64 SUSTAINABILITY ; e-mail: [email protected]. e-mail: India; * [email protected]. e-mail: India; 3 2 R.B. Singh 1 , India; e-mail: [email protected]. e-mail: Delhi, India; is lessthanfour hoursaday andinsome access to water supply, theaverage availability has population inIndia per centofthe urban Pollution Control Board, 2013].Although89 environmental [Central challengesinIndia resources isthemost pressing ofmany offresh water and quality The availability enhanced andtheoccurrences ofdiseasesmightbeavoided. andproper ofwater sanitationcouldbe forthose, andaccessibility theavailability drinking Some suitablemeasures andDysenteries. haveInfection beenproposed whereby applying significant innumberwhere they are found to Acute beaffected withdiseaseslike Diarrhoeal hasrevealed diseasesare thatpeoplewithwater borne inKolkata (aidedbyKMC) dispensaries result diseases. water into borne poorhealthconditionwithvarious The dataondiseasesfrom andconsumptionofcontaminated water andsanitationpurposes maywater for drinking arsenicandlead.to becontaminated metalslike withheavy ofsufficient The non-availability the underground water whichisconsidered asthealternative source to thepeopleisfound water isnotsufficientasthesupplylowandinadequate. Ontheotherhand, drinking quality and healthrelated issues. ofgood theavailability The analysesofthedatareveal thatinKolkata, data thusobtainedhave beenassessedqualitatively theground to depict realityonsanitation are noteworthy. (KMC) MunicipalCorporation andKolkata Pollution The Control Board (WBPCB) sources where thepublisheddatafrombeen accessedfrom secondary various sources ofwater contaminationandrelated healthissuesinKolkata. The relevant datahave to thepeople, andaccessibility ofitsavailability possible hasbeenassessedinterms purposes system. For thepresent andsanitation enquiry, themunicipalsupplyofwater for drinking ABSTRACT. INTRODUCTION KEY WORDS: SUSTAINABILITY CONTRIBUTION TOWARDSURBAN METROPOLITAN CITY: AND HEALTH IN DRINKING WATER,SANITATION Corresponding author Department ofGeography,Department Swami ShraddhanandCollege, University ofDelhi, ofGeography,Department DelhiS ofGeography,Department DelhiS

1* In an urban area, anurban thewater issuppliedthroughIn centralisedmunicipaltapwater

, Md. Haque Senaul drinking water,drinking diseases, sanitation,health,water borne dispensary, KMC. 2 , Aakriti Grover, Aakriti chool ofEconomics, University ofDelhi, chool ofEconomics, University ofDelhi, requirement increases to 45–55lpcd[Bhandari (washing andcleaning) getaddedto it,the et al., 1972]. hygieneWhen otheruses like dehydration occurintropical climate [White water to sustainlife before ofdrinking intake approximately 3litres percapitaday (lpcd) 1997]. The humanbodyrequires minimum on alternate day [Asian Bank, Development areas water issuppliedonlyfor onehour 3 infect water supplies incircumstances where ofpathogens and Kifferstein, 1998].Avariety diseases[Krants toattributed waterborne at least5milliondeathsper year canbe water and thatpeople lacksafe drinking that throughout 1.5billion nearly theworld isestimatedproblems [Douglas, 1983].It sewage, healthandsanitation leadto serious suchassafe pipedwater and services city Poor livingconditions andlackofadequate Pollution Control Board, 2011]. Bengal mineralization ofwater resource [West aquifer contaminationwhichresulted into causes purposes for andindustrial irrigation water bodies. Butitsintensiveto use surface contamination andpollutionascompared Groundwater isgenerallylesssusceptibleto 2007]. [ShabanandSharma, wards ofthecity increase inthearsenicconcentrationmany water sources where itsoveruse leadsto an availability, peopledependonunderground water in theabsenceofefficientsurface in theslum[Kundu, 2003].Ontheotherhand, 2013]. The problems are acute to thoseliving Energysupply [Tata andResearch Institute, faces agrave problem water ofgoodquality abundant water initsvicinity, instead thecity of Hugliwhichmeansavailability the River Despite itslocationalongtheeastbankof theproblem issevere. Kolkata, area.urban In water to theinhabitantsinan of safe drinking a constantproblem regarding theavailability andGupta,2010]. [Bhandari There hasbeen water bodies orsubsurface proximate surface supply system thateitherdraws from largely dependsuponwater India Urban pathogen [Sobseyetal., 2003]. as themajorsource ofexposure to diarrheal diseases annually, where water isconsidered repeated episodesofinfectious diarrheal ofchildren andadultssuffermajority from developing world, 2006].In World Bank, 2001;Shreshtha, andRavallion, 2006; [Jalan conditions andmortality increasein morbidity essentialelementsresulttwo insignificant andGupta,2010], lackofthese [Bhandari essential for goodhealthasissanitation water isand Gupta,2010].Safe drinking R.B. Singh,Md. Haque, Grover Senaul Aakriti

DRINKING WATER, SANITATION ANDHEALTH... annual meantemperature is26.8°C(80°F) and longitude are 22°56 latitude 1984].Its Gazetteer ofIndia, [Imperial metres (15–20feet) above themeansealevel (86 miles)away from theseaand4.57–6.09 India. liesabout136.79kilometres The city ofEastern Delta sits withinthelower Ganga Hugli,Kolkata along theeastbankofRiver Bengal (Fig. 1).Spread roughly north-south of thecapitalcity Westcase studyofKolkata, The present bytaking studyhasconducted assess thehealthconsequences. inhabitantswereto thecity evaluated to facilities andproper disposalfacilities garbage for householdpurposes, efficientdrainage where ofsufficientwater theavailability has alsofocuses onthe sanitationproblems and consumptionofcontaminated water. It outcome dueto ofwater non-availability of water pollutionandtheresulted health affecting thewaterfactor supply, sources been covered are thesources ofwater supply, health issuesinKolkata. The majorarea has water andmunicipal supplyofdrinking with identificationofproblems related to thepresent studyisconcerned India, in urban the water related problems andhealthissues order toIn have aproper understandingof 2002]. be anunderestimate [Planning Commission, andthismight of ageannuallyto diarrhoea, loses about1.5millionchildren under 5years India inIndia. andchildmortality of morbidity diseasesareborne amongthehighestcases Sanitation Collaborative Council, 2002]. Water Supplyand and 100eggsofworms[Water 1,000parasiteviruses, cysts 1millionbacteria, single gram offaecescancontain10million water. thata This isexemplified bythefact contaminationof by viralorbacteriological Hazen, 2011]. Water diseasesare borne caused water [Anthamatten and contaminate drinking waste topoor sanitationallowsexerted with density 24,252personsperKm with density had4.5 million population [2011], Kolkata respectively. According to theCensus ofIndia STUDY AREA ′ North and 88°36 North 2 ′ .The East East

65 SUSTAINABILITY 66 SUSTAINABILITY GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(08)2015 study area to theground reflect of reality are substantiated with imagesfrom the ofthe researcher thatwith observation sources ofdata alongmainly secondary The studyhasbeencompleted basedon 1999]. dwellers [HasanandKhan, city and sewagewhichcreate for healthrisks the and resulted water logging, waste effluent a result, bypoordrainage itischaracterized across thecity, state andnationalborders. As to accommodate theinfluxofpeoplefrom thathasgrownan unplannedcity gradually is 2001].Kolkata Census Handbook, [District and theaverage annualtotal is1,582mm themonthofAugust occurs during (306mm) 19 °Cto rainfall 30°C(67°Fto 86°F).Maximum and monthlymeantemperatures rangesfrom DATABASE AND METHODOLOGY Fig. 1. Location of the study area. study the of 1.Fig. Location dispensaries run by to diseaseshave beenobtained from the health effects (Appendix 1). The datapertaining limitandpossible desirable andpermissible water alongwith their specification for drinking Standards (IS)the datawithIndian assessments were donethrough comparing have obtainedfr quality qualitatively. The dataongroundwater obtained have beenreviewed andassessed Census Handbooketc.District The datathus and (KMC), MunicipalCorporation Kolkata West BengalPollution Control Board (WBPCB), booksetc.reports, sources are The important of research publishedgovernment articles, the existingliteratures available intheform The relevant datahave beengathered from inhabitant. to thecity purposes and drinking of wateravailability for proper sanitation health related problems resulted from non- KMC. I KMC. om WBPCB andthe nitially, thedatawere by pollution and flooding (Table 1). by pollutionand flooding(Table the endpointis themajorproblem followed intheuseofwater resources at Inefficiency water istreated before itsfinaldumping. andmerely 20percentofthewaste services households are withthesewerage connected whereas only52percentdue to leakage per centofthesuppliedwater getswasted access to thesuppliedpipedwater. About35 that about80percentofthehouseholdshave supply andassociated problems etc. reveal treatment ofwaste water, sources ofwater at thehouseholdlevel, lossdueto leakage, thedomesticuse, covering itsaccess Kolkata ofthewater resource overview inA brief through wells private andpumps. groundwatersupply system mainlyextract toThe householdsnotconnected thewater daily uninterrupted water supplyis8.3 hours. water supplyandthattheaverage timeof are to connected piped households inKolkata found thatonly74percentofthe in India Bank (ADB) in2007onthewater utilities However, astudybytheAsian Development supplies continuouslyupto 20hoursperday. toconnected pipedwater andthewater is that 94percentofthecity’s householdsare isclaims MunicipalCorporation 2000]. Kolkata hand tubewells pumps[Segane, andprivate with groundwater from deepand various [DudleyandStolton,Ganges 2003],along water from theHuglibranchofRiver of thegreater Kolkata’s water istreated surface ofwater [Royetal.,quality 2004]. The majority anddeteriorating ofthequantity inadequacy isthethe existingwater supplynetwork Two mostcommonallegations against ofpipelines.dwellers viaacomplexnetwork water to supplywhichisdistributed thecity hasacentralisedfiltered ofKolkata The city diseases.with water borne inthetotal numberofpatients the variation at monthly datatheninterpreted bylooking into monthly format for interpretation. The format whichlateravailable converted in weekly R.B. Singh,Md. Haque, Grover Senaul Aakriti KOLKATA STATUS OF WATER RESOURCES IN

DRINKING WATER, SANITATION ANDHEALTH... Source: WWF Report, 2011. Source: Report, WWF metal and consuming water with mercury metal andconsuming water withmercury isahighly toxic liquid 2).Mercury mg/l) (Table mg/l) atthelocation nearCossipore (2080 it wasbeyond limit(2000 thepermissible stationsand (500 mg/l)inallthemonitoring has found beyond thedesirablelimit (TDS) The concentrationof Total Dissolve Solid exceeded limit(0.001mg/l). thepermissible Leather Complex (0.719mg/l)haveKolkata (1.755 mg/l),Dhapa(0.932mg/l)andInside locations near Tangra (3.649mg/l), in revealed thattheconcentrationofmercury An analysisofground inKolkata water quality [Segene, 2000]. levels ofarsenic naturally containsvarying of thebedrock andthusthegroundwater arsenicindeeper layers naturally occurring deltalieinageologicalGanges zone with andthe 2011]. Kolkata Bank, per day [World average yieldof0.6millioncubicmetres of ground water usingdeeptubewells with day. metthrough pumping This ispartially water ofabout1.18millioncubicmetres per capacity, KMA facesasupplydeficitoffiltered account theaverage utilizationoftheexisting for 1.63millioncubicmetres. Taking into cubic metres perday ofwhichKMCaccounts (KMA)Municipal Authority is2.75million The dailywater supplyneedsfor Kolkata anWtrPolm Water useineffi Main Water Problems water from theHugli Surface Main Water Sources 20percent Wastewater Treated Sewerage Services Household with inPipeLeakage Water Loss dueto Accesswith Water Households Water Use Domestic Table 1. Water statistics in Kolkata in Table 1. Water statistics International dispute International Ecosystem destruction Flooding Pollution hand tubewells Groundwater from deepand branch oftheGanges 52 percent 35 percent 79 percent per capita 130 litre ciency

67 SUSTAINABILITY 68 SUSTAINABILITY GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(08)2015

Table 2. Ground water quality in Kolkata

Sl. Faecal Coliform Total Coliform Total Ground Water Stations pH Nitrate Fluoride Arsenic BOD Mercury TDS No. MPN/100ml MPN/100ml Pesticide

Water Quality Criteria 6.5–8.5 45 mg/l < 2500/100ml < 5000/100ml 1.0 mg/l – 0.05 mg/l 30 mg/l 0.001 mg/l 500 mg/l

1 Tangra,Calcatta, West Bengal 7.6 0.09 2 5 0.34 0 NT 0.6 3.649 1888

2 , Calcatta, West Bengal 7.8 0.1 4 7 0.49 0 NT 1.4 0.588 1370

3 Dhapa, Calcatta, West Bengal 7.9 0.04 8 14 0.37 0 NT 0.4 0.932 1218

4 , Calcatta, West Bengal 8.2 0.04 4 9 0.61 0 NT 1.4 BDL 896

5 , Calcatta, West Bengal 7.8 0.1 _ _ 0.41 0 NT 1.1 BDL 826

6 Cossipure- 7.2 0 80 110 0.4 0 NT 0.9 1.755 2080

7 Central Kolkata 7.8 0.04 2 4 0.42 0 NT 0.9 BDL 1292

8 Inside Kolkata Leather Complex 7.8 0.11 2 13 0.37 0 NT 0.5 0.719 1036

Source: WBPCB, Annual Report 2010–11. Source: Chacraverti etal.,Source: 2011. Chacraverti network [Purkait etal., 2008]. [Purkait network The possible themunicipalsewageseepage entering industrial, water storm andbyground water of municipalwaste water are domestic, discharged general, into thesources it.In modify thewater innegative mannerget to substances withthepossibility external placewhen The contaminationofwater takes unfit for humanconsumption. exceed 1000mg/l, itisgenerallyconsidered damage. Similarly,into kidney when TDS levels contamination over many years couldresult R.B. Singh,Md. Haque, Grover Senaul Aakriti Source: Based on Chacraverti etal.,Source: 2011. BasedonChacraverti CONTAMINATION IN KOLKATA SOURCES OF WATER ecr H)Idsra ss Erosion ofnaturaldeposits;discharge from uses. Industrial (Hg) Mercury Production oflead-acidbatteries, solderand Lead (Pb) Leather tanningindustry, themanufacturing Chromium (Cr) inthezincofgalvanized pipes, water Impurity Cadmium (Cd) otmnnsSources ofContaminants inDrinking Water Contaminants Metals Hg56038014802 Cd56008004800 b5 15 84 48 43 48 8 8 8 56 51 56 Pb Cr56368364801 samples No. of Table 4. Number of samples showing of detection metal contaminants or the service connection to homes connection or theservice systems containingleadinpipes, solder, fittings from presence plumbing isprimarily alloys. Its corrosion control mium metalproduction,chrome platingand glass industry, photography, chrome alloychro- of catalysts, paints, fungicides, theceramicand heaters, water coolersandtaps All samples River water samples Drinking watersamples Drinking River watersamples All samples season No. ofdetections Table 3. Possible sources of in contaminants metal water Dry Dry season Wet H USEPA WHO samples No. of

DRINKING WATER, SANITATION ANDHEALTH... season serious healthhazardsserious [Ganguly, 2012]. open drains, causingpollutionandleadingto water bodiesdirectly orindirectly through of waste whichisdischarged into thenatural produceleather intheseindustries large quantities and agricultural fields. of The manufacturing polluting the environmentalcauses serious hazards through effluentsreleasedindustrial from thetanneries are , leatherindustries located andthe near ofKolkata Tangra-Topsia- part theeastern In Industrial discharge following: are as sources ofwater pollutioninKolkata No. ofdetections Dry Dry erosion ofnaturaldeposits Corrosion ofhouseholdplumbingsystems; of naturaldeposits Discharge from steel andpulpmills;erosion run off ral deposits;discharge from metalrefi Corrosion ofgalvanized pipes;erosion ofnatu- and croplands refi runoff andfactories; neries season Wet from waste andpaints batteries bheries samples No. of (fishing pond), wetlands (fishingpond),wetlands season No. ofdetections Dry Dry from landfi lls neries; neries; season Wet

69 SUSTAINABILITY 70 SUSTAINABILITY and otherdeveloping where countries open isabigproblemdisposal ofgarbage inIndia garbage.Landfills are hugepileofcity The Leakage from the landfills detected insomeplaces. wet during seasonhas presence ofmercury chromium andcadmiumcontamination,the water althoughhasbeenfound free from the wetwater 4).Thedrinking seasons(Table during presence ofchromium hasbeennoticedinriver in bothsummerandwinter seasonswhilethe muchnoticeableinalmostallthesamples very water were lead inriverwater anddrinking and wet 3). seasons(Table of The detection different sites intheKMA boththedry during fromtaken tubewells, riverHugli andtapsat cadmium (Cd) andchromium (Cr)insamples testing the source ofcontaminantsinwater through etal. [2011],traced A studybyChacravarty GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(08)2015 Fig. 2. Disposal of solid waste in Kolkata: (a) (b) (c) Street. & (d) Park (a) (b) Taltala Hatibagan Kolkata: in waste solid of Disposal 2. Fig. the level of mercury (Hg),lead(Pb), the level ofmercury inland surface water [Mandal, 2007]. inland surface higher thanitisallowed to discharge into (COD)Demand were andchloride much (BOD),ChemicalOxygen Demand Oxygen the concentrationofsolids, Biochemical the disposalsite (Dhapa)hasshownthat ofnaturalleachate sampledfromquality ofthecity.located fringe attheeastern The themajordisposalsite i.e., Dhapais Kolkata, 1976; Kelley, 1976;Masters, 1998].In water 1969;ChainandDewalle, [Walker, subsequent contaminationofthelandand into the surrounding environment and dumping istheinfiltrationofleachate One severe problem associated withopen pollutes theundergroundleakage water. it rains,andthe thelandfillsgetleaked the adjacentenvironment (Fig. 2). When whichmayplaces are pollute practised Marquis, 2007]andany otherunorganised in front [Hoglandand oftheriverbanks dumping atroad sides, inopenspaces, al., 1998]. et metals andpathogens[Mitra, heavy like of ground water bymixingoftoxic elements of waste water causescontamination often contamination. Ontheother hand, recycling when mixwithwater bodiesleads to its toxicity [Guptaetal.,variable 1990],which sewagefed landshowsgrown inKolkata 2011]. Report, The vegetables are [WWF city about 2.8billionlitters ofsewagefrom the andtreatingthe HuglibranchofGanges 12,500 ha.ofmarshy wetlands to connected discharged intoWetlands EastKolkata (EKW); Wastewater gets generated inKolkata andGupta,2010]. [Bhandari water bodieswithoutproper treatment level isreleased into theriver andfresh waste water generated atthehousehold Research Institute, 2003].Thesewageand Energy andby domesticsewage[The water pollutionbyvolume iscaused estimated that75to 80percentofthe is 2002].It water ofIndia, [Government as rivers, lakes,ground water andcoastal water findsitsway into water system such treated before itsfinaldisposal. Untreated metropolitan cities, barely 30percentis Of the total wastewater generated in disposal water waste and Sewage 2004]. wells to becomecontaminated [Royetal., pipesandcausesshallow andcracked leaking untreated systems water through distribution water associated isoften with of drinking ofwater.the quality Faecal contamination islargelyin turn responsible for thefallin augmenting theirrustingprocess, which iron pipelinesto beidlefor longstretches, The intermittent supplyofwater leadsthe intermittent water supply[Ghosh,2002]. is more dangerous to publichealththan water flowsover vastdistances. Nothing ofpipelinesthrough whichthe the network depends to agreat degree onthestate of ofwater attheendusepointThe quality Leakage from water piped supply R.B. Singh,Md. Haque, Grover Senaul Aakriti

DRINKING WATER, SANITATION ANDHEALTH... [USEPA, 1999; Tibbettes, 2000]. of diseasescausedbywater contamination undergoing chemotherapy) are atspecialrisk compromised patients(e.g., thosewhoare such aschildren, andimmune theelderly ofpublichealth. aspect Vulnerable groups water andsanitationisanessential drinking 5).Safeits population(Table andgoodquality in meetingthewater andsanitationneedsto when compare to otheremerging countries standfarbehindOrganisation, 2009].India Health access to improved sanitation[World water’ butonlyabout28percenthave water thatcouldbeclassifiedas ‘safe drinking usedrinking that about89percentofIndians isestimated andGupta,2010]. It [Bhandari communicable diseasesandoverall morbidity prevalence and showupasinfantmortality, of therefore, continueto beadversely affected with therequirements. Healthoutcome few decades, butstillnotcommensurate ofwaterterms supplyandsanitationinlast thoughimprovesIndia it’s conditionsin year in India. Inadequate sanitationimplies Inadequate year inIndia. responsible for 4millionchilddeaths per diseases estimated to be causing diarrhoeal infection pathogens witharangeofenteric may alsomean metals[Brain,1999].It heavy compounds, such asDDT insecticides and can meanincreased exposure to carcinogenic andagricultural effluent dumping ofindustrial duetowater sewagedisposal, quality to sustenancewater oflife; isthe key poor communicable andpreventable. Although of thediseasesassociated withwaterMost are Source: World HealthOrganisation, 2009. WATER AND HUMAN HEALTH and improved sanitation in emerging economics economics emerging in sanitation improved and eio9 81 59 65 77 28 95 93 88 91 89 South Africa Mexico China Brazil India Country Table 5. Access to safe drinking water water drinking Table tosafe 5.Access (per cent) (per Drinking Drinking water Sanitation

71 SUSTAINABILITY 72 SUSTAINABILITY the issuesofgrave where healthconcern their bathatroadsides. These are someof someplacespeopleare alsoseen havingIn uncovered (Figs. drainattheirvicinity 3,4). water andpresence of their utensil indirty atthemto washas slum)whilelooking living inthecongested area (referred to reality ofinadequate sanitationfor those itcouldbeevaluated theground Kolkata, In gastroenteritis etc. 1999]. [Brian, dysentery,oral transmissionofdiarrhoea, hygiene, to thefaecal whichleadinparticular reduced levels ofpersonal anddomestic GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(08)2015 Fig. 4. Open drainage in , Kolkata. Fig. 3. Washing of utensils in dirty water. etc. [Kudesia,1980]. andgastroenteritisjaundice, cholera,typhoid mixed causing withnumberofimpurities water whichisavailable inbigcitiesgets public healththreat [Friis, 2007].Even piped diseasesrepresentwater borne asignificant less developed regions oftheworld, where Safe water supplyisnotalways available inthe the pivotal role. well-being andfor thattheKMCneedto play for mustbegiven abetterpurposes priority water atthehouseholdlevel for sanitation the improvement ofsufficient inavailability Source: Kolkata Municipal Corporation, 2012. MunicipalCorporation, Source: Kolkata aided by KMC. It hasbeeninferred thatthe aided byKMC. It and theseare fullythroughout Kolkata and many more operating minor dispensaries There are more than 25majordispensaries they gettheirtreatment withfree ofcost. slums andhaving poorlivingstandards where check-up mainly follows bythoseresiding in aredispensaries thedestinationfor medical athouseholdlevel.sanitation purposes The and ofsufficientwateravailability for drinking water andnon- of contaminated drinking diseasesresultedborne dueto consumption other diseases(Appendix 2). These are water dysentery (include acute gastroenteritis) and patients with reveal thatthe Dispensary Rajabazar andDispensary, Dispensary covering dispensaries thedataondiseasesfrom Kolkata, In year becauseofthesediseases.a day every alossof200millionman-hours experienced due to diseasesandIndia water borne children under5years ofagedieeachyear Shanmuganandan [1999],around 105million susceptible. Accordingthem practically to local diseasecausingpathogens, whichmake have littletimeto adaptphysiologically to 90 percentofthesedeaths. Young children Children underfive years ofagecomprise hygiene, leadto 1.8milliondeathsperyear. diseases are to attributed poorsanitationand [2004],88percentofdiarrhoeal Report According to World HealthOrganization R.B. Singh,Md. Haque, Grover Senaul Aakriti oa 8 9 9 6 0 506 0 506 0 763 290 64 95 193 76 26 118 280 36 55 103 103 Total 50 September 13 August February 24 January 2012 occupyingmajorshare among Dispensary Narkel- danga danga (Include acute gastroenteritis)(Include acute diarrhoealdiseases Acute Diarrhoeal Disease Acute DiarrhoealDisease Dispensary Ultadanga Ultadanga Table 6. Water borne diseases in Kolkata in diseases Table borne Water 6. Dispensary Rajabazar Rajabazar bacillary bacillary

Total 193 316 162 DRINKING WATER, SANITATION ANDHEALTH... 92 development whichrequires explicit therefore issuefor sustainable animportant wellbeing. water is Supplyingsafe drinking sustenance ofhumanlife andfor healthy forfor consumptionisofutmostimportance of water, water of goodquality theavailability facetsofuses purposes. Amongthevarious industrial, recreational andfor aesthetic The useofwater ismanifold i.e. domestic, existence ofhumanlife.essential for thevery Water isoneofthebasicresources asitis diseases.water borne with mixed may result impurities into several supplied through thebrokenmunicipalpipes Therefore, consumption ofwater thedirect contaminate thewater atitssources ofsupply. andthus through brokenpipesandleakages get mixed withthemunicipalpipedwater monsoonal rainfallwhere therainwater in themonthofAugust may bedueto the 6). (Table The more concentrationofpatients infection and172withdysentery) diarrhoeal higher inthemonthofAugust (316with whileitis infection and76withdysentery) (92withdiarrhoeal in themonthofJanuary diseaseshaveborne found few innumber The concentrationsofpatientswithwater concentrated inUltadangadispensary. are mainly while thepatientswithdysentery present inalmostallthestated dispensaries diseasesarepatients withacute diarrhoeal MANAGEMENT MEASURES FOR SUSTAINABLE WATER Dispensary Narkel- danga danga 2 0 0 0 129 172 129 0 0 0 0760 Bacillary Dysentery Bacillary Dispensary Ultadanga Ultadanga Dispensary Rajabazar Rajabazar Total 129 172 129 76

73 SUSTAINABILITY 74 SUSTAINABILITY the requirement ofwater canbefulfilledat withthepipedwaterbe connected sothat all householdsespeciallythe slumsneedto premises aswell as nearpremises. Therefore, ofpipedwater withinthe less connectivity poor are livinginacondition where there is theurban Kolkata, of pipedwater system. In withthemunicipalsupply seldom connected environment anurban theslumdwellersIn are municipal tap water Connect household with processed inthesociety.sustainability asafundamentalissueto bringbe taken water must ofsafethe availability drinking successfully copeup. Therefore, securing has always beenabigproblem for KMCto water and theirdemandfor potable drinking The ever increasing size ofthepopulation household level asthesupplyofwater islow. water atthe ofdrinking is pooravailability The problem regarding thewater inKolkata water Availability andaccessibility ofsafe drinking in Kolkata: forin bringing sustainability water resources the measures whichcouldbemadefunctional emphasis onquality. Following are someof GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(08)2015 Fig. 5. Municipal supply of tap water in Kolkata. in water tap of supply 5.Municipal Fig. by looking attheutility, by looking the establishmentand and sanitationpurposes. drinking Therefore, sewageeffluentforit ispossibleto re-use disposal andreuse. With suitabletechnology, environmentally safe fluid waste suitable for household sewageandrunoff. produces It the contaminantsfrom wastewater including Sewage treatment planthelpsinremoving disposal Improvement insewage treatment and municipal supplierofwater resources. be themainfocus for plannerand theurban well-being, aninclusive useofwater should the enhancementofsanitationandhealthy will create scarcityinanotherplace. So, for stage asthewastageofwater atoneplace atevery utilization ofwater mustbepractised Proper action. strict be stopped bytaking the beneficiaries. This wastageofwater must its proper utilizationandeven reaching to supplied through KMCgetswasted without from tapwater thedirect (Fig. 6). The water the water supplyisthewastageofwater oneofthemajordrawbacks of Kolkata, In inclusive use ofwater Minimize the wastage ofwater: practice of water getcontrolled (Fig. 5). the domesticlevel andthecontaminations R.B. Singh,Md. Haque, Grover Senaul Aakriti of leather industries in of leatherindustries Tangra ledto thelead of underground water where thepresence effluents may result into thecontamination from pipedline. leakages The industrial which isfollowed bydomesticsewageand its proper treatment istheprominent one effluentto thewaterindustrial bodieswithout of contaminationwater, therelease of inhabitants.city Amongthemajorsources to water the anditsaccessibility quality are ofgood theavailability supply inKolkata majorproblemThe two regarding water underground source. water asasecondary water asamajorsource ofwater supplywith thewater issuppliedthrough piped Kolkata itgetsfiltered.consumption after Throughout water for human biggest source ofsurface resources where Hugliisthe theRiver isblessedwithabundantwater Kolkata water available atthehouseholdlevel.making through sustainability andcanbring purposes andsanitation ofwater for drinking shortage is required. theproblem willhelpsto curb of It proper ofsewagetreatment functioning plant CONCLUSION Fig. 6. Wastage of water from the tap in Kolkata. in tap the from water of Wastage 6. Fig.

DRINKING WATER, SANITATION ANDHEALTH... hand, theconsumption ofwater withmixed resources inhabitants. to thecity Ontheother are thecustodian of main supplyofwater asmunicipalities concern of KMCisprime for thisregard, sanitationpurposes. In therole need to focus insufficientsupplyofwater healthissues,the serious where there isa water for washing theutensil. dirty These are those livingintheslumswhere theyalsouse commonphenomenaforThese are very people are having theirbathatroadside. atthehouseholdlevel,sanitation purposes that dueto absenceofsufficientwater for sustenance ofhumanlife. hasbeennoticed It agreatthe householdlevel exert pressure in at andsanitationpurposes water for drinking ofsufficient andaccessibility Lack ofavailability resulted into flooding. withthemouthofdrainand get choked care andwhenitrained, theplasticwaste properwastes are disposedwithouttaking water.contaminate thesurface The solid and ifcontinuefor along durationmay also may contaminate theunderground water water. ofpipe Ontheotherhand, theleakage undergroundcontamination to thenearby

75 SUSTAINABILITY 76 SUSTAINABILITY 12. Douglas, I.(1983). Environment.The Urban Edward (Publisher). Arnold Ltd., London. 11. 2001.Registrar GeneralandCensus (2001).Census ofIndia Census Handbook. District 10. andDewalle,F.B. Chain,E.S.K. Landfill Leachates andtheir (1976).Sanitary Treatment. In: 9. S.(2011). - S.,Dey, S.,Ghosh,R.andMallick, Chacraverti, The Kolkata B.C., Mallick, 8. Central Pollution Control Board. of (2013).Statusof Water Ministry inIndia-2011. Quality 7. (2011).Provisional Census ofIndia. Population Totals, Paper 1of2011, West BengalSeries 6. (1999).(Eds.), H.K. Brian, Water Resources: Health,Environment andDevelopment. Taylor 5. etal. Health forMahal (Eds.), India L.andGupta,A.(2010).Inputs Health.In: Bhandari, 4. andDataBookof (2007).2007Benchmarking Water Asian Bank. Development in Utilities 3. inAsian Countries. Infrastructure ADB, (1997).Urban Manila. Asian Bank. Development 2. 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77 SUSTAINABILITY 78 SUSTAINABILITY 4 . USEPA. (1999).Drinking Water andHealth: What You United State Needto Envi- Know! 40. Tibbetts, J. (2000). Water World 2000.Environmental HeathPerspective, Vol. 108.Pp. 39. TheEnergy andResearch Institute. (2003). and The Energy DataDirectory Yearbook 38. Tata Energy andResearch Institute. (2013). TERI Environmental Survey. Habitat TERI. India 37. Sobsey, M.D., Handzel, T., Venczel, andSafe L.(2003). Chlorination Storage ofHousehold 36. Shreashtha, L.B. (2006).Life intheUnited States. Expectance Congregational Research 35. 34. R.N.(2007). Shaban,A.andSharma, Water Consumption Pattern Households inDomestic 33. Segane, R.(2000). Calcutta, Mumbai,Delhi, Water inIndia: inMega-Cities Management 32. Roy, J., Chattopadhyay, M.,Samajpati,S.andRoy, S.,Kanjilal, S.,Mukherjee, S.(2004).An 31. Assessment Planning 2002, Commission. (2002).India Water SupplyandSanitation. 30. (1998).Pollution Content S.,Gupta,S.K. Metal of A.,Adhikari, Mitra, Vegetables Irrigated 29. to Masters, Environmental G.M.(1998).Introduction Munici- Engineering andScience. In: 28. Mandal, M.(2007).Leachate from MunicipalSolid and Waste- Generation,Characteristics 27. GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(08)2015 health.pdf. ronmental Protection Agency. Available at:http://www.epa.gov/safewater/ dwh/dw- A69–A73. Delhi. New 2002–03. TERI, Centre, India. NewDelhi, Acta Tropica. Vol. 127.Pp. 153–157. genic Escherechia Coli inPotable Water Source of West byBatabyaletal. Bengal, India Drinking Water to Countries inDeveloping Reduce Waterborne Diarrheo- Diseases. In: Books, NewDelhi. 2010.R.K. etal. HealthReport Mahal (Eds.), India In: Service. Subcontinent. ronmental IssuesinIndian Paper,Working University, Kmaraj Madurai India. Relation to HumanHealth:AStudywithReferences to Water Envi- DiseasesandMajor Borne Shanumganandan, S.(1999). Water Quality, Water Resources andHealth Water in Quality HabitatCentre,India India. NewDelhi, Cities.in Major In: TERI Environmental Survey, 2013. The Energy andResearch Institute, 2011, Germany,Report WWF Berlin. Press.versity BigCities In: Water BigChallenges. Water inanUrbanised World. WWF and . Water for Areas, Urban ChallengesandPerspectives. United NationsUni- Weekly. Vol. 39(2).Pp. 186–192. for EconomicandPoliticalEconomic AnalysisofDemand CaseofKolkata. Water Quality: A UNICEFSponsored Study.WHO- with Sewage Water. ofSoilscience. Society oftheIndian Journal Vol. 46(1).Pp. 153–155. Waste Management. Vol. 29(4).Pp. 1449–1458. pal Solid AReviewbyChattopadhyay India: etal.Waste 2008. inKolkata, Management hyay etal. 2008. Waste Management. Vol. 29(4).Pp. 1449–1458. Effects. MunicipalSolid AReview, In: India: Waste Chattopad- inKolkata, Management Source: Indian Standard,Source: Indian 10500–1991. 42. Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC). (2002).It’s theBigIssue. Water SupplyandSanitationCollaborative Council (WSSCC). 42. Walker, W.H. Groundwater (1969).Illinois Pollution. MunicipalSolid In: Waste Manage- 41. R.B. Singh,Md. Haque, Grover Senaul Aakriti R WWF. (2011).BigCities Water BigChallenges. Water inanUrbanised World. World 49. Metropolitan (2011). Area World to Precipitation Increased Bank. ofKolkata Vulnerability 48. BuildingsonIndia’s Delivery: Growth Inclusive andService (2006).India World Bank. 47. WHO. (2009). 2010.R.K. World etal. HealthReport Mahal (Eds.), HealthStatistics. India In 46. WHO. (2004). Water, SanitationandHygiene Linksto Health. World HealthOrganisation. 45. White, G.F., Bradley, D.J. and White A.U. (1972).Drawer of Water: Domestic Water Usein 44. West BengalPollution Control 2010–11. Board. (2011).AnnualReport WBPCB, Govern- 43. No. e Sl. 11 Fluoride (mg/l) 0.6–1.2 1.5 Dental and skeletal fl andskeletal Dental uorosis. 1.5 Gastrointestinal illness. – 0.6–1.2 < 5000 MPN/100ml Fluoride (mg/l) 11 Total Coliform 10 rei m/)00 oRlxto Toxic, Carcinogenic, Aff NoRelaxation Aff NoRelaxation 0.05 Absent Arsenic (mg/l) 2 Total pesticide(ppb) 1 H6585Bitter taste, aff Algalgrowth, bluebabydisease. Gastrointestinal illness. Undesirabletaste, gastro intestinal NoRelaxation – 2000 6.5–8.5 45 100 Highly Toxic, causesminamata’ dis- < 2500MPN/100 ml 5°C NoRelaxation 500 Faecal Coliform 9 (mg/l) Nitrate 8 pH 30 0.001 7 Temperature 6 TDS (mg/l) 5 (mg/l) Mercury 4 BOD (mg/l) 3 c e i Available athttp://www.wsscc.org. 29 (4).Pp. 1449–1458. AReviewbyChattopadhyay India: etal. 2008. ment inKolkata, Waste Management. Vol. Wide Fund for Nature. Germany,WWF Berlin. South Asia Region. ofthe Document World Bank. in aChanging Climate. Environment, Climate Changeand Water Resources Department, Books, NewDelhi. Success. Policy 2010.R.K. Development Review. etal. HealthReport Mahal (Eds.), In India Books, NewDelhi. Available at:www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/facts2004/en. Books, NewDelhi. 2010.R.K. etal. Health Report Mahal (Eds.), India In East Africa. ment of West Bengal, Kolkata. v e d

aaeesDsrbeLmtPrisbeLmtHealthEff Permissible Limit Desirable Limit Parameters 2 9 . 1 0 . 2 0 Appendix 1. Indian Standard (IS) Specifi (IS) Standard 1. Indian Appendix 1 5

DRINKING WATER, SANITATION ANDHEALTH... cations for Drinking Water Drinking for cations irritation. ease, neurological impairment. system. Nervous ect Central Nervous system. Central Nervous ect A c ects aquaticlife.ects c e p t e ects d ect ect Central

0 6 . 1 1 . 2 0 1 5

79 SUSTAINABILITY 80 SUSTAINABILITY

Appendix 2. Major Diseases at Dispensaries in Kolkata GEOGRAPHY. ENVIRONMENT. SUSTAINABILITY. 04(08)2015 Acute Diarrhoeal Acute Bacillary Fever of Unknown Disease (Include acute Respiratory Malaria Dysentery Origin (PUO) 2012 gastroenteritis) Total Total Infection Total Total Total N* U* R* N* U* R* N* U* R* N* U* R* N* U* R* 1st week 5 5 23 33 0 22 0 22 55 121 234 410 2 34 28 64 18 0 0 18 2nd week8 4 6 1801701725971783002250271001121 3rd week5 2 18250140145915722644203039699009

January 4th week 6 2 8 16 0 23 0 23 26 110 109 245 0 15 13 28 17 0 0 17 Total 24 13 55 92 0 76 0 76 165 485 747 1397 4 104 80 188 54 0 11 65 1st week 3 8 17 28 0 42 0 42 93 152 261 506 2 30 41 73 26 0 0 26 2nd week 10 15 24 49 0 41 0 41 105 195 263 563 4 1 26 31 28 57 0 85 3rd week 12 7 16 35 0 21 0 21 94 190 210 494 3 33 28 64 25 0 0 25

February 4th week 25 6 19 50 0 25 0 25 59 147 189 395 2 36 45 83 30 0 0 30 Total 50 36 76 162 0 129 0 129 351 684 923 1958 11 100 140 251 109 57 0 166 1st week1950239202021351502215069208117302300230 2nd week1812275703303311130222363696132773050000 3rd week16137 360240242374011387761211591123920000 4th week211720580510511564021937512102031095220000 August 5th week 29 26 18 73 0 62 0 62 356 370 315 1041 227 365 136 728 0000 Total 103 118 95 316 0 172 0 172 995 1625 1090 3710 746 859 515 2120 0 230 0 230 1st week 23 9 19 51 0 42 0 42 268 542 240 1050 315 423 194 932 0000 2nd week 22 2 19 43 0 41 0 41 234 668 284 1186 322 414 245 981 0000 3rd week238 23540300302654232409282413002708110000 4th week357 3 450160161222102906222662753028430000 September Total 103 26 64 193 0 129 0 129 889 1843 1054 3786 1144 1412 1011 3567 0000

Note: N* Narkeldanga Dispensary, U* Ultadanga Dispensary, R* Razabazar Dispensary. Source: Kolkata Municipal Corporation, 2012. R.B. Singh,Md. Haque, Grover Senaul Aakriti famous-The HouseLtd., Concise,World Millennium Australia. Atlas-Earth of at theUniversity Turku (Finland). Hewasalsoassociated inthe asoneofthecontributors Phil students. Hewasalsoassociated withNIAS,Copenhagen in1998and Visiting Professor IDPAD, ofAgriculture. 30Ph. D. CIDA-SICI,Hehassupervised and72M. DFIDandMinistry He wasalsoassociated withprestigious research international programs suchasICSSR- ISSC (Paris) awarded himResearch andStudy GrantsAward inSocialandHumanSciences. 194 research 1988theUNESCO/ journals. paperspublishedinnationalandinternational In Md. Haque Senaul R.B. Singh Aakriti Grover Aakriti assessment of respiratory diseases among the city inhabitants. diseasesamongthecity assessment ofrespiratory Environment andHumanHealthwhere itfocuses onepidemiologic Muslim University. area ofinterest His for theresearch isUrban ofGeography, the session2010–2011inDepartment Aligarh also occupiedthepostofSecretary, for A.M.UGeographical Society under theFaculty ofScienceinM.A.for of2010–2012.He theperiod Scholarship in2015. HeistherecipientDelhi Merit ofUniversity HeobtainedhisM.Phil degree India. of Delhi, from of University ofGeography,Department SchoolofEconomics, Delhi University He hasto hiscredit 39research volumes/books andmore than Remote DisasterDevelopment, SensingandGIS. Management, Environmental Studies, Climate Change, Regional Urban Research Fellowship Dr. atHiroshima. Singhhasspecialized in and Technology Conference. Hewasawarded prestigious JSPS ofScienceAcademiesIAP–Global intheUNISDRScience Network Geographical andEnvironmental Sciences. Heisrepresenting Editor Advances Series Springer inScience Academy; Member,India; National IUGG-IGUCommittee oftheIndian ofGeography,(IGU)), Head, Department ofDelhi, University include Urban Environmentinclude Urban Health. andUrban Herresearchof Economics, India. ofDelhi, interests University ofGeography,research scholar attheDepartment School Delhi Swami ShraddhanandCollege, Sheisalsoa ofDelhi. University is GeographicalVice-President, Union International isanAssistant Professor ofGeography atthe

iscurrently aPh. D. Research Scholarin DRINKING WATER, SANITATION ANDHEALTH...

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