EssexJOURNAL A REVIEW OF LOCAL HISTORY & ARCHAEOLOGY Autumn 2011

SAMUEL COURTAULD’S PATERNALISM IN THE HALSTEAD SILK MILL

PLUS

J.C. THRESH

AND

THE ESSEX BLITZ

ALSO REMEMBERING JOHN APPLEBY AND BOOK REVIEWS

EJ 20 Questions: Maureen Scollan

Autumn 2011 Vol.46 No.2 EssexJOURNAL ISSN-0014-0961 Incorporating Essex Review

he ESSEX JOURNAL is published twiceayear,inMayandOctober, CONTENTS T under the management of an Editorial Board consisting of representatives of the Essex Editorial 40 Archaeolog ic al and Historic al Cong ress, the Victoria County History of Essex Friend s of Histor ic Essex, Diamond Jubilee 42 the Essex Record Office (on behalf of the Essex by Geoffrey Hare County Council), and the Honorary Editor. It is recognised that the statutory duties of the Wood-Pasture and Pollarding in County Council preclude Epping Forest 43 the ERO from sharing in the financial by Richard Morris comm itments of the consortium. The Significance of the Work of Chairman:Adrian Corder-Birch, John Clough Thresh (1850-1932) 44 c [email protected] by Peter Wynn Hon. Editor: Neil Wiffen, MA, Samuel Courtauld’s Paternalism in the neilwiffen@hotm ail.com Halstead Silk Mill 54 Hon.Treasurer: Geraldine Willden,MAAT, by Margarita Stylianou g eraldine.w illd en@ esse x.gov.uk Hon. Secretary: Karen Lawrence,MA, Front-Line County: Essex and the Blitz karenlawrence@ waitrose.com 1940-1941 61 Hon.Membership Sec :Jenepher Hawkins,MA, by Paul Rusiecki je [email protected] Obituary: John Appleby 69 The annual subscription of £10.00 should be Book Reviews: 70 sent to:The Hon. Membership Secretary, 13 South Prim rose Hill, Chelmsford, Andrew Phillips, Children’s History Of Colchester, Essex, CM1 2RF. (M. Fox, N. & T. Wiffen) Adrian Corder Birch, Our Ancestors were Brickmakers and Potters, Notes to contributors (S. Newens) Contributions are welcome and should be sent in a Word Norman Jacobs, format to the Honorary Editor at the email listed above. General correspondence can either be emailed or posted to: Behind the Colonnade: thirty seven years at the 30 Main Road, Broomfield, Chelmsford, Essex CM1 7EF. British Museum, The Editor is more than happy to discuss any proposed (M. Leach) articles as he does not guarantee that unsolicited material Chris Pond and Richard Morris, will be published. Contributors are requested to limit their The Life andArt of Octavius DixieDeacon, articles to 2,500/4,000 words, other than by prior & agreement with the Editor. Style notes are available. Chris Pond, Disclaimer The Buildings of Loughton and notable people of the town, Items printed in the Essex Journal do not necessarily reflect the views of the Editor or Editorial Board. Contributors, on (A. Corder-Birch) behalf of the Essex Journal, have made every effort to trace Hazel Lake, Editor, and acknowledge ownership of all copyrighted material and A History of Mark Hall Manor, to secure permissions.The Editor would like to hear of any (S. Newens) inadvertent omission in the acknowledgement of copyright Richard Tames, material. England's Forgotten Past, Copyright All written material, unless otherwise stated, is the copyright (J. Kemble) of the Essex Journal. Enquiries to the Editor. EJ 20 Questions? Maureen Scollan 75 Main cover illustration: Extract from 1st Ed 25” Ordnance Survey map, sheet 17-9. JOURNAL 39 (Reproduced by courtesy of the Essex Record Office.) Essex EJ Editorial

h well, that's almost another year past. I'm his work in the not quite sure where it has gone but it has. volumes of the Annual ONow the clocks have gone back and it is Report of the Medic al dark by 4:30 it is hard to remember the wonderful Officer of Health spring we had, although the lovely weather in late which he was involved September and early October was a real tonic. But with. However, Peter's what a year it has been what with the Arab Spring, article demonstrates war in Libya, phone hacking and the continuing and the influential role frightening economic situation in Europe. Sometimes that Thresh has played I hardly dare listen (or is the feeling one of excited both nationally and trepidation?) to the Today Programme in the morning internationally. for fear of what is going to be reported! When the Thinking back to history books come to be written of these times it historians advising will take a nimble mind to make sense of it all. politicians, Peter has Talking of historians, in my last editorial I reminded me that discussed the idea of having historians to help guide the role of County Councils in respect of public government policy.We could bring our level headed health, including the requirement for a Medical and analytical research skills to the politicians to Officer of Health, was reduced in 1974. However, it help influence responsible and longer term policies seems that there will now be some reversion towards which would be developed using evidence of what the former position with the Health and Social Care had happened in the past. It probably wouldn't Bill, now before Parliament.This will require local help with party ideologies but it might make for a authorities to appoint a Director of Public Health slightly saner world. Over the summer in a Guardian who will be required to produce annual reports for editorial entitled 'Unthinkable? Ministers to take their area. So here here we go again then – nothing historical advice', much the same thing was new under the sun! suggested: I'm sure that many of you are familiar with the role of the Courtauld family in the history of the 'Britain suffers from a political deficit...The silk industry in Essex. Margarita Stylianou has taken Westminster classes have a serious lack of a novel angle on the story and has written an historical knowledge...Politics is now a young interesting article on the predominantly female person's profession: its players no longer come workforce. In our age of equal rights it is hard to with historical knowledge.Which means that it imagine that once women were treated very much needs to be formally implanted in Whitehall. as second class workers. The government has economists and scientists: It is also hard to believe that within living why not appoint a chief historical adviser?' memory bombs were being dropped on Essex. My own parents remember the war vividly and I I wouldn't want to claim any responsibility for the have grown up with their memories but it is still idea, nor am I considering applying for the position, chastening to read Paul Rusiecki's article on the but it is gratifying that it is an idea that is being Essex Blitz. How would we cope with seeing whole discussed, and this can only be a good thing. Let us streets destroyed and family and friends killed or continue to be ever vigilant and make sure that the wounded? I hope that I would measure up as that fruits of our historical researches are made known generation did. to all. Those events of 70 or so years ago are fading In this issue we have another update on the from living memory and in this issue we mark the progress of the Victoria County History of Essex passing of John Appleby who answered the call, as are making.They are currently celebrating their so many did, and fought for his country. I only had Diamond Jubilee and I was able to attend their the privilege of meeting John on a few occasions party held at the Essex Record Office back in and did not know much about his life. His obituary, October where it was lovely to meet up with so by Stan Newens makes poignant reading. One of many friends.The talks were very interesting and the books I have 'on the go' at the moment is Jane Pearson and Maria Rayner have adapted their Akenfield by Ronald Blythe. In it one of the presentation on the Lock Hospital in Colchester for characters, Sammy Whitelaw, says: the next issue – something to look forward to. Hornbeams are probably my favourite tree and are 'The old people have gone and have taken very much a tree of our Essex woodlands. For several a lot of truth out of the world with them.' years I have been talking with Richard Morris about them and how pollarding is being re-introduced to There is a lot less truth in the world now Epping Forest. Here he updates us all on this that John Appleby has died.As historians, we progress. must remember. Peter Wynn has written an authoritative article on J.C.Thresh. Many of us will have touched upon Neil

EssexJOURNAL 40 Notes from the Board From the Hon. Membership Secretary: 1. 2012 Subscriptions A. Individuals: Subscriptions are due by 1st January 2012, and renewal forms are enclosed for those paying annually. Please consider setting up a standing order, which saves you and us time and money. If you do so, please complete and return the Banker's Order form to me (not to your bank) as soon as possible. If you continue to pay by cheque, please return the form and your cheque to me as soon as possible, and in any case by by 1st January 2012. B. Organisations and Societies: I would welcome standing orders (see above), or if you can pay by BACS this would also be helpful. Please contact me if you need further details. C. All Subscribers: If you decide to cancel your subscription please let me know as soon as possible. 2. Email addresses I would appreciate email addresses from as many subscribers as possible, whether individuals or organi- sations. In particular I should be glad to have addresses for subscriptions taken out before 2010, when the new application form, with space for email addresses, was introduced. Please be assured that any information you provide to the Essex Journal, including your email address, will be for internal use only, for example to deal with queries (and if necessary to remind tardy payers!) and would not be disclosed to anyone else without your permission. If you are willing to do so please email me your address (individuals) or that of your contact person (organisations), and in both cases please include your name and the first line of your postal address.

Many thanks,

Jenepher Hawkins, Hon. Membership Secretary. email: [email protected] From the Hon. Secretary: History meets the 21st Century! The Essex Journal is pleased to announce it has made a tentative foray into joining the digital age. We now have a page on Facebook, so you can become our friend and get updates on the progress of the next edition and any other exciting news.We are also now on Twitter, so you can follow us and get regular updates. We also now have a Journal email address you can contact us on, and plans for a dedicated website in the future, which will enable us to develop further the ways we can provide information and articles to you over time. These are all in very early stages at the moment, so if you have ideas of what you would like to see or things that would be good, please let us know. You can find us at the following addresses: On Twitter: www.twitter.com/essexjournal On Facebook: www.facebook.com/essexjournal Via email: [email protected] Looking forward to hearing from you!

Many thanks,

Karen Lawrence Hon. Secretary email: [email protected]

EssexJOURNAL 41 Victoria CountyPlume LibraryHistory of Essex Diamond Jubilee

n Saturday 8th October, 2011,VCH Essex The morning was given over to themes (and out- celebrated its anniversary with a well-attended takes!) from Volume XI by Chris Thornton, Herbert Oseminar at the Essex Record Office. Eiden and James Bettley.The afternoon commenced Amongst many of its friends and supporters, it with the circumstances of and the need for the appeal not only commemorated its re-founding in 1951 by Sir Alex Jarratt,Vice-Chairman of the Appeal but also marked three other important events. Firstly, Fund and Chairman of the appeal itself.Three further the publication of Volume XI; secondly, the move stimulating papers concluded the day: by Professor to control of VCH Essex by the VCH Essex Appeal James Raven on the Harsnett Collection (now at Fund following the loss of Essex County Council Essex University), by Jane Pearson and Marie Rayner funding and, in consequence, the launch that day on the Colchester Lock Hospital and by Brenda of an appeal for funding to carry forward the work Watkin on the Discovering Coggeshall Project. on Volume XII and beyond. The VCH Essex Appeal Fund is grateful to Essex In regard to Volume XI, it had been expected to County Council for free use of the Record Office, be delivered on the day but unexpected problems to the Essex history groups who exhibited and, in with the index forestalled that pleasure.The volume particular, to the staff of the Record Office and is now expected to be available at the end of the members of the Friends of Historic Essex who year; so still a Jubilee event, just. underpinned what, these days, we call the logistics The loss of County Council funding, leaving of the event. only our free accommodation at the Record Office, led directly to the Appeal Fund re-assuming control Geoffrey Hare of VCH Essex as it had done for most of its history. Chairman,VCH Essex Appeal Fund The launch of our fund-raising campaign to carry us forward has already been a first notable success for the Appeal Fund. Even before the launch, once it We still have many thousands of pounds to raise was known that we were without County Council so, to support the VCH Essex,donations should be funding, around half the required £50,000 had sent by cheque payable to The VCH Essex Appeal already been donated by friends anxious to help Fund addressed to: preserve this irreplaceable historical project. Further donations were received on the day and the Appeal H. Martin Stuchfield, J.P., F.S.A., F.R.Hist.S. Fund is now confident that the future of the VCH Hon.Treasurer,VCH Essex Appeal Fund Essex will be secured for the next three to four years. Lowe Hill House In terms of its objectives, with the exception of Stratford St. Mary the delayed publication of Volume XI, the Diamond Suffolk CO7 6JX Jubilee celebratory day was a great success, aided notably by a series of fascinating papers. Lord Petre cutting the VCH Diamond Jubilee cake watched by officers and members of the Appeal Fund committee (from left to right) Geoffrey Hare, Alex Jarratt, Patricia Herrmann, Chris Manning-Press and Sarah Manning-Press.

EssexJOURNAL 42 Wood-Pasture and Pollarding in Epping Forest

or 800 years Epping Forest was a ‘working’ The Conservators took the decision to cease forest with farmers and villagers exercising their pollarding with the result that in the twentieth Fcommon rights to graze cattle over the length century areas of the forest that were previously and breadth of the forest.The villagers since at least pollarded became areas of high forest with the Tudor times exercised a right to lop trees during the majestic oaks of Barn Hoppitt, and the Beech trees winter months, and to use the wood for fencing, of Hill Wood and St Thomas’s Quarters. Commoners’ house building, firewood and the smaller branches cattle continued to graze the forest with as many as as feed for their animals. 800 head of cattle on the forest each year in the early The method used in lopping trees was known as decades of the twentieth century. However, by the pollarding.This involved cutting branches above 10 1960s the number of farmers putting cattle on the feet from the base of the tree, which left new growth forest had reduced substantially, and the BSE crisis to develop without the risk of being eaten by grazing of the1990s saw no cattle on the forest for six years. deer or cattle.The cycle of pollarding was repeated Pollarding had been reintroduced in a small area every 10 to 15 years, with the result that these trees of Bury Wood at Chingford in the 1970s, and the never grew into ‘high forest’.The resulting landscape ecologists began to take the view that this should has come to be known as ‘wood-pasture’. be extended to a wider area as part of a policy to Although much has been written about the land- create wood-pasture which would improve the use of forests, woodland history is a much-disputed biodiversity of the forest. subject, and there are differing views on how much This was allied in 2006 with a new grazing strategy of Epping Forest was managed as wood-pasture with with the objective of increasing the number of cattle pollarding a widespread practice. However, we know on the forest, although one consequence of this was that the practice of lopping was common in areas of that areas of the forest would have to be fenced. Most forest adjacent to villages, such as Loughton. recently, in 2009, the Conservators were successful By the end of the nineteenth century the villagers in receiving a substantial grant from the Heritage need to lop trees was much reduced. Coal was by Lottery Fund, part of which is to fund the extension then transported by canal and on railways, and brick of wood-pasture, with an increase in the areas of was the most common material for building houses. new pollards and higher numbers of cattle, and the Following the Epping Forest Act of 1878, which implementation of this project is now in progress. appointed the City of London Corporation as The Conservators are also now preparing the Conservators of the forest, the practice of lopping next Management Plan for the forest for the period and pollarding was debated with differing views being 2012 to 2022, and this will provide an opportunity expressed.Alfred Russel Wallace, the distinguished to review the wood-pasture and grazing projects to naturalist, was against pollarding and described areas assess their cost and sustainability in the long term. of pollards as a hideous assemblage of stunted mop- head like trees. However, Edward North Buxton, one Richard Morris of the Verderers, thought that pollards had an extreme Verderer of Epping Forest quaintness and beauty in some of the knarled stems.

A Hornbeam, near Palmer's Bridge, pollarded in 2000, and the same tree ten years later. (R. Morris.)

EssexJOURNAL 43 The Significance of the Work of John Clough Thresh (1850-1932) by Peter Wynn

ohn Clough Thresh (Plate 1) Owens College, Manchester Conference and was appointed was born at Wakefield on where in 1880 he had obtained as a Vice-President of the J14th December 1850, the a University of London External Conference for the following son of James and Jane (nee BSc.6 This was followed by a year.17 By 1892 Thresh was one Clough).1 James was a fitter and London DSc in 1882.7 In 1884 of two Honorary Secretaries of died whilst working on a railway he was appointed as Honorary the Society of Medical Officers of in South America when John General Secretary of the British Health and in this capacity wrote was three years old. In 1856 his Pharmaceutical Conference.8 to the British Medical Journal and mother married Joseph Ackroyd, Having withdrawn from his part- The Lancet to solicit donations an innkeeper from Eccleshill. nership in running his business at for a presentation to Sir George Buxton,9 Thresh returned to study Buchanan, the retiring Medical at Manchester and graduated as Officer to the Local Government MB and ChB in 1889. It has Board.18 In 1892 Thresh obtained been speculated that his motive the Diploma of Public Health of in seeking a medical qualification the University of Cambridge and was a reaction to the evidence in 1896 was awarded the gold of a medical witness being given medal for his MD thesis at greater credence than his in a Manchester.19 court case.10 His appointment to the two On 3rd September 1889 rural authorities was renewed a joint committee of the at an unchanged salary in 1892.20 Chelmsford and Maldon Rural After a period during which Sanitary Authorities appointed he compiled reports for Essex him as Medical Officer of Health County Council summarising the to the two authorities for an reports of local Medical Officers initial period of three years at of Health,Thresh was appointed an annual salary of £600.11 It was Medical Officer of Health for a requirement for holders of such Essex at an annual salary of £800 appointments to be medically with effect from 29th September qualified so the post would have 1895.21 Chelmsford and Maldon not been open to him until the Rural District Councils agreed to completion of his further studies make contributions towards this at Manchester.12 In 1889 a minute salary.22 A scale of fees was also of the Maldon authority records agreed by Essex County Council Plate 1. that the members have no objec- for chemical and bacteriological Photographic portrait (unknown date) tion to his taking up residence testing.Thresh also held an of John Clough Thresh by Elliott & Fry in Chelmsford or its immediate appointment as Lecturer in Public (Reproduced by courtesy of Wellcome neighbourhood13 and the 1891 Health at The London Hospital Library, London, Photo No.V 27265) census shows him living with and it is possible that this is After being educated privately his family at ‘The Limes’ in New where the tests were carried out Thresh was apprenticed to a London Road, Chelmsford.14 at this time. However in 1909 chemist and druggist, qualifying Shortly afterwards he purchased he referred both to a laboratory at the age of 202 and became a ‘Spergula’ also in New London at Chelmsford and the Public Fellow of the Chemical Society Road, later better known as Health Laboratories at The of London (FCS) in 1875.3 In Farleigh Hospice.15 He lived here London Hospital.23 The initial 1872, living in Dukinfield in until his death.Although the appointment to Essex County Cheshire, he married Maria name of the property is suggestive Council was largely in connec- England, an ironmonger’s daugh- of his botanical interests, it was tion with the authority’s new ter from Pontefract4 and subse- named by its previous owner.16 responsibilities for isolation hospi- quently established himself as a On taking up his appointment tals.24 There was some resistance dispensing chemist in Buxton.5 in Essex,Thresh resigned as to the initial appointment.25 Whilst apparently continuing to Honorary General Secretary However once the appointment run the business he studied at of the British Pharmaceutical had been made Thresh’s work

EssexJOURNAL 44 John Clough Thresh increased as more duties were evidence or take part in Utility of isolation hospitals placed on the County Council Parliamentary proceedings Disinfection by for example the Midwives Act, without committee approval. 1902, the Housing and Town Any fees that he received for any More general publishing Planning Act, 1909 and the purpose were to be paid into the 31 National Insurance Act, 1911. In County Fund. It was also stated With the possible exception of 1913 he resigned his positions that one of his duties would be the first, there is overlap between with the Chelmsford and Maldon ‘if and when the Essex County these, but each will be explored authorities and that of Lecturer Council establish a chemical and separately in subsequent sections at The London Hospital because bacteriological laboratory (as it is of this article. of increasing commitments to the their intention to do) to supervise county council.The latter resigna- the same and be responsible for Extraction & Description of tion resulted in the loss of his its efficiency.’ Active Ingredients of Plant access to laboratory facilities Thresh’s final annual report Materials at the hospital and the removal included reference to his laboratory This formed the main basis of his to ‘rooms near Liverpool Street work, including that for other 35 26 early work. In a series of papers Station.’ counties and had the following read at the British Pharmaceutical In October 1915 Thresh words ‘The question whether the Conference in 1876 he described reminded the County Council County Council could establish his work to isolate Capsaicin, that he would shortly be reaching and staff a laboratory and do the the active component of chilli the council’s normal retirement work as well or as economically is peppers.This work has been cited age of 65. In view of the wartime an open one, and in my present within the past decade in work conditions the Public Health position any opinion I might give on cancer and blood pressure and Housing Committee recom- could not be entirely without 36 32 treatment. Between 1879 and mended that he be requested to prejudice.’ It would appear that 1882 he described similar work, continue his duties for a further Essex County Council never grant aided by the Conference, on year and that a special committee established its own laboratory ginger,37 from which he extracted should be appointed to consider and the business of Thresh and gingerol, and hedychium.38 Most the duties of the County Medical Beale, later with Suckling as an commonly Thresh’s work on gin- Officer of Health and the organi- additional partner, sometimes gerol has been cited in later work sation of the Public Health under the name of The Counties 27 on foods and alternative therapies Department. Thresh’s appoint- Public Health Laboratories contin- rather than mainstream medicine.39 ment was further extended on ued to undertake work for Essex occasions but eventually terminat- County Council until the Second Chemical and Biological ed on 31st March 1919 after he World War.33 In spite of a stroke Analysis of Water had tendered his resignation on in 1925,Thresh continued as a Thresh took an interest in the health grounds.28 He stated his consultant to the County Council mineral waters of Buxton.This willingness to act in an ‘Advisatory until four years before his death work was described in papers to [sic] capacity’ and the Public at home on 28th May 1932.34 the Chemical Society.40 In those Health and Housing Committee Although he lived outside of the papers he described his analysis of recommended that he be retained Parish, he was buried in Widford the mud deposited at the spring, as Consulting County Medical churchyard, along with his wife the gases emitted at the spring as Officer of Health for a year for a who had died in October 1930. well as the dissolved gases within remuneration of £250.29 On the the water and the chemical com- recommendation of his successor The following strands can be position of the water itself. He also the committee agreed to the rec- identified in Thresh’s work: described apparatus for collecting ommend that annual contracts be dissolved gases.41 In 1890 he pre- awarded to Drs Thresh and Beale The extraction and sented a paper to the Chemical to undertake examination of description of active ingre- Society on the measurement of specimens for sporadic cases of dients in plant materials dissolved oxygen in water42 and in tuberculosis and river and effluent the same year one to the British Chemical and biological sampling.30 It would appear that Pharmaceutical Conference on analysis of water the Council may have wished to the estimation of nitrite content clip the wings of Thresh’s succes- Water Treatment of water.43 His report on the water 44 sor. In accordance with the earlier Investigation of outbreaks supply of Writtle stated that he recommendations of the Special of disease had examined samples of water Committee, his contract required from every known well in Writtle him to devote his whole time Conditions in urban and and Oxney Green.The careful to the duties of his office and rural areas, including the analysis of water chemistry, seen not to engage in any occupation provision of water and earlier in his work at Buxton, is for profit nor to give professional sewerage services again apparent here.

EssexJOURNAL 45 John Clough Thresh

In 1895 he described how, water pollution before describing In 1913 Thresh stated that his in the light of experience, his approaches to tracing the flow of annual report as Medical Officer approach to water analysis had pollutants in groundwater using of Health for Essex for 1910 had evolved since becoming a Medical dye and other tracers.52 The sig- been in great demand for its Officer of Health.45 He argued nificance of this work has been analysis of comparative death rates strongly that chemical analysis noted by a current hydrogeology in areas supplied with hard and alone is insufficient as the basis for specialist who described Thresh as soft water and presented further assessing whether water is safe to an authority on groundwater analysis that tended to show a drink and advocated a holistic chemistry and pollution.53 The lower death rate in hard water approach in which bacteriological second and subsequent editions areas.60 From 1989 water quality analysis and knowledge of the of The Examination ofWaters regulations have specified a mini- source of the water is also consid- and Water Supplies included an mum hardness for water.61 On the ered. In the fairly recent past a example of the use of fluorescin other hand the maximum allow- commentator described this to determine the source of pollu- able concentrations of lead in paper as ‘a sober and far-reaching tion in a well at Great Baddow. drinking water have been reduced assessment of the state of water In the early twentieth century over time. Generally it is softer analysis [at the end of the 19th the Geological Survey published waters that have problems with century]’ and also acknowledged a series of ‘County Memoirs’ high lead concentrations. How- Thresh as the main British on water resources.Thresh was ever in 1905 Thresh drew atten- authority on water analysis in involved in a number of those tion to cases of lead poisoning in the early twentieth century.46 including that for Essex in 1916.54 hard water areas.62 In the 1920s he Thresh’s textbook Water and The publication of that volume returned to the subject, investigat- Water Supplies, first published in was said by Thresh to have been ing the production of soluble 1896, with a second edition later delayed by the War Office because salts of lead under the action of in the same year and a third in of its potential use to an invading various impurities within water 1901, set out basic properties of enemy.55 including methods for measure- water, its sources, pollution, treat- ment of the resulting concentra- ment, and distribution.47 In was Waste Water & Drinking tions of lead in the water.63 Among followed by The Examination of Water Treatment the observations from this work Waters and Water Supplies first At the Seventh International was the potential role of silicates published in 1904.48 In the Congress of Hygiene and in preventing the solution of lead. preface to the first edition Thresh Demography Thresh read a paper As recently as 2010 this work was reiterated the thrust of his 1895 in which he outlined approaches cited as a primary reference by paper.A review in the United to sewage treatment.56 In this a US manufacturer of silicate States of the second edition he described the advantages of protection systems.64 described Thresh as ‘one of the separate systems of sewers for Following his being consulted foremost water analysts in England’ foulwater and rainwater and out- on the subject by civil and mili- and the book as ‘written by one lined a sequence of measures that tary authorities, in 1915 Thresh who speaks with authority’.49 It could be applied in combination: published a rebuttal to suggestions became a standard text and had today these are termed preliminary, that zinc from galvanised pipe- seven editions.A subsequent pub- primary, secondary and tertiary work may be hazardous to health.65 lication by the Society for Water stages. In 1908 he reported on During the 1920s Thresh and Treatment and Examination, the use in the United States of Beale advised on new water treat- 37 years after Thresh had died, calcium hypochlorite for the ment works for Chelmsford and described itself as ‘A successor to sterilisation of drinking water Southend using non-ideal river The Examination of Waters and and his own experiments on its water as the source.They proposed Water Supplies by Thresh, Beale effectiveness.57 In the following the use of a technique called the and Suckling.’50 year he applied for a UK Patent excess lime process, an effective but A smaller volume gave guidance for chlorination of water.58 As expensive alternative to chlorina- on simple analysis of water for the twentieth century progressed tion suitable for heavily contami- medical officers of health and chlorination became accepted as nated water, which enabled simul- others.This was first published a routine part of the treatment of taneous softening and purification. in 1897 and had ten editions by drinking water supplies. In 1910 Because of its novel approach, 1931.51 Essex was well represented he noted the usefulness of slow an experimental station was in the examples used to illustrate sand filtration for purification of established at Langford, prior to the method and the interpretation drinking water supplies and also construction of full scale plants of results. In a paper to the the potential of ozone, chlorina- for the two water undertakings.66 Association of Water Engineers tion and ultra-violet light for The success of the approach was Thresh again emphasised the sterilisation before going on to subsequently described in a need for a holistic approach describe his experiments into paper to the Royal Institute when investigating sources of the latter technique.59 of Chemistry.67

EssexJOURNAL 46 John Clough Thresh

Map 1. Map included in the 1890 Lancet paper, ‘The Influenza Epidemic and the Public Elementary Schools’. (Author’s collection.) Investigation of Outbreaks of the authorities Thresh often noted with careful analysis of the evi- Disease the association of inadequate water dence, he eliminated milk and At the beginning of the twentieth supplies and proper sewerage pro- personal contacts as a source of century deaths from diseases such vision with disease, for example initial infection but found damaged as smallpox and typhoid fever the 1892 diphtheria outbreak in sewer pipes above a pipe supply- were still occurring in Essex.68 Heybridge.70 Again this was no ing water from a local well.72 At While, like his peers,Thresh was more than would be expected of Shoeburyness he eliminated water obliged to present regular reports a Medical Officer of Health at the supply and milk and defective to the councils who employed time. However Thresh would go drainage as causes but was able to him, he sometimes went further: further ensuring national publicity discover that nearly all the people bringing matters to national for his investigations, for example infected had eaten cockles from a attention. He was a frequent he reported to the annual meeting source known to be polluted by contributor to journals such as of the British Medical Association sewage.73 He noted that all those The Lancet and the British Medical on the occurrence of diphtheria affected were newcomers to the Journal and produced a number within the county71 He presented area, older residents being aware of textbooks and more general detailed statistical data but was of the risks associated with the publications on a variety of sub- unable to find explanations for beach from which the cockles jects.An early example of his differences in occurrence and were obtained.A further paper thorough analysis concerned the mortality rates in different parts again traced an outbreak of pattern of an influenza epidemic of the county. He suggested that typhoid and enteritis in 1902 to outbreak in the Chelmsford and a careful investigation of isolated pollution of shellfish by sewage.74 Maldon areas reported in 1890.69 cases was more likely to provide It is interesting that in 2009 the From a study of the date of first an explanation of the disease than Health Protection Agency traced occurrence in each parish and the investigation of epidemics. an outbreak of illness at a well percentage of children affected Later his analysis of typhoid known restaurant to Essex oysters he attempted to identify changes outbreaks at Halstead and polluted by sewage using in virulence of the disease with Shoeburyness produced more approaches similar to those time. (Map 1). In his reports to definite conclusions.At Halstead, employed by Thresh.75

EssexJOURNAL 47 John Clough Thresh

His study of the high incidence authority had adopted a series constant source of nuisance and of smallpox at Purfleet76, in which of bye-laws to be applied in the source of danger. he was able to demonstrate the construction of new cottages and At the annual meeting of the role of wind in the spread of the hoped that the Chelmsford British Medical Association in disease, has been described as authority would do likewise. 1900 Thresh drew attention to recently as 2010 as a classic paper.77 Also in 1891 he sought to the contrast between the sanitary In 1903 there was an outbreak of investigate whether there was any provision of urban and rural areas.89 diarrhoea in Chelmsford in which connection between mortality rates He pointed to the unwillingness 14 people died.Thresh reported and the quality of water supplies of landowners to sell small plots on how his investigation had led in the rural areas.83 He presented of land needed for such improve- him to conclude that the source tables of mortality for each parish ments, the obstructive attitudes of was a garden adjacent to a small with details of population and some influential members of local storage reservoir on which road water sources but was unable to authorities and a system of tied scrapings had recently been establish a definite relationship. cottages that discouraged spread.78 This report is not only Not surprisingly he stated that the improvement.A conference of the referred to in his own subsequent use of rainwater stored in tubs or Sanitary Institute referred to the books, but also in other’s work.79 tanks or collected in ponds were desirability of having reports on open to the gravest objection, fol- the water supply of each county.90 Conditions in Urban and lowed closely by water abstracted Thresh’s report for Essex91 was Rural Areas from brooks or streams although stated to be an exemplar. It was During his medical studies at he admitted that the statistics were followed a few years later by an Manchester he was a member of not strong. He concluded that the updated account for the rural the committee of the Manchester chief difficulty arose in connection areas of the county only.92 In and Salford Sanitary Association. with supplies to single cottages or 1919, having retired from the In this role he presented a paper small groups of cottages lying at County Council,Thresh felt less to the association on conditions a distance from the villages. In constrained in producing a report in the Ancoats area of Manchester.80 many instances where good water for the Rural Housing and He made a comparison between was not obtainable at reasonable Sanitation Association on rural the districts having the highest cost, he questioned whether the housing provision.93 It examined and lowest death rates. Speaking dwellings could be considered fit factors such as overcrowding, at Owens College in 1890, Sir for human habitation. He also sanitation, heating and household Spencer Wells, an eminent surgeon, reported his studies to the British fittings and how conditions in the invited members of Manchester Medical Association where he country could be improved by Council to ‘read, mark, learn, and repeated the difficulty of estab- public building programmes. He inwardly digest’ what Thresh had lishing a definite statistical link used Widford as an example of written.81 One of his first actions between health and water quality.84 overcrowding pointing out that in 1891, following the Housing of Reports by Thresh on unfit within the parish’s total area of the Working Classes Act of the buildings soon became a regular 680 acres, there was a small area previous year, was to study the feature of his reports to the occupying less than 2 acres in housing of the working classes Maldon authority.85 However the which 34 of the parish’s 76 within the two rural sanitary 1890s were a time of agricultural families lived in small cottages authority areas.82 Like his earlier depression and Thresh was (Map 2). work at Ancoats, the report makes concerned that the Local depressing reading. He drew Government Boards model by- Isolation Hospitals attention to the limited provision laws made provision of new cot- From 1875 local sanitary authorities of public water supplies and tages too expensive, particularly had statutory powers to provide sewers, the widespread use of their insistence on the use of brick hospitals or temporary places for ‘bumby’ holes to receive house- construction. His battle with the the reception of the sick.94 Many, hold liquid and solid waste, the Local Government Board was including the Maldon Union overflowing of privies into ditches, described in a letter to The Times.86 Rural Sanitary Authority, used overcrowding, and poorly con- He gave evidence to this effect to temporary tents for use in epi- structed and maintained cottages. a Parliamentary Select Committee demics.95 In 1893 powers were He pointed out that in such in 1905,87 following which more given to county councils to direct conditions it was not possible flexible model by-laws were inquiries to be made by the medical to isolate infectious diseases nor introduced. His early work at officer of health as to the need properly treat any case of illness. Writtle88 concluded that there for such hospitals.96 At this time In his opinion many families were was an urgent need for a public Thresh showed his support for pauperised on account of sickness supply of pure water which, their provision with a letter to produced by living under such together with provision of sewer- The Lancet.97 Thresh’s 1895 report unhealthy conditions. He noted age, would allow the removal of to the Sanitary Committee of with approval that the Maldon privies that he considered were a Essex County Council was

EssexJOURNAL 48 John Clough Thresh reprinted in The Lancet. In it he incidence of scarlet fever and stated his opinion that isolation diphtheria.104 A similar view was hospitals should not be temporary expressed in his annual report for structures just for use in epidemics 1905 presented to Essex County and that their real use should be Council where he again empha- for early isolation of odd cases of sised that reducing overcrowding infectious disease.98 In 1898 he in housing would reduce the stated his opinion that such provi- need for isolation hospitals.105 sion was required for the urban and rural districts of Romford99 Disinfection and later that year considered Thresh demonstrated an interest whether Essex County Council in disinfection techniques when should use its powers where the he attended the Pharmaceutical districts did not make provision Conference, soon after his themselves.100 appointment to the Chelmsford In a Lancet paper in 1902 and Maldon authorities, where, Thresh considered the risks of taking part in discussion on a smallpox spreading to surrounding paper made the following areas from large isolation hospitals.101 comment:‘When a medical That drew on his investigation at officer of health had all the doors Purfleet, reported above, where he and windows of a cottage closed identified wind-blown infection up, and burned sulphur, he satisfied from hospital ships operated by the minds of the people that the the Metropolitan Asylums Board place was disinfected ; but he did as the most likely source. His new not always satisfy his own mind, paper presented an argument for and if some aerial disinfectant Map 2. smaller rather than large sites that could be obtained which would Map from Housing of the Agricultural he regarded as more likely to allow kill all bacteria, and yet would not Labourer showing overcrowding at the spread of the disease. He also take the polish off the furniture, Widford (approximate scale added). stated that the preferable solution or affect the colour of the (Author’s collection.) lay in an effective vaccination draperies, it would be a great programme.Although his annual boon to medical officers and was no sterilising effect unless the report to Maldon Rural District to humanity at large.’106 sprays thoroughly wetted the sur- Council for 1903 made reference In 1895 the Hospital faces. to the new hospital built between Committee of Chelmsford Rural Maldon and Tiptree, elsewhere in District Council recommended Other Publications the report Thresh stated that the that permission be given to Dr Thresh also published a number provision of cottages with three Thresh ‘to erect at his own of books whose content was on decent bedrooms would be more expense at Baddow Road the periphery of his main areas of effective than isolation hospitals in Isolation Hospital a disinfecting interest. controlling the spread of disease.102 apparatus as an experiment.’107 His physics textbook published This is in effect a development That was shortly after he had in 1880 is one which would be of his approach described in the obtained a UK Patent for an recognised today as an examination preceding paragraph. ‘Improved Disinfector’ for treating revision book, presenting an Reporting to Essex County bedding, clothing, etc.108 outline of the theory illustrated Council on hospital provision in Subsequent improvements to the with past examination questions, 1904 he said that he could not see apparatus were also patented by some with solutions, others left any statistics to prove that isolation Thresh. Portable versions of the for the students to solve.111 In hospitals are of any benefit in Thresh Disinfector were used in 1883 he wrote a guide for Buxton controlling infection but felt that the field during the Boer and which drew on his analysis of the common sense said they must First World Wars.109 Although the waters of the town but also con- have such a benefit.103 In view of principal commercial manufacturer tained basic tourist information.112 his previous concerns over the was the Thresh Disinfector Although not apparently within lack of provision of an isolation Company, others also made the his main area of interest, he co- hospital at Romford, it is perhaps apparatus under licence (Plate 2 authored with the Assistant ironic that in 1906 The Lancet & Fig. 1). In 1902 Thresh jointly Medical Officer of Health for reprinted his report to the published a study into experiments Leeds a book on additives in Romford Joint Hospital Board in in the effectiveness of disinfectant foods.113 It differs from much which he outlined how the study sprays, an approach then in of his other work in that it is of mortality statistics failed to common use.110 He and his co- generally summarising the work demonstrate any reduction in the investigators discovered that there of others, although he was an

EssexJOURNAL 49 John Clough Thresh

Plate 2. A Thresh Disinfector made under licence by Newton Chambers. (Reproduced by courtesy of Sheffield Industrial Museums Trust.) expert witness in a few of the ‘Thresh Disinfector’ and patent Acknowledgements court cases summarised in the protection of a system of water I am grateful to the staff of book. In 1920 the St John purification. the Essex Record Office, the Ambulance Association published He also contributed to the Wellcome Library, the Institution a short book by Thresh written community in which he lived. of Civil Engineers, the Chartered round the association’s hygiene He was an active member of the Institution of Civil Engineers and syllabus.114 A second edition was Essex Field Club. In 1891 he the Sheffield Industrial Museums published in 1925. spoke in favour of plans to Trust for their help in finding merge the club with the then material for this article. I would Conclusion Essex and Chelmsford Museum, also like to thank Mrs Beryl It can be seen that Thresh’s work an arrangement that did not Board for critically reviewing had influence well beyond his last.115 It was said that he was the draft of my article and for adoptive county of Essex. Much largely instrumental in the drawing my attention to of his professional work was provision of Widford Village Hall additional material. considered as pioneering by his and vice-president of both peers and also recognised as Widford Football Club and the The Author important by more recent Chelmsford and District Football Peter Wynn is a Senior Lecturer researchers.An entrepreneurial League.116 He was pre-deceased in civil engineering in the side to his activities is also by his son and left three daughters: Department of the Built evident. On a small scale it would Gertrude May, Dora Ackroyd and Environment at Anglia Ruskin appear from the book plate on Florence alias Sister Hilda.117 University in Chelmsford. He the current author’s copy of Gertrude May had some interests is a Fellow of the Chartered Thresh’s Tourist Guide to Buxton in common with her father: in Institution of Water and that he had left copies in hotels 1902 she was involved in mineral Environmental Management, and/or guest houses, as a subtle analysis at the County Technical the successor to a number of form of advertising for his Laboratory in Chelmsford and bodies representing the dispensing chemist business. was active in the Essex Field professional interests of On a larger scale we see the Club, publishing through it work Dr John Clough Thresh. commercial development of the on Essex geology and water.118

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References 19. BMJ obit. Enquiries of the university have not provided 1. General Register Office (GRO) Certified Copy of an any details of the subject area of the thesis. Entry of Birth. 20. ERO, G/MS 2, 23/08/1892. 2. R. Clarke,‘Essex Worthies: John B.B. McHardy & 21. It was an obligation under s. 19(1) of The Local John Clough Thresh’, Essex Countryside,Vol.8 No. 40 Government Act,1888 (51 & 52 Vict.Ch. 41) for (1960), pp.174-175. reports of District Medical Officers of health to 3. Proceedings of the Chemical Society, 02/12/1875: forward their reports to the County Council. Under reported in Chemical News 20/12/1875, p.277. s.17(1) of the same act, the appointment by County 4. GRO Certified Copy of an Entry of Marriage. Councils of their own Medical Officers of Health was 5. I have been unable to establish when Thresh established a permissive provision. his business at Buxton.The 1881 Census records his 5 22. Essex County Council Report of the Sanitary year old daughter having been born in Buxton Committee (ECCRSC), 01/10/1895 states the annual (1881 Census for Buxton,The National Archives contributions to be £143 from Chelmsford and £107 (TNA) RG11/3454, Folio 66, p.16.) from Maldon. S. 17(2) of The Local Government Act, 6. There is some confusion over the title and date of 1888 (51 & 52 Vict.Ch. 41) covered the issue of Thresh’s degree.The University of London Resister for arrangements between county and districts with 1901 records a BSc degree as awarded in 1880. Clarke regard to medical officers. (op cit) records him as graduating with a BSc in 1882. 23. JCT, Summary of the Reports of the District Medical The Biographical Database of British Chemists, Officers of Health in the Administrative Countyof Essex www5.open.ac.uk/Arts/chemists/person.cfm? for the Year 1909, (Chelmsford 1910), p71. In this under SearchID=7794, [Accessed 29/04/04], records a the heading ‘The County Public Health Laboratories’ London MA having been awarded in 1880.The title he states ‘The laboratory at Chelmsford was equipped of the latter degree appears erroneous. by the County Medical Officer and approved by the 7. Obituary Notices: The Times, 25/05/1932 p.19 (Times County Sanitary Authority’.This would appear to be obit) and British Medical Journal (BMJ), 04/06/1932, provided at his own expense as no County Council p.1057 (BMJ obit) both state that the award was in minute has been located to authorise the provision at 1884.The Biographical Database differs, recording the the Council’s expense.Thresh went on to say ‘Some of award of a DSc in 1882 and in this case the the districts near London find London more convenient Biographical Database agrees with the University …and send [specimens] to the London Hospital and of London Register. the examinations there are made by Dr Beale, who is 8. Anon,‘Report of the Executive Committee of the Demonstrator in the Public Health Laboratories under British Pharmaceutical Conference’, Yearbook of my charge. I attend on Mondays and Thursdays and Pharmacy, (1884), p.594. see far more officials and have far more County 9. Formal notice of dissolution of the partnership of appointments there than at Chelmsford.’ Thresh and Wright is given in the London Gazette, 24. The Isolation Hospitals Act, 1893 (56 & 57 Vict.Ch. 68). 06/04/1886, p.1692. 25. ECCRSC, 03/07/1894 reports opposition to an 10. BMJ obit. appointment by Saffron Walden and Romford Unions 11. Essex Record Office (ERO), G/CHS 1, Minutes and the resulting decision not to appoint a Medical of Chelmsford Rural Sanitary Authority Minutes Officer of Health at that time but to continue to retain 16/04/1889 & 10/09/1889.The former minute states Thresh to tabulate statutory returns to the Local that the agreed contributions to the salary are £344 Government Board. from Chelmsford and £256 from Maldon.W.M. Foster, 26. Essex County Council Report of the Public Health & A History of English Public Health 1834–1939, Housing Committee (ECCRPHHC), 07/10/1913. (London, 1950), p.121 reports that such joint arrange- 27. ECCRPHC, 05/01/1915. ments were common in some rural areas where the 28. Essex County Council Report of Special Committee population was too small to justify individual on Duties of Medical Officer of Health appointments. (ECCRSCDMOH), 07/01/1919. 12. s.191 of The Public Health Act, 1875 (38 & 39 Vict. 29. ECCRPHHC, 01/04/1919. Ch.55), specifically stated ‘A person shall not be 30. ECCRPHHC, 07/10/1919 & 18/11/1919. appointed as medical officer of health under this Act 31. ECCRSCDMOH, 02/01/1917. unless he is a legally qualified medical practitioner.’ 32. JCT, Annual Report of the Medical Officer of Health for 13. ERO, G/MS 2, Minutes of Maldon Union Rural 1918, (Chelmsford 1919). Sanitary Authority, 10/09/1889. 33. R.C. Hoather, Contribution to ‘Obituary of 14. 1891 Census for Chelmsford,TNA RG12/1385, W.A.Bullough’, BMJ, 07/07/1962, p.59. Folio 128 p.25. 34. Times obit. 15. www.farleigh.org/about-farleigh-hospice/history-of- 35. JCT,‘Isolation of Capsaican’, The Pharmaceutical farleigh-hospice/history-of-212-new-london-road.cfm, Journal and Transactions (PJT), 3rd Series 6 (1876), [accessed 31/08/07]. pp 941-947; JCT,‘Capsaican, the Active Principle in 16. The property was designed by Beadel, Son and Capsicum Fruits’, PJT, 3rd Series 7 (1876) p 21; Chancellor for Alfred Copland. www.farleigh.org, Anon,‘Capsaican, the Active Principle in Capsicum [accessed 30/08/07]. Fruits’, The Analyst,Vol.1, (1876), 148-149. 17. Anon,‘Report of the Executive Committee of the 36. Recent citations include: J.B. Calixto et al ‘Naturally British Pharmaceutical Conference’, Yearbook of Occurring Antinociceptive Substances from Plants’, Pharmac y, (1890), p.333. Phytotherapy Research,Vol 14 No. 6, (2000), pp401-18; 18. J.S. Bristowe,W.H.Hamer & J.C.Thresh (JCT) J. Chow et al ‘TRPV6 Mediates Capsaicin-Induced ‘Presentation to Sir George Buchanan, FRS’, BMJ, Apoptosis in Gastric Cancer Cells - Mechanisms 14/05/1892, pp.1049-1050 & The Lancet, 14/05/1892, behind a Possible New “Hot” Cancer Treatment’, p.1106. Biochimicaet Biophysic a Acta (BBA) – Molecular Cell

EssexJOURNAL 51 John Clough Thresh

Research, 1173, (2007), pp.565-576;Y.Wang & D.H. 57. JCT,‘Sterilisation of Potable Waters by Means of Wong,‘Neural Control of Blood Pressure: Focussing Calcium Hypochlorite, The Lancet, 28/11/1908, on Capsaicin-Sensitive Sensory Nerves’, Cardiovascular pp.,1597-1598. & Haematological Disorders – Drug Targets, 7, (2007), 58. UK Patent Application No. 3023,‘Improvements in pp.36-46. or relating to Water Purification’, (Date of Application 37. JCT,‘Proximate Analysis of the Rhizome (Dried and 08/02/1909; Complete Specification 29/07/1909; Decorticated) of Zingiber Officinalis’, PJT, 3rd Series Accepted 03/02/1910). 10 (1879) pp 171-175 & 191-193; JCT,‘Report on the 59. JCT & J.F.Beale,‘The Practical Sterilisation of Potable Essential Oil of Ginger’, PJT, 3rd Series 12 (1881), Waters by Means of the Ultra-Violet Rays of Light’, pp 243-247; JCT,‘Further Contributions to the The Lancet, 24/12/1910, pp.1849-1850. Chemistry of Zingiber Officinalis’, PJT, 3rd Series, 12 60. JCT,‘Hard v Soft Water’, The Lancet, 11/10/1913, (1882), pp.721-722. pp.1057-1058. 38. JCT,‘Proximate Constituents of Hedychium Spicatum’, 61. Water Supply (Water Quality) Regulations PJT, 3rd Series 15 (1885) p.361. (SI 1989/1147). 39. Authors have often been from the Far East. Examples 62. JCT,‘A Series of Lead Poisoning Cases Due to Hard include V.S. Govindarajan & D.W.Connell ‘Ginger – Water’, The Lancet, 07/10/1905, pp.1033-1034. Chemistry,Technology, and Quality Evaluation’, Food 63. JCT,‘Notes on the So-Called Action of Water on Science and Nutrition,Vol.17 No. 1 (1982), pp 1-96; Lead’, The Analyst,Vol.46, (1921), pp.270-279; M. Miyazawa & H. Kameoka ‘Volatile Flavor ‘The Action of Natural Waters on Lead’, The Analyst, Components of Zingiberis Rhizoma’, Agric ultural and Vol.47, (1922), pp.459-468 and 500-505; Biologic al Chemistry,Vol.52 No.11, (1988), pp.2961-3. ‘The Estimation of Lead in Potable waters, and in 40. JCT,‘Chemical Examination of the Buxton Thermal Urine’, The Analyst,Vol.49, (1924), pp.124-128. Water’, Journal of the Chemic al Society,Transactions 64. The PQ Corporation,‘PQ® Soluble Silicates for (JCST), (1881), pp.388-399 & (1882), pp.117-132. Protection of Water Systems from Corrosion’, available 41. JCT,‘Modified Form of Apparatus for Collecting the online at http://www.pqcorp.com/technicalservice/ Gases Dissolved in Water’, JCST, (1881), pp.399-401. ..%5Cliterature%5Cbulletin_37-3.pdf, 42. JCT,‘A new method of estimating the oxygen dissolved [accessed 04/09/2010]. in water’, JCST, (1890), pp.185-195. 65. JCT,‘Zinc in Potable Water Has it any Effect on Health?’, 43. JCT,‘The Estimation of Nitrites in Drinking Water’, The Lancet, 13/11/1915, pp.1098-1099. Yearbook of Pharmacy, (1890), pp.364-372. 66. J.F.Beale, E.V.Suckling, R.G. Pelly & G.U. Houghton, 44. JCT, Report on the Water Supply to the Village of Writtle, ‘Softening and Sterilisation of River Waters by the (Chelmsford, 1892). 45. JCT,‘Interpretation of the Results Obtained upon the Chemical and Bacteriological Examination of Potable Waters’, The Analyst,Vol. 20, (1895), pp.80-91, 97-111. 46. C. Hamlin, A Science of Impurity:Water Analysis in Nineteenth Century Britain, (Berkeley, California, 1990), pp.289, 300. 47. JCT, Water and Water Supplies, (London, 1896 &1901). 48. JCT, Examination of Waters and Water Supplies, (London, 1904). 49. G.C.Whipple ‘Scientific Books – Examination of Water and Water Supplies’ Science, New Series 05/08/1913, pp.195-196. 50. W.S. Holden (ed), Water treatment and examination; a successor to The exam ination of waters and water supplies, (London, 1970). 51. JCT, A Simple Method of Water Analysis, (London,1897, 1898, 1901, 1903, 1904, 1908, 1912, 1915, 1918); JCT & J.F.Beale, A Simple Method of Water Analysis, (London, 1931).The 5th edition was also translated into French as Une Methode Simple Pour L’Analyse de L’Eau. Specialement Recommandée aux Officiers Medicaux du Service Sanitaire. 52. JCT,‘The Detection of Pollution in Underground Waters, and Methods of Tracing the Source Thereof’, Transactions of the Association of Water Eng ineers, Vol.12, (1908), pp.108-137. 53. J.D. Mather,‘200 Years of British Hydrogeology:An Introduction and Overview, Geological Society Special Publications, No.225, (2004), pp.1-13. 54. W.Whitaker & JCT, Water Supply of Essex, (London, 1916). 55. JCT, Annual Report of the County Medical Officer of Health for Essex for the Year 1915, (Chelmsford, 1916). 56. Anon.‘The Chemical Treatment of Sewage’, BMJ, Fig. 1. Advertisement which appeared in 15/08/1891, p.382 [Third party report of Thresh’s W.J. Simpson The m aintenance of health in the tropics, presentation]. (London, 1916). (Author’s collection.)

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Excess-Lime Process’, Transactions of the Institution of 93. JCT, Housing of the Agric ultural Labourer with Spec ial Water Engineers, (1933), pp.72-88. Reference to the County of Essex, (London, 1919). 67. R.G. Pelly,‘Some Notes on Water Treatment’,Twenty- 94. Public Health Act, 1875 (38 & 39 Vict.Ch.55), s.131 fifth Streatfield Memorial Lecture, (London, 1943). 95. Thresh was instructed by the Maldon Union Rural 68. JCT, Summary of the Reports of the District Medical Sanitary Authority to inspect periodically the hospital Officers of Health in the Adm inistrative County of Essex, tent kept at Godfrey’s, Chelmsford (ERO G/MS2, (Chelmsford, 1902, 1903). 14/01/1890). H & T.C. Godfrey was a firm of local 69. JCT,‘The Influenza Epidemic and the Public Elementary rope and tent manufacturers. Schools, The Lancet, 07/06/1890, pp.1233-1235. 96. Isolation Hospitals Act, 1893 (56 & 57 Vict.Ch.68) s.6. 70. ERO G/MS 2, 03/05/1892. 97. JCT,‘Isolation v Inunction’, The Lancet, 71. JCT & F.A.Dixey with discussion from W.H. Cooper- 04/03/1893, p.496. Pattin, E.F.Trevelyan & F.J.Allan ‘A Discussion on 98. JCT ‘The Provision of Isolation Hospitals:A Report Diptheria in Town and Country’, BMJ, 22/08/1896, Presented the Essex County Council’, The Lancet, pp.433-438 04/04/1896, pp.921-922; originally presented to the 72. JCT,‘Outbreak of Typhoid Fever Traced to Specific Sanitary Committee of Essex County Council, Pollution of a Water-Supply’, The Lancet, 06/03/1897, 05/12/1895. pp.687-688. 99. Report of Sanitary Committee to Essex County Council, 73. JCT & E.R.Walter,‘Report on an Outbreak of 04/01/1898. Typhoid Fever at Shoeburyness Attributed to Eating 100. Ibid., 05/07/1898. Cockles, BMJ, 16/12/1899, pp.1669-1671. 101. JCT,‘Small-Pox Hospitals and the Spread of Infection’, 74. JCT & F.L.Wood,‘Report on an Outbreak of Typhoid The Lancet, 26/04/1902, pp.1172-1175. Fever and Other Illnesses Due to Oysters’, The Lancet, 102. JCT, Annual Report of the Medical Officer of Health to 06/12/1902, pp.1567-1569. Maldon Rur al Distr ic t Co unc il fo r 1903, (Maldon, 1904). 75. Health Protection Agency, Foodborne Illness at the Fat 103. JCT, Report to Essex County Council Sanitary Duck Restaurant, (London, 2009). Committee 11/08/1904. 76. JCT ‘The Hospital Ships of the Metropolitan Asylums 104. JCT,‘The Utility of Isolation Hospitals’, The Lancet, Board and the Dissemination of Small-Pox’, The Lancet, 14/04/1906, pp.1058-1060. 22/02/1902, pp.495-498. 105. JCT, Summary of the Reports of the District Medical 77. M.B.A. Oldstone, Viruses, Plagues, and History: Past, Officers of Health in the Adm inistrative County of Essex Present and Future, (Oxford, 2010), pp.73-74. for the Ye ar 1905, (Chelmsford, 1906), pp.56-79. 78. JCT,‘Report on an Extensive Epidemic of Diarrhoea 106. C.H. Bothamlet,‘Commercial Alkaline Sulphites’, Apparently Due to the Pollution of a Public Water Yearbook of Pharmacy, (1890), pp.354-359. Supply’, BMJ, 26/09/1903, pp.760-762. 107. ERO G/CHS 1/5, Report of Hospital Committee 79. R.C.S.Walters, The Nation’s Water Supply, to Chelmsford Rural District Council 26/03/1895. (London, 1936), p.82. 108. UK Patent No. 4989, 08/03/1895. He subsequently 80. JCT & E.R.Walter,‘An Enquiry into Causes of the obtained patents for the invention in a number of other Excessive Mortality in No. 1 District,Ancoats’, Public countries: Germany,Austria, Cape Colony, Italy, Health,Vol.2, No.17 (Sept 1889), pp.131-139. Belgium, Canada and the USA. 81. S.Wells ‘On National Health’, BMJ, 04/10/1890, 109. R.L.Atenstaedt,‘Trench fever: the British medical pp.771-777. response in the Great War’, Journal of the Royal Society 82. JCT, The Housing of the Working Classes in the of Medicine,Vol.99, No.11, (November 2006), pp.564–8. Chelmsford & Maldon Rural Sanitary Distric ts, 110. JCT & G. Sowden,‘Disinfection of Rooms by Means (Chelmsford, 1891).This was reprinted in Essex Review of Spray’, Journal of the Royal Soc iety for the Promotion [Pers. Comm. Beryl Board]. of Health, (1902),Vol.23 pp.515-526. 83. JCT, Report on the Water Supplies of the Various Villages 111. JCT, Physics, Experimental and Mathematical: in the Chelmsford and Maldon Rural Sanitary Districts, a Handbook for the Physical Laboratory, (London, 1880). (Chelmsford, 1891). 112. JCT, Buxton as a Health Resort, (Buxton, 1883). 84. JCT,‘A Discussion on the Water Supplies of Rural 113. JCT & A.E. Porter, Preservative in Food and Food Communities, BMJ, 08/08/1891, p.311. Examination, (London, 1906). 85. The earliest inclusion of such matters in ERO G/MS 2 114. JCT, Domestic and Personal Hygiene or a Gospel of seems to be on 06/10/1891. Cleanliness, (London, 1920). 86. JCT,‘Rural Housing and Rural By-Laws’, The Times, 115.‘Special Meeting of the Essex Field Club January 31st, 26/11/1904, p.18. 1891’, Essex Naturalist,Vol.5 (1891) p.32. In spite of the 87. Minutes of Evidence Taken Before the Select Committee members’ agreement at this meeting, the merger did on the Public Health Ac ts (Amendment) Bill, not continue. 03/07/1905, Paragraphs 832-982. 116.Anon.‘Death of Dr. J.C.Thresh Former Medical 88. JCT, Report on the Water Supply to the Village of Writtle, Officer for Essex’, Essex Chronicle, 27/05/1932. (Chelmsford, 1892). 117.Will of John Clough Thresh made 15/02/1926, 89. JCT,‘Some Problems in Rural Sanitation’, BMJ, proved 15/07/1932. 04/08/1900, pp.290-291. 118. M.R.S. Creese ‘British Women of the Nineteeth 90. A. Greenwood,‘The Desirability for Reports on the and Early Twentieth Centuries who Contributed to Water Supply of Each County’, The Journal of the Royal Research in the Chemical Sciences’, British Journal for Soc iety for the Promotion of Health,Vol.22, No.4, the History of Sc iences,Vol.24 No.3, (1991), pp.275-305; (October 1901), pp.495-500. M.Thresh ‘The manganiferous nodules in the Boulder- 91. JCT, Water Supply of the County of Essex, clay of Essex’, Essex Naturalist,Vol.12,(1901), pp.137-140; (Chelmsford, c .1901). M. Christy & M.Thresh,‘The Mineral Waters and 92. JCT, Water Supplies in the Rural Districts of Essex, Medicinal Springs of Essex’, Essex Field Club Spec ial (Chelmsford, 1905). Memoirs,Vol IV,(1910).

EssexJOURNAL 53 Samuel Courtauld’s Paternalism in the Halstead Silk Mill by Margarita Stylianou

his article1 discusses that was imposed on the work- manifestations: dependence char- Samuel Courtauld’s force. It is nonetheless possible acterised the relationship between (1793-1881) paternalism to gain some idea of how the the benefactor and the ‘worthy’ T 3 in relation to his silk mill in workers reacted to Courtauld’s poor. The government and Halstead between the years 1825- paternalism by reading the avail- several manufacturers thus became 1881.The main aim of this able sources thoroughly, and also the main agents of paternalism; research is to explore the degree by analysing certain key moments on the one hand, the government to which it was gendered and of interaction between the passed various Acts controlling aimed specifically at shaping the workers and the Courtaulds. child and female labour and behaviour of the female factory The new factory system in rendered them legally protected workers who comprised the nineteenth-century Britain pio- persons, while, on the other hand, majority of the workforce (Plate 1). neered the gathering of a large upper and middle-class manufac- Was Samuel Courtauld motivated number of people under one turers had authority over the lives simply by a desire to secure roof, and under the authority of of their workforce by following the respectability of his female one person, the manufacturer.The a different type of paternalism; workforce or did economic co-existence of male and female they applied rules and regulations considerations also play a role which controlled every branch in his family’s paternalism? of factory life and promoted a Did the Courtauld family’s gender-related segregated work paternalism affect the locality culture. By means of such in a positive way and actions, manufacturers contribute to the social wished to influence amelioration of his and affect the social workforce and the conduct and position locals, as newspapers of their workers.4 of the period suggest? Samuel Courtauld’s And how were the paternalism was of a efforts of Courtauld’s very distinct, often paternalism regarded by inconsistent nature: he, the workforce in general being a Unitarian and and the female workers in member of the local ruling particular? Did they welcome class, espoused a gendered ideology the opportunities offered or were which supported the association they resentful of his attempts to Plate 1 Female workers from of women with the domestic interfere in their lives? the Halstead and Bocking sphere and that of males with the Due the lack of primary mills in the 1850s. public domain. Of course, such sources as far as the workers (Reproduced by courtesy of beliefs were at odds with his being themselves are concerned, this the Essex Record Office, the major employer of females of article is mostly based on the D/DU 1721/2.) the area.Therefore, in order to accounts of the Courtauld family workers of different ages in the reconcile this contradiction, he or those of other respectable factories was something new, adopted a distinctly gendered members of society, such as Miss which challenged the prevalent paternalism in order to control his Mary Merryweather, the teacher social structure which supported female labour force. Of course, of the female workers in the the segregation of the public and there is no way of knowing Factory School. Contemporary domestic sphere and therefore, the whether his gendered paternalism press reports provide us with separation of males and females. was deliberate or if it was an valuable insight but most of these Paternalism was a contemporary inevitable policy since the majority were sympathetic towards the social trend which proposed an of his workforce was made up of Courtauld family and is still a answer to such problems; however, female workers;5 however, it was second-hand account of the it was a policy which lacked a clearly Courtauld’s conscious workforce.The factory records homogeneous form and therefore decision, because female workers are a valuable source because they it was very flexible.2 Paternalism were a cheap labour force. demonstrate the rate of control shared one feature in all its Moreover, his paternalism was

EssexJOURNAL 54 Samuel Courtauld’s Paternalism distinguished by a morality and gave power and control to co-habiting women.15 As far as which was probably influenced male workers.This practice also illegitimacy policy was concerned, by his religious beliefs. He was an ensured that women remained Courtauld used to re-employ adherent of Unitarianism,6 which dependent on male family unmarried women with up to held that religion had the power members and, more importantly, two illegitimate children only.16 to improve people’s lives and defined their work in the mill The motives that would explain philanthropy was one of the roads as something secondary which these policies are not known but leading to people’s advancement.7 should not prevent them from it would not be unfair to argue Therefore, Unitarians were fulfilling their domestic responsi- that behind his ambiguous sense usually active citizens involved bilities as wives and mothers.10 of morality, economic motivations in many social and public matters Furthermore, their low incomes might be hidden. and they used various means did not threaten the concept of In conclusion, Samuel in order to help poor people to the man being the breadwinner Courtauld’s silk mill in Halstead climb up the social ladder.8 With of the family, although it did carried the features of the nine- regard to the Courtauld family, provide a family income teenth-century factories which paternalism and philanthropy supplement. promoted a strictly gender-based functioned as a way of protecting A further restrictive measure labour division and was even more their female workers from anything was imposed on the workforce by strengthened by various policies that affronted public morals and Samuel Courtauld; a set of rules for the regulation of the work ensuring the social advancement and regulations were given to the in the mill.The subordination of their workforce in general. workforce in order to establish of female hands was an essential their duties and rights in the mill; premise of a mill culture which The Halstead Silk Mill, instructions on how to use the devalued women’s working signif- 1825-1881 machinery, rules about lighting icance while at the same time This mill was the first significant and the usage of the kitchen stressing men’s superiority. In this attempt of Courtauld to set up a during meal times were made way, not only were patriarchal firm in the silk industry (Map 1). known to the workers as soon stereotypes reinforced within the In 1825, the mill started operating as they entered the mill.11 factory but in the locality as well, under favourable conditions in Furthermore, a system of fines since Courtauld’s mills were the Essex when silk manufacture and rewards was used for the greatest source of employment in was flourishing and soon gave discipline and the maintenance the area, especially for the female immense profits to Courtauld. of the workers’ productivity.12 By population of Essex. The Halstead mill bore many and large, despite the fact that of the features that characterised these rules applied to the whole The Development of Samuel the silk manufacture of the nine- workforce, women were more Courtauld’s Paternalism in teenth century; female workers likely to be fined than men Halstead Mill, 1825-1881 formed the majority of the work- because they were under stricter As soon as he was well established force, they also occupied the control and constant surveillance. in the silk industry, Courtauld least prestigious and lowest paid Suffice it to say that women applied his paternalistic ideas. positions and were supervised by who were caught stealing were From 1847 onwards, and after the male overseers.Although there dismissed at once, but only foundation of the evening school were few female workers who women were fired on these in Halstead, ten years of intensive possessed higher-status positions grounds precisely because only and systematic attempt to advance such as overseers or gauze exam- women (and not men) were the life of his workforce followed; iners,9 their ‘power’ was strictly checked before leaving the he established various organisations confined to overseeing other factory.13 Furthermore, in this in the area of Halstead, where his women or younger persons only. framework, Courtauld adopted biggest factory was, and the On the other hand, the few men an unusual policy regarding the decade was marked as the period that did work in the mill held re-employment of women. when Courtauld’s paternalism had higher and better paid positions Despite the fact that he almost reached its peak.17 Matters such as and they were assigned tasks always re-employed his female education, health, and recreation based on the scale of the labour workers who occasionally were quite important for Samuel hierarchy.The mill machinery abandoned their work because and his wife, Ellen, and they soon attendants exceeded the wage of of marriage, childrearing or other determined to address these issues. the majority of women almost domestic responsibilities,14 he also In this context, they came into by 50%, while the male overseers re-employed women who were contact with Miss Merryweather, earned three or even four times dismissed on the grounds of poor an educated single middle-class as much. By promoting an unfair performance, bad language or woman who lived in London and labour division based on gender, immoral lifestyle as in the case had a salaried white-collar job.18 Courtauld maintained the of unmarried women with In Halstead, she came as a ‘social customary patriarchal conventions illegitimate children or single worker’ to help the Courtaulds in

EssexJOURNAL 55 Samuel Courtauld’s Paternalism

their venture to improve the In this context, the Factory Evening parties and teas were status of their workers.19 Thus, Home was established in also organised and ‘the most Courtauld set up among other November 1849 in the southern respectable and deserving’ of the institutions, a Factory School, a part of Halstead approximately workers were invited to attend.As Factory Home and a Nursery in five minutes walk from the far as the parties are concerned, Halstead.The majority of these factory. It was a large residence Miss Merryweather noted that organisations mostly addressed with spacious rooms, gardens and great effort was made to familiarise female workers, although the stables.There were eight bedrooms the girls with ‘higher tastes’ in Penny Bank, the Halstead with two to five beds each, a music, dance and manners and Friendly Society, the Mechanics large sitting-room and a spacious limit what they considered to be Institute and the New Benefit dining room.A middle-aged ‘vulgar’; an attempt which was Society were designated for the woman was employed as the supported by Ellen Courtauld and male workers.20 If the Factory servant of the home and she other ladies and gentlemen who Home and the Nursery are was called a ‘housekeeper’; were frequently present.The latter looked at in detail they provide a she stayed in the house as well. usually noticed the improvement good basis for the presentation of Miss Merryweather offered her in the habits and manners of Courtauld’s gendered paternalism valuable help in setting up the these young people. However, and the reaction of the female house and she was actually in the Factory Home did not last workers towards it, while also charge of its orderly running and long and in 1856 it was closed demonstrating the first strike in the maintenance of order. She down because of limited demand; the mill, in May 1860.21 lived in the Factory Home, too. during the seven years of its Every lodger was expected to operation there were 67 lodgers The Factory Home22 pay one shilling a week, washing and the majority of them left the The morals of the female workers included, and two more pence home after only a short period. of the factory were an important which was kept as insurance, until In any case, this well inten- matter for Courtauld; he paid such the amount of five shillings was tioned attempt of Courtauld close attention to this aspect that collected, to pay for their rent in to offer respectable lodgings to chastity and propriety served as case of illness.This policy was met young single female workers did criteria for their employment.As it with intense opposition and in not have the response he expected has been pointed out, the majority fact few of the lodgers paid this either from the factory girls or of the female workers in the amount.A number of rules were the working-class townspeople. factory were young single women also given to the lodgers and a This might have been due to the who came not just from Halstead printed copy was posted on the fact that the girls felt that their but from other, distant areas as well; dining room; the rules covered employers tried to exercise too as a result, these girls usually stayed many matters such as the hours much control over their lives in lodgings with relatives or during which entrance into the and their daily habits by strictly strangers while working. house or bedrooms was allowed; regulating life in the home and Contemporaries were really the responsibility of the girls to by imposing on them a way of sceptical about the conditions in keep their rooms orderly as well life which was alien to them. these lodgings since there were as regulations about food prepara- Through these actions, Courtauld many reports of abuse and tion. Moreover, the girls were tried to contribute to the social sexual harassment. Such worries expected to show exemplary improvement of his female work- preoccupied Samuel and Ellen behaviour, use decent language force by familiarising them with Courtauld who decided to and follow the sanitary laws of middle-class habits and tastes that establish a ‘safe’ place where their the house. Failure to obey these would ‘refine’ them while at the young single female workers of rules would result in the expulsion same time inculcating in them ‘good character’ could reside; of the girls. Of course, extreme the idea of what he considered of course, young single women suppression often brings adverse to be the proper type of womanly with illegitimate children were results.The girls expressed their behaviour. However, the fact that explicitly excluded. Naturally, the indignation and discontent relatively few girls chose to live in majority of the working-class because control was suffocating the Factory Home and resented locals who earned some money and on several occasions they its constraints is evidence to by means of renting out accom- burnt copies of the rules.The suggest that Courtauld’s modation to factory girls were most frequent reason for which ‘improving’ politics were opposed to this venture because girls were expelled, however, was not welcome. it signified less business for them. violation of the time limitations. As a result, their dislike of this What is more, the Factory Infant Nursery23 venture seems to have had some Home operated as a place for Among the many social evils appeal because many girls decided education and recreation, not often cited (and condemned) to reject the new lodging oppor- only for the lodgers but for other by contemporaries was the high tunity that was given to them. girls who often came to visit. rate of infant mortality in the

EssexJOURNAL 56 Samuel Courtauld’s Paternalism industrial areas because working mothers were said to ‘neglect’ their children to go out to work. Long before industrialisation, it was a common practice for working mothers either to leave their babies to an old baby-minder in the neighbourhood or to employ a little girl of seven or eight years of age to take care of their children. It was also not unusual for mothers to use drugs which induced sleep so the infants would sleep through their mothers’ absence.This reality was by no means unknown in Halstead, and in December 1850 a Nursery for the benefit of working mothers was set up. The Nursery aimed at infants from one month to children of two years of age; it was at the service of the married women of the factory, while the single working mothers with illegitimate children were excluded. However, the mothers had to abide by a set of rules in order for their children to be accepted into the nursery; the rules held that the children Map 1. Extract from 1st Ed 25” Ordnance Survey map, sheet 17-9, should be clean, vaccinated and of Halstead showing the Silk Mill and various Chapels. in good health and the mothers (Reproduced by courtesy of the Essex Record Office.) should pay four pence for this the children every morning the nursery cost four pence a service every time they took when they were brought in by day for child care; thus, using the their children to the nursery. their mothers, something which nursery every working day cost Miss Merryweather and Mrs the mothers thought unnecessary; working mothers with one child Courtauld personally undertook they often criticised this tactic. two shillings per week, while the operation of the nursery and Also, mothers had objections to a baby-minder only cost one the care of the children.The the food that was provided, as shilling and six pence. In any case, nursery provided cradles, food they thought it was insufficient the establishment of the nursery and extra linen and clothes in for their children. for married mothers was contra- case the mother did not bring Three years later, in September dictory to Courtauld’s domestic some, not because of neglect but 1853, the spread of bronchitis ideology; it was a paradox that a presumably because they did not among the children in the man who believed that women, have any. nursery served as an excuse for especially married ones, should In the beginning, working the mothers to stop taking their be in the house, promoted their mothers responded positively to children there; hence, the closure employment by providing them this venture and soon the nursery of the nursery was unavoidable.24 with organisations, such as had to be moved to a larger As a result, another attempt of nurseries, which would help building near the factory which the Courtaulds to help their them fulfil their duties as mothers. was bought for this reason. Quite workforce ended ignominiously. Nevertheless, it could also be often, when they had time to In the case of the nursery, on claimed that since economic spare, the mothers were invited to the one hand it was perhaps conditions made the employment assist in the care of their children the differences in child rearing of married women a necessity, so as to gain some more knowl- between working-class mothers Samuel Courtauld encouraged edge. On these occasions though, and middle-class women that did it in a framework which did not tensions arose because the mothers not permit this venture to prosper overlook their roles as wives and often disagreed with the way the as well as because of the practical mothers and which also aimed cleaning and feeding of their difficulties of carrying an infant to teach them how to be better babies was done. For example, a from home to work every wives and mothers, at least policy of the nursery was to wash morning. On the other hand, according to middle-class ideals.

EssexJOURNAL 57 Samuel Courtauld’s Paternalism

women, did not comply and as a result, on 21st May, Courtauld sent another letter in which he said that he was determined not only to close the factory for another week, if they still refused to comply, but he would also transfer his establishments to another locality.What is more, he dismissed around 20 to 50 of the most fierce dissenters during this event.27 The determination of Courtauld in the confrontation with the workers in the first strike had negative results in the attempt of female workers to improve their wages.Additionally, the lack of a trade union among the workforce and the divisions amongst the workers resulted in a debacle. Courtauld retained the upper hand in terms of industrial relations in the Halstead factory. However, the strike of May 1860 was the only event which disturbed the good relationship between employers and employees between the years 1825-1881, namely during Courtauld’s life and management of the factory.

Conclusion Resentment was not only har- boured owing to matters of work. Earlier in this article we discussed some of Courtauld’s attempts to Fig. 1. Courtauld’s notice to his weavers during the strike of May 1860. help the social improvement of (Reproduced by courtesy of the Essex Record Office, D/F 3/2/103.) his workforce through various Resistance Another incident along the institutes and services; he failed Despite the fact that Courtauld’s same lines occurred in May 1860;26 precisely because of the lack of paternalism and benevolence was for certain tasks at the mill, the enthusiasm of the workers for acknowledged by his workers, engines used greater power and these projects, and especially for the latter did not hesitate to speeded up the looms; thus, more those projects clearly predestined oppose his plans or to express work was done in less time.This for women, like the Factory Home their dissatisfaction in cases where resulted in a decision to reduce and the Infant Nursery. In the first they felt that their interests were the wages and a disappointed case, women could not tolerate jeopardised.Already from the workforce responded with a strike; the amount of control over first decade of the operation of approximately 600 workers left their daily lives and they often Halstead factory the introduction and continued on strike for several expressed their indignation either of new machinery in the mill days trying to persuade the rest by leaving the Home shortly after bred dissent in the factory because of the workers to join them. their arrival or by symbolic mani- it was thought that it would Courtauld, who was ill, sent a festations of their anger, such as ‘throw out of employment telegram to the workers asking burning copies of the Home some of the weavers’.25 Although them to return to their posts until rules.Additionally, in the case the workers did not manage he recovered and was able to meet of the nursery, many mothers to stop the introduction of the them.(Fig.1) He also threatened did not approve of some of its machinery, their stance proved to dismiss those who tried to policies in terms of the cleaning that they would not sheepishly influence those who remained at and feeding of the infants.The accept actions that immediately the factory. However, the workers, attempt of Miss Merryweather affected their lives. the majority of whom were and Mrs Courtauld to teach the

EssexJOURNAL 58 Samuel Courtauld’s Paternalism mothers some important sanitary workplace to working-class duty to turn off their gas light rules was not successful and they women whose dire poverty during day time and when they often remarked that ‘what was forced them outside of their finished work in the evening, as done to the nursery was undone ‘proper’ domestic sphere. well as to sort out the materials by the carelessness or ignorance and leave the working space orderly when they finished. of the mothers at home.’28 References 12. Lown, p.16. For instance, workers 1. This article is based on my In conclusion, the gendered were liable to a one-shilling fine MA thesis, Women’s Work and paternalism of Samuel Courtauld in case they left a window open, Paternalism in the Industrial caused, in my opinion, a ‘gendered’ came to work shabbily dressed or Revolution:The Case of the Female resistance; namely, the emphasis did not work as effectively as Weavers in Samuel III Courtauld’s on the protection of the morality expected.Talking, singing and Silk Fac tory in Halstead, 1825- whistling were also forbidden and femininity of the female 881, University of Essex, during work and these practices workers and the effort to classify (September, 2010). were fined one shilling as well. them as an ideal middle-class 2. D. Roberts, Paternalism in Early ERO, D/F 3/2/25, pp.17, 19, 67, model of the ‘angel of the house’ Vic torian England, (London, 1979), 107. Smoking was also prohibited caused indignation on the part p.1. For example, the large number in places where women and of the working-class women.As of male and female workers in children worked and any breach the textile factories of North far as was possible and practical, of the rule was fined three pence; England called for a different working-class women seemed to on the contrary, in men’s work- managerial policy from that have been shrewdly selective in places such as the Mechanics’ employed towards the significantly their dealings with the various Shops, the Dye House and the smaller number of mostly female Courtauld projects and they took Gas House, as well as on the workers in the silk mills of factory premises during meal advantage of what was fitted to Samuel Courtauld in Essex. times, smoking was allowed. their habits and aspirations.Thus, 3. P.Joyce, Work, Society and Politics: Heavier fines of five shillings they attended the evening classes the Culture of the Factory in later were imposed when for example at school and participated in the Victorian England, (Brighton, the workers left an aperture of various social gatherings and tea 1980), p.94; Roberts, p. 3. the gas pipes open or if they parties, while they were much less 4. Joyce, p.xxi. blocked them with pale. 5. J. Lown, Gender and Class during enthusiastic about using services D.C. Coleman, Courtaulds: Industrialisation: a Study of the which they thought were opposed An Economic and Soc ial History, Halstead Silk Industry in Essex, to their habits. On the other (Oxford, 1969), p.251.Additionally, 1825-1900, (Colchester, 1983), hand, as far as the male workers frequent tardiness had negative p.208. In 1861 there were 901 were concerned, Courtauld’s consequences; latecomers were female workers and only 114 not allowed to work until the paternalism did not try to exert male workers. next meal or the next day; this such strict control over their lives 6. F.A.Christie,‘Unitarianism’, The policy was much stricter than as in the case of the female American Journal of Theology, fines. On the other hand, the workers. Of course, Courtauld 21:4 (1917), pp. 556 -557. industrious and disciplined tried to inculcate in them Unitarianism was a sect which workers were rewarded with middle-class ideas and decorum, had its roots in Protestantism overtime payments, and free beer and spread across Britain during (for example, through the lectures in the case of men.There was also the seventeenth and eighteenth in the Factory and Mechanics a three pence bonus per packet of centuries. Institutes) but his ‘male’ paternalism silk crape if the end product was 7. D.W. Howe, The Unitarian did not have any moral nuance of excellent quality. Conscience: Harvard Moral nor did it intervene in more 13. Lown, p.375. Philosophy, 1805-1861, 14. Ibid., p.246. Marriage was personal matters such as their (Cambridge, Mass., 1970), accountable for 18% of the cases moral standards or their duties pp.238-239, 241. For Unitarians, in which women left the mill, as husbands and fathers.Thus philanthropy was ‘a path of while childbirth and ‘staying at demonstrating Samuel Courtauld’s virtue’, a spiritual action which home’ only 8.3%. Moving away paternalistic policies it becomes benefited both the benefactor and and domestic service reached obvious that, in spite of carrying the beneficiary. However, they 10.7 and 12.2 % respectively. were opposed to charity because, many features of nineteenth- 15. Some examples are: according to their philosophy, century paternalism, it was ERO, D/F 3/3/2, Register of it could lead poor people to distinctly gendered.The real weavers employed, 1830-84: ‘negligence’,‘idleness’, motives behind his tactics will Sarah Newton was dismissed in and ‘improvidence’. probably never be known. It 1853 because of bad language but 8. Christie, pp.566-567. she was re-employed some could be assumed that by this 9. Lown, p.208. months later. She was dismissed policy he tried on the one hand 10. Ibid., pp.224, 208, 212, 70. for the same reason in May, 1855 to serve his economic interests 11. Essex Record Office (ERO), and was re-employed in January, by employing a cheap labour D/F 3/2/25, Drafts and copies of 1857. She finally left because she force and on the other, he offered rules and instruction to staff, p.39. got married in June 1863; an enticingly ‘moral’,‘safe’ Based on the rules, it was their

EssexJOURNAL 59 Samuel Courtauld’s Paternalism

D/F 3/3/5, Register of winders Factory Hands’. She arrived in 24. According to Miss Merryweather, and redrawers employed, 1830- Halstead in early November 1847 despite the appreciation of several 1918: Charlotte Barker was to set up a school for factory girls mothers for this service, the dismissed in September, 1868 but during her stay she was nursery never accommodated because she stole leftover fabric involved in many philanthropic more than 15 children at one but was re-employed in July activities alongside Samuel and time, since many mothers pre- 1875; D/F 3/3/6, Register of Ellen Courtauld. Merryweather, ferred to leave their children at weavers employed, 1833-1908: pp. ii, 77. She also kept notes home with a young baby-minder Marianne Edward was dismissed regarding the conditions in the instead of exposing them every in April 1841 owing to her factory and the locality in general morning to the cold weather. cohabitation with a man but in and on the improvement of However, Ellen Courtauld aspired 1861 she was re-employed. female workers during her to re-open the nursery in the 16. Some examples of this policy are: mission, which she later published. event of satisfactory demand. ERO, D/F 3/3/6: Eliza Bae was The idea of publishing an account Ibid., pp.54-55. dismissed because of having a of her experience at Courtauld’s 25. Essex Independent, November, second illegitimate child; mill aimed to show to the public 1836.As cited in A.F.J. Brown, D/F 3/3/6: Sarah Sargent was that if manufacturers and philan- English History from Essex dismissed in 1870 because she thropists were actively involved in Sources, 1750-1900, (Chelmsford, bore her second illegitimate the improvement of their workers’ 1952), p. 11. child. Some examples of lives, they could contribute to 26. For more information see The unmarried mothers with two the decline of the widespread Essex Standard, 25/05/1860 & illegitimate children: D/F 3/3/6: wretchedness among factory- ERO, D/F 3/2/103, Papers con- Elizabeth Argent left willingly in workers.As a result, her invaluable cerning labour, 1860-1909. 1871 because of a second account proves to be a good 27. Although the latter were illegitimate child but she was source of information regarding dismissed, they were eventually re-employed in the firm some the paternalistic and philanthropic re-employed. ERO, D/F 3/3/7, years later. Emma Newman was action of Samuel Ellen Courtauld Register of twisters, warpers and dismissed in June, 1873, for a as well as the effects of these plug winders employed, 1840- second illegitimate but she was policies upon the female workers. 1919.An example of this is the re-employed in September, 1875. Moreover, she offers a good case of Marianne Crawfield who 17. M. Merryweather, Experience description of the educational, was dismissed during this strike of Factory Life: being a record health and recreational standards but she was re-employed later; of fourteen years’ work at which the factory workers enjoy- in 1864, she is recorded in the Mr. Courtauld’s Silk Mill at ed. Of course, the information Register of Employees as weaver Halstead, in Essex,(London, 1862), is given through her personal number 399. p.73. perspective which was definitely 28. Merryweather, p.54. 18. L. Davidoff & C. Hall, Family affected by her social status; there Fortunes: men and women of the might also be a touch of exagger- Acknowledgements English middle class, 1780-1850, ation on her behalf, in order (London, 1987), p.306. to present herself as a capable I owe a great debt of gratitude to In the 1851 local census, Miss teacher. Essentially, the information my supervisor at the University of Merryweather was recorded as a about the Courtaulds might have Essex, Dr Alison Rowlands, for ‘Moral Missionary Amongst also been given in the most her assistance and helpful com- positive light possible. ments during the development 19. Ibid., p.306. and writing of my MA and this 20. Lown, p.443. subsequent article. I also wish to 21. The selection of these institutions thank the Friends of Historic and the strike mostly aim to show Essex Fellowship for helping to Courtauld’s gendered paternalism funding this research. and the female resistance towards this policy and do not try to blacken the effect of Courtauld’s The Author paternalism. Contrary to the Margarita Stylianou’s first degree failure of the Factory Home and was in History and Archaeology the Nursery, the Factory School which she studied at the and the Amusement society were Kapodistrian University of Athens quite successful among the female and undertook her MA in workforce which positively made Cultural and Social History at the Fig 2. Comments on Mrs Tyler’s use of them. University of Essex.After submit- application for work, 22. For more information about the September 25th 1873: Factory Home and its operation ting her dissertation thesis, she ‘A very respectable woman + see Merryweather, pp.43-50, spent a year in Italy where she very suitable for light work.’ 60-64. studied the language and worked (Reproduced by courtesy of the 23. For more information about the as a teacher in a private secondary Essex Record Office, Nursery see Merryweather, pp.11, school. She is currently living and D/F 3/2/24.) 50-55, 86-87. teaching in Cyprus.

EssexJOURNAL 60 Front-Line County: Essex and the Blitz 1940-1941 by Paul Rusiecki

he years 2010 and 2011 Port of London but as many broken windows hampered civil mark the 70th anniversary boroughs in Metropolitan Essex defence vehicles and an appeal was Tof the Blitz, an event were adjacent to or near the made to other local authorities which has assumed iconic status Thames, and as bomb-aiming was for mechanical sweepers.The fire in the history of the Second not an exact science, a large area brigades of Dagenham, Barking, World War and in the historical of south-east Essex was hit. East and East and West Ham all called memory of the British people. and West Ham were severely for aid and by 8pm over 500 The geographical local of Essex bombed but every local authority pumps had arrived from other made sure that that it was in in metropolitan Essex was also hit. areas.4 the front line of the German High-explosive and incendiary The raiders left by 6.30pm but onslaught. Chronologically the bombs began to fall at 5.35pm, a new wave of bombers, guided Blitz occurred over a period of and this continued unabated for by the immense fires, arrived two nine months from the beginning 90 minutes causing widespread hours later.Wave after wave of of September 1940 to mid-May devastation.The first bombs fell aircraft came over until 5am the 1941.This article will examine on the Ford works at Dagenham. next morning, dropping tons of the impact that these raids had A few minutes later St Mary’s high explosives, oil bombs and on Essex. Hospital in Stratford received a incendiaries into the inferno Air raids began in July and direct hit.The oil storage tanks at below. By then there were nine August with 'tip-and-run' coastal Thameshaven near Tilbury had major conflagrations, 19 large attacks by solitary or small numbers been set alight on 6th September fires and hundreds of smaller ones of German aircraft, light and and were now bombed again.The raging across the area. Molten tar widespread bombing of inland fires burned for days and sent from a Silvertown factory trapped towns and armed reconnaissance smoke up to a height of 10,000 fire engines, ambulances and civil flights.The tempo of raids feet.The Anglo-American Oil defence vehicles in its sticky wake. increased in early September. Works at Purfleet were attacked for Burning barges drifted down the Tilbury was extensively bombed an hour and 600 firemen fought Thames before floating back with on 1st-2nd September and from the huge blazes which resulted. the incoming tide. Several ships in 5th September the Thurrock 200 firemen were overcome by the docks were hit and set ablaze. riverside area was constantly fumes and one of them and five The solitary escape route from attacked, causing extensive fires employees were killed.3 Silvertown, Silvertown was cut during the along the oil wharves which a crowded working class area of second raid and the river was required fire brigades to be West Ham with a population of used to evacuate civilians trapped called in from as far away as some 13,000 people crammed into between the dock fires and the the Midlands.1 This was a direct a square mile, full of slums and blazing factories. Beckton Gas consequence of an RAF raid on factories, was reduced to a blazing Works in East Ham, the largest Berlin on 25th August. Hitler, inferno. By 19.48pm there were of its kind in Europe, which sup- who had boasted that German only two factories left intact. Road plied central London, received soil was invulnerable to air attack, communications were reduced to direct hits by high-explosive and had been incensed by this raid a single line along Silvertown Way. incendiary bombs and blazed and on 5th September he ordered Water mains were smashed and ferociously. Parts of Metropolitan London to be bombed as the first supplies were polluted by sewage. Essex had no gas supply for three part of a campaign to raze Britain’s Public utilities – gas, electricity, weeks. East Ham’s shopping area cities to the ground as well as and particularly water – were was devastated and there were forcing RAF Fighter Command severely damaged, which caused countless numbers of streets closed to oppose all German raids. problems for the fire services by falling buildings. Railway lines On Saturday 7th September which were faced with huge were hit including the large mar- 1940 the sirens sounded across numbers of fires. Fire brigades shalling yards at Temple Mills.At the metropolitan area on a clear had to erect static canvas water West Ham the situation was so blue evening sky at 4.57pm as tanks filled from water tankers. desperate that rescue services 364 bombers, accompanied by Damage to electric cables was so attempting to enter the borough 515 fighters, in close formation severe that fire officers worked at 2am had to return home as and at a great height approached using candles placed in jam jars. they were unable to penetrate London.2 Their target was the The massive amount of glass from the fires and general devastation.

EssexJOURNAL 61 Essex and the Blitz 1940-1941

Unexploded bombs – at this stage were intensified because British them.11 Buses managed to reach a largely unforeseen problem – people believed that by contrast, the devastated areas on 8th aggravated the situation.5 At RAF raids only targeted military September but when the raids West Ham the fires of 7th-8th objectives. 'This may be war, but began on the previous day an September were still burning it is not the British way of waging unofficial exodus out of West three days later. it' contended the Burnham Ham and nearby boroughs had After this devastating attack Advertiser.7 The raids left people already begun, even though there the Germans established a clear in no doubt about the purpose were no reception arrangements pattern for their raiding. Daylight behind them.The same newspaper set up for them. Most headed away raids over Metropolitan Essex noted that 'Their one and only from the horror surrounding them, became something of a rarity as object is to strike terror into the eastwards into Essex or northwards RAF Fighter Command continued hearts of our civilian population into Epping Forest. In the next to oppose Luftwaffe raids in large in the hope that our Government few days some were gradually numbers.The Germans, in an will be driven to open negotiations rounded up and dispersed locally. attempt to reduce their losses, with upstart rulers, who will flinch Chingford accommodated the switched to bombing at night. at no atrocity which they think greatest number - 7,000 refugees However, night raids, which most will serve their ends.'8 by 12th September. Over 400 people now identify as the key At first it was feelings of pro- refugees had arrived in Maldon feature of the Blitz, were sustained found shock, fear and confusion by early October. Everything they over a very long period (Fig. 1). which manifested themselves in possessed had been destroyed and Along with the capital, Essex was the wake of the raids.This was their ration books and identity attacked for 57 consecutive nights perhaps only to be expected as cards were all they possessed.12 up to 2nd-3rd November. Even the horrors which had been seen The disquiet at the scale of the after that the Luftwaffe returned on cinema screens for so long early raids was heightened by the to bomb on 35 of the next 50 finally became a grim reality.This fact that the fires which burnt nights up to Christmas Eve. was particularly the case in those created an eerie red glow which Thirteen of these raids can be metropolitan boroughs which bore could be seen on the skyline categorised as heavy but none the brunt of the early raids, throughout much of south and were on the scale of 7th-8th especially West Ham. Here the west Essex. Second hand reports September. However, from somewhat moribund ruling Labour of the devastation were no less about November the Luftwaffe’s council had not proved dynamic terrifying. Margery Allingham, the concentration on other cities in the provision of air raid shelters, famous crime writer who lived at combined with adverse weather which were not made habitable for Tolleshunt D’Arcy, sent two men conditions saw a marked reduction months after the Blitz began, nor to deliver furniture to a house in raids and after a brief return in civil defence matters generally. near the British Museum shortly of raiding in March 1941 they Lingering pacifist sentiments meant after the 7th September raid.What virtually died away in the spring. that Air Raid Precaution (ARP) they witnessed on their journeys Only on three occasions, 18th- arrangements had been entered through east London affected them 19th March, 17th –18th April and into reluctantly and without profoundly. 'Their horror was far 10th-11th May was there a return conviction.9 On 7th September more impressive to us than any to heavy raiding. Ironically after in Canning Town, thousands of mere recital on the wireless, months of attacks the raid of people, many of them women or even the photos in the news- 18th-19th March was the heaviest and children, crowded into inade- papers', she said, 'I looked petrified that the county as a whole quately protected buildings.About for days.'13 There was certainly a experienced during the whole a thousand were crammed into a feeling that London’s defences of the Blitz. Essex outside of the public shelter in Oriental Road, had proved to be inadequate. Eric Metropolitan area was also subject most of them described by the Rudsdale, a curator at Colchester to the same relentless raiding authorities as suffering from Castle wrote, 'The extraordinary pattern, and there was hardly a 'bomb-shock', not helped by the thing is, why did the Germans town or village which did not fact that huge fires were blazing wait so long? If it is as easy as this, experience at least one ‘incident.’ around them.10 Evacuation buses why did they not bomb London How did the people of Essex were unable to reach Silvertown a year ago? Even more harm respond to the Blitz? There was and many residents spent the could have been done.'14 widespread anger at this indis- night exposed on open ground. The onset of the Blitz added criminate bombing. 'Goering’s Hundreds sheltered under the a new intensity to the ongoing air murderers' was how one news- open arches of a railway viaduct debate about shelter provision paper described the Luftwaffe, cared for by civil defence officials throughout the county, which in arguing that its work was 'on a par acting in an unofficial capacity. many areas was considered to be at with the snapping and snarling of They provided hot food and drinks best inadequate and at worst non- a mad dog, or the vicious biting and tried to ease the feeling that existent.The belief that nowhere of a cornered rat.'6 Such feelings the borough had abandoned was safe from attack, not even rural

EssexJOURNAL 62 Essex and the Blitz 1940-1941

Essex, provoked a flurry of protests at what was seen as the dilatoriness of the authorities. For people caught in the open during a raid theWoodford Times advised people to 'Keep calm, make use of the best protection near at hand, and above all lie flat on the ground… Lie flat, face downwards, support- ing the head on folded arms, keeping the chest just off the ground, to avoid the earth shock of an explosion.'15 However, for most people more substantial provision was required. In urban areas there were renewals of demands for deep underground shelters which had already been rejected by the Government before the war, Colchester Borough Council rejecting them in 1939 on the grounds that the area’s geology made the cost pro- hibitive. In Chelmsford a Citizen’s Air Raid Shelter Committee was formed and buttressed by a petition of over 5,000 residents it demanded the immediate erection of bomb- proof shelters for all residents. However, although a deputation was seen by the council it rejected their demand.The council argued that it had already provided public shelters for 10% of the population (about 3,000 people), which met the government’s requirement. It also reasoned that the provision of deep shelters would contravene Government policy, which was to disperse the population rather than concentrate it in large shelters, hence the distribution of Anderson shelters.16 At Ongar a councillor asserted that 'we must vigorously protect and fight for the rights of the people.' Another demanded that public shelter provision be increased to 25 or 30% of the Fig. 1. This report covering raids of 21-22/09/1940, has several key population.Throughout the features. Firstly the length of time between the alert and the all-clear county numbers of parents were suggests that many residents may well have spent almost 11 hours in not sending their children to their shelters. This was not unusual during raids in 1940-41. Secondly, school because there were no although this page does not include all the UDCs and boroughs in shelters. In most small villages, Group 7, only two, Leyton and Waltham Holy Cross, escaped damage. This too was not uncommon. Thirdly, the widespread use of IBs shelters, not even school shelters, (incendiary bombs) caused enormous damage, in this case in Ilford. had been erected because they Fourthly, para(chute) mines had a devastating impact. Only hours were not in areas considered vul- before this alert began four members of a Bomb Disposal Squad nerable.After 7th September this were killed at Dagenham when a para mine they were trying to was not the view of residents and disarm exploded. Also note the report of unexploded anti-aircraft parents. Runwell Parish Council shells fired by defending guns - yet another hazard. and the Ratepayers’Association (Reproduced by courtesy of the Essex Record Office, C/W 2/3/2.)

EssexJOURNAL 63 Essex and the Blitz 1940-1941

applied for shelters and sent a 200 send their children to school until Chelmsford the authorities reacted strong petition to the Home Office a shelter was provided.' One angry defensively by attempting to smear to support their case. Its protests councillor from Saffron Walden, shelter campaigners, by claiming got them nowhere.When they Stanley Wilson, addressed the that they had been infiltrated appealed to Chelmsford Rural meeting and said, 'Rich people by Communist agitators.18 District Council they were told have been wise.They have built Eventually shelter provision that they were no more vulnerable shelters for their children, but I was extended in both urban and than anywhere else.A public want shelters for all children, rich rural areas. In July 1940 a meeting meeting in the village of Bardfield and poor.'17 Local authorities in of all local authorities in Essex unanimously passed a resolution Essex responded very sensitively urged the planning of domestic criticising Braintree Rural District to the demand for shelters because shelters along lines laid down by Council (RDC) for its failure to they saw it as an implied criticism the Home Office.This was partic- provide a school shelter.A news- of their wartime policies, especially ularly the case where parts of the paper report noted that 'Several their competence in protecting population lived in the vicinity of mothers made indignant speeches, local residents. It is not surprising factories or other likely enemy and declared that they would not that in West Ham, Leyton and targets.19 Chelmsford Borough

EssexJOURNAL 64 Essex and the Blitz 1940-1941

Map 1. This map shows those houses, marked in red, that were to be demolished due to extensive bomb damage. It demonstrated that parts of West Ham, subject to incessant air raids in the autumn and winter of 1940-41, had practically no habitable buildings left. Parts of the borough, like this one, became virtual ghost towns. (Reproduced by courtesy of the Essex Record Office, C/W 4/36.) Council took such steps for all more enemy aircraft were being quickly set in as everyone accu- houses within a 250-yard radius destroyed than was actually the mulated their own typical stories of the Crompton Parkinson, case. So too did the surprising of the Blitz.21 The ability of Hoffmann and Marconi works. realisation that casualties were far people to adapt to the Blitz was The houses in these 22 streets fewer than the dire predictions actually helped by the largely were strengthened by the building of the previous 20 years. People predictable nature of German air of blast walls and 219 six-person carried on with their lives, raids.The sirens signalling the type communal shelters.20 accepting as normal the unusual approach of the enemy usually Nevertheless people soon began nature of their changed circum- sounded at about 8pm, which to adjust to the Blitz. Morale was stances.As Margery Allingham meant that most people had had helped by official reports that noted, the idea of 'bomb-bore' time to return from work, have

EssexJOURNAL 65 Essex and the Blitz 1940-1941

own homes.At Billericay for weaving (by choice). Others acted instance, a council survey revealed classroom plays and the younger that although there was shelter children read their story books accommodation for 2,443 people, and played games. Fortunately we only 384 were sleeping in them were able to provide light refresh- overnight.23 Mary Hoodless of ments – milk, biscuits and barley Hornchurch went to the Anderson sugar.'28 At East Hanningfield on shelter at first but then stayed in the night of 5th-6th September, the house.The shelter gave her seven high explosive bombs fell terrible back ache and leg pains, within 150 yards of the school; Plate 1. In what should be and on one occasion a bomb blast unsurprisingly there were only 10 a normal family photo, Mrs made her neighbour’s nose bleed children present the next day.29 Young, wife of Mr Arnold Young for two days. Her diary records Just how successful was the of Arnold & Co. of Chelmsford, the misery of the incessant noise Blitz? The first impact of intensive holds her daughter Marion in the garden of their house, from the sirens, guns, bomb-blasts bombing shocked people to the 24 'Greystones' on Main Road, and shrapnel. Helena Britton core, especially in those areas of Broomfield. In the background from Walthamstow told her Metropolitan Essex which bore the a wall of sandbags have been daughter in America, 'It’s about brunt of it.As one commentator placed to protect their French nine weeks now since dad and I wrote 'it was more than bricks doors from bomb blasts. c.1940. undressed to go to bed…We and mortar that collapsed in West (Photo courtesy of made it [the shelter] as comfortable Ham on the 7th and 8th of Mrs M. Palmer.) as possible, but we all get so stiff September 1940; it was a local their tea and prepare for the night owing to restricted movement.'25 ordering of society which was ahead before heading to the However in Metropolitan Essex found hopelessly wanting, as weak Anderson shelter or communal thousands of people made the and badly constructed as the shelter.This unchanging routine nightly trek to shelter in under- single brick walls which fell down is typified by this description of ground stations. Conditions were at the blast as though a gigantic those sheltering in Chelmsford’s at first incredibly squalid and local Goering had literally laid his Shire Hall: 'Some come early in authorities were slow to make heavy hand upon them.'30 This the afternoon to stake their claim. them habitable. One of the largest was partly due to the deficiencies Some wheel perambulators con- was the Gainsborough Road already inherent in local society taining crying infants; others carry tunnel, part of an unfinished tube and government, and partly bedclothes.After their night’s sleep, line in Leyton. One observer noted because no amount of planning the ‘shelterers’ depart, and the that ‘The discomfort that comes could have coped with the catas- keepers clear up, ready for the of herding, the stone-covered trophe of that first raid. However, night to come.The same faces floor, the foetid atmosphere, are people recovered and adjusted to will be seen again, in the same nothing compared with the peace the Blitz. From Walthamstow places, and at almost precisely of mind which comes from the Helena Britton wrote, 'Lots of the same hour.'22 security these steel girt chambers people are leaving town…but It is difficult to be precise about hold out.’26 I don’t want to leave our little where people sought shelter.The Children too had to cope with home if it’s possible to stay…you Government had distributed air raids for many had not been mustn’t worry about us, dear.We Anderson shelters because it evacuated or were in reception shall pull through.'31 favoured dispersing the population areas which were not immune The amount of destruction the to keep casualty figures down. from bombing. In September Luftwaffe inflicted was significant However, in many parts of Essex 1940 many schools were closed in but not catastrophic. By the end the nature of the soil meant that order for some form of protection of 1941 6,297 buildings in these shelters were often damp or to be provided.At Chipping Metropolitan Essex had been flooded, and in some parts they Ongar Council School children completely demolished, 80,347 were simply not feasible. Even sheltered in the corridor during were damaged but repairable, and though thousands of them were alerts, there being no other place 74,288 had been slightly damaged provided with concrete floors and of safety, and sang songs.The next (Map 1). Many houses in the third sides they remained unpopular day only 16 children turned up category were only superficially because they were cold, uncom- and they were sent home after the damaged, suffering broken fortable, and above all they did all clear.27 On the whole school- windows, doors and tiles.32 not keep out the racket of teachers and pupils coped Nevertheless thousands of Essex exploding bombs and anti-aircraft admirably. One head teacher residents shared Jessie Grubb’s fire.Very soon people shunned noted that 'The worst air raid of experience when her house was both Anderson shelters and surface the week came today (13th Sept.). damaged by the blast of a land communal shelters, preferring It lasted from 9.30am until 2.10pm. mine. 'All our ceilings and most instead to risk sleeping in their Some of the elder children did of the roof went.All of us safe…

EssexJOURNAL 66 Essex and the Blitz 1940-1941

The staircase had an avalanche of are too many to relate as the indiscriminate raiding did result ceiling down it. I thought ‘This is bombs carried off the great and in greater casualties and damage it!’ Glass fragments right through the humble. On 13th October in Metropolitan Essex because of curtains and hall picture and all in the Mayor of Chelmsford, John its urban nature. However, in the some butter I left on the kitchen Ockleford Thompson, his wife, rest of the county the largely rural table.All windows gone.A hole son and grandchildren were killed landscape precluded successful over Pat’s bed. Good job she when their house suffered a direct bombing on the same scale. wasn’t in it.'33 Many public hit. He had been elected Mayor Here over 37,000 devices – high buildings and utilities had been for a record eighth time only a explosive bombs, incendiaries, oil damaged. By early 1941 four few days earlier.39 Margery bombs and parachute mines – Essex churches had been com- Allingham recorded the profound were dropped, but over a quarter pletely destroyed, 19 seriously impression this made on her. 'The fell harmlessly on agricultural and and 96 slightly damaged.34 Eric complete finality and ruthless waste land, and over 500 fell in Rudsdale visited the remains of completeness of the tragedy rivers and the sea. Unexploded Little Horkesley church near brought most people to an abrupt bombs were a persistent menace Colchester, which had been oblit- halt,' she wrote. 'Life, wife, son, and nuisance with almost 700 erated on 22nd September 1940. grandchildren, house, possessions, needing to be dealt with by late 'The church is a terrible complete all gone as savagely as if a giant November 1940 but the resulting wreck,' he wrote. 'There is no had trodden on them.'40 The traffic obstruction and homeless- shape or form. It is just a vast pile greatest disaster to befall Essex ness were usually of a temporary of rubble, with beams and planks during the Blitz was in West Ham nature.43 sticking out of it like a porcupine’s on 9th September.A large number The Blitz inflicted terror, quills….The scene is one of of people were sheltering in horror, death and destruction incredible destruction.'35 South Hallsville School awaiting upon the people of Essex but on What of the human cost? evacuation buses which never reflection one cannot help but Between 1st September 1940 and came.There was a direct hit and admire the courage, endurance, 11th May 1941 1,906 residents of the building collapsed.The resilience and stoicism displayed Metropolitan Essex had died, authorities claimed that 73 people by them.The disruption to their 3,824 had been hospitalised with had died, including many children, daily lives was enormous; home- serious injuries, and 7,538 slightly but local people were convinced lessness and the loss of all personal injured.The rest of Essex was there had been a cover-up and belongings affected many; the more fortunate with only 303 that nearer 200 had lost their threat of death, injury and fatalities and 1,169 people lives, with over 100 bodies never bereavement was a constant injured.36 However, these stark recovered when the site was presence for nine long months. statistics hide the often horrifying concreted over. Even small However, morale, that vital reality of the Blitz. One woman villages were not immune. Seven element of civilian society in from Walthamstow attempted to people were killed by a bomb at modern warfare, survived in extricate a man trapped under Takeley.Three schoolchildren spite of the destruction and the rubble after a land mine had from Lexden near Colchester, casualties. In this the Blitz was a exploded but his arm came off in evacuated to Rushden in complete failure. It is difficult to her hand.37 In Extra-Metropolitan Northamptonshire, were killed generalise about the collective Essex alone there were direct hits when the school was hit.41 One experience of this event but we on 40 Anderson shelters, which cannot help but be moved by the may perhaps be presumptuous resulted in 115 deaths and 233 pathos of this simple entry made enough to suggest that part of this people injured. One landed on a by the Vicar of St Peter’s, Upton poem, written at the time by shelter in the garden of a terraced Cross: 'Funeral. One unidentified Margaret Fowler of Wickham house in Barking, blowing apart body killed September 1940, Bishop, gets near to it: the bodies of the six family discovered in debris, Mortlock members inside.The torso of one Road, E.16, June 13 1941.'42 What have we seen in Essex? of them landed of the roof of what Nevertheless casualties were far The wreck of houses small, had been their home.An arm was lighter than anyone had expected. The wreck of lovely churches, found with an engagement ring German tactics helped.After the Danbury, Coggleshall; on it belonging to a girl who was first raids in which large numbers Dead cattle on the marshes, due to have been married only a of aircraft were involved, during Deep craters by the lanes, few days later.The rescue van had most of the Blitz it was attacks by And parachutists falling, only one shroud so the body parts small numbers throughout the And flaming aeroplanes. were placed inside potato sacks night, which were much easier for These have we seen, which came from a nearby green- the emergency services to deal but still we go grocer.A dustcart was used to with. It meant that raids went With heads erect transport the remains to the on longer but their impact was and hearts aglow.44 mortuary.38 The personal tragedies scattered over a wider area.Their

EssexJOURNAL 67 Essex and the Blitz 1940-1941

References 19. In the Home Office circular, pp.2-3. 1. Essex Record Office (ERO), 'Your Home as an Air Raid 42. ERO, D/P 593/1/29, Upton C/W 1/6/1, Operational Shelter.' Chelmsford Borough Cross, St Peter, parish register, Summaries, Extra-Metropolitan Council minute, 31/07/1940. 14/06/1941. Essex (EME). EME was that 20. ERO, D/B 7 M2/22/2, Minutes of 43. Collated from police reports in part of the county outside of Special Committees, 05/12/1940. ERO,T/A 679/1, Essex County Metropolitan Essex. 21. Allingham, p.209. Constabulary daily situation 2. J. Gardiner, Wartime: Britain 22. E.C.Ch., 15/11/1940. reports, 03/10/1940–30/04/1945. 1939-1945, (London, 2004), 23. E.C.Ch., 01/11/1940.The survey 44. Essex Review, vol. L, 1941, p.143. pp.338-339. covered Wickford, Billericay, 3. R. Reynolds & J. Catton, Laindon, Pitsea and Windsor Road. Acknowledgements Thurrock Goes To War, (Wickford, 24. W.A.Hoodless, Air Raid:A Diary I would like to offer my sincere 1997), pp.45-47. and Stories from the Essex Blitz, thanks to the staffs of the Essex 4. ERO, C/W 2/3/2,War Diary of (Stroud, 2008), pp.27, 31-35, 42-43. Record Office, Colchester Local Group 7 (London Civil Defence 25. Gardiner, p.349. Morrison table Studies Library, Chelmsford Central Region) Control, 07-08/09/1940. shelters were introduced just as Library, and Stratford Local Studies 5. The events of 7th-8th September the Blitz was stuttering to an Centre for their unfailing cheerful- were recorded in some detail by end in March 1941. ness, helpfulness and efficiency in my the civil defence authorities 26. S.E., 27/09/1940. innumerable research visits responsible for Group 7, that part 27. ERO, E/ML 268/4, logbook, of London’s outer defences which Chipping Ongar County Primary The Author consisted of Metropolitan Essex. School, 02, 03, 04, 23/09/1940. Paul Rusiecki was born and raised in The boroughs and urban districts 28. ERO,T/P 439/1, logbook, Yorkshire and has lived in Colchester which comprised Group 7 were: St Thomas of Canterbury Roman since 1978. He is a History graduate Barking, Chigwell, Chingford, Catholic School, Grays Thurrock, of the University of Sheffield, and Dagenham, East Ham, Ilford, 13/09/1940. completed a PhD at the University Leyton,Walthamstow,Waltham 29. ERO,T/P 450/1-4, logbook, of Essex. Prior to his retirement he Holy Cross,Wanstead,Woodford, East Hanningfield Church of taught history at secondary schools in & West Ham.This record is found England Primary School, London, Suffolk and Colchester. His in ERO, C/W 2/3/2, Operational 06/09/1940. research interests are based in the Report 1939-1945. 30. Idle, pp.6-7. nineteenth and twentieth centuries 6. Essex County Telegraph, 14/09 & 31. Gardiner, p.349. and he is currently writing a book 05/10/1940. 32. ERO, C/W 2/15/1, London Civil on the growth of football in Essex, 7. Burnham Advertiser (B.A.), Defence Region: Repair of War and another on World War Two, pro- 02/05/1942.This was a comment Damage, Dec. 1940 – Dec. 1941. visionally entitled Under Fire: Essex on the so-called Baedeker raids 33. Unpublished diary of Evelyn and the Second World War. of that year but the sentiments Grubb, née Potter, 11/05/1941, expressed were widely held in in the possesion of her daughter, 1940. Mrs Pat Lewis. 8. B.A., 14/09/1940. 34. Essex County Standard, 9. E.D. Idle, War Over West Ham: 18/01/1941. A Study of Community Adjustment, 35. ERO, D/DU 888/23, journal (London, 1943), p.62. entry for 23/09/1940. 10. ERO, C/W 2/3/2, 07-08/09/1940. 36. ERO, C/W 2/4/1, Group 7 11. Idle, pp.49-50. General file & C/W 2/3/2, 12. ERO, C/W 2/3/2, 08/09/1940; Operational report 1939-45. D/B 3/5/36, Maldon Town In addition to this there were Council minute, 14/10/1940. 1,206 casualties in West Ham in 13. M.Allingham, The Oaken Heart, September 1940 which were not (London, 1941), pp.217-218. included in these three categories 14. ERO, D/DU 888/23, E. Rudsdale because of the vagueness of the journal, 08/09/1940. information from the authorities Plate 2. An unknown location 15. Woodford Times, 25/10/1940, in there.The figures for Extra- in East london but a scene of ERO,T/P 2/8/6,Woodford air Metropolitan Essex are calculated devastation that would have raids, newspaper cuttings. from ERO,T/A 679/1, although been a familiar sight for so 16. Essex County Chronicle (E.C.Ch.), the crucial period 7th September many in those areas hit 15/11/1940; ERO, D/B 7 to 1st October 1940 is not by bombs. M2/22/2, Chelmsford Borough included. ((HD-SN-99-02668 Council Special Committees, 37. ERO,T/Z 453/1, Essay by DOD/NARA) Photo of East Domestic Air Raid Shelters J.A. McAnespie [nee Driver]. End of London during the Blitz. Committee, 05/12/1940. 38. Gardiner, p.343. WWII. Author: September 1940. 17. E.C.Ch., 13 & 27/09, 25/10, 39. E.C.Ch., 18/10/1940. New Times Paris Bureau 27/12/1940. 40. Allingham, p.216. Collection. (USIA)) 18. E.C.Ch., 20/12/1940; Stratford 41. L.White, ed, Lexden In Wartime: Express (S.E.), 04/10/1940 & memories of local people, vol 2, 31/1/1941. (Lexden History Group, 2009),

EssexJOURNAL 68 Obituary

John Samuel Appleby (1925-2011)

John Samuel Appleby, who died on 30th August, V & W class destroyers. 2011, was a man of many qualities who made a During the D-Day landings Jmajor contribution to historical work in Essex he was on board a fast patrol and to a range of good causes. boat involved in protecting Born in Colchester on 29th March, 1925, to troop ships crossing the George and Florence Appleby, he was educated Channel. His next posting was at Stockwell Infants, the Bluecoats School and to an escort aircraft carrier, Colchester Royal Grammar School. He was called HMS Nairana participating up for service in the Royal Naval Voluntary Reserve again in both Atlantic and in 1943 and rose to the rank of sub-lieutenant. Arctic convoys. From these John served on many ships, his first was cool northern climes he was HMS Wivern escorting Arctic convoys to Russia then posted to the Far East before moving to HMS Vivien.These were both on classified operations in preparation for the invasion John, below, in c.1944 and, right, in 2010, of Japanese-held Malaysia, (By courtesy of Roger Appleby.) which was never needed. Following demobilisation, in 1947, he trained and then worked as a teacher in Essex schools and was appointed Headteacher at Gt Horkesley C of E Primary School in 1969, finally retiring in 1986. Outside his teaching duties, he ran a small printing business and became an Anglican lay reader, establishing a reputation as a preacher and pastoral worker in north-east Essex and at St Helena Hospice in Colchester. He became honorary secretary of the V & W Destroyers Association, a branch secretary of the Russian Convoy Club and a member of the Burma Star Association. He was, in addition, made honorary chaplain to the Merchant Navy, Harwich, and to the Burma Star Association. Fascinated by history from his earliest years, in 1947 John joined what became the Essex Society for Archaeology & History and served as its honorary secretary, President, Keeper of Manuscripts and a Trustee – holding the latter position until his death. He was also a stalwart of the Essex Congress and the Victoria County History of Essex Appeal Committee. In 1965 he was elected a Fellow of the Royal Historical Society. He played a key role in getting Philip Morant’s 1748 History & Antiquities of Colchester republished in a facsimile edition in 1970, writing a new intro- duction to it and providing detailed biographical information on the author. John learnt Latin, Greek, French and Tamil, and dabbled in Urdu and Russian. He made a special study of Essex dialects and revised Edward Gepp’s An Essex Dialect Dictionary. John married Audrey Grace Fookes in 1947 and she assisted him in working for a variety of charitable causes, including the British Diabetic Association. Sadly,Audrey died in St Helena Hospice in 1993. They are, however, survived by four sons – Roger, Nigel,Andrew and David – and by six grandchildren and four great grandchildren. Stan Newens

EssexJOURNAL 69 Book Reviews Andrew Phillips, Children’s History Of Colchester, pp.32. ISBN 978-1-84993-038-3. Hometown World, 2011, £7.99.

or some time I had been meaning to organise a Ftrip to Colchester to walk around the circuit of Roman walls, my son Thomas being at that age when all things Roman, knights, soldiers and Spitfires are very important. So it was a happy coincidence when Andrew Phillips mentioned to me that he had just completed his new book, a Children’s History of Colchester, and that he had arranged a review copy for the Essex Journal. Colchester is also home to family friends, Michael and Sue Fox, so it seemed only sensible to meet up and ‘road test’ the book together. Michael, is also my regular Colchester book reviewer. What I enjoyed was using the book as a focus for a delightful stroll and we were soon trying to answer many questions from Thomas, as well as ourselves. From the beginning the book reinforced just how pivotal Colchester has been in our history.The original focus for our walk was just the Roman walls, but the book inspired discussions about where the Civil War siege cannons were sited, what the most obvious we were all pleased to stop at The Lemon Tree ways to the river from the town would have been, and dine in ‘their’ Roman ‘cave’. Unfortunately the re-use of Roman material in later buildings and we enjoyed our sojourn so much so that we were the perception of the Roman past by, say, the Saxon unable to manage a pint in the Hole In the Wall and Norman generations, to name but a few. (planned because it is on the site of the Balkerne However, this excursion wasn’t just a cerebral Gate).We did, however examine the Roman occasion - meeting up with friends and walking the architecture in fullness, both intellectually and walls had to have a break for food timetabled in. physically! With our Roman theme, that really meant there Andrew’s book was consulted throughout our was only one civilised place to take luncheon and walk and it proved to be very useful. He has had a huge task to condense Colchester’s 2000 years into 30 or so pages but it has been achieved in a very attractive and informative package. It is great to have a glossary and index – lets get children learning how to use a book properly. It’s nicely produced and full of colour and it can be dropped without fear of any electronics being broken.The illustrations are thought provoking and we fielded many questions in relation to these from Thomas, although I’m not quite sure how successfully! So I recommend the book - a useful Christmas present perhaps for children or grandchildren.And if you buy it make the time to stroll around Colchester.We only managed the very obvious Roman wall remains but there is so much more and with the help of this book you will surely have a fine day out especially if it’s in jolly company. Neil Wiffen

Thomas writes: This is a very intresting booc and it has sum verey intresting pichos. Iy riley luyc the tum lun bcase iv ben abol to sey wich pieryod am in [sic ].

EssexJOURNAL 70 Book Reviews

olchester historian Andrew Phillips has authored narrative makes engaging with the material when Cthis slim (32 page) but very accessible introduc- you have a short attention span much easier. tion to the town down the ages. If you are a fan of I suspect there are many adults whose historical TVs Horrible Histories - which clearly many adults as knowledge is hazier than they are prepared to admit, well as children are - then you will be delighted by will gain much by looking over their children’s the same capacity to draw out key features of an age shoulder at this eye catching introduction to the briefly but memorably. Here, as in the TV series, the town, its people, and their history. visual impact drives home the words. Our road Finally - it says something about how this town testing of the book, with six year old Thomas, found like so much of the country has changed when the time line ribbon at the top of each page (suitably Hometown World - the producing company who illustrated - see below) a great aid to getting a clearer are doing similar ventures for many towns across idea of what happened when.The use of manageable the land - have to print the book, not in any one self-contained paragraphs about, say, what is the evi- of them, but in China! dence for events in this era, rather than a continuous Michael Fox Below. Pages 6 & 7 showing the very helpful timeline running along the top of each spread. Opposite page, bottom left. Thomas consulting the book at the Balkerne Gate.

Adrian Corder Birch, son of John Corder, has produced a fascinating history Our Ancestors were Brickmakers and of the family covering, in all, nine generations. John Corder, the first of the brickmakers, had five sons and Potters, a son-in-law who joined him in the industry, plus a pp.168. pp. ISBN 978-0-9567219-0-7, 2010. first cousin, John Corder (1832-1907), who married Published by the author and available from him at: another first cousin, Sarah Corder. Numerous grandsons Rustlings, Howe Drive, Halstead, Essex, CO9 2QL, £14.95 + £3 p&p. and great grandsons in their turn – some at 10 or 11 years of age – also became brickmakers in the area. ricks and such like were made at Gestingthorpe William Corder (1835-1903), second son of John Bin north Essex from the early sixteenth century Corder (1836-1880), bought South Green Brick,Tile until 1951. In the early nineteenth century John & Pottery Works at Sible Hedingham and became a Corder (1806-1880), whose parents and grandparents master brickmaker. His father, John, later became his had lived in the parish before him, became a brick- partner and he also bought Potters Hall Brickworks maker at one of the two village brickworks. He was at Great Yeldham and Park Hall Road Brickworks at the first of five generations of his family who, by Gosfield.The two latter brickworks were closed in 1942, had totted up some six hundred years of work 1908 and 1895 respectively, but William’s son, Harry in the industry. Corder (1873-1942), continued with the Sible Adrian Corder Birch, who is a great great grand- Hedingham Brickworks until his death. It was then

EssexJOURNAL 71 EJ Book ReviewsBook Reviews

sold by his brother, Fred, who had worked with people connected with it and him and brickmaking and the Corder family’s close their social background. It is connection with it ended in this locality. However, beautifully illustrated with another Corder scion, Raymond, born in 1966, was photographs, family trees and still working at the Bulmer Brick & Tile Works until maps and there is a glossary of 2008. brickmaking terms.The author, Edward Corder (1868-1940), another grandson of an expert on many aspects of John Corder (1806-1880), moved to Thundersley to the industry, is a member of manage Manor Brickworks there, but later emigrated the British Brick Society and to Canada.Yet another grandson of John Corder the Brick Section of the British (1806-1880), Henry Corder (1850-1934), worked Archaeological Society in addi- alongside other Corder relatives for William Corder tion to his active involvement (1835-1903) as a pot and chimney pot maker. Other in Essex historical societies. offshoots of the Corder family were brickmakers He has produced a significant at Castle Hedingham Brick & Tile Works and there contribution to the family and industrial history of were links with the well known Bingham pottery Essex which will be of permanent interest not only in the same parish. to the Corder clan and residents of Essex but also to The author provides information on brickmaking those interested in industrial archaeology and social families linked to the Corders: the Westrops, the and economic history in Britain as a whole.Also, it is Borehams, the Gepps and the Willetts at Castle worth remembering that many of the houses built in and Sible Hedingham and the Finch, Felton and north Essex, and further afield, in the period when Rippendale families at Gestingthorpe.A branch of the industry thrived, must have been constructed the Finch family migrated to Kingston-upon-Hull with bricks made by the Corders and their relatives, to work in the industry there. thus perpetuating their legacy. This book is a pioneering study of a once important north Essex industry and provides a profile of the Stan Newens. Norman Jacobs, by Ted Heath’s government to introduce museum Behind the Colonnade: thirty seven entry charges (a mistake that Margaret Thatcher attempted to repeat) as well as the subsequent pay years at the British Museum, freeze for staff. Jacobs was heavily involved in the pp.216. ISBN 978-0-75245-279-1, trade union’s opposition. Further significant changes The History Press, 2010, £9.99. were afoot with the separation of the British Library (BL) from the BM, with its attendant implications orman Jacobs lives in Essex and in this book he for staff pay and pensions.The minutiae of staff Ntakes an affectionate look at his working life in eccentricities are perhaps of more interest to fellow the British Museum (BM) over nearly four decades. staff, past and present, but one of the strengths of The museum he joined in 1967 was largely staffed this book is his description of his trade union by esoteric individuals who had been recruited in negotiations, developing from shop floor level to the 1920s and 1930s. His first job was working in senior administrator before his retirement. It should the Reading Room admission office which was certainly be carefully read by anyone who thinks lined with oak cupboards containing registers of union activities are an obstructive anachronism readers going back to the eighteenth century.The rather than a right and proper guardian of working ‘Banned Readers book’ revealed the random and conditions of the ordinary employee. eccentric reasons for excluding a reader, ranging The other interesting aspect of this book is the from ‘imprisoned for conspiracy against the Czar account of how spending cuts reduced building of Russia’ to ‘strange behaviour in Kings Lynn’ maintenance to the point where, for example, and ‘suffragette’. Editing a staff newsletter, Jacobs buckets had to be placed in the department of Prints published a veiled attack on a senior member of and Drawings each time it rained, and the resulting staff who was treating his juniors badly, and this questions of whether the BM was a safe custodian led to his banishment to the old Patent Office in of its national treasures. Ultimately this was resolved Chancery Lane.After a period of exile, he returned by sponsorship and a much more hard-nosed to ‘Medieval and Later Antiquities’ at the BM which commercial approach, as well as the National Lottery (amongst much else) ran an identification service for the triumphant creation of the Great Court for objects brought in by members of the public. which was developed after the BL moved to its new If an expert was not immediately available, objects premises in Euston Road.There is much of interest could be left and collected later; some of these had in this lively and well-written book, as well as a been awaiting their owners’ return since 1906. It was pertinent message to those involved in the present this department that Jacobs liked best, the elision of round of spending cuts to the heritage sector. history with museum work. However this was soon to be disrupted by proposals Michael Leach

EssexJOURNAL 72 EJ Book ReviewsBook Reviews Chris Pond and Richard Morris, The Life and Art of Octavius Dixie Deacon, pp.52. ISBN 978–1–90526–913–6 The Alderton Press, 2010, £7.50. & Chris Pond, The Buildings of Loughton and notable people of the town, pp.112. ISBN 978–1–90526-911–2 Loughton and District Historical Society, 2010, £7.50. Both are available from: Dr. Chris Pond, Forest Villa, Staples Road, Loughton, Essex IG10 1HP. Email: [email protected] Following on from this, The Buildings of Loughton he Loughton & District Historical Society has and notable people of the town is a second edition Ta long pedigree for publishing well written and proving the popularity and success of the first, produced books on the area, many of which have published in 2003.The author has taken the been featured in these pages.We feature two more. opportunity to include much additional information Over the decades many books have been written to enhance, improve and enlarge this latest edition. about the lives and works of well known artists such The majority of the book is devoted to Loughton as Constable, Gainsborough and Turner. In recent years buildings, each with location, an architectural descrip- there has been a noticeable increase in the publication tion, architect and builder where known, relevant of books about lesser known but nevertheless talented dates and occupiers. It is not only the houses and artists. Essex is no exception with books about the churches of various denominations which are lives and works of Morton Mathews, Eric Ravilious, included but also other unusual features such as Malcolm Root, Diana Sperling and others.To add coal duty markers. Commercial and public buildings to this increasing area of interest is this excellent are listed as well as almshouses, war memorial, publication by Chris Pond and Richard Morris. cemetery and a water fountain. Deacon, an amateur artist, as well as an advertising There is an alphabetical list of architects, cross agent and publisher, lived in Loughton for the last referenced to the buildings in Loughton which 40 years of his life until his death in 1916 at the they designed. Many of the entries contain additional age of 80. information about the architects and the buildings The first 20 pages of the book are devoted to with which they were associated not only in his life, family, their homes and the family firm of Loughton but also elsewhere.This is followed by Samuel Deacon & Co, advertising agents, which a chapter about notable people of Loughton who was established by his father in 1812. It was still in mainly lived in the town during the period 1875- existence one hundred years later under the manage- 1925 and beyond.There are also photographs of ment of Willoughby, a son of Octavius. Many of his five notable Loughtonians, one of whom is letters written throughout his life about a variety of Octavius Deacon. subjects survive and give an indication of his character, There are just over 30 other well chosen beliefs and eccentricity. One letter to the Rector illustrations, with captions, in a central section, with makes interesting reading when it asks him to stay a separate five pages of additional information about away from his home. these illustrations.This is followed by a bibliography, The final 24 pages contain colour illustrations references and two good indices. One index is for of sketches and watercolours.These include views buildings and roads, which helpfully lists all relevant of Buckhurst Hill, Chigwell, Epping and many of buildings within a particular road and the second Loughton.They capture not only buildings but index is of people including architects, patrons also animals and people at work and play. Deacon and organisations. undoubtedly had an interest in engines with illustra- My only minor adverse comment is that the tions of Darby Steam Diggers, a Steam Engine and title and author’s name does not appear on the spine, Fenchurch Street Railway Station.There are helpful which would have made the book more recognisable and informative captions with each illustration, many on shelves.Apart from this it is an excellent book, containing historic details from the local knowledge which I thoroughly commend to you. I hope it of the joint authors.The book also contains a good creates a precedent and encourages other Essex index and an invaluable family tree. towns to compile similar volumes about their This reviewer particularly liked the variety and buildings and notable residents. quality of the illustrations selected to show the diversity and talent of this previously little known Essex artist. Adrian Corder-Birch.

EssexJOURNAL 73 EJ Book ReviewsBook Reviews Hazel Lake, Editor After comparatively short periods with an Altham A History of Mark Hall Manor, cousin,William Lushington, and an improving landowner, Montague Burgoyne, the united manors pp.174. 978-0-95275-992-8. were acquired by the Arkwright family – descendants Friends of Harlow Museum, 2010, £10. of Richard Arkwright, inventor of the water frame Available £10 from Harlow Museum or from Hazel Lake, and a textile factory magnate.They remained with 50 Herons Wood, Harlow, CM20 1RW. them until after the Second World War.The land was then purchased by Harlow Development Corporation azel Lake has produced a number of historic to form part of the site acquired for the development Hstudies on Harlow and people who have lived of Harlow New Town. there. Now, with the help of the Friends of the Mark Hall Manor House, or Mansion, was largely Museum, she has produced a history of Mark Hall built by William Lushington in the latter part of the Manor and the closely associated Manor of Latton eighteenth century and it was not known how much, Hall.Together they comprise the pre-new town if any, of the pre-existing Tudor or Jacobean building parish of Latton. Settlements on the land they was incorporated into it. Montague Burgoyne, occupy go back to pre-historic times. the next owner, was against the slave trade and in Stanegrove Hall, in the north of the Manor, was favour of Parliamentary reform. In the later years successively the site of a Bronze Age pond barrow of Arkwright ownership it was let to the Gilbey and an Iron Age, later a Roman temple. Nearly 1,000 family of wines and spirits fame. ancient coins have been recovered from the site and Hazel Lake’s account of Mark Hall Manor is a the remains of a number of Roman buildings have significant contribution to the history of Harlow. been detected in the vicinity.The Saxons settled here The book contains numerous illustrations and family subsequently, but the manors were confiscated and trees, a bibliography and a chronology which puts granted to Norman owners following the Norman Mark Hall history side by side with national events conquest of 1066. In the twelth century Latton Priory dating back to prehistoric times. It tells a fascinating was built in the south and lasted until the sixteenth story which reflects the fact that Harlow is not just century. Hazel Lake traces the ownership of both a new town but also a very old one. manors from the Domesday Book onwards. In the sixteenth century they were purchased by Stan Newens the Altham family and remained with them until 1776. Richard Tames, It is perhaps not generally known that the first England's Forgotten Past, documented camping holiday in the British Isles was when young gentlemen could no longer make pp.192. 978-0-500-51522-8, the Grand Tour of Classical Europe because of the Thames & Hudson, 2010, £12.95. Napoleonic Wars. Instead, the writer and opium addict Thomas de Quincy started the camping his book which describes itself as a 'Did you fashion by touring Wales with a tent.The gymslip was Tknow?' book contains anecdotes ranging in time the invention of a Swedish librarian who, engaged to from the 'Ancient Britons' to the Second World War. train schoolteachers, believed children's physical It certainly contains some little jewels such as the health and fitness were the key to their well-being, suggestion that Alfred the Great had epilepsy or that and founded the basis for the science of physiotherapy. the Marquis of Granby appears on pub signs bald- An unsung hero of the Crimean War (wholly over- headed because he lost his wig in a cavalry charge shadowed by Florence Nightingale) was Alexis Soyer at the Battle of Warburg. who reorganised the cooking for an entire division of It is divided up into eight sections including Lost the British Army, devising the 'field-stove' which was Landscapes, Believe It or Not, and Yesterday's adopted for a century, and supervised the building of Celebrities. During the 1908 the model kitchens at Wellington Barracks. London Olympic Games the The author being a lecturer to London Tour white-shorted American guides has lots of such anecdotes to relate, but it runners for the steeplechase would have been helpful if their source was identified. were made to change into Though many make fascinating reading, the reader is blue shorts before they were left with the feeling that it would be nice to know allowed to compete ( for (or to be able to find out for himself) more.The decency's sake at the water- book is probably therefore best categorised as one to jump).The tug-of-war was dip in to and enjoy for what it is rather than a history won by the British team book. It reminds me a bit of Sellar's and Yateman's (London Bobbies wearing 1066 and All That, without the jokes.Aspiring Quiz boots), while the Americans Masters for private parties will love it. had only soft-soled running shoes. James Kemble

EssexJOURNAL 74 EJ 20 Questions? Maureen Scollan

Maureen Scollan was born in Great Yeldham in 1944 before moving to Silver End. She attended Rainsford School in Chelmsford, then one of the few secondary modern schools to teach GCE O and A level courses. A geography project led her to the Essex Record Office for the first time, and guided and inspired by Hilda Grieve she acquired a lasting passion for historical research. A career

as an assistant archivist and then as a police Scollan) M. (Photograph: officer followed; she retired as an inspector. Maureen has published several books and articles, notably Sworn to Serve: Police in Essex 1840- 1993. She has an MA from Birkbeck College, London, and a PhD from the Open University. She is Chairman of the Friends of Historic Essex and a Trustee of the Essex Police Museum. 1. What is your favourite historical period? 12. What is your favourite food? While I am not One module of my MA degree used the works of vegetarian I do enjoy the tasty foods that contain Charles Dickens as the starting point for an insight neither meat or fish. into the Victorian period. Michael Slater, the tutor, 13. The history book I am currently reading rapidly converted me into a Dickens enthusiast. is... I usually have several on the go. Currently they 2. Tell us what Essex means to you? A county of are Vic Gray's Bookmen London; John Belchem's Irish, contrasts which is still under-estimated by the media Catholic and Scouse 1800-1939; and Janet Cooper's and too many people from outside. The Church Dedic ations and Saints' Cults of Medieval 3. What historical mystery would you most like Essex. to know? The real identity of Jack the Ripper! 14. What is your favourite quote from history? 4. My favourite history book is... Hilda Grieve’s 'The past is another country, they do things The Great Tide, her monumental and well written differently there' from L.P.Hartley's novel The Go history of the 1953 Essex floods. Between (1953), it is a useful reminder for historians 5. What is your favourite place in Essex? It's a not to impose their own perceptions on source toss up between Maldon and Colchester. material. 15. Favourite historical film? 6. How do you relax? Listening to radio plays (the Ryan's Daughter is pictures are better!) and classic detective stories; also enjoyable for its insights into Irish history and the walking my two dogs. beautiful area where it was filmed. 7. What are you researching at the moment? 16. What is your favourite building in Essex? My Lancashire family history having recently met an I grew up near Cressing Temple when it was still a unknown first cousin. working farm, and as my parents knew the farm manager my brother and I sometimes went round 8. My earliest memory is... Supporting the sack the estate long before the barns were so famous. containing the family's cat while my mother, baby 17. What past event would you like to have brother and I waited for a bus when we were moving seen? to Silver End, my father having gone ahead with the Queen Victoria's coronation. removal van. I would have been between 3 and 4. 18. How would you like to be remembered? As someone who tried to be helpful. 9. What is your favourite song/piece of music and why? Gabriel Faure's Requiem which I fell for at 19. Who inspires you to read or write or a concert in the Temple Church in London; I almost research history? The early ERO archivists Ken floated home afterwards! Newton, Nancy Briggs (later Edwards) and Hilda Grieve were hugely influential in my early historical 10. If you could travel back in time which event education, as were Arthur Brown and Gladys Ward. would you change? All women would have had Much more recently Clive Emsley encouraged and the vote much earlier than 1928 if I'd been in power! inspired me to produce a polished doctoral thesis 11. Which four people from the past would you on parish constables. invite to dinner? Admiral John McHardy, first 20. Most memorable historical date? Tricky one! Chief Constable of Essex between 1840-81; Charles January 1971 when the Open University took its Gray Round; Emmeline Pankhurst; and Lilian Wyles first 2500 students. It has changed for the better (1885-1975), one of the first Metropolitan women the lives of many thousands since - police officers. including mine.

EssexJOURNAL 75 Help to support the Essex Record Office

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