Vol. 10(12), pp. 467-475, December 2016 DOI: 10.5897/AJEST2016.2182 Article Number: AA5944261556 African Journal of Environmental Science and ISSN 1996-0786 Copyright © 2016 Technology Author(s) retain the copyright of this article http://www.academicjournals.org/AJEST

Full Length Research Paper

Role of indigenous knowledge systems in the conservation of the bio-physical environment among the Teso community in -

Dominics Dan Ayaa1* and Fuchaka Waswa2

1Department of Development Studies, Daystar University, P. O. Box 44400-00100, Nairobi. 2Department of Agricultural Resources Management, Kenyatta University, P. O. Box 43844-00100, Nairobi.

Received 5 August, 2016; Accepted 11 October, 2016

The indigenous knowledge systems are a significant resource which would contribute to the increased efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability in environmental conservation among rural communities of developing countries in particular. They form the basis for community-level decision making in areas pertaining to food security, human and health, education and more important in natural resource management. However, despite their critical role in the conservation of the bio-physical environment, these practices and technologies are being marginalized or even forgotten among rural communities in different parts of the world. To ascertain the role played by these traditional practises on the bio- physical environment, this paper identified and established the Teso community indigenous environmental practices and assessed changes in these knowledge systems from the time of Kenya’s pre-independence to the 2000s era. Data were collected using various social science methods such as the questionnaire and focused group discussions. The results showed that the use of totems, protection of sacred places, prohibitions and gender and age restraints declined by 41.3, 68, 41.8 and 38.2%, respectively. The evident decline in the use of the indigenous environmental knowledge systems has negatively impacted on the state of the bio-physical environment exemplified by the Chi-square Pearson (P) values of 0.00 between decline in the use of age and gender restraints and the deterioration in land fertility and only a few elders using the knowledge systems and reduction in the number of rivers, streams and wetlands as exemplified by the Chi-square Pearson (P) value of 0.02. In view of the above, it is recommended that rekindling, recording and preservation of indigenous environmental best practices among local communities such as the Teso for sustainable natural resources management be re-invigorated and integrated in conventional environmental management plans. This also calls for participatory decision-making between policy makers, implementers and actual resource users.

Key words: Indigenous knowledge systems, conservation, bio-physical environment.

INTRODUCTION

This study addresses the role of the indigenous environment among local communities in developing knowledge systems in managing the bio-physical countries using Teso community in Busia County in

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Kenya as a case study area. It tracks the effects of farming practices (soil conservation, intercropping, farm changes in the use of different types indigenous rotation, and food technology among other uses. knowledge systems used by the members of the Teso (Wasongo et al., 2011; Hilhorst, 2015). community on the bio-physical environment from pre- The UN Conference on Environment and Development independent Kenya to the 2000s era. It argues that in in 1992 catalyzed the interest in the contribution of spite of indigenous knowledge systems often being indigenous knowledge aimed at bettering the dismissed as unsystematic and consequently not being understanding of sustainable development. It highlighted captured and stored in a systematic way with the implicit the urgent need for developing mechanisms to protect danger being its extinction, some aspects of indigenous the earth’s biological diversity through local knowledge. knowledge and practices are still critical in the The agenda 21 of the UNCED conference emphasized management of the bio-physical environment among on the need for governments to work towards local communities such as the Teso of Busia County. incorporating indigenous environmental management Since time immemorial, various forms of indigenous knowledge systems into contemporary socio-economic knowledge systems (IKSs) have been used by societies development programmes in order to attain sustainable in Africa and the rest of the World for many different development (Helvetas, 2011; Gaillard and Mercer, purposes as determined by the needs of the society in 2012)) question (Chikaire et al., 2012). The study reiterates that Studies have shown that throughout the world and the above skills, knowledge and attitudes when especially in the developing countries, indigenous/local harnessed and appropriately applied are capable of people have formed “a science” by engaging in annual sustaining communities and can enhance development in cycles of subsistence activities that have evolved into areas such as natural resource management, education, knowledge systems and technologies useful in healing and management of diseases, nutrition, maintaining and preserving the bio-physical environment wealth/income/business, entertainment, politics among within such a community. Thus, over the years, local others (Mutasa , 2015). communities have studied and known a great deal about Current day literature uses different definitions of the flora and fauna, and developed their own indigenous knowledge with the World Bank broadly classification systems as well as versions of meteorology, defining it as “a complex set of knowledge and astronomy, pharmacology, physics, biology, botany and technologies existing and developed around specific the sacred commonly referred to as the inner world conditions of populations and communities indigenous to (IPCC, 2014). a particular geographic locality” (Parrotta and Trosper, Accordingly, thus, natural resource conservation has 2012). The http://www.sedac.cisen.columbia.edu web site been in the traditions of local communities and has been defines indigenous knowledge as “a local knowledge that expressed variously in the beliefs and practices used in is unique to a given culture or society”. It is further their management and utilization. A study by Eneji viewed as a body of knowledge, or bodies of knowledge (2012) indicate that the indigenous natural resource of the indigenous/local people of a particular management practices evolved through the historical geographical area that have survived on for a very long interaction of communities and their environment thereby time. These knowledge systems are developed through a giving rise to practices and cultural landscapes such as process of acculturation and through kinship relationships sacred forests and groves, sacred corridors and a variety that social groups form and are handed down to the of ethno forestry practices. posterity through oral tradition and cultural practices such Thus, arising from the above were conservation as ritual and rites (Chikaire et al., 2012; Kala, 2012). practices that combined water, soil, flora and fauna. Such forms of knowledge are also known by other names Indeed, these nature-society interactions lead to socio- among them are: Indigenous ways of knowing, cultural beliefs as institutional frameworks for managing local/traditional/folk knowledge/ethno science and is thus the resultant practices that arose out of the application of a dynamic archive of the sum total of knowledge, skills the developed indigenous knowledge systems. and attitudes belonging to and practiced by a community Consequently, on the basis of the above the attitude of over generations, and is expressed in the form of action, respect towards the earth as “mother” was widespread objects and sign language for sharing. This form of among indigenous communities worldwide and especially knowledge has continued to thrive in beliefs, medicine, among people in the developing countries of Africa, Asia disaster management, community development, art and and Latin America. craft, education, communication and entertainment, Among these communities the ancient studies made

*Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected].

Author(s) agree that this article remain permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License

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indigenous environmental knowledge systems and explores its contribution in the protection of the bio- physical environment for sustainable development. It tracks changes in the community’s use and adherence to the indigenous environmental knowledge systems from the 1960s to the 2000s era and evaluates the effects of these changes on the quality of the bio-physical environment. The study sought to establish the role played by the Teso community indigenous knowledge systems on environmental conservation and analyze effects of the changes/trend in the use of these knowledge systems on some selected elements of the bio-physical environment from Kenya’s independence to the 2000s era. The study focused on the geographic area covered by two administrative divisions, namely Ang’urai and Chakol Divisions of Teso District in Busia County. The District boarders Bungoma District to the North and East, to the south and the Republic of to the West. It lies between latitude 0°36'25.2"N, and longitude 34°16'33.6"E. Teso District is divided into four administrative divisions, namely Amagoro, Angurai, Chakol and Amukura, and covers a total land area of 558.5 km2 (Figure 1). The district’s altitude ranges from 1,300 m above sea

level in the south to an average of 1,500 m in the central Figure 1. Study area. and northern parts. Granite and other rocks are more pronounced in the landscape at Amukura and Chelelemuk areas. Some areas of the District are well watered by springs while others avail water through wells 100 pre- and boreholes. The District is also served by two main independence rivers –that is to say rivers Malakisi to extreme north and 90 (%) Malaba to the northen entry of the central region.

% Response % 80 1960s-2000s 70 era (%) 60 Teso District Location

50 Most parts of the District receive between 800 and 1,700

40 mm mean annual rainfall while other parts receive an

30 evenly distributed rainfall of up to 2,000 mm. 20 Temperatures for the whole District are fairly homo- geneous with the mean maximum ranging between 26 10 and 30°C while the mean minimum range between 14 0 and 22°C. The land is fairly fertile with soils ranging from totems protection prohibitions age & sandy soils in some areas such as Amagoro to the black- gender cotton clay soils that are more pronounced on the Knowledge Type southern part of the District (Figure 2). Figure 2. Trends in adherence to Teso Community indigenous Teso is a rural District where subsistence agriculture is environmental management systems. the dominant activity carried out by the majority of the inhabitants (Republic of Kenya, 2013-2017).

explicit references to how forests and other natural METHODOLOGY resources were to be treated and utilized. Africa as a A descriptive cross-sectional design was used in this study. Both continent is richly endowed with highly diverse biological quantitative and qualitative approaches of data collection and resources. This paper establishes the Teso community analysis were used. Quantitative approach was employed to

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quantify social phenomena by collecting, analyzing and interpreting the various elements of the bio-physical environment. Through numerical data focusing on links among a smaller number of structured observation, the researcher was able to witness the attributes across many cases. clearance of bushes and trees for charcoal burning purposes, silting Qualitative approach, on the other hand, which is concerned with in river banks, eroded riverbanks and hilly slopes, among other the phenomena relating to or involving quality or kind is usually forms of environmental damage. conducted in natural settings. Qualitative approach was particularly useful in addressing issues on the Teso community indigenous environmental knowledge systems and the effects of changes in Secondary data IEKS on the bio-physical environment from the time of Kenya’s independence to 2000 s. Extra data were obtained from secondary sources such as The target population for this study was drawn from selected textbooks, newspapers, relevant journals and electronic sources members of the Teso community, top government representatives such as the internet. of different relevant departments in Teso District and top representatives of Non-Governmental and Private sector organizations whose operations have a bearing on environment Data analysis methods and natural resource management in the District. There was a special category of respondents consisting of the All questionnaire-based data were cleaned, coded and entered into elderly (Sages) aged seventy (70) years and above who were SPSS for analysis. Analysis centred on cross-tabulation and purposely included in the study sample to help the researcher track correlation in order to ascertain the perceived relationship between the socio-economic and environmental trends in Teso District the level of adherence to indigenous environmental knowledge during the pre-independence and post-independence of Kenya. systems and the status of some selected environmental descriptors. Both male and female respondents were included in the study Interview-based data were analysed qualitatively with narrative sample. A total sample size of 384 respondents was selected correlation being used in corroborating the results with based on Fischer’s formula (Bryman (2012) and Bruce (2011). questionnaire data in order to assess the relationship between changes in the use of indigenous knowledge systems and the status of certain selected elements of the bio-physical environment. Data collection PRA and FGD data were transcribed and typed into word with themes and sub-themes based on the study objectives created. This research used several methods to collect data. These included the following tools; Research administered questionnaires were used to collect data from 249 household heads who were randomly RESULTS AND DISCUSSION selected in order to establish the Teso community indigenous knowledge systems and assess effects of the changes in indigenous knowledge systems on the bio-physical environment through time. Up to 98% of the respondents confirmed that there Questionnaires containing both closed and open-ended existed Teso community indigenous environmental questions enabled the researcher gain useful and up to date knowledge systems. Totems, protection of sacred places, information regarding the status trends in the use of the Teso prohibitions as well as age and gender restraints were community indigenous environmental knowledge systems from pre- independence to the 2000s era. the most commonly applied norms in the conservation of the various elements of the bio-physical environment. The study found out that the use of all the Teso Key informant interviews community indigenous environmental knowledge systems had declined over time. The use of totems had declined Changes in the Teso community indigenous environmental by 73%, prohibition 86%, age and gender restraints 85% knowledge systems through time were investigated by use of in- and protection of sacred places by 90%. This is depth interviews targeting 50 sages and follow-up discussions presented in Figure 1. targeting 30 sages who were purposely selected from the two administrative Divisions of Teso District. Besides, interviews were also carried out with 15 heads of different government departments and representatives of related NGOs and private sector Totems and the preservation of floral and faunal organizations to gain a deeper understanding of how indigenous resources knowledge systems are perceived and treated by different government representatives. The results from this study showed that during the years preceding Kenya’s independence, different clans and sub-clans within Teso District highly upheld totemism. PRA and focus group discussions The Teso community members had a complexity of Focus group discussions and follow-up discussions in a workshop varied ideas and ways of behaviour based on the world based set-up were carried out with 40 household heads were used view drawn from nature. The above in the views of Eneji to cross-check the validity of the responses and brainstorm on et al., (2012) included ideological, emotional, reverent, emerging issues regarding trend in use of indigenous environmental and genealogical relationships of social groups or specific knowledge systems and perceived effects on the state of the bio- physical environment. persons with or natural objects. Such animals Again, the transect walks in the two Divisions of data collection and objects according to the Teso community members enabled the researcher obtain first-hand information on the state of were viewed as companions, relative, protector,

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progenitor, or helper and were usually ascribed clan elders and medicine men which were protected by supernatural powers and abilities and were offered a respective clans. Among the Teso community members combination of respect, veneration, awe and fear. Among activities such as farming, grazing of animals or even the members of the of Busia County, (the settlements were prohibited from such protected areas. African Mourning Dove, the Half-Collard Kingfisher, the The Teso community members had various beliefs and Nubian and the Barn Swallow) locally known as practices related to both the dead and the living that had Akabulutu, Amuruon, Asulwenyi and Emelete, for some links to the conservation of the environment. For instance were highly respected prior to Kenya’s instance, since time immemorial, members have had a independence since such were treated as symbols belief that the dead and long buried relatives had their for different clans and were also associated with good spirits continuously haunting the living family members to luck and wealth. free them from the graves. Thus, to appease these In gratitude, none of the people of the Iteso heritage departed relatives, there was a common practice of whose ancestors treated the above as totems could kill, exhuming the remains of the same from the graves that hurt or eat such birds. Furthermore, there were certain were at least ten years old for preservation. This tree species that were never felled due to some beliefs ceremony that is locally known as Ekutet /Epunyas was that such were associated with water sources, having carried out by a special group of elderly men and women medicinal properties, associated with bad omen, ancestor from the community and was done in the absence of or were associated with luck and wealth. The fig tree children and foreigners. locally known as Ebule for instance was associated with Accordingly, once all the remains had been recovered spirituality and where traditionally community members from the grave, special baskets were used to transfer the used to worship under could never be tampered with. same to some special central site where such remains Likewise, the Kigelia Africana tree locally known as were stored in places that were strictly being protected Edodoi that was believed to be an effective cure for and only occasionally visited by the elderly who carried mumps where by the patient only needed to visit it very an assortment of traditional foods and drinks for early in the morning (earlier than anybody else) and go appeasing the evil spirits. Accordingly, no human activity rubbing the infected chicks around the plant several times of any kind is carried out in such an area as it was was never carelessly felled. believed that the spirits would not take it kind with The above is comparable to the findings by Adu-Gyamfi anybody disturbing the peace of the dead or the spirits (2011), Eneji et al. (2012) and Awuah-Nyamekye (2014) themselves. The area thus remained a very thick forest who content that among most African indigenous habiting a number of species or different organisms. communities, totemic objects and materials vary Such sites and places were considered sacred and significantly over tribes and clans. They give examples of were thus protected from any internal or external totem animals that include mere mammals (Leopards, interference thereby encouraging natural growth of the Lions, Elephants, Monkeys, Buffalo), and birds such as vegetation that later turned out to be dense forests that the (Falcon, Raven, snake, parrot) among others. formed important habitats for a variety of flora and fauna. Similarly, turtles, crocodiles, snakes (python), scorpions, Besides, the Teso community members greatly crabs and fishes. They note that all the communities recognized the importance of rivers, marshes and surveyed had a belief that there existed a relationship swamps as important dwellings places for ancestors and between the totem object or material and the tribe or “God’s creatures” (biodiversity) since various species of clan. In this regard members of a particular tribe or clan plants and animals thrived in them. did not eat, kill or trap these animals and birds thus Thus, the conservation of water courses, streams, naturally enhancing their population. water pans and wells as well as the associated vegetation was protected through rules that ensured their sustainability. More important were the shrines, caves Protection of sacred places, floral, faunal and water and the forests covering the springs which were never resources conservation interfered with because of the belief that ancestors or evil spirits dwelt in such places. Again, reptiles such as The study found out that prior to Kenya’s independence snakes, frogs and toads that inhabited ponds, rivers and the practice of ensuring that certain culturally defined and wells were protected from any harm due to the belief that designated spots and territories was highly upheld by the they helped maintain / sustain the lives of these important Teso Community members. These included burial sites, water points. Also, the community members highly places for ceremonies such as oathing, appeasing of evil recognized and appreciated the importance of wells and spirits, cleansing of members infected by diseases rivers as crucial sources of water for livestock and human considered contagious or members believed to have beings as well as a source of fish. committed serious crimes such as murder and adultery, Therefore, in order to conserve these resources, there places inhabited by clan gods or spirits of once respected were strong rules and beliefs that protected such

472 Afr. J. Environ. Sci. Technol.

elements of the bio-physical environment. For instance, The above confirms the findings by Risiro et al. (2013) some forests were protected by taboos that forbade and Matsika (2012) who observed that among people from entering them and some trees were declared communities studied, deforestation was less than 50% in sacred and thus felling them constituted a breach of sacred forests than in their secular counterparts. They taboo with violators being fined some quantity of food or further observed that close to 133 species of native live animals as determined and directed by the village plants occurred in the sacred forests whereas they were authority. In some instances, folklore and stories such as variously, threatened endangered, extirpated elsewhere those claiming that witches were patronizing some in Zimbabwe. The above studies thus concluded that forests, rivers, caves, shrines and wells at certain times strategies for biodiversity conservation that link culture or seasons to practice their trade and store their tools of and nature are more effective than those imposed from trade helped instil fear of violating the rules. the top by government or /and agencies and that ignore Accordingly, therefore the effectiveness of the the traditional beliefs, values, institutions, and practices of traditional Teso community sanctions prior to Kenya’s local societies. independence was shown by the fact that forest reserves existed for generations and were important havens for biodiversity as they provided a sanctuary for plants, Prohibitions and the conservation of floral resources animals, birds until recently when such were cleared to pave way for modern agricultural activities. Members of the Teso community practised prohibitions This observation is consistent with that report by which entailed restricting its members from acting of Ogbuagu (2011) who notes that sacred sites among behaving in some certain unacceptable manner that different indigenous and local communities are highly contributed to the conservation of the various elements of protected places since they are considered to be of the bio-physical environment. The study found out that special significance to and play a vital role in the overall among the Iteso people, members mandated to harvest well-being of the of Indigenous and local communities. medicinal plants for instance were encouraged to Such sites according to Bhagwat et al. (2011) and Rutte administer some treatment on the harvested part through (2011) are viewed as naturally constructed places where practices such as the application of cow dung so as to cosmic energies are at confluence to enable communi- accelerate the callus formation as well as the re-growth of cation with ancestors, special places for learning and the cambium layer of the affected tree. There were norms practicing spirituality, philosophy and science; that prohibited young children as well as women technologies and arts of the indigenous people. Many (especially menstruating women) from harvesting such sites are thus an expression of World views in which medicinal plants because of the belief that such medicine nature is animated; human values are attributed to nature would lose its medicinal value or healing power. and its elements. Such sites are internationally defined as Likewise, the harvesting of young plants for medicinal “areas of land or water having special spiritual use was prohibited and thus there were strict rules that significance to peoples and communities” and are only allowed the harvesting of mature plants for medicinal recognized as the oldest conserved areas in the World. purposes. Further, UNESCO (2011) says that among other Similarly, the digging of only secondary roots rather indigenous communities such places were considered than the main (tap) root of the medicinal plants was also sites of fascination, attraction, connectedness, danger, allowed so as to protect these plants from any form of ordeal, healing, ritual, meaning, identity, revelation, damage. Besides, community members were encouraged and/or transformation. Accordingly, some of these sites to plant medicinal plants near homesteads especially as were found in dense forests, thick vegetation, in water strips between or separating different land parcels for logged places, swamps and marshes, caves, hills, rocks, ease of access as well as for protection from outsiders. particular mountains, soils, water falls, ponds, among It was common to find that felling or uprooting of the other spots. above was restricted to only those portion/ parts and The above concurs with the findings by Byers et al. quantities needed such as branches, leaves or roots (2001) who observed that among the Shona of Zambezi being harvested. In particular, root tuber crops such as valley there exists a wide range of objects, sites which cassava and sweet potatoes were protected by different community members consider as sacred and harvesting only large roots or tubers through a process they include; trees, rivers, pools and mountain ranges as known as “milking,”-that is to say, only harvesting large sacred. Accordingly their concept of sacred (inoera) and harvestable roots and tubers which assured the connotes something that is life sustaining and linked to survival of the crop thereby enabling the conservation of rain and land fertility. They view a sacred place these plants. Again, there were traditional claims which (nzvimboinoera) as where spirits dwell and associated stated that some medicinal plants could only be with it are rules of access as well as behaviours that are harvested or reached after wearing special clothes, not allowed (taboos). leaving special treated coins under the plant at night

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before harvesting or making a special prayer before wildlife sanctuary of Central Ghana. A similar situation collecting the roots, bark or leaves of certain tree species was reported for the bats of Wli in the South Eastern part that helped the conservation of medicinal plants. of the country whereby the overhanging rocks of the Likewise, taboos and restrictions on gathering of mountains that form the border with Togo is known to medicinal plants and the nature of tools used for house an impressive colony of large bats, which are said harvesting by Teso community members which in most to be conserved by the local community. In this regard, cases consisted of blunt knives helped to limit the volume the Black and White colobus (Colobus polykomos) and of tree products harvested. Again, the Teso culture never the mona monkey (Cercopithecus mona) found in the permitted women to engage in any kind of construction Boabeng- Fiema wildlife sanctuary of Central Ghana are activities and thus acts of clearing land or vegetation for in particular protected by prohibitions (Elorm-Donkor, whatever reason was a male activity. Also, the fetching of 2012). firewood entailed cutting or picking dead wood or only those tree branches that could be reached from the ground or cutting shrubs and not young trees. Age and gender restraints and land resource Similarly, the cactus and euphorbia trees were seen as conservation medicinal and were thus prohibited from being cut down carelessly. Also, the Meru Oak locally known as Within the Teso community, different age groups and (Eyolokome) whose leaves were believed to be an genders closely respected and upheld rules and effective mosquito repellent was equally prohibited from guidelines that forbade them acting contrary to what was being felled. Indigenous trees such as Melia Volkensii expected of them by culture. The traditional Teso culture locally known as (Elirat) and Markhamia lutea (Eswaat) for instance restrained women from climbing a tree for besides being medicinal in nature were also associated reasons particularly related to women’s nature of with good luck and wealth and thus were found planted in dressing. Likewise, women and young unmarried boys nearly all homesteads and were never easily interfered were restrained from owning land and the accompanying with unless for building purpose. land based resources such as water points and trees by There were also tree species that were never interfered being denied the authority to utilize such resources with because of the Folklore and stories that if the fuel unless permitted by an elder or the household head. As a wood from such a tree was used for cooking the resultant result of the said restraints, land-based resources were smoke would lead to blindness and deafness. Similarly, a used sustainably leading to the conservation of the house constructed using such trees would be inhabited various elements of the bio-physical environment. with evil spirits thereby bringing curses to the occupants. Besides, women and children were restrained from These prohibitions which were closely adhered to certain activities including felling certain types of trees. In enabled the population of such trees to increase which in particular, women were restrained from felling trees that turn encouraged other associated vegetation to grow. were viewed as having medicinal properties; fetch The increase of the population of such trees also firewood from condemned tree varieties such as those encouraged the presence of a wide range of birds and perceived as prone to lightening, those whose smoke wild animal thereby helping in environmental was perceived as capable of causing blindness or conservation and ensuring a steady supply of traditional deafness or those believed to attract evil spirits, among medicine and thus lower levels of morbidity and mortality others. among members. Likewise decisions on the location of the home/ The above findings correspond with the observation by settlement were a preserve of the clan heads but not any Agyarko (2013) and Danquah (2014) who indicate that member of the community. This enabled community among the Ashanti of South-Western Ghana for members to settle in communal villages which led to the instance, trees which were regarded as housing spirits formation of homesteads rather than scattered houses were not be felled without performing rituals. In this thereby reducing pressure on land based resources. The regard, such a custom had a protective effect on trees study further, found out that community members were such as odum (Chlorophora excelsa), African mahogany guided by clan elders on the suitable spots for activities (Khaya ivorensis) and tall palm trees as betene (Elaeis such as settlement, farming, grazing, among others, Guineensis) and shea butter (Butyrospermum parkii) and thereby prohibiting them from venturing into areas the Dawadawa (Parkia clappertoniana) osese (Funtumia perceived to be fragile, susceptible to diseases and sp.) species. lightening, among other dangers. Again, animals found in a particular habitat were This ensured minimal or no disturbance to certain regarded as sacred and thus were protected from components of the bio-physical environment. In this hunting. The above particularly applied to the Black and regard, Awuah-Nyameke (2014) notes that among White colobus (Colobus polykomos) and the mona African communities institutionalized prohibitions such as monkey (Cercopithecus mona) in the Boabeng- Fiema taboos were thus designed to develop positive societal

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attitudes towards the environment. independence as indicated by the Pearson correlation coefficient (R²) values of 0.032 and 0.037 respectively. From the 1960s to the 2000s the level of use of the Cross-tabulation and correlation analysis results previously dominant indigenous knowledge systems has declined with only a few elderly people still adhering to Prior to Kenya’s independence when the Teso community these knowledge systems. The drastic decline in the use socio-cultural structures were strong with most members of the indigenous knowledge systems (Totems 44%, adhering to them, there was some statistical significant prohibitions 14.2%, restraints 8.9% and protection of relationship between observance of indigenous sacred places 23%) has negatively impacted on the state environmental knowledge systems and the quality of of the bio-physical environment including land fertility, the certain elements of the bio-physical environment. This is population of birds and wildlife, size of area covered by exemplified by the Pearson Chi-square (P) value of 0.00 seasonal swamps as well as shrub-land as evident from at 95% between protection of sacred places and land the Land use/Land cover analysis as well as the cross fertility. Similarly, the results showed a statistically tabulation results. significant relationship between high level observance of protection of sacred places and variety of and wildlife as indicated by the Pearson Chi-square (p) value of RECOMMENDATIONS 0.003 at 95% level of confidence. Again, cross-tabulation analysis between high level Based on these conclusions, this study makes the observance of prohibitions as a knowledge system and following recommendations. land fertility as exemplified revealed statically a significant i) The government through ministries of mineral and relationship as shown by the Chi-square (p) value of 0.01 natural resources, NEMA, agriculture, forests, relevant at 95% level of confidence. Also, the results revealed a NGOs, donor community and private sector should take statistically significant relationship between prohibition adequate steps to focus on mainstreaming traditional and land fertility as indicated by the Pearson Chi-square (indigenous) best practices with proven value/utility into (p) value of 0.01 at 95% level of confidence. From the contemporary environmental management systems and 1960’s to the 2000s era, the study revealed a statistically enhance the capacity of the community members for its significant relationship between a decline in the adoption and application in conserving the various observance of age and gender restraints and elements of the bio-physical environment. Such practices deterioration in land fertility as exemplified by the should be identified, classified and documented in a way Pearson Chi-square (p) value of 0.000 at 99% level of that they can easily be accessed by community members. confidence. ii) In view of the above, there is need for collaboration The correlation analysis results showed that prior to between the above stakeholders and the community Kenya’s independence there existed a positive though sages/ elders to facilitate the acquisition of indigenous weak relationship between high level use of prohibitions best environmental practices held by the latter so as to and age and gender restraints with the vegetation cover enable documentation of the same for purposes of the which was dense and well distributed as indicated by the future generations as well as for the current community Pearson correlation coefficient (R²) values of 0.032 and members’ application in the conservation purposes. In 0.037 respectively. Between 1960s to 2000s era this regard, a fund should be set aside to serve as a however, a decline in the use of totems, protection of token of appreciation to encourage and motivate the sacred places and age and gender restraints adversely smooth acquisition of this knowledge from the sages in all affected land fertility, vegetation cover as well as the the counties in the Country. number and nature of natural springs, rivers and streams iii) At the individual level, the government with the as indicated by the Pearson correlation coefficient(R²) assistance of NGOs and private sector organizations values of 0.219, 0.736, 0.186,0.125 and0.463 should sponsor environmental campaigns through respectively. electronic media such as video and films shows using

local language so as to reach the illiterate community Conclusion members. Relevant audio and visual educational materials should be developed possibly in the form of The Teso community members have used various village bulletins, sponsored drama and local video shows indigenous environmental norms such as prohibitions, in the local language so as to create awareness in the protection of sacred places, totems and age and gender community. restraints in managing different elements of the bio- physical environment with varying successes. This is Areas for further research particularly with regards to protection of sacred places and enhancement of the vegetation cover prior to Kenya’s i) There is need for study on the process of designing a

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framework that can integrate indigenous environmental IPCC (2014). Climate Change 2014: Impacts, Adaptation, and best practices with scientific conservation approaches Vulnerability. Part A: Global and Sectoral Aspects. Contribution of Working Group II to the Fifth Assessment Report of the among rural communities. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. ii) A study should be carried out to ascertain the most Kala CP (2012). Traditional ecological knowledge and conservation of appropriate and cost-effective method for capturing, ethno- botanical species in the buffer zone of Pachmarhi Biosphere documenting and storing indigenous environmental Reserve, Madhya Pradesh. Indian Institute of Forest Management, Bhopal, Madhya Pradesh. 194 p. management best practices currently under threat of Risiro J, Tshuma TD, Basikiti A (2013). Indigenous Knowledge Systems being forgotten among rural communities. and Environment Management. A Case Study of Zaka District, Mansvingo Province, Zimbabwe. Int. J. Acad. Res. Prog. Educ. Dev. Vlm 2:1. Matsika C (2012). Traditional African Education: Its Significance to Conflict of Interests Current Education Practices with Special Reference to Zimbabwe, Mambo Press, Gweru The authors have not declared any conflict of interests. Mutasa M (2015). Knowledge apartheid in disaster management discourse: Is marrying indigenous and scientific knowledge the missing link? Jamba: Journal of Disaster Risk Studies 7(1). Ogbuagu BC (2011). We Who Are Strangers: Insights into How REFERENCES Diasporic Nigerians Experience Bereavement. Loss. J. Afr. Am. Stud. 16(2):300-320. Adu-Gyamfi Y (2011). Indigenous Beliefs and Practices in Ecosystem Parrotta, JA, Trosper RL (2012). Traditional Forest-related Knowledge: Conservation: Response of the Church. Scriptura 107:145- Sustaining Communities, Ecosystems and Biocultural Diversity. 155. London: Springer. Awuah-Nyamekye S (2014). Managing the Environmental Crisis in Republic of Kenya (2013-2017). Busia County Integrated Development Ghana: The role of African Traditional Religion and Culture with Plan. Nairobi: Government Printer. Special Reference to Berekum Traditional Area. United Kingdom: Rutte C (2011). The Sacred Commons: Conflicts and Solutions of Cambridge Scholars Publishing. Resource Management in Sacred Natural Sites. Biol. Conserv. Agyarko OR (2013). God of Life: Rethinking the Akan Christian Concept 144(10):2387-2394. of God in the Light of the Ecological Crisis” The Ecumenical United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization Review. Available at: (UNESCO) (2011). Osun Osgbo Sacred Grove, 13.09.2011, http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/erev.12026/abstract Available from http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1118 Bryman A (2012). Social Research Methods. New York: Oxford Wasongo VO, Kambewa D, Bekalo I (2011). Community-Based Natural University Press. Resource Management (p. 194). In: W.O. Ochola, P.C. Sanginga, I. Bruce L (2011). Qualitative Research Methods for Social Sciences. Bekalo (Eds.), Managing Natural Resources for Development in London: Pearson Education Limited. Africa. A Resource Book. Nairobi, Kenya: Univ. of Nairobi Press. Bhagwat S, Ormsby AA, Rutte C (2011). The role of Religion in 4:165-210. Linking Conservation and Development: Challenges and Opportunities. J. Study Religion Nat. Cult. 5(1):39-60. Chikaire J, Osuagwu CO, Ihenacho RA, Oguegbuchulam MN, Ejiogu- Okereke N, Obi KU (2012). Indigenous knowledge system: The need for reform and the way forward. Glob. Adv. Res. J. Agric. Sci. 1(8):201-209. Danquah JB (2014). Akan Doctrine of God (194 Cb: A Fragment of Gold Coast Ethnics and Religion) UK: Routledge. Eneji CV, Ntamu GU, Ajor JO, Ben CB, Bassey JE, Williams JJ (2012). Ethical Basis of African Traditional Religion and Socio cultural Practices in Natural Resources Conservation and Management in Cross River State, Nigeria. 2(2):034-043. Elorm-Donkor L (2012). African Worldview and Christian Pneumatology: Divergences and Convergence Didache: Faithful Teaching 12:1. Gaillard JC, Mercer J (2012). From knowledge to action: Bridging gaps in disaster risk reduction, Progr. Hum. Geogr. 37(1):93-114. Helvetas N (2011). Nepal’s Climate Change Policies and Plans: Local Communities’ Perspective Environment and climate series 2011/1; Authors: Shiva Prasad Aryal and Bharat Pokharel; HELVETAS Swiss Inter-cooperation, Nepal. Hilhorst D, Baart J, van der Haar G, Leeftink, FM (2015). Is disaster normal for indigenous people? Indigenous knowledge and coping practices. Disaster Prev. Manag. 24(4):506-522.