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Discursive Strategies Used by Political Parties in the Bahraini Council of Representatives: A critical discourse analysis of religious ideologies in politic language Lamya Alkooheji PhD in Linguistics The University of Edinburgh 2013 i Signed declaration I hereby declare that this thesis has been composed by me and that the work is my own. This work has not been submitted for any other degree or professional qualification. Signed Lamya Alkooheji 12 February 2013 ii All our words are but crumbs that fall down from the feast of the mind. Kahlil Gibran, Sand and Foam iii Dedication To those to whom this accomplishment mattered most and made so proud, my parents, Abdulmajeed Alkooheji and Fatima Alawadhi and my husband, Eyad Rafei. And To those whom this journey puzzled most, who yet made it worthwhile, my children, Fatima, Anas and Dareen. iv Acknowledgements He who does not thank people does not thank God. Prophet Mohammed Accomplishing this thesis would not have been possible without the support of many people; the role of some started even before I enrolled in the PhD programme and that of others during the years of my research. My acknowledgements are many but I would like to mention each one of them. This thesis would not have been possible without the guidance, support and patience of my Lead Supervisor, Professor John E. Joseph, and that of my second supervisor, Dr Sue Widdicombe, both of whom were generous with their time, feedback and guidance throughout the time I spent at Edinburgh University. They have enriched me not only as a researcher but also as an individual. Professor Joseph’s role goes back to 2001 when I did my Master’s degree at Edinburgh. He stimulated my fascination with linguistics; he set an example of a devoted researcher while being at the same time, a very caring, approachable and considerate person. Dr Widdicombe showed genuine interest in my work and gave it as much attention as a lead supervisor would give. She also became a friend and an inspirational figure, as both a mother and, simultaneously, an active academic. Very special thanks and gratitude to my soul mate and husband, Eyad Rafei, who taught me how to trust myself by his own trust and belief in me. He unselfishly accepted my awkward status of being away for long periods to achieve a personal goal. My little angels – Fatima, Anas and Dareen – deserve my enduring gratitude for bearing with their mother through this unusual journey that mothers normally do not risk. Fatima and Anas would go and play outside the room while I was doing what I called ‘my homework’ for ‘my teacher’. Dareen, our little bunny, was a joy that arrived at the end of a journey which she will not be able to recall, but I will always remember the end-of-the-day v moments when, I would be exhausted and rest my notebook on my bump towards the end of my pregnancy. These three angels brought such joy into my life when I was under pressure. I am extremely grateful to my parents, who were patient with my absence for long periods and who took care of my children while I was in Edinburgh, carrying out fieldwork, or even when working from home. Many thanks to them for providing my children with a stable family life during my absence. My brothers, Salah, Mohammed, Yusif and Hamza, and my sister, Aisha, also played a role in taking care of my children and making up for me not being there. The same is true of my maternal aunts and uncles and my mother-in- law. I am grateful to each one of them. I would also like to thank the University of Bahrain for providing me with this unique opportunity to do my PhD by fully sponsoring my studies and securing other financial support to ensure my success. I would like to thank the two successive chairmen of the Department of English Language while I was doing my PhD: Dr Abdulaziz Bulailah and Dr Nuri Al-Ageli .I would like to mention the four successive presidents of the university: Dr Mohammed bin Jassim Al-Ghatam, Dr Maryam Al-Khalifa, Dr Ali Al-Nuaimi and Dr Ebrahim Janahi. I would also like to thank Mrs Samya Jum’a, Mrs Hafsa Yusif, Mrs Jehan Abdullah and Mrs Sawsan Ahmed, all administrative staff members at the University of Bahrain. I would also like to thank two special people I met at the beginning of my doctoral work at Leeds University, where I studied before transferring to the University of Edinburgh. These are Dr Melina Wong and Dr Diane Nelson, both of whom gave me support and encouragement during a difficult period of my life. Their smiles and positive attitude made it possible for me to continue despite all the problems. There are two academics at the University of Bahrain who were in the final stages of their PhDs when I arrived in Leeds, who were God-sent to make my own journey possible. I am most grateful to Dr Khalid Al Baker, College of vi Teachers, currently the Head of the School Performance Evaluation Unit at the Quality Assurance Authority for Education and Training. Dr Al Baker gave me a lot of support and advice even before I arrived in the UK. He was always willing to help and has been my ‘consultant’ in many academic and travelling issues. The other friend I must thank is Dr Reman Abu Shanab, College of Science, a friend and a sister whose moral support helped me survive the tough first year. My flatmate during my second and third years in Edinburgh was Rana Alsoufi, who in no time became a best friend. We became flatmates after meeting in a seminar at the School of Divinity, Edinburgh University. I would like to thank her for her company, for the precious time we spent together at North Meggetland and for becoming my family in Edinburgh. I am grateful to Dr Ashraf Abdelhay, Postdoctoral Associate at the University of Cambridge. Ashraf has a generous and proactive nature; he provided me with a plenty of advice on how to organise and plan my research, something I am grateful for. I would also like to thank my friend Suha Babikir, with whom I had fruitful discussions about my research topic from time to time. I am thankful to my friend and colleague Dr Parween Ebrahim, who has been a source of encouragement and positive energy throughout the journey. Thanks also to Mohammed A. Ashoor, a former student of mine, for providing me with useful background information. There are people whose cooperation was essential when I was collecting my research data. I thank them all here for the time and effort they put in on my behalf: from Bahrain Television, Mr Mohammed Saleh Ahmed Alshaikh; from the Bahraini Council of Representatives, Mr Hamad Alhadhrami, Head of Hansard Directorate, his secretary Ms Ebtihaj Taleb, Mr Khalid Abdullah Ebrahim, Head of Hansard and Meetings and MP Dr Ali Ahmed; from the Shura Council Mrs Fareeda Al-Awadhi; and from Akhbar Al- Newspaper Mohamed Mubarak, the journalist, Yusif Fakhir, Head of Archive Section, and Muna Al-Ansari, secretary of the Deputy Editor. vii There are some people who might have forgotten that they had a role in smoothing my PhD journey, but I have not forgotten them. I would like to express my appreciation to them too: Dr Hassan Marhama, Dr John Hillis, Dr Mohammed Qaddumi, Mrs Janean Newbury, Dr Sh. Abdullatif Al-Mahmoud, Dr Abdullatif Al-Sheikh, Dr Ali Al-Madani and Dr Fareed Hadi, all of whom were, and some still are, academic staff members at the University of Bahrain. Someone I would always remember and from whom I learnt a lot is my dear friend Suad Al-Marasni; I set Suad as my role model mother and educator. I would also like to thank Mrs Myrna Casio for taking care of my children and for her honesty and sincerity. I am indebted to Dr Charles Sarvan, who was the first to teach me how to approach text critically when I was an undergraduate student, and who taught me to ‘observe life’ in a more reflective way. At last, but not at least, I am most grateful to my teachers at primary school, Al-Adawiya School. To those teachers, ethics, discipline and devotion were the principles they never failed to live up to. I want to specify the following teachers: Fawzia Jamali, Sara, Nabiha, Layla Taha, Lulwa, Fawzia Al-Elwan, Mariam Abdullah, Nawal, Muneera, Latifa, Jameela, and Widad. Very special ladies to look up to as dedicated educators rather than only teachers. viii Abstract This study attempts to present the relations between discourse and ideology in debates taking place in the Bahraini Council of Representatives.