The Rufford Small Grants for Nature Conservation

The Rufford Small Grants fo r Nature Conservation

ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION

This publication was produced by the Environmental Awareness Group (EAG) of Antigua and Barbuda, and was funded by the Rufford Small Grants for Conservation, UK. With this document, it is our hope that we may encourage national support for the protection of native species and habitats, to stimulate science and research of the local flora and fauna, and to help increase the awareness about the importance and value of the islands’ native fern flora.

The author’s views expressed in this publication do not necessarily reflect those of the Rufford Small Grants for Nature Conservation, UK.

The author of this document is Kevel Lindsay.

Cover photograph of the West Indian endemic maiden hair fern Adiantum fragile var. fragile at Tremontania, Antigua.

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABOUT THIS PUBLICATION ii INTRODUCTION 1 Background 1 Project Objectives 1 Justification for Project 1 THE VALUE OF THE IUCN RED LIST AND ITS PREPARATORY PROCESS 4 THE PTERIDOPHYTES 6 The Pteridophytes of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda 6 APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY 8 IUCN RED LIST CATEGORIES AND CRITERIA 9 DESCRIPTION OF THE RED LIST 9 Naming of Plants 9 Supporting Data 9 Endemics 10 International Responsibility 10 Global and Regional Status 10 THE PTERIDOPHYTES RED LIST 11 West Indian endemics 11 Neotropical species 11 Pantropical 11 Old World 11 Tropical American 11 The Red List of Pteridophytes 11 SUMMARY OF FINDINGS 17 SPECIES REQUIRING LEGAL PROTECTION 17 THE NEED FOR HABITAT PROTECTION 17 USING THE IUCN RED LIST TO SUPPORT THE CONSERVATION OF PTERIDOPHYTES 19 THE PHYSICALSETTING: ANTIGUA, BARBUDA AND REDONDA 20 Geography and Landscape 20 Geology, Drainage and Soils 20 Climate 25 Flora and Fauna 26 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 28 REFERENCES AND CITATIONS 29 APPENDIX I - the IUCN Categories 32 APPENDIX II - the IUCN Criteria 34 APPENDIX III - USE OF THE IUCN CATEGORIES AND CRITERIA 36 Appendix IV – Definitions 37

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INTRODUCTION

Background

The IUCN Red List is globally recognised and admired as one of the most useful and effective tools to aid in the conservation of threatened species of plants and animals. It is with this in mind that the EAG has produced The Regional Red List of Pteridophytes of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda. This publication forms part of a larger effort: The Conservation of the Ferns of Antigua and Barbuda and their Forest Habitats, which focuses on the regional range- restricted pteridophytes—species of which are only known from one small population or from areas less than a few hundred square meters in extent. The project will highlight the plight of these ferns and their ecosystems, and in addition to the regional Red List of the islands’ ferns and fern allies, it will produce a national conservation perspective, and an educational booklet. It aims to strengthen national biodiversity conservation by highlighting the predicaments of pteridophytes, and use them as a vehicle to promote forest protection and management.

Project Objectives

The main objectives of the project include:

I. To survey and determine the status of the ferns of the country and highlight species of critical concern; II. To increase the awareness of the value of native ferns and conserve and protect their habitats; and III. To produce a National Red List of ferns.

Justification for Project

The Regional Red List of Pteridophytes of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda was developed with funding support from the Rufford Small Grant for Nature Conservation, of the Rufford Small Grants Foundation, UK.

The focus of this publication, and of the wider project effort, is the native and naturalised pteridophytes (ferns and fern allies) of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda, and on their protection and conservation.

The pteridophytes are some of the most revered of all plants—not only gracing the sanctuary of many homes and gardens, but also inspiring visions of resplendent jungle landscapes and lush tropical forests. In spite of this, the West Indian fern flora is perhaps the most understudied and least known of the region’s native plants. Those of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda (the three islands form the nation of Antigua and Barbuda) are no different.

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Most of the pteridophytes of Antigua and Barbuda are quite rare, and several new species such as the Adder’s Tongue (Ophioglossum reticulatum) have just recently been added to the country plant records. The current list stands at over 70 species. Most of these are found in the wetter volcanic south of Antigua— many restricted to the deep moist sheltered valleys. Some are rarely seen, including Thelypteris patens, a species common on other Lesser Antillean islands, but quite rare in Antigua; or Thelypteris hispidula, a species nicknamed the “pepper fern” because of the stinging sensation that results when the leaves are pressed on to the tongue.

Though ferns are recognized for their horticultural value, imparting great joy and wonder to gardeners and others, their role in the natural environment is less obvious or understood. They, like other plants, are important in their own right, and are a significant part of the country’s biodiversity heritage. In Antigua forest ecosystems for example, ferns often make up the bulk of the ground cover on the forest floor and a significant proportion of the epiphytic vegetation, and therefore, are a significant part of the forest biomass, contributing significantly to the nutrient and water cycles of the upper layers of the soil.

The loss of the ferns would not only be a blow to the psyche and culture of Antigua and Barbuda—ferns are great indicators of habitat types, and because many species are environment-specific, they can provide important clues as to the changes in the environment, including the quality of the habitat, the effects of deforestation and habitat fragmentation on the long-term ecological processes and stability of an area, and even on the potential impacts of global climate change on the forests.

By focusing on ferns, this project is supporting a long-term integrated conservation approach to help address both acute and broader conservation issues, including the plight of regional (West Indian) plant and bird endemics, and critical ecosystems. This project forms part of an ongoing plant conservation effort being led by the EAG in Antigua, and supports the organization’s long-term goal to conserve and protect the country's native biodiversity; developing a pteridophyte Red List is one of the main approaches to achieving this.

The IUCN categories and criteria are the accepted method of producing Red Lists of threatened species internationally and also at a national and regional level.

The purpose of this Red List is:

 To be the first comprehensive pteridophytes Red List of Antigua & Barbuda.  To be a basis for input to new environmental protection legislation in Antigua & Barbuda.  To be one of the focal points for native plant and habitat protection in Antigua and Barbuda; and

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 To be one of the first pteridophytes Regional Red Lists based on IUCN guidelines in the Caribbean.

Antigua’s first plant Red List was published by the EAG in 2009 and included ferns, dicots and monocots. This issue of the Red List includes changes to the first fern review based on recent surveys and analysis. As with the 2009 List, the List of Pteridophytes is meant to be updated and annotated during further surveys and future work, and as our understanding and knowledge of the taxa and the on-the-ground situations. In due course it is hoped that this publication, along with the project’s other outputs, will facilitate future protected area legislation and in situ conservation programmes.

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THE VALUE OF THE IUCN RED LIST AND ITS PREPARATORY PROCESS

The IUCN Red List was first created in 1963 as part of an effort to globally assess the world’s species, and to focus attention on the potential for their extinctions. The List was first referred to as the IUCN Red Data List.

The List itself is an inventory and a database of the world’s plant and animal species, which provide an account of their taxonomy, their conservation status, including threats, population and ecological information.

Its primary goal is to bring urgent attention to the conservation needs and challenges of the world’s wild species by working with policy makers, groups, scientists and public institutions and interests. The IUCN works through local networks as well as through the international community to accomplish this.

The Red List is perhaps the best known threatened or endangered species list in the world, and “…is one of the most effective sources of information for conservation planners…” (Lamoreux et al, 2003). Despite the potential downside for some to rely on the List as the sole means of addressing the conservation needs of a species, groups of species and/or habitats, when it is used in a diverse and varied conservation approach, it nevertheless is a useful tool for setting medium and long-term priorities for the conservation and management of threatened species.

The process of developing the regional and global Red List is rigorous, precise and comprehensive, and yet it maintains a certain level of flexibility to allow for uncertainties, and also allows outside expert challenges and reviews to help redefine and refine particular situations. It is this rigorous process that proves particularly effective in developing regional Red Lists.

The Regional Red Lists (as opposed to the Global Red Lists) is an inventory of the conservation status of the plant and/or animal species of a particular country or region. As with the Global Red List, it attempts to focus attention on the threatened species of that region. In developing and using the Regional Red List “…it is important to note that national or regional assessments are not eligible for inclusion on the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, unless they are for endemics” (IUCN, 2011).

For Antigua-Barbuda, the EAG has published a Regional Red List of the country’s vascular plants, one of the few such efforts ever attempted in the entire Caribbean region (see Red List of Vascular Plants of Antigua and Barbuda, Issue 05 2009). The Antigua-Barbuda List is now due for revision and updating, but remains a significant tool for conservation.

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The Regional Red List of the Pteridophytes of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda is one of the, if not, the first of its kind for the region and represents an enormous step forward, as well as a challenge for the conservation of some of the region’s most enigmatic and little-known plant taxa.

Going forward, the task now remains for local institutions, groups and individuals to use this List as an important tool in their efforts to protect the remarkable plants, animals and habitats of these islands.

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THE PTERIDOPHYTES

Pteridophytes, or more commonly, ferns and fern allies, are vascular plants that do not produce flowers or seeds (non-flowering), but reproduce through the production of spores (reproductive structures that disperse widely and are able to survive desiccation and extreme heat for considerable lengths of time; they do not store food like the seeds of flowering plants). The pteridophytes are generally divided into two groups:

The Lycopodiophyta (club mosses, spike mosses and quillworts); and The Ferns:  Marattioid ferns  Equisetophyta (horsetails)  Psilotophyta (whisk ferns) and Ophioglossophyta (adder’s tongue and grape ferns)  Leptosporangiate ferns (the largest group with about 97% of the species)

The Pteridophytes of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda

To date, there are about 73 species of pteridophytes recorded for all three of the major islands of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda, a number which includes varieties, subspecies and hybrids. The first most comprehensive review of the ferns and fern allies of these islands was completed by Alston and Box in 1935— back then, about 30 species were listed. By 2009, two years after the EAG’s Antigua and Barbuda Plant Conservation Project team began its survey of the native and naturalized plants of the country, the list was increased to nearly 50 species. As of October 2011, as part of this project’s efforts, the list has increased to over 70. Further work will certainly increase the number of species, and ongoing work is necessary to fully grasp the true situation of the islands’ pteridophytes, and therefore, the attempt to understand and determine the conservation statuses of the species is an ongoing effort.

To date, the pteridophytes of the islands do not include any representatives of the Lycopodiophyta, Marattioid ferns and Equisetophyta. The pteridophytes include (based on Smith 2006):

Psilotaceae Anemia (2 species) Psilotum (1 species) Marsileaceae Ophioglossaceae Marsilea (1 species) Ophioglossum (possibly 2 Dennstaedtiaceae species) Pteridium (1 species) Hymenophyllaceae Pteridaceae Trichomanes (07 species) Adaiantoideae Schizaeaceae Adiantum (10 species)

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Vittarioideae Thelypteris (10 species) Vittaria (2 species) Blechnaceae (1 species) Pteridoideae Dryopteridaceae Pteris (03 species) Tectaria (03 species) Acrostichum (2 species) Nephrolepis (06 species) Pityrogramma (3 species & varieties) Polypodiaceae Cheilantoideae Pleopeltis (1 species) Cheilanthes (1 species) Neurodium (1 species) Adiantopsis (1 species) Microgramma (1 species) Doryopteris (1 species) Campyloneurum (3 species) Aspleniaceae Phlebodium (3 species) Asplenium (04 species) Serpocaulon (1 species) Thelypteridaceae

However, for the purpose of the Listing of the species, a simple alphabetical approach is employed.

Of the total number of species, Antigua has 72, Barbuda at least four and Redonda at least five.

As part of this project’s efforts, the taxonomy of the species of pteridophytes has been updated where possible. The names of many of the species have changed since the publication of Proctor’s Pteridophytes of the Lesser Antilles: In Flora of the Lesser Antilles (1977). However, some taxonomic questions still remain. For example, the complexities of the forms of Thelypteris tetragona and Adiantum tetraphyllum throughout their ranges in the Neotropics continue to confound many experts. Many species or varieties of both forms may be involved, and indeed, some populations of both taxa have been revised to be elevated to full species status. Since Proctors monumental work on the Lesser Antillean fern flora, no revision and review of the region’s taxa has been done; in fact, there is no single modern work on the pteridophytes of the West Indies biogeographic region; this has enormous consequences for the conservation action and for the long-term protection of many species. Very little is known about the peculiar situation of most of the species on each island and with increasing development impacts and other human pressures, and the potential ecological changes to be brought on by Climate Change and Sea Level rise, there are enormous challenges ahead for the region’s pteridophyte flora. But in order for countries such as Antigua and Barbuda to implement effective conservation measures they will need to know and understand the species that occur there. It is critical for modern taxonomic classifications be brought to bear on the islands’ native flora, and for field studies to determine the types of species, their populations, distribution and conservation status.

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APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY

The seeds of this project began in the 1990s when the author, Kevel Lindsay, started his informal study of the flora of these islands. He often collected native and naturalised species, and cultivated them in his native plant nursery for detailed study. It was during this time that he first encountered the species Adiantum fragile and Thelypteris hispidula in the southern hills of Antigua. Encountering new ferns piqued his curiosity about the native pteridophytes, and prompted him to begin wider field studies of the species and their habitats.

In 2007 when the EAG initiated its Plant Conservation Project, the field team encountered several difficult questions about the taxonomy of a number of species, and the inevitable questions that developed as a result of this challenged Mr. Lindsay to begin a formal study and to record details about the species.

An important outcome of the Plant Conservation Project was the publication of the Red List of Vascular Plants of Antigua and Barbuda. This document included the first outlay of the pteridophytes of the country as well as other taxa. It is this first Red List that forms the template for the pteridophytes Red List.

To undertake field study of the country’s ferns and fern allies, Mr. Lindsay undertook several field visits starting in 2009 and continuing into 2011. Mr. Lindsay, in many instances with the aid of volunteers and colleagues, undertook targeted field surveys, focusing on specific habitats and regions because of their known pteridophyte diversity, the occurrence of a particular species, and/or because of the habitat type and its potential to harbour particular species.

For Redonda, Mr. Lindsay has relied on his visits to the island back in the 1990s as well as on numerous colleague visits to Redonda, including 2009 and 2011.

In preparing this document, the author has also relied on previous studies and reports as guides and to understand the historical context.

Mr. Lindsay has also worked with experts and colleagues to help in the identification of difficult species. Nevertheless, several important questions remain about several species—the result of which may further increase the list. Work to overcome these taxonomic challenges is ongoing.

So far, Mr. Lindsay and colleagues have spent more than a month of total survey days in the field on Antigua and about two days on Barbuda.

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IUCN RED LIST CATEGORIES AND CRITERIA

The IUCN has defined 11 Categories for describing the threat level to species of plants and animals (References 16, 17 and 18). Nine of the Categories are for global and regional assessments and an additional two Categories were developed specifically for regional assessments. These are listed in Table 2.0 below, and fully described in Appendix I. Threatened species are divided into “Critically Endangered”, “Endangered” and “Vulnerable”. The justification for the Category of threatened species is described by a set of Criteria. These are summarized in Appendix II and III. Some IUCN terms are not fully defined. IUCN terms requiring additional definition are listed in Appendix IV.

Table 2.0 – IUCN Categories

Category Criteria Extinct EX - Extinct in the Wild EW - Regionally Extinct RE - Critically Endangered CR See Appendix 2 Endangered EN See Appendix 2 Vulnerable VU See Appendix 2 Near Threatened NT A, B, C or D Least Concern LC - Data Deficient DD - Not Applicable NA - Not Evaluated NE -

DESCRIPTION OF THE RED LIST

Naming of Plants

The scientific names are those used in the Checklist of Native and Naturalized Plants of Antigua and Barbuda (see list of references). These are based on Smith 2006.

Supporting Data

There are four columns that provide supporting data for threatened taxa. An entry in the Area of Occupancy (AOO) or the Extent of Occurrence (EOO) columns implies that there has been a decline greater than or equal to the threshold for the IUCN criteria listed. The 'Locations' or 'Individuals' columns provide additional numerical details. Reference 16 Annex 3 lists other data that would be required for submission to IUCN.

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Endemics

A taxon is defined as endemic to Antigua & Barbuda if its entire native distribution is confined to Antigua & Barbuda. If a taxon's entire native distribution is confined to the Greater and/or Lesser Antilles, it is termed “regionally endemic”.

International Responsibility

There is no reliable source for ascertaining whether Antigua & Barbuda holds a significant proportion (>25%) of the World population.

Global and Regional Status

The IUCN status is given in this column, where known. A thorough check of synonyms is needed to ensure that all globally red listed taxa are listed here. In addition, a number of regional lists have been consulted. Taxa on these databases are listed as follows:

W: UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) species database (www.unep-wcmc.org/species/dbases/about.cfm ) S: UN Environment Program Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife (SPAW) Protocol species database (www.unep-wcmc.org/isdb/Taxonomy/ ) US: US Fish and Wildlife Service Endangered Species Database (www.fws.gov/endangered )

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THE PTERIDOPHYTES RED LIST

In the 2009 Red List of Vascular Plants of Antigua and Barbuda, Issue 05, the authors covered 46 species of pteridophytes among other plants. The focus of the List was primarily on West Indian endemics.

The team broke down the Vascular Plants Red List into several categories: West Indian endemics, Neotropics, Non-native and those of Unknown origins. The following is the breakdown of the species within each category is as follows:

 West Indian endemics  Neotropics species  Non-native species  Unknown origins

West Indian endemics

This List consists of species restricted to the West Indian biogeographic basin (Greater and Lesser Antilles and the Bahamas).

Neotropical species

This list consists of species believed to originate from the Neotropics and are assumed to be native.

Pantropical

The List consists of species that are believed to be pantropical in distribution.

Old World

Some species originate in the Old World, but have been introduced to the American tropics.

Tropical American

The List includes species, which are found from Florida, through Mexico and Central America to South America or parts thereof.

The Red List of Pteridophytes

The current Red List of Pteridophytes of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda has revised the approach employed for the 2009 Red List of Vascular Plants. It has assessed the conservation status of all of the native and naturalised species

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(former list focused mainly on regional (West Indian) endemics), and provides a comprehensive overview of all taxa.

Taxonomic updates and changes since the publication of the initial document has allowed some adjustments to the List and for our understanding of the native ranges of many of the species, the overall global distributions and the status of many of these species in the West Indian biogeographic basin.

The Red List below (table 3.0) presents an update to the 2009 version. It is more comprehensive and compelling in its analysis of the situations of each species in that it values each taxon for it significance as a natural part of the biodiversity of the islands—if any of these were to go extinct, it would represent a major loss to the local bio-heritage and to the aspirations of the people of Antigua and Barbuda. The summary of the findings are presented in table 4.0.

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ID Taxon Family Common Name Notes

Category Criteria A Criteria B Criteria C Criteria D Occupancy of Area of Occupancy Extent Locations Individuals Distribution General A&B to Endemic Status Global Pteridophyta Golden leather Acrostichum aureum L. NT A 1 Pteridaceae fern Pantropical 2 Acrostichum danaeifolium Langsd. & Fisch. Pteridaceae Leather fern EN C2a <2,500 Neotropics W 3 Adiantopsis radiata (L.) Fee Pteridaceae EN A3 ≥50% Neotropics Americas; RE Europe; Old 4 Adiantum capillus-veneris L. Pteridaceae World tropics 5 Adiantum fragile Sw. var. fragile Pteridaceae VU C2 (a i) <1,000 West Indies Broadleaf LC Neotropics 6 Adiantum latifolium Lam. Pteridaceae maidenhair fern 7 Adiantum lucidum (Cav.) Sw. Pteridaceae DD Neotropics Adiantum pyramidale (L.) Willd. Pteridaceae Pyramid VU C1 <2,500 West Indies 8 Maidenhair fern 2 9 Adiantum pyramidale x villosum Pteridaceae VU D <10km Antigua Fan maidenhair VU A2c ≥30% Neotropics 10 Adiantum tenerum Sw. Pteridaceae fern US, W Adiantum tetraphyllum Humb. & Bonpl. Ex Fourleaf EN A4 Neotropics 11 Willd. Pteridaceae maidenhair fern   W Wooly maidenhair LC Neotropics 12 Adiantum villosum L. Pteridaceae fern W 13 Anemia adiantifolia (L.) Sw. Anemiaceae Flowering fern VU A2c ≥30% Neotropics Streambank VU A2c ≥30% Neotropics 14 Anemia hirta (L). Sw. Anemiaceae flowering fern Maidenhair DD Lesser Antilles 15 Asplenium barbadense Jenman Aspleniaceae spleenwort US

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16 Asplenium cristatum Lam. Aspleniaceae Parsley spleenwort DD? Neotropics VU A2c ≥30% Neotropics 17 Asplenium pumilum Sw. Aspleniaceae Dwarf spleenwort US, W 18 Asplenium serratum L. Aspleniaceae Birdnest fern VU A2c ≥30% Neotropics US 19 Blechnum occidentale L. Blechnaceae Hammock fern LC Neotropics US Campyloneurum brevifolium (Lodd. ex Link) DD Neotropics 20 Link Polypodiaceae 21 Campyloneurum latum T. Moore Polypodiaceae Birdwing fern NT A Neotropics US 22 Campyloneurum phyllitidis (L.) K. Presl. Polypodiaceae Long Strap fern LC Neotropics 23 Campyloneurum repens (Aubl.) C. Presl Polypodiaceae Creeping strap fern VU C <2,500 Neotropics EN Neotropics 24 Cheilanthes microphylla (Sw.) Sw. Pteridaceae Lip fern US, W 25 Doryopteris pedata (L.) Fee Pteridaceae Digit fern VU A2c ≥30% Neotropics 26 Marsilea nashii Underw. Marsiliaceae Water clover VU A C C1. <10,000 Neotropics 27 Microgramma heterophylla (L.) Wherry Polypodiaceae Clinging snake fern VU A3 <10,000 Neotropics US Clubmoss snake LC Pantropical 28 Microgramma lycopodioides (L.) Copel. Polypodiaceae fern 29 Microgramma piloselloides (L.) Copel. Polypodiaceae Hairy snake fern RE? Neotropics 30 Nephrolepis biserrata (Sw.) Schott Nephrolepidaceae Giant sword fern LC Pantropical US Nephrolepis brownii (Desv.) Hovenkamp & NA Pantropical 31 Miyam. Nephrolepidaceae 32 Nephrolepis cordifolia (L.) C. Presl. Nephrolepidaceae NA Asia & Pacific 33 Nephrolepis exaltata Nephrolepidaceae LC Pantropical 34 Nephrolepis pectinata (Willd.) Schott Nephrolepidaceae CR A3 ≥80% Neotropics Streamside sword RE? Neotropics 35 Nephrolepis rivularis (Vahl) Mett. Ex Krug Nephrolepidaceae fern 36 Neurodium lanceolatum (L.) Fee Polypodiaceae Ribbon fern LC Neotropics Harris's Adder's Ophioglossaceae CR B2(a) =1 West Indies 37 Ophioglossum harrisii Underw. Tongue Reticulated Ophioglossaceae CR B2(a) =1 Pantropical 38 Ophioglossum reticulatum L. Adder's Tongue 39 Phlebodium aureum (L.) J Sm. var. aureum Polypodiaceae Golden polypody LC Neotropics 40 Phlebodium decumanum (Willd.) J. Sm. Polypodiaceae CR C2 (a i) Neotropics

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WI, TA & EN C2 (a i) <250 41 Phlebodium pseudoareum (Cav.) Lellinger Polypodiaceae Galapagos Pityrogramma calomelanos (L.) Link var. NA Pantropical 42 calomelanos Pteridaceae Silverback fern Antigua, Pityrogramma chrysophylla (Sw.) Link var. CR D <250 Redonda, PR & 43 gabrielae Pteridaceae Goldback fern VI Redonda, St. 40 CR B2 Thomas and Pityrogramma chrysophylla (Sw.) Link var. km2 44 subflexuosa Pteridaceae Montserrat Redonda, WI & DD 45 Pityrogramma trifoliata (L.) R.M. Tryon Pteridaceae TA Pleopeltis polypodioides (L.) Andr. & Wind. var. LC Neotropics 46 polypodioides Polypodiaceae Resurrection fern 47 Psilotum nudum (L.) P. Beauv. Psilotaceae Whisk fern CR C <250 Neotropics 48 Pteridium caudatum Pteridaceae Bracken RE? Pantropical 49 Pteris biaurita L. Pteridaceae Thinleaf brake fern LC Pantropical 50 Pteris longifolia L. Pteridaceae EN C2 (a i) <250 Neotropics 51 Pteris vittata L. Pteridaceae Ladder brake fern NA Old World 52 Serpocaulon triseriale (Sw.) A.R. Sm. Polypodiaceae Anglevein fern NT A Neotropics 53 Tectaria heracleifolia (Willd) Underwood Tectariaceae Broad halberd fern VU A2c ≥30% Neotropics US Incised halberd VU A2c ≥30% Neotropics 54 Tectaria incisa Cav. Tectariaceae fern Downy maiden NA Pantropical 55 Thelypteris dentata (Forssk.) E. St. John Thelypteridaceae fern 56 Thelypteris hispidula var. hispidula Thelypteridaceae EN C1 <250 Neotropics 57 Thelypteris hispidula var. inconstans Thelypteridaceae CR C2 (a i) <50 West Indies 58 Thelypteris nephrodioides (Klotzsch) Proctor Thelypteridaceae CR C2 (a i) <250 Neotropics 59 Thelypteris opulenta (Kaulf.) Fosberg Thelypteridaceae NA Asia Thelypteris patens (Sw.) Small ex R. St. John Gridscale maiden CR C2 (a i) <50 Neotropics 60 var. patens Thelypteridaceae fern US 61 Thelypteris pennata (Poir.) C.V. Morton Thelypteridaceae CR C2 (a i) Neotropics Darkgreen maiden CR C2 (a i) <250 Neotropics 62 Thelypteris poiteana (Bory) Proctor Thelypteridaceae fern

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63 Thelypteris x rolandii (C. Chr.) comb. ined Thelypteridaceae DD TA Thelypteris tetragona (Sw.) Small var. Freetip maiden DD Neotropics 64 tetragona Thelypteridaceae fern 65 Trichomanes angustifrons (Fée) Wess. Boer Hymenophyllaceae CR C1 <250 Neotropics Treemoss bristle NT A3 Neotropics 66 Trichomanes krausii Hook. & Grev. Hymenophyllaceae fern US 67 Trichomanes lineolatum (Bosch) Hook. Hymenophyllaceae CR <250 Neotropics 68 Trichomanes ovale (E. Fourn.) Wess. Boer Hymenophyllaceae CR B2(a) =1 WI; CA

69 Trichomanes punctatum var. punctatum Hymenophyllaceae EN B2(a) ≥5 WI & NSA 70 Trichomanes punctatum var. sphenoides Hymenophyllaceae CR B2(a) ≥5 WI & TA 71 Trichomanes pusillum Sw. Hymenophyllaceae CR B2 ≥5 Neotropics 72 Vittaria graminifolia Kaulf. Pteridaceae CR B2(a) =1 TA

73 Vittaria lineata (L.) Smith Pteridaceae Shoestring fern EN A 2c 30% Neotropics

Table 3.0. IUCN Regional Red List of the Pteridophytes of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda.

Notes: CA=Central America; NSA=Northern South America; PR=Puerto Rico; TA=Tropical America; VI=Virgin Islands; WI=West Indies.

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SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

Table 4.0 showing summary of the Regional Red List of Pteridophytes.

Categories Findings

Extinct Regionally Extinct Possibly 04 (about 5.5%) Critically Endangered 18 (24.7%) Endangered 09 (12.3%) Vulnerable 14 (19.2%) Near Threatened 04 (5.5%) Least Concern 11 (15.0%) Data Deficient 07 (9.6%) Not applicable 06 (8.2%) TOTAL 73 (100%)

SPECIES REQUIRING LEGAL PROTECTION

The following is a proposed list of species that should be included in the schedule of protected species in any species conservation legislation:

Species Division or Common Name Notes Group Pteridophytes All native Pteridophyta Pteridophytes This covers all ferns in pteridophyte species the wild.

Non-native pteridophytes should not be given protection.

THE NEED FOR HABITAT PROTECTION

An important factor for the conservation of the species of pteridophytes and other endangered plants is the effective protection of habitats. The increase in the number of species recorded may be due in part to increasing forest cover in the southern volcanic hills of Antigua. As native forest cover returns to once devastated and bare hillsides, stable environments are encouraged and this provides the habitats for ferns to return.

Nevertheless, most of these critical habitat areas remain unprotected and are vulnerable to commercial real estate and tourism developments. In addition, the invasive exotic Asian grass Cymbopogon citratus, known locally as Fever Grass, has spread throughout these hills. The species often forms monotypic savannas, excluding native species and reducing biodiversity. These grasslands are illegally

THE REGIONAL RED LIST OF PTERIDOPHYTES OF ANTIGUA, BARBUDA & REDONDA 17

burnt every year during the annual dry season from January to April. The resulting fires cause widespread damage to forest, native fauna and flora, and result in increasing erosion and land degradation.

The following areas are suggested for critical for the long-term sustainability of native pteridophyte species populations:

Redonda: Entire Island.

For Antigua:

1) Western slopes of Mount Obama 2) Christian Valley west side 3) Upper Slopes of Christian Valley, eastern slopes 4) Dunnings 5) Upper slopes Brecknocks and Hamiltons 6) Wallings 7) Fig Tree Ghaut, Fig Tree Drive and Fig Tree Hill 8) Tremontania 9) Slopes above Orange Valley and Darkwood 10) McNish and Upper Dunnings 11) Sugar Loaf and Rendezvous Bay/Doiggs Watershed 12) Shirley Heights 13) Pearns and Hermitage 14) Sleeping Indian 15) Sutherland 16) Black Ghaut and Gaynors Drainage Basin 17) Fitches Creek Drainage Basin

For Barbuda:

1) Bull Hole and adjacent wetlands 2) Freshwater Pond 3) Highlands

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USING THE IUCN RED LIST TO SUPPORT THE CONSERVATION OF PTERIDOPHYTES

For the Red List to be useful and effective in conservation efforts, local interest must view it as the valuable tool that it is purported be. It is recognised that despite the monumental amount of work and dedication that has gone into the preparation of this publication, it could remain languishing on the shelves in many offices as just another meaningless document.

What would Antigua and Barbuda need to do for this Red List to be useful for the conservation and protection of pteridophytes? For this to occur:

 The process of development and review of the List needs to involve key sectors and local experts;

 The prominence of the renowned IUCN name and approach to the development of the list needs to be asserted;

 The List would have to be made widely available and be accessible to many in various formats and across different media;

 The List must be a part of a diverse and comprehensive multi-faceted approach to species and habitat conservation; and

 Undertake regular updating of the List—proposed to be done every four to five years.

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THE PHYSICAL SETTING: ANTIGUA, BARBUD AND REDONDA

The physical setting of the islands is presented here as a context and a background to the pteridophyte flora because it is critical for readers to develop an understanding of the local situations and peculiar native landscapes that are home to these species of pteridophytes, and how their long-term conservation statuses may develop as a result of these circumstances.

Geography and Landscape

The country of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda is a tripartite state, consisting of three islands. It is located 402 km (250 miles) southeast of the United States territory of Puerto Rico (see map 1.0 below). The state is part of the Lesser Antillean grouping commonly referred to as the Leeward Islands. The capital of the country is St. John’s, located on the largest island of Antigua, it being 280 km2 (108 mile2). Antigua has a total population of approximately over 100,000 (2010 estimate). It has an average population density of more than 357 people/km² (357 people/0.4 mile2). The island is 23 km (14 miles) long by 18 km (11 miles) wide. The northern third of the island is geologically referred to as the Limestone Region, while the middle Central Plain and the southern third the Volcanic Region. There are three permanent streams: Body Ponds-Big Creek system (the largest), Ayers Creek on the east of the island and Fitches Creek on the northeast. The highest point on the island is Mt. Obama (formerly Boggy Peak) at 402 metres (1,319 ft.), situated on the western end of what is called the Shekerley Mountains.

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Map 1.0. Map showing general location of Antigua and Barbuda in the Lesser Antilles (Redonda, not shown, lies between the islands of Nevis and Montserrat).

Barbuda, the second largest island, is about 100 km2 (62 miles2), is located about 48 km (30 Miles) slightly northeast of Antigua. It has only one settlement, Codrington, located on the easternmost shore of a large natural lagoon of the same name. The island is 24 km (15 miles) long by 14 km (9 miles) wide. It has a

THE REGIONAL RED LIST OF PTERIDOPHYTES OF ANTIGUA, BARBUDA & REDONDA 21

population of 1,400 to 1,800 people. The highest point of the island is located in the Highlands at 42 m (138 ft.). The island has a population density of about to 14 to 18 people/km2.

Redonda, the smallest of the islands, is located 56 km (35 Miles) southwest of Antigua. It is 2.6 km2 (1 mile2) and reaches an elevation of 305 m (1,000 ft.). It is uninhabited.

Map 2.0 shows the general outline of Antigua. Map 3.0 shows Barbuda.

Map 2.0. Map showing general outline of Antigua.

Geology, Drainage and Soils

Antigua: The initial geological landscape of Antigua was created when volcanoes burst through the ocean floor some 40 million years ago. Eruptions continued sporadically for the next 10 million years, to build at least 5 clusters of volcanic cones, craters, domes and lava flows in a triangle between what is now deep bay, Shirley heights and Johnson’s point. The following million years of

THE REGIONAL RED LIST OF PTERIDOPHYTES OF ANTIGUA, BARBUDA & REDONDA 22

weathering, landslides, mudflows, erosion and sedimentation has contributed to the landscape we see to date.

Today, the island can be divided in three distinct regions, each running northwest to southeast. These regions include the volcanic region in the south, which consist of weathered igneous rocks on the uplands and sedimentary materials in the valleys. The primary rocks types are andesitic with some dacite scattered in easternmost areas.

The central plain consists of agglomerates, tufts and conglomerates and small deposits of limestone materials and petrified formations.

The limestone region is the youngest of the most recent, and is a mixture of limestone deposits and marls.

Barbuda: Geologically, Barbuda differs considerably from Antigua. Located to the northeast of the active volcanic line, Barbuda has remained a low-lying island which first appeared when a broad ridge of oceanic crust had buckled upwards close enough to the sea surface for coral reef to grow on top of it. Based on fossil records, it is estimated that Barbuda first emerged some 15 to 20 million years ago.

Barbuda is a limestone island with the presence of dunes that make up large sand fields. The coastline has no marked indentation. In comparison to Antigua, Barbuda’s topography is considerably lower in elevation and has no volcanic mountains that define the western third of Antigua, however, some variations in do exist in its topography. The Highlands, located in the east, reach elevations above 30 m (98 ft.); it has an abrupt escarpment on the north and west, a gentle slope on the south, and sea cliffs on the east. Although the rest of the island is only a couple of meters above sea level, two topographic levels can be distinguished, each containing numerous smaller depressions.

Barbuda can be distinguished in three geological regions:

1. The Highland limestone area, mostly of hard limestone which contain sink holes and caverns; 2. The Codrington Limestone region which contains sandy and fossiliferous sediments less crystalline than the Highland limestone; 3. The Palmetto Point area, which overlies the part of the Highlands and Codrington formations in coastal areas especially between Palmetto Point and Sandy Ground and is composed of beach sands and ridges, with shelly strata.

Barbuda’s landscape combined with very arid condition is the reason that no discernible drainage pattern can be found on the island. The flat nature of the topography and permeable nature of soils make surface runoff minimal and

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surface catchment impractical. Rainfall rapidly seeps through the limestone and collects in natural sink holes. Much of the water drains from the Highlands to the lower plains forming extensive flooded areas during the rainy season and during the passage of tropical storms.

Map 3.0. The island of Barbuda.

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Climate

Antigua: As with most islands in Lesser Antilles, Antigua is strongly affected by the Northeast Trade winds, which means winds approach with great constancy from directions between east-northeast and southeast. The average wind direction varies throughout the year according to the following pattern:

- December to February: winds blow from east-northeast (known locally as - “Christmas Winds”), - March to May: winds blow from easterly directions, - June to August: winds blow from east to east-southeast directions, - September to November: winds blow mainly from the east to southeast.

Normally, except for the occasional hurricane, highest wind speeds are experienced from December to February and again in June and July. Average wind speeds for the months of June – July are around 9m/sec (20 mph), while for October average wind speeds drop to 6m/sec (13.5 mph).

During the winter months, October to April, the island is occasionally influenced by frontal systems moving in an eastward direction across the southern part of the United States. The trailing edge of these fronts sometimes affects the Antigua and results in winds blowing from between northwest and northeast for short periods of time – usually no more than to two days. The area also lies within the hurricane belt. These intense storms occur between June and November, with September being the month when most tropical storms or hurricanes occur.

Temperature varies little throughout the year, with daytime temperatures that fall within the range 25° - 29° C and usually drop 6° C at night. Temperatures average an annual 81° F (21.6° C), with the winter lows averaging 76° F (24° C), and the summer high reaching the mid to upper 80s. The temperature and climate are moderated by near constant on-shore breezes. Due to year-round high temperatures and nearly constant winds, the evapo-transpiration rate is generally high.

Heavy rainfall sometimes occurs during the passage of the easterly tropical waves, which are spurned off the West African coast from June to November of each year. Occasionally, these waves intensify into tropical depressions, tropical storms, or hurricanes.

Barbuda: Barbuda lies to the west of the northeast trade wind system and within the latitudes of tropical storms. The island is one of the driest islands in the West Indies, with a mean monthly rainfall of about 8.2 mm (0.3 inches). February and March are the driest months while the wet season occurs between August and November.

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Temperature varies little throughout the year, with daytime temperatures that fall within the range 25°-29° C (77° to 84.2° F), and usually drop 6° C (42.8° F) at night. Temperatures average an annual 21.6° C (81° F), with the winter lows averaging 24° C (76° F), and the summer high reaching the mid to upper 80s. The temperature and climate are moderated by near constant on-shore breezes. Due to year-round high temperatures and nearly constant winds, the evapo- transpiration rate is generally high.

The area also lies within the hurricane belt. These intense storms occur between June and November, with September being the month when most tropical storms or hurricanes occur. Within recent years, several hurricanes passed sufficiently close to the island, to cause significant damages, the most recent being Hurricane Omar this past October 2008.

Heavy rainfall sometimes occurs during the passage of the easterly tropical waves, which are spurned off the West African coast from June to November of each year. Occasionally, these waves intensify into tropical depressions, tropical storms, or hurricanes.

Being rather low-lying, the solar intensity reaching the land surface is relatively high. This combined with the prevailing trade winds leads to quick and excessive drying. Periods of drought are therefore common. The conditions of the Lagoon Protected area are determined by these weather conditions. During years of average rainfall the salinity of the Lagoon waters (42 parts per million) is higher than oceanic waters (35 parts per million). However in years with exceptional rain events (e.g. 1999 – Hurricane Lenny) the salinity of the lagoon waters fall below that of oceanic waters and remain so for months. The effects on the ecosystems of the Lagoon Park are significant.

Redonda: Redonda is the smallest of the three islands. The island is currently uninhabited, but from the 1860s to the First World War, there occurred a phosphate mining operation. At its peak, about 125 people lived there.

The island is steep, and there is no permanent water. The soils are thin and rocky and support little vegetation.

Flora and Fauna

The Flora and fauna of Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda are summerised in table 1.0 below.

Table 1.0. Total number of native and naturalised species of plants and animals known to occur on Antigua, Barbuda and Redonda.

GROUP TOTAL NUMBER OF SPECIES Plants (native & Over 1,200 species.

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naturalised) Fungi No complete species and habitat inventories undertaken. Lichens, Mosses & No complete species and habitat inventories undertaken. Liverworts Algae No complete species and habitat inventories undertaken. Mammals 12 species (4 introduced). Birds Over 300 species. Reptiles About 27. Amphibians 4 species (two introduced). Aquatic Fish No complete species and habitat inventories undertaken, but includes a number of introduced taxa. Marine Fish Species inventory information not available. Invertebrates Species inventory information not available. (terrestrial) Invertebrates Species inventory information not available. (marine)

Many of the plant and animal taxa remain largely understudied and the numbers in the table reflect the current inventory of knowledge and understanding of the species. While specimens and records for many species may be housed in museums and with institutions throughout the world, there have been no systematic inventory and updating of this information, which could be made widely available for use on the islands. Further to this, the marine environment remains little understood and surveyed, and hence, much of the information in the table reflects the more widely studied terrestrial environments.

Note that the background to the islands is presented here as a context because it is critical for readers to develop an understanding of the local situations and peculiar native landscapes that are home to these species of pteridophytes, and how their long-term conservation statuses may develop as a result of these circumstances.

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author and EAG wish to thank the Rufford Small Grants for Nature Conservation of the United Kingdom for its generous support and consideration; this effort would not have been possible without them. We would also like to thank Dr. John T. Mickel of the New York Botanic Garden (NYBG), retired, for his assistance in identifying species and for his advice. Mr. Adriel Thibou of the Forestry Division for his assistance in the field, and for his always generous advice. Thanks to Jean-Pierre Bacle of Island Resources Foundation for his assistance in the field and for use of his photos. We would also like to thank the reviewers of the draft document; without their frank and critical feedback, this document would not have been possible.

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REFERENCES AND CITATIONS

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Akc¸akaya, H. Resit, Bennun, Leon, Luigi Boitani, David Brackett, Thomas M. Brooks, Nigel J. Collar, Gustavo A.B. da Fonseca, Ulf Ga¨ rdenfors, Anthony B. Rylands, John Lamoreux, Georgina Mace, Russell A. Mittermeier, Bruce A. Stein, Simon Stuart, Craig Hilton-Taylor & Amie Bra¨utigam. 2003. Value of the IUCN Red List. TRENDS in Ecology and Evolution Vol.18, No.5.

Alston, A.H.G. & H.E. Box. 1935. Pteridophyta of Antigua. Journal of Botany Vol. 73(366).

Beard, J.S. 1949. The Natural Vegetation of the Windward and Leeward Islands. Oxford Forestry Memoirs, 21. Oxford University Press.

Caribbean Conservation Association and Island Resources Foundation, 1991. Antigua and Barbuda Country Environmental Profile. Island Resources Foundation.

Christenhusz, Maarten J. M. 2009. Index pteridophytorum guadalupensium or a revised checklist to the ferns and club mosses of Guadeloupe (French West Indies). Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 161.

Christenhusz, Maarten J. M., Xian-Chun Zhang & Harald Schneider. 2011. A linear sequence of extant families and genera of lycophytes and ferns. Phytotaxa 19.

Christenhusz, Maarten J. M., Sabine Hennequin, Peter Hovenkamp, & Harald Schneider. 2010. Phylogenetics and biogeography of Nephrolepis – a tale of old settlers and young tramps. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 164.

Dubuisson, Jean-Yves, Atsushi Ebihara, Kunio Iwatsuki, Sabine Hennequin & Motomi Ito. 2006. A taxonomic revision of Hymenophyllaceae. Blumea, Vol. 51, No. 2.

Environmental Awareness Group. Nov 2008. Recommendations for Protected Areas in Antigua & Barbuda, Part 1, Antigua Mainland, Issue 02. Environmental Awareness Group.

Francis, J., C. Rivera and J. Figueroa. 1994. Toward a woody plant list for Antigua and Barbuda: past and present. USDA Forest Service, Gen. Tech. Rep. SO-102.

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Harris, D. R. 1965. Plants, Animals and Man in the Outer Leeward Islands, West Indies – An Ecological Study of Antigua, Barbuda, and Anguilla. University of California Press.

Haston, Elspeth, Richardson, James E., Stevens, Peter F., Chase, Mark W., Harris, David J. A linear sequence of Angiosperm Phylogeny Group II families. Taxon, Volume 56, Number 1, February 2007.

Hovenkamp, P.H. & F. Miyamoto. 2005. A conspectus of the native and naturalized species of Nephrolepis (Nephrolepidaceae) in the world. Blumea, Vol. 50, No. 2.

Howard, R. A. & others. 1974. Flora of the Lesser Antilles. Orchidaceae. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University.

Howard, R. A. & others. 1977. Flora of the Lesser Antilles. Pteridophyta. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University.

Howard, R. A. & others. 1979. Flora of the Lesser Antilles. Monocotyledoneae. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University.

Howard, R. A. & others. 1988, 1989. Flora of the Lesser Antilles. Dicotyledoneae. Parts I, II & III. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University.

Huiet, Layne, Eric Schuettpel, Harald Schneider, Michael D. Windham & Kathleen M. Pryer. 2007. A molecular phylogeny of the fern family Pteridaceae: assessing overall relationships and the affinities of previously unsampled genera. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 44.

IUCN. 2001. IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria: Version 3.1. IUCN.

IUCN. 2003. Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional Levels Version 3.0. IUCN.

IUCN. 2006. Guidelines for Using the IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria Version 6.2. IUCN.

Janßen, Thomas, Elisabeth M. Otto, Hans-Peter Kreier & Harald Schneider. 2009. New insights into the phylogeny of Pleopeltis and related Neotropical genera (Polypodiaceae, Polypodiopsida). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 53.

Johnson, David M. 1986. Systematics of the New World Species of Marsilea (Marsileaceae). Systematic Botany Monographs, Vol. 11.

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Korall, Petra, Kathleen M. Pryer, Harald Schneider, Alan R. Smith1 & Paul G. Wolf. 2006. A classification for extant ferns. Taxon, 55 (3).

Lindsay, K. & Horwith, B. 1997. Plant Species of Antigua, Barbuda & Redonda. Island Resources Foundation report for the Eastern Caribbean Biodiversity Program.

Loveless, A. 1960. The vegetation of Antigua, West Indies. Journal of Ecology Vol. 48:495-527.

Mickel, John T. & Alan R. Smith. 2004. The pteridophytes of Mexico: part I (descriptions and maps). Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, Vol. 88.

Mickel, John T. & Alan R. Smith. 2004. The pteridophytes of Mexico: part II (plates). Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, Vol. 88.

Pratt, Christopher &, Kevel Lindsay. 2008. Red List of Vascular Plants of Antigua and Barbuda. Environmental Awareness Group.

Pratt, Christopher, Kevel Lindsay, Melanie Pearson & Carolyn Thomas. 2009. The wild plants of Antigua and Barbuda: an illustrated field guide to the native and naturalised vascular plants. Environmental Awareness Group.

Pratt, C. D. 2007. Checklist of Native and Naturalised Plants of Antigua & Barbuda. Environmental Awareness Group.

Proctor, George R. 1989. Ferns of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden, Volume 53.

Proctor, George R. 1977. Pteridophyta, In Flora of the Lesser Antilles: Leeward and Windward Islands, Volume 2. Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University.

Pryer, Kathleen M. & Eric Schuettpel. 2008. Fern phenology, In: Biology and Evolution of Ferns and Lycophytes. Cambridge University Press.

Smith, Alan R., Kathleen M. Pryer, Eric Schuettpelz, Petra Korall, Harald Schneider & Paul G. Wolf. 2006. A classification of extant fern. Taxon 55(3).

Vié, J.-C., Hilton-Taylor, C., Pollock, C., Ragle, J., Smart, J., Stuart, S.N. & Tong, R. 2008. The IUCN Red List: a key conservation tool. In: J.-C. Vié, C. Hilton- Taylor and S.N. Stuart (eds). The 2008 Review of The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. IUCN.

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APPENDIX I - THE IUCN CATEGORIES

The IUCN categories are as defined in reference 16: IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria and reference 17: Guidelines for Application of IUCN Red List Criteria at Regional Levels:

EXTINCT (EX). A taxon is Extinct when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. A taxon is presumed Extinct when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times, throughout its historic range have failed to record an individual. Surveys should be over a time frame appropriate to the taxon's life cycle and life form.

EXTINCT IN THE WILD (EW). A taxon is Extinct in the Wild when it is known to survive only in cultivation, in captivity or as a naturalized population (or populations) well outside the past range. A taxon is presumed Extinct in the Wild when exhaustive surveys in known and/or expected habitat, at appropriate times, throughout its range have failed to record an individual.

REGIONALLY EXTINCT (RE). Category for a taxon when there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual potentially capable of reproduction within the region has died or has disappeared from the wild in the region, or when, if it is a former visiting taxon, the last individual has died or disappeared in the wild from the region.

CRITICALLY ENDANGERED (CR). A taxon is Critically Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Critically Endangered, and it is therefore considered to be facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.

ENDANGERED (EN). A taxon is Endangered when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Endangered, and it is therefore considered to be facing a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

VULNERABLE (VU). A taxon is Vulnerable when the best available evidence indicates that it meets any of the criteria for Vulnerable, and it is therefore considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild.

NEAR THREATENED (NT). A taxon is Near Threatened when it has been evaluated against the criteria but does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable now, but is close to qualifying for or is likely to qualify for a threatened category in the near future.

LEAST CONCERN (LC). A taxon is Least Concern when it has been evaluated against the criteria and does not qualify for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable or Near Threatened. Widespread and abundant taxa are included in this category.

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DATA DEFICIENT (DD). A taxon is Data Deficient when there is inadequate information to make a direct, or indirect, assessment of its risk of extinction based on its distribution and/or population status.

NOT APPLICABLE (NA). A taxon may be NA because it is not a wild population or not within its natural range in the region, or because it is a vagrant to the region.

NOT EVALUATED (NE). A taxon is Not Evaluated when it has not been assessed against the criteria.

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APPENDIX II - THE IUCN CRITERIA

IUCN defines a range of “Criteria” for assessing the “Category” for a red-listed taxon. Reference 18 includes a summary which is reproduced below:

Summary of the five criteria (A-E) used to evaluate if a taxon belongs in a threatened category (Critically Endangered, Endangered or Vulnerable).

Use any of the criteria A-E Critically Endangered Endangered Vulnerable

A. Population reduction Declines measured over the longer of 10 years or 3 generations A1 A2, A3 & A4

Al. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of the reduction are clearly reversible AND understood AND have ceased, based on and specifying any of the following:

(a) direct observation (b) an index of abundance appropriate to the taxon (c) a decline in area of occupancy (AOO), extent of occurrence (EOO) and/or habitat quality (d) actual or potential levels of exploitation (e) effects of introduced taxa, hybridization, pathogens, pollutants, competitors or parasites.

A2. Population reduction observed, estimated, inferred, or suspected in the past where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (a) to (e) under Al. A3. Population reduction projected or suspected to be met in the future (up to a maximum of 100 years) based on (b) to (e) under Al. A4. An observed, estimated, inferred, projected or suspected population reduction (up to a maximum of 100 years) where the time period must include both the past and the future, and where the causes of reduction may not have ceased OR may not be understood OR may not be reversible, based on (a) to (e) under Al.

B. Geographic range in the form of either B1 (extent of occurrence) AND/OR B2 (area of occupancy)

B1. Extent of occurrence (EOO) < 100 km² < 5,000 km² < 20,000 km² B2. Area of occupancy (AOO) < 10 km² < 500 km² < 2,000 km²

AND at least 2 of the following:

(a) Severely fragmented, OR Number of locations = 1 (b) Continuing decline in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) area, extent and/or quality of habitat; (iv) number of locations or subpopulations; (v) number of mature individuals. (c) Extreme fluctuations in any of: (i) extent of occurrence; (ii) area of occupancy; (iii) number

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of locations or subpopulations; (iv) number of mature individuals. C. Small population size and decline

Number of mature individuals < 250 < 2,500 < 10,000

AND either C1 or C2: C1. An estimated continuing 25% in 3 years or 1 20% in 5 years or 2 10% in 10 years or 3 decline of at least: generation generations generations (up to a max. of 100 years in future) C2. A continuing decline AND (a) and/or (b): (a i) Number of mature individuals in each < 50 < 250 < 1,000 subpopulation: or (a ii) % individuals in one 90-100% 95-100% 100% subpopulation = (b) Extreme fluctuations in the number of mature individuals.

D. Very small or restricted population Either: Number of mature individuals < 50 < 250 D1. < 1,000 AND/OR Restricted area of occupancy D2. typically: AOO < 20 km² or

E. Quantitative Analysis Indicating the probability of 100 years extinction in the wild to be: generations (100 years max.) generations (100 years max.)

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APPENDIX III - USE OF THE IUCN CATEGORIES AND CRITERIA

Use of the Near Threatened (NT) Category

IUCN do not provide quantitative thresholds for the category of Near Threatened, but they state that the taxon should be close to qualifying for the Vulnerable category, and that the criteria that were nearly met should be stated. Examples are given in Reference 18 Section 10.

Use of the Not Applicable (NA) Category

As stated in Section 1, recently introduced taxa are not included in the Red List. These are listed as NA.

Use of the Not Evaluated (NE) Category

A number of species have not yet been located in the surveys and these are listed as NE.

Use of the Data Deficient (DD) Category

There are a considerable number of taxa for which information is currently either lacking or insufficient to undertake IUCN threat analysis. These are listed as DD.

Use of Criterion A

Criterion A looks at the decline of a taxon over 10 years or 3 generations. For this initial report, Criterion A2c is used based on past population decline. However, as no previous detailed surveys have been done, we are considering whether Criterion A3c or A4c should be used, which projects future declines based on current rates of decline. For instance, deforestation rates through fires and grazing animals has been estimated at this early stage.

Use of Criterion B

Criterion B is designed to identify threats associated with extremely restricted distribution when combined with other risk factors. Severe fragmentation and extreme fluctuations have not been used as risk factors in this initial document so the application of criterion B is simplified.

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APPENDIX IV - DEFINITIONS

Extent of occurrence

Extent of occurrence is defined as the area contained within the shortest continuous imaginary boundary which can be drawn to encompass all the known, inferred or projected sites of present occurrence of a taxon, excluding cases of vagrancy. This measure may exclude discontinuities or disjunctions within the overall distributions of taxa (e.g. large areas of obviously unsuitable habitat) (but see 'area of occupancy' below). Extent of occurrence can often be measured by a minimum convex polygon (the smallest polygon in which no internal angle exceeds 180 degrees and which contains all the sites of occurrence).

Area of occupancy

Area of occupancy is defined as the area within its 'extent of occurrence' (see above) which is occupied by a taxon, excluding cases of vagrancy. The measure reflects the fact that a taxon will not usually occur throughout the area of its extent of occurrence, which may contain unsuitable or unoccupied habitats.

Location

The term 'location' defines a geographically or ecologically distinct area in which a single threatening event can rapidly affect all individuals of the taxon present. For this initial report a location is defined here as a contiguous vegetative area of less than 10sq. km. (or 2500 acres or 1000 ha).

Generation

For the purpose of this initial report, a generation for a woody plant is assumed to be typically >10 years, for a herbaceous perennial >5 years, and for an annual >1 year.

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