, 154 databases diversity, 154 merging, 72, 84–5 East Asia, 155, 156 OBIS, 15, 54 at Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 190 taxonomic consistency, 62 North Sea, 156 see also under individual projects Southern Ocean, 177, 180 DDT, 193 coral crab, 110 dead zones, x coral reefs decapods, 190 biodiversity, 9, 26, 102–7, 30 deep sea,23 Census projects, xiii, 14 biodiversity, 183 decline of, 97, 106 characteristics, 178 exploration of, 238 Census projects, 178 fishes, 223 corals, 193 as habitats, 25, 154 fauna, 176, 188 health of, 237 habitats, 179, 185 Nova Scotia, 184 human impact, 192 productivity, 107 macrofaunal species, 60 protection of, 237 meiofaunal species, 60 sampling, 83, 102–7 new species, 45, 58 corals rate of species discovery, 60 black, 5 sampling dearth, 186

260 Index

deep sea (cont.) email, 55 sampling, 76, 83, 197 Encyclopedia of Life (EOL), 52, 61, unknown species, 178 113, 240 species total, 179–80 endemism submersibles, 50–1 vent species, 191 uniqueness, 178 zooplankton, 155 demersal fishes, 181, 190 environment, definition, 8 demersal habitats, 58 environmental genetic sequencing, 82, Denmark, fisheries, 211, 215 103, 239 depensation, 216 environmental history, 48, 212 deposit feeders, 132 Enypniastes, deep-sea, 176 depth diversity, 180, 181 enzymes, 35, 48 see also continental slope; mid-slope epibionts, 133 peak diversity; zonational diversity epifaunal organisms, 75 depth measurement, 80–1 Eschrichtius robustus, 220 Dermochelys coriacea, 163–4 estuaries, 26–7, 215, 219, diadromous fishes, 218 Euaugaptilus hyperboreus, 17 diatoms, 153 eukaryotes, 9 Digital Sky Survey, 10 Euphausia superba, 129 dimorphism, sexual, 46, 57 euphausiid krill dinoflagellates, 52, 150, 152 barcoding, 155 Diomedea epomophora, longevity, 5 decline in, 129, 136 discards, 216 fishing for, 136 Discovery Corridor, 108, 112, 184 in food webs, 129, 165 DNA, fossil, dolphins, at MAR, 190 latitudinal diversity, 155 domains, 9–10 at Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 190 Dosidicus gigas, 194 European Union, 97, 135 Eusirus holmi, 6 Earth, dimensions, ix evolutionary relationships, 78, East Pacific Rise, vents, 188 87–8 Easter Island, 16 expeditions, 186 echinoderms Challenger expedition, 48, longevity, 5 49, 72 as marine animals, 46, 162 cost of, 37, 49 Mediterranean, 188 history of, 48 taxonomic guides, 97 present-day, 49–54 echosounders, 74, 77 and rate of species discovery, 60 ecologists, taxonomic inexpertise, 57 see also research ships ecoregions, 23–4 extinction of species, 55, 86–7 ecosystem services, 9 extirpations, 219 ecosystem-based management, 29, 107, 108, 112–13 fertilizer runoff, 223 ecotones, 182 fetch, 30 eelpouts, 17, 38 films, 8, 29 eels, 211, 214 fin whales, 124 El Ninõ, 182, 211 fish farming see mariculture electronic tags, 72–3, 165 fisheries elephant seals, 34, 78, 80, 81, 124, 165 California, 211 Elphinstone Reef, 26 catches, ix

Index 261

coastal, 25, 29, 34, 193 and ocean changes, 212, 215–17 decline, 8–9, 29, 106, 107, 124, 193 rate of species discovery, 86 deep-sea, 34, 193 undiscovered fish species, 58 employment, 217, 223, 241 history of, 213 Gakkel Ridge, 135 and human diet, 217 Galateé Films, 26, 29, 76–7 impact of, 54 Gay Head – Bermuda Sampling line, 9, 10, 150 industrial, 216–17, 221–3 gelatinous zooplankton, 10 Jamaica, 216 GenBank, 103 lack of historical data, 211–12 geographic information systems (GIS), 53–4, 74 locating factors, 31 Georges Bank, 25, 78, 107, 108 management of, 77, 86, 241 ghost shrimp, 16 recreational, 29, 221 giant barrel sponge, 5 scallops, 223 glaciers, 102, 129 science of, 216 glass sponges, 133, 180, 188 around seamounts, 189 Global Census of Marine Life on Seamounts sustainability, 241 (CenSeam) project 14 see also whaling and deep sea, 178 fishes and FAO, 237 deep-sea diversity, 180 seamount sampling, 76 endothermic, 165 seamount biodiversity, 182 global list, 58 SeamountsOnline database, 189 global numbers, 221 global warming, 194 latitudinal diversity, 155 and Antarctic, 136 new species, 45, 46, 58, 180 and Arctic, 135 rate of species discovery, 58–9 golden v kelp, 97 shoals, 73, 235 GoMA see Gulf of Maine Area (GoMA) project swim bladders, 77 Google Earth, 54, 71, 85, 236 fishing vessels, 212, 215, 216 global positioning systems (GPS), 81, 239 flamingo tongue snail, 7 grabs, 75 FMAP see Future of Marine Animal Grand Cayman, 7 Populations project Grassle, J. Frederick, Food and Agriculture Organization of the and species diversity, 8 United Nations (FAO), seamounts, 237 and Census project, 10 foraminifera and hydrothermal vents, 37 deep sea, 133, 180, 188, 193 and total species estimate, 60, 179 distribution, 154, 180 and submersibles, 75–6 latitudinal diversity, 155 great auk, 121, 217 taxonomic consistency, 183 green sea turtles, 5, 220 see also komokiaceans green sturgeon, 161 fossil DNA, 153 gray seals, 86 Fram Strait, 126 Griffiths, Charles, 45 Framvaren Fjord, 152 Groeneveld, John, 45 functional redundancy, 107 groupers, 221 fur seals, 124 Guaymas hydrothermal vent, 178 Future of Marine Animal Populations (FMAP) guilds, tracking, 163 project, xiii–xiv, 15 guitarfish, 104 and ecosystem-based management, 95 Gulf of Cadiz, 16 and latitudinal diversity, 101–2, 155 Gulf of Guinea, 189

262 Index

Gulf of Maine Area (GoMA) project, 14, 107–13 Antarctic, 132 and ecosystem-based management, 95 of diversity, 54, 100, 235 biodiversity, 100, 108–12 global distribution, 236 krill, 97, 100 North Pacific, 165–6 Gulf of Maine Register of Marine Species, 113 protection of, 180, 241 Gulf of Mexico at water mass boundaries, 100 biodiversity, 7, 182 Hudson, CGS, 196 sharks, 221, 223 Human Genome Project, 12 species checklists, 83 Humboldt Current, 189 Gulf Stream, 148 Humboldt squid, 194 guyots, 189 humpback whales, 5, 124, 165 gyres, 30, 148 Hurlbert’s index, 236 Huxley, Thomas Henry, 217, 242 HabCam camera, 112 Hydrodamalis gigas, 121 Halicreas minimum, 6 hydrogen sulfide, 183, 189, 191 hake, 190 hydrophones, 78, 80 halibut, 211 hydrothermal vents Halieutika, 214 biodiversity, 16, 38, 191 hammerhead sharks, 221 at plate boundaries, 37 Hawaiian Islands, 5, 35 biogeography, 183, 188 Hemichordata, 57 biological provinces, 183 hemoglobin, 131 biota mapping, 54 hermit crabs, taxonomic guides, 97 chemical energy, 37 Heron Island, Australia, 110 chemical signatures, 72, 76 herring equatorial Atlantic, 196 in Arctic Ocean, 129 exploration, 75–6, 238 decline of, 211 Guaymas, 178 as medieval staple, 214 investigation code, 237 predation on, 165 metals in, 191 shoaling, 112 microbes, 147 Hessler, Robert new species, 38, 45 Hexanchus griseus, 161 Hydrozoa, 83, 132, 154 “highways,” xii Hippocrates, 214 icefish, 124, 131, 136 Histioteuthis bonnellii, 176 Iceland, 36 History of Animals, 47 ICoMM see International Census of Marine History of Marine Animal Populations Microbes (ICoMM) project (HMAP) project, xiii–xiv India, 100, 242 and environmental history, 48, 212 Indian Ocean, foraminiferans, 182 and historical records, 213 Indian Ridge, vents, 188 and ocean changes, 95 International Census of Marine whales, 219–20 Microbes (ICoMM) project, xiii, HMAP see History of Marine Animal 14, 153 Populations project genetic identification, 82 holoplankton, 154 evolutionary relationships, 88 Holt, S. J., 216 Lipid Maps database, 153 Homarus americanus, 5, 104 MICROBIS database, 153 hot spots, xii, 13 sampling, 147 of abundance, 81, 165–6, 235 see also microbes

Index 263

International Commission for the Klee diagrams, 87 Conservation of Atlantic Tunas komokiaceans, 133 (ICCAT), 241 Korea, 242 International Council for the Exploration of krill see euphausiid krill the Sea (ICES), 11, 241 Kuroshio Current, 100–1 International Polar Year, 124, 134 International Seabed Authority, 237 Lamellibrachia luymesi, 5 International Union for the Conservation of Lamna ditropis, migration, 163 Nature (IUCN), 237 Lankester, Edwin, 217, 242 Internet, 15, 49–52, 73, 240 lanternfish, 129 intertidal zones Larsen B area, 130, 184 Antarctic, 135 larvae, movement of, 238 Arctic, 136 latitude measurement, 81 NaGISA project, 83, 95, 97–100 latitudinal patterns, 101–2, 155, new species, 45 180, 181 North Pacific, 100 Lau Basin, vents, 188 rocky, 26, 104 Laysan albatross, 165 sandy and muddy, 27 lead lines, 74 standard investigative methodology, 83 lead, 193 iron leatherback turtles, 86, 163–4, 165, 223, 237 cycling of, xiii, 146, 152 light measurement, 80–1 fertilization, 129, 194 Liljeborgia, 127 in Southern Ocean, 129 Limatula, 126 isopod crustaceans limpets, 126 Antarctic ice shelf species, 127 ling, 214 deep-sea diversity, 180, 181, 188 Linnaeus, Carl, 47–8 new Southern Ocean species, 133, 180 Leiopathes glaberrima, 5 taxonomic consistency, 183 Lipid Maps database, 153 tropical submergence, 126 lipids, 153 listening curtains, 157–60 Jamaica, fisheries, 216 Lizard Island Reef, Australia, 98, jellyfish, 6, 150 104, 110 Arctic species, 132, 133 lobsters, 16–17 barcoding, 154 American, 5, 104 comb, 122, 156 fisheries, 104 habitat, 154 new species, 45 newly discovered, 155 squat, 83, 176 jewelled squid, 176 taxonomic consistency, 183 loggerhead turtles, 163, 165, 237 kelps longevity estimates, 4, 5 Alaska, 101 Lophodolos, 7 as habitats, 27, 29, 106, 133 Los Roques Archipelago, Venezuela, 214 in NaGISA project, 95 Louisiana Slope, 5 new species, 16 Lycodonus, 17 plasticity of, 53 see also algae; bull kelp; golden v kelp; Maciolek, Nancy, 60, 179 seaweeds Macquarie Ridge, 184, 196 Kiwa, 16 macroalgae, 95, 97, 102 Kiwaidae, 16 Madagascar Ridge, 17

264 Index

mako sharks, 165 identification, 52 Mallotus villosus, 129 new species, 45, 46, 58, 234 management of species, 166, 238 number of species, 61 manganese cycling, xiii, 146 Southern Ocean, 129 manganese nodules, 180, 190, 193 total numbers, 147 mining, 241 microbial loop, 112, 129 MPAs for, 237 microbial reefs, 184, 191 mangroves, 27, 101, 224 MICROBIS database, 153 MAR-ECO see Patterns and Processes of the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, 14, 35–6, Ecosystems of the Northern Mid-Atlantic 186, 190 (MAR-ECO) decapods, 190 mariculture, 224 deep-water corals, 190 Marine Barcode of Life (MarBOL) project, diurnal movements, 235 xiii, 53, 82 dolphins, 190 Marine Biodiversity and Ecosystem fishes, 176, 190 Functioning (MarBEF), 97 new species, 180 marine biology, xi rays, 190 marine geology, xii squid, 176 marine geophysics, xii whales, 190 marine logs, 48, 218, 219 zonation, 182 Marine Protected Areas (MPAs), zooplankton, 190 237, 242 middens, 214 Baja California, 237 mid-ocean ridges, 35, 186, 189 design of, 238 see also Mid-Atlantic Ridge for manganese nodule areas, 237 migration, xii, 14, 33, 54, 86 marine snow, 34 “highways,” 81, 235 marine photosynthesis, 31 “truck stops,” 235 Mediterranean Sea, 188, 189, 221 see also under individual biota headings Melicerita oblique, 5 mining, 193, 194 meroplankton, 154 Mola mola, 243 mesopelagic zones, exploration molecular clock, 126 of, 238 molecular techniques, 52–3, 74 metadata analysis, 54 see also barcoding; pyrosequencing; metazoans, Arctic, 135 sequencing methane mollusks cycling, 152 ancient remains, 213, 214 hydrates, 194 Arctic species, 135 pock marks, 180 longevity, 5 seeps, 191, 184 Pacific, 61, 132 in vents, 183 see also bivalves; clams; cephalopods methodologies, consistency of, 83 monk seals, 86 microbes, 14, 31, 146–53 Montastraea annularis, 53 Arctic, 134–5 movements, of animals, 79–80, 134, 235 biodiversity, 9, xiii, 146 see also migration concentration of, 146 mud volcanoes, 16, 180 distribution, 147–53, 152–3 multibeam sonar, 74, 197 evolutionary relationships, Multiple Opening/Closing Net and 52, 88 Environmental Sensing System Gulf of Maine, 108 (MOCNESS), 75

Index 265

mussels, farming, 224 Norwegian Sea, seeps, 188 myctophids, 129 Notothenia rossii, 124 Myers, Ransom, 212 Nova Scotia, 185 mysid crustaceans, 155 nutrients at abyssal plain, 34–5 Nacella, 126 on continental slopes, 179 NaGISA see Natural Geography in Shore and deep-sea biodiversity, 181–2 Areas project Nair, Vijayalakshmi, 83 OBIS see Ocean Biogeographic Information naming of organisms, history of, 47–8 System Napolean wrasse, 26 O’Dor, Ron, 163, 242 National Geographic Society, 85 Ocean Biogeographic Information System Natural Geography in Shore Areas (NaGISA) (OBIS), xiv, 15, 49, 83–4, 240 project, 14 Antarctic records, 133, 134 sampling, 105 CReefs data records, 106 standard datasets, 83 data integration, 54 project target areas, 29, 95, 97–100 GoMA records, 113 Nautile, 196 NaGISA records, 97 nearshore zones, 23, 25–30, 31 sampling variability, 186 depletion, 215 and World Register of Marine Species, 235 sampling, 24 ocean currents, effect of, 189 nekton, 33 ocean health, and species loss, 238 nematodes ocean quahog, longevity, 5 deep-sea, oceanic ridges, 45, 189 depth diversity, 178, 181, 193, 188 see also Mid-Atlantic Ridge in Mediterranean, 188 Ocean Tracking Network, 163, 239, 242 taxonomic consistency, 183 ocean trenches, 23 Neocalanus robustior, 150 exploration of, 238, 240 Neocyema, 177 new species, 45 Nereocystis luetkeana, 101, 110 oceanic islands, new species, 58 Netherlands, fisheries decline, 215 Oceans, 26, 76 nets, 72, 74–5, 155 oceans, future status, xiv, 233, 234 see also fisheries octopuses New England, cod fisheries, 217 Antarctic shelf, 127 New Jersey, fish shoals, 78 deep-sea, 123 Newfoundland evolution of, 126, 127 fisheries, 29, 216, 217 Lizard Island, 110 walruses, 212 new species, 45 Nile Deep Sea Fan, seeps, 188 range of movement, 79 Ningaloo Reef, 110 oil drilling, 194 Niskin bottles, 50 Oncorhynchus nitrogen cycle, xiii, 146, 147, 152, 153, 154 kisutch, 160 North Icelandic Shelf, 5 mykiss, 160 North Pacific Marine Science Organization nerka, 162 (PICES), 241 tshawytsch, 160–1 North Pacific Transition Zone, 165 operational taxonomic units (OTUs), North Sea, medieval fisheries, 214 46–7, 146 Northern Line Islands coral reefs, 103, 106, 107 see also species northern shrimp, 223 Oppian, 214

266 Index

optical sensors, 71 Gulf Stream, 148 orange fish, 177 and oceanic predators, 101–2 orange roughy, 190, 216 satellite sensing, 24 OSPAR Commission, 237 Southern Ocean, 129 ostracod crustaceans, 133, 154, 155 Pinguinus impennis, 121 oxygen, x, 101–2, 155 pinniped seals, 101 oxygen minimum zones (OMZs), 180, 181, pivotal thresholds, 86 189, 191, 194 Planet Ocean, naming, 3 Oyashio Current, 101 plankton, 31, 128, 151 oysters, 217 see also phytoplankton; zooplankton Pliny the Elder, 214 Pacific bulefin tuna, 163, 217 Pocillopora, for reef sampling, 103, 106 Pacific gray whales, 220 pogonophorans, longevity, 5 Pacific Ocean Shelf Tracking Project (POST), polar bears, 130 xii, 14 polar ecosystems, 33, 125, 238 salmon survival, 237 polar emergence, 126–7 salmon tagging, 80, 150, 157–62 polar oceans, 30–1 paintings, as historical evidence, 213 biota mapping, 54 Palau, 17 new species, 45, 58 Palinurus barbarae, 17 freshwater flows, 126 Pandalus borealis, 223 human influence, 135–7 Pandea rubra, 154 unknown species, 135 Paragorgia arborea, 108 see also Antarctic Ocean; Arctic Ocean; passive integrated transponder (PIT) tags, Southern Ocean 79–80 pollock, 133, 165 Patterns and Processes of the Ecosystems of pollution, 193, 240 the Northern Mid-Atlantic (MAR-ECO), and coral reef decline, 106 14, 178 in blue mussels, 53 pelagic fish, 190 in deep oceans, 193, 195 sampling method, 75 sewage, 223 new species found, 180, 190 polychaete worms see also Mid-Atlantic Ridge Antarctic, 133, 188 PCBs, 193 Arctic, 132, 133 pelagic zone, 34, 146 deep-sea, 188 Pelagonemertes rollestoni, 123 diversity by depth, 181 Penelope, 81 Pacific, 182, 193 Perrin, Jacques, 76 taxonomic consistency, 183 phenotypic plasticity, 53 popup tags, 81 Pholadomya candida, 3 Porcupine Abyssal Plain, 190–1 photographs, 57 position-finding, 85–6, 240 photosynthesis, marine, 31 POST see Pacific Ocean Shelf Tracking Project Physeter macrocephalus, 190 predators, biodiversity, 101–2, 155 physical oceanography, xi Primnoa resedaeformis, 108 phytodetrius, 182 Prince William Sound, 105 phytoplankton, 31 Prochlorococcus, 46, 147, 153 abundance measurement, 81 prokaryotes, 9 Arctic species, 129 Proteobacteria, 152 and deep-sea biodiversity, 181–2 protists, 9, 150 Gulf of Maine, 108 Antarctic species, 133

Index 267

Arctic species, 135 sailfish, 5 barcoding, 154 salinity measurement, 80–1 taxonomic consistency, 183 salmon, xii, 14, 157–61 Protoperidinium pellucidum, 150 aquaculture, 157, 224 pteropod mollusks, 122, 155 and dams, 160–1, 237 Ptychodactis, 131 decline of, 157, 211 Puffinus griseus, migration, 164 detection of, 78, 80 Puget Sound, 162 as medieval staple, 214 pyrosequencing, xiii, 82, 152 migration, 157 see also chinook salmon; coho salmon; queen conch, 214 sockeye salmon QUEST, 197 salmon sharks, 163, 165 salt marshes, 27 radio tags, 82, 157 salting, of fish, 213 Radiolaria, distribution, 154 sampling rainbow trout, 160 and acoustic sensors, 77 random forests models, 112 deep-sea, 197 rate of species discovery, 59–60 standards for, 97, 235 rays, at MAR, 190 techniques, xiv, 75 Red Sea, 26 see also under individual projects Red sea urchin, 5 Sanders, Howard, 10, 179 reference points, 86 sandsharks, 104 “regime shifts”, 156 sardines, 165, 211 Regimen II, 214 satellites, 24, 239 remotely operated vehicles (ROVs), 24, 72, 76, scalability, of sampling and knowledge, 122, 239–40 108–12 jellyfish observation, 76 scallop fishery, 223 QUEST vehicle, 197 Scandinavian Fishing Club, 221 ROPOS vehicle, 51 SCAR-MarBIN database, 133–4 REMUS 6000 vehicle, 51 Scientific Committee on Antarctic Research research ships, 25, 239 (SCAR), 133 Rhincodon typus, 110 scuba diving, 24, 29, 33, 76 Rhizophysa, 151 sea anemones, 104, 126, 180 rhizosolenoid diatoms, 153 Sea Around Us, The, 8 rhodolith beds, 27 sea corn, 108 Rhynchobatus djiddensis, 104 sea cucumbers ribbon worm nemerteans, 123 Antarctic shelf, 127 Ricker, W. E., 216 Arctic, 133 Riftia pachyptila, 38 deep-sea, 176, 185, 191 Rigby, Robin, 17, 98 new species, 45, 180 right whales, 217 sea lions, 101, 163, 166 ROPOS vehicle, 51 sea slugs, 127 Ross, James Clark, 134 sea spiders, 123 rougheye rockfish, longevity, 5 sea stars, 104, 110, 122, 180 ROVs see remotely operated vehicles sea urchins, 104, 126, 133 royal albatross, longevity, 5 seabirds, 5, 164 runoff, 223 seagrasses,26, 27 Russia–ArcOD cooperation, 134 Brazilian, 100 Rutherford, Ernest, 55 biodiversity, 101

268 Index

seagrasses (cont.) at Mid-Altantic Ridge, 190 and NaGISA project, 95 migration, 165 taxononomic guides, 97 population decline, 221, 223 seals see also blue sharks; hammerhead sharks; Arctic, 33, 128, 129 mako sharks; salmon sharks; silky sharks; migration, 163, 165 six-gill sharks; thresher sharks; whale see also elephant seals; fur seals; gray seals; sharks; white sharks; whitetip sharks monk seals; pinniped seals shearwaters, 5, 81 seamounts, 14, 36, 189 see also sooty shearwaters biodiversity, 36, 182, 189, 190 shell-less pteropods, 122 biota, 180, 189 “shifting baseline syndrome,” 212 and corals, 35 ships, for oceanographic research, 25, 239 and deep-sea abundance, 190 ships’ logs, 48, 218, 219 ecosystems management, 237 sibling species, 55 exploration of, 37, 238 silky sharks, 221 fish species checklists, 83 six-gill sharks, 80, 161 fisheries, 36, 193, 216, 237 size of marine organisms, 4 MPAs, 237 skates, 190 new species, 58 Smith, Tim, 212 on Macquarie Ridge, 197 smooth black coral, longevity, 5 seaweeds, 26, 95, 106 snails, 133, 176 see also algae; kelps flamingo tongue, 80 Sebastes aleutianus, longevity, 5 swimming, 122 sediments, 35, 189 sockeye salmon, 162 seeps, 180 Solaster, 104, 110 cold, 37, 185 sooty shearwaters, 134, 164 fisheries, 193 migration, 163, 164, 165 exploration, 238 South Africa, 45 methane, 185, 191 Southern California Bight, 166 New Zealand, 188 Southern Ocean Observation System, 137 Nile Deep Sea Fan, 188 Southern Ocean, 14, 31 new species, 38 deep-sea fauna, 188 Norwegian Sea, 188 elephant seal tagging, 78 sulfide, 185 latitudinal gradient, 181 sei whales, 124, 190 new species, 180 sensors nutrients, 129 conductivity–temperature–depth (CTD), species evolution, 127 50, 81 species migration, 126–7 development of, 71 see also Antarctic Ocean; polar oceans electronic, 235 southern right whales, 124, 220 satellite-based, 24 spatial resolution, 240 see also acoustic sensors; cameras species sequencing, ICoMM, 147 abundance, 235, 239 serial depletion, 216 cosmopolitan, 60, 61 sewage, 223 definition, 46–7 Shackletonia, 17 distributions, 235 sharks identification of, 46, 47–8, 53, 240 as bycatch, 223 lists, 55, 83 catch size, 221 loss of, 86, 238 in Gulf of Mexico, 221, 223 management of, 238

Index 269

numbers of, 54–5, 55–7, 59 numbering, 79 numbers unknown, 4, 58–61 technical development of, 79–80, 239 rate of discovery, 45–6, 52, 55, see also biologging 58–62, 72 Tagging of Pacific Predators (TOPP) project, total marine percentage, 61 xii, 14, 80, 81, 85, 163–6, 237 see also operational taxonomic units taxonomic catalogs, 235 species-area curves, 86 taxonomic consistency, 183 species-oriented research, 156 see also under individual projects speed, of marine organisms, 5 taxonomic expertise, 57 sperm whales, 190, 217 taxonomists, and rate of species discovery, 59 sponges taxonomy, Internet tools for, 49–52 calcareous, 133 Tealia, 104 carnivorous, 45, 133 temperature giant barrel, 5 and coral reef decline, 106 glass, 133, 180, 188 and deep-sea biodiversity, 182 longevity, 5 Gulf Stream, 148 squat lobster, 83, 176 and latitudinal diversity, 155 squid, 163, 165, 177, 180, 194 measurement of, 80–1 “Squidworm,” 150 and oceanic predators, 101–2 St. Petersburg Zoological Institute, 134 terrestrial animals, numbers of, 46 Stauroteuthis syrtensis, 79 Thaumastochelopsis, 16–17 steelhead, 160 Thaumeledone gunteri, 123 Stelephant Colbert, 81 Theragra chalcogramma, 133 Steller’s sea cow, 86, 121 Thompson, Charles Wyville, 48, 49 Stellwagen Bank, 112 thresher sharks, 165, 221 Sterechinus, 126 Thunnus orientalis, 163, 217 Strait of Georgia, 151, 160 Thunnus thynnus, 6, 219 Strombus gigas, 214 tidal zones see intertidal zones Strongylocentrotus franciscanus, time series data, 216 longevity, 5 Titanic, 51 sturgeon, 80, 161, 215 toothfishes, 136 subduction, 37 TOPP see Tagging of Pacific Predators project submersibles, manned, 72, 76, 196 torpedo camera, 77 see also Alvin submersible Torquarator bullocki, 57 Sub-Polar Front, 190 Tortuga, 48 subtidal zones, 97–100, 29 tourism, Antarctic, 136 sulfide seeps, 185 trash, 194, 195, 237 sulfur bacteria, 6 see also pollution sulfur cycling, xiii, 146, 147, 152 trenches see ocean trenches sunfish, 243 tricorders, 239 Sutton, Tracey, 55 tropical submergence, 126–7 swim bladders, 77 tropical oceanic islands, new species, 58 swimming snail, 122 “truck stops,” xii, 235 sympagic communities, 128 tubeworms, 38, 185, 191 Synechococcus, 147, 153 tuna Systema naturae, 47 fisheries, 34 latitudinal diversity, 155 tagging, xii, 14, 78, 156, 235 migration, 5, 163, 165 archival, 81 Pacific decline, 223 location tracking, 82 sale prices, 217

270 Index

tuna (cont.) “white shark cafe´,” 163 see also albacore; bluefin tuna; white sharks International Commission for the Atlantic decline, 221 Conservation of Atlantic Tunas; diet, 165 yellowfin tuna migration, 163, 165, 166 turtles, 79, 163 white sturgeon, 161 see also green sea turtles; leatherback turtles; whitefish, 211 loggerhead turtles whitespot ray, 104 whitespot shovelnose ray, 104 umbrella squid, 176 white-spotted guitarfish, 104 US Fish and Wildlife Service, 237 whitetip shark, 221 US National Academy of Sciences, 10 Wilson, E. O., 8, 52 US National Marine Sanctuaries, 112 winds, and deep-sea fauna, 189 Undaria pinnatifida, 97 Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 10, 51, 196 Vancouver Aquarium, 151 World Ocean Atlas, 182 vents see hydrothermal vents World Ocean Circulation Experiment vertical movements, animals, 79 (WOCE), 12 video cameras, 75, 76 World Register of Marine Species (WoRMS), video plankton recorders, 75 57, 62, 83, 235, 240 viruses, 133, 150 World Summit on Sustainable Vulcanocalliax arutyunovi, 16, 85 Development, xiv Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems, 237 writings, as historical evidence, 213–14, 220

Wadden Sea, 215, 217–18 Xestospongia muta, longevity, 5 Wallace Line, 101 walleye pollock, 133 yellowfin tuna, 165 walruses, 101, 212 Yeti crab, 16, 62 Walters Shoals, 17 warm Atlantic period, 211 zoarcid fishes, 38 water fleas, 17, 33 zonational diversity, 180, 182 water masses, 100, 152 nematodes, 178, 181, 188, 193 weather, and abyssal biodiversity, 182 polychaete worms, 181 Weddell Sea, 5, 135 zooplankton, 155 whale shark, 110 see also continental slope; mid-slope peak whalefish, 56 diversity; depth diversity whales zooplankton, 153–6 abundance and distribution, 219 Antarctic, 129 in Arctic, 129, 133 Arctic, 128–9, 132, 153–6 as bycatch, 223 barcoding, 82, 154–5 carcasses as habitats, 38, 180, 192 Census discoveries, 235 Census discoveries, 235 and CMarZ project, 14 mercury in, 136 diversity, 154–5, 156, 181 migration, 163, 165 evolutionary relationships, 87 see also blue whales; Atlantic gray whales; gelatinous, 76, 133 humpback whales; Pacific gray whales; historical changes, 155–6 right whales; sei whales; southern right in food webs, 31, 154 whales; sperm whales Japanese species checklists, 83 whaling, 136, 219–20 non-observability, 24 White Sea, fisheries, 211 numbers of, 154