The University of Dodoma University of Dodoma Institutional Repository http://repository.udom.ac.tz
Social Sciences Master Dissertations
2020 Contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability in semi-arid area of Chamwino district in Dodoma, Tanzania
Sabuni, Raymond Jackson.
The University of Dodoma
Sabuni, R. J. (2020). Contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability in semi-arid area of Chamwino district in Dodoma, Tanzania (Master dissertation). The University of Dodoma, Dodoma. http://hdl.handle.net/20.500.12661/2781 Downloaded from UDOM Institutional Repository at The University of Dodoma, an open access institutional repository. CONTRIBUTION OF DROUGHT COPING STRATEGIES ON HOUSEHOLD FOOD AVAILABILITY IN SEMI-ARID AREA OF CHAMWINO DISTRICT IN DODOMA, TANZANIA
RAYMOND JACKSON SABUNI
MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA OCTOBER, 2020 CONTRIBUTION OF DROUGHT COPING STRATEGIES ON HOUSEHOLD FOOD AVAILABILITY IN SEMI-ARID AREA OF CHAMWINO DISTRICT IN DODOMA, TANZANIA
BY RAYMOND JACKSON SABUNI
A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF ARTS IN DEVELOPMENT STUDIES
THE UNIVERSITY OF DODOMA OCTOBER, 2020 DECLARATION AND COPY RIGHT I, Raymond Jackson Sabuni declare that this dissertation is my own original work and that it has not been presented and will not be presented to any other University for a similar or any other degree award.
No part of this dissertation may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means without prior written permission of the author or the University of Dodoma. If transformed for publication in any other format shall be acknowledged that, this work has been submitted for degree award at the University of Dodoma.
i CERTIFICATION The undersigned certify that she has read and hereby recommends for acceptance by the University of Dodoma a dissertation entitled “Contribution of Drought Coping Strategies on Household Food Availability in Semi-arid Area of Chamwino District in Dodoma, Tanzania, in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in Development Studies of the University of Dodoma.
ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT This work has benefited greatly from a number of people. Special thanks go to Almighty God who has given me life, strength and guidance to accomplish this academic work. Immeasurable thanks and sincere gratitude goes to my supervisor, Dr. Benta N. Matunga, who tirelessly corrected me, guided and encouraged me to ensure that I deliver a quality work. I also owe thanks to Mvumi Makulu Ward Officers for their permission and support during field data collection.
Special thanks are extended to the University of Dodoma (UDOM) for granting me an opportunity to study a master degree. I also express my gratitude to all my lecturers in the Institute of Development Studies for the invaluable knowledge they provided to me and their inputs during the early stage of proposal development.
It would be untenable not to acknowledge an immense support and assistance I received from my great friend Mr Abel Molla in this academic journey, God bless him. I also convey my thanks to my classmates for all cooperation and support they gave me throughout my study. Many thanks should also go to my fellow church members for their prayers.
Finally, I would like to thank my family for the strong encouragement they provided to me to pursue this level of education. They stood by my side and supported me during my study and towards the accomplishment of this report. Special thanks go to my beloved wife, Witness N. Sangali, my father Pastor Elias Shija. Others include my daughters Rebecca and Rayness, my brother Joel J. Sabuni and my father Jackson Sabuni. Furthermore, I thank my mother Meres J. Sabuni. Moreover, I thank my sisters Ediana and Astrida, my best friends Peter Ntaki and Revocutus Vuga.
iii ABSTRACT Drought is a recurrent climatic phenomenon in many parts of the world which requires urgent interventions to ensure that it does not jeopardize the lives of many people. During drought periods and beyond, semi-arid areas are left with no enough food and resources to invest in agricultural production. Despite of Tanzania‟s Government efforts together with other stakeholders‟ efforts to overcome drought, still it affects environment, agricultural production and water resources resulting into food scarcity in rural areas. Households apply various drought coping strategies to ensure food availability, though, these efforts have not been well documented. This study was conducted to assess the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability in Chamwino District, Tanzania. Specific objectives were: to identify drought coping strategies applied by household, to examine the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability and to examine the challenges that people encounter during the application of drought coping strategies. Cross-sectional research design was employed in this study where both qualitative and quantitative research were used. Sample size of the study was 92 respondents which was randomly selected and 8 key informants were purposively selected. Data were analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) computer software program version 20 for descriptive statistics. It was found that households apply various drought coping strategies involving selling labor, planting drought tolerant crops, use of short term seeds, practice small scale of irrigation, conducting small business and selling charcoal, firewood and grasses. In applying those strategies, people encounter the challenges of limited capital, minimal amount of rain, food price fluctuation, destructive pests and reluctant to apply drought coping strategies. The study revealed that, the drought coping strategies applied contribute to household food availability. However, the amount of food does not satisfy the household annually food requirements. The study recommends that there must be deliberate efforts to be taken by Government, NGOs, Private institutions and other stakeholders in provision of more education to households concerning best drought coping strategies to adopt. Also support those households with agricultural tools, inputs, and loans to produce enough food. Extension services also should be increased in rural areas to facilitate households to achieve required amount of food.
iv TABLE OF CONTENTS DECLARATION AND COPY RIGHT ...... i CERTIFICATION...... ii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iii ABSTRACT ...... iv TABLE OF CONTENTS ...... v LIST OF TABLES ...... ix LIST OF FIGURES...... x LIST OF PLATE ...... xi LIST OF APPENDICES ...... xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS ...... xiii
CHAPTER ONE...... 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 General Introduction ...... 1 1.2 Background to the Study ...... 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem ...... 4 1.3 Research Objectives ...... 5 1.3.1 General Objective...... 5 1.3.2 Specific objectives ...... 5 1.4 Research Questions ...... 5 1.5 Significance of the Study ...... 6 1.6 Chapter Summary...... 6
CHAPTER TWO ...... 7 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 7 2.1 Introduction ...... 7 2.2 Operational Definition of Key Terms ...... 7 2.2.1 Drought ...... 7 2.2.2 Drought Coping Strategies ...... 7 2.2.3 Drought Coping Strategies to food availability ...... 8 2.2.4 Food Availability ...... 8 2.2.5 A Household...... 8 v 2.3 Theoretical Review ...... 8 2.3.1 Entitlement Theory...... 8 2.4 Empirical Literature Review ...... 10 2.4.1 Effects of Drought on Household Food Availability ...... 10 2.4.2 Coping Strategies Adapted and Practiced by Drought Victims around the World ...... 10 2.4.3 Knowledge Gap ...... 12 2.5 The Conceptual Framework for the Study ...... 12 2.6 The Scope and Justification of the Study ...... 13 2.6 Chapter Summary...... 14
CHAPTER THREE ...... 15 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ...... 15 3.1 Introduction ...... 15 3.2 Study Area and its Justification...... 15 3.3 Research Design ...... 16 3.3.1Research Approach ...... 16 3.3.2 Target Population and Sampling Frame ...... 17 3.3.2.1 Target Population ...... 17 3.3.2.2 Sampling Frame ...... 17 3.4 Sampling Techniques and Sample Size ...... 17 3.4.1 Sampling Techniques ...... 17 3.4.2 Sample Size ...... 18 3.5 Sources and Methods of Data Collection ...... 19 3.5.1 Sources of Data Collection...... 19 3.5.2 Methods of Data Collection ...... 20 3.5.2.1 Literature Review Method ...... 20 3.5.2.2 Household Survey ...... 21 3.5.2.3 Focus Group Discussion ...... 21 3.5.2.4 Observation Method ...... 22 3.6 Data Processing and Analysis ...... 22 3.6.1 Data Processing ...... 22 3.6.2 Data Analysis ...... 23
vi 3.7 Limitations and Delimitation of the Study ...... 23 3.8 Validity and Reliability of the Study ...... 23 3.9 Ethical Consideration ...... 25 3.10 Chapter Summary...... 25
CHAPTER FOUR ...... 27 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION ...... 27 4.1 Introduction ...... 27 4.2 Socio-demographic characteristics...... 27 4.2.1 Age of Household Respondents ...... 27 4.2.2 Sex of Household Respondents ...... 29 4.2.3 Education Level of Household Respondents ...... 29 4.2.4 Marital Status of Respondents ...... 30 4.2.5 Household Position of Respondents...... 31 4.2.6 Household Size...... 32 4.3 Drought Coping Strategies Applied for Household Food Availability in the Study Area ...... 34 4.3.1 Drought Experienced and its Effects on Household Food Availability ...... 34 4.3.2 Drought Coping Strategies Applied in Mvumi Makulu Ward ...... 38 4.4 Contributions of Drought Coping Strategies on Household Food Availability ... 44 4.4.1 Narrative on the Contribution of Drought Coping Strategies on Household Food availability ...... 44 4.4.2 Household Resources that Support and Contribute to Household Food Availability ...... 45 4.4.2.1 Size of Land Owned by Households ...... 45 4.4.2.2 Households Land Size Cultivated ...... 46 4.4.2.3 Types of Crops Produced in the Study Area ...... 47 4.4.2.4 Livestock ...... 47 4.4.2.5 Livestock Owned by Households...... 48 4.4.3 The Annual Amount of Households Food Contributed by Drought Coping Strategies ...... 50 4.4.4 The Annual Amount of Food Consumed by the Household ...... 51 4.4.5 Responses on Household Satisfaction of Amount of Food Gained ...... 53 4.4.6 Amount of Food Required by Household Annually ...... 54 vii 4.4.7 Needs for Improvement on Drought Coping Strategies applied for Household Food Availability ...... 55 4.4.8 Ward Officer‟s Efforts to Overcome Community Food Scarcity during Drought Time ...... 59 4.4.8.1 Provision of Education ...... 59 4.4.8.2 Saving and store food for future use ...... 59 4.4.8.3 Inform the Local Government Higher Authority on the Food Scarcity ...... 60 4.4.8.4 Developing By Laws ...... 60 4.5 Challenges Encountered by Households during Application of Drought Coping Strategies ...... 60 4.5.1 Limited Capital...... 62 4.5.2 Minimal Amount of Rain ...... 62 4.5.3 Trend of Food Price Fluctuation ...... 63 4.5.4 Destructive Pests ...... 64 4.5.5 Reluctant to Apply Drought Coping Strategies ...... 64 4.5.6 Respondent‟s Opinions on How to Overcome Challenges ...... 65 4.6 Chapter Summary...... 67
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 69 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ...... 69 5.1 Introduction ...... 69 5.2 The Study Summary ...... 69 5.3 General Conclusion ...... 70 5.4 Theoretical Implication of the Study...... 71 5.5 Recommendations ...... 71 5.6 Suggestions for Further Studies ...... 73 5.6 Chapter Summary...... 74 REFERENCES ...... 76 APPENDICES ...... 84
viii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Age of Respondent involved in Drought Coping Strategies Application .... 28 Table 2: Education Level of Household involved in Coping Strategies Application 29 Table 3: Marital Status of Household Respondents ...... 30 Table 4: Household Position of Respondents ...... 31 Table 5: Household Size ...... 32 Table 6: Time of Drought Experienced and Drought Effects on Household Food Availability ...... 35 Table 7: Drought Coping Strategies contribute more amount of food...... 43 Table 8: Response on whether DCS contribute on HH food ...... 44 Table 9: Size of Land Owned by Household ...... 46 Table 10: Size of Land Cultivated ...... 46 Table 11: Number of Cattles, Goats and Pigs Owned by Household ...... 48 Table 12: Respondent‟s Opinion to overcome Challenges ...... 66
ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for the Study...... 13 Figure 2: Drought Effects on Crops at Mvumi Makulu Ward ...... 36 Figure 3: Un-matured Dried Maize and Sunflower Crops ...... 36 Figure 4: Millet Crop Harvested by One of HHs from a Half of hectare ...... 37 Figure 5: Drought Tolerant Crop (Sorghum) ...... 37 Figure 6: Drought Tolerant Crop (Cassava)...... 38 Figure 7: Types of Drought Coping Strategies Applied in the Study Area ...... 39 Figure 8: Amount of Food Contributed on Households in terms of sucks ...... 51 Figure 9: Amount of Food Consumed by the household annually ...... 52 Figure 10: Amount of Food Required Annually ...... 54 Figure 11: Needs for changes or improvements on Drought Coping Strategies Applied ...... 55 Figure 12: Small Scale Irrigation on Green Vegetables (Crookneck Squash) ...... 57 Figure 13: Small Scale Irrigation Impacts on Food Production (Tomatoes) ...... 57 Figure 14: Grapes Farming Practiced at Mvumi Makulu Ward ...... 58 Figure 15: Challenges on Application Drought Coping Strategies ...... 61
x LIST OF PLATE Plate 1: The Researcher with Household Members from One of Mvumi Makulu Ward Household respondents during the Field Data Survey...... 34
xi LIST OF APPENDICES Appendix 1: Structured Questionnaire for Households Members ...... 84
Appendix 2: Interview Guide for Ward and Village Officers...... 87
xii LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS DALDO District Agricultural and Livestock Development Officer
WEO Ward Executive Officer
WDO Ward Development Officer
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nation
FGD Focus Group Discussion
LCD Least Development Countries
NGO Non-Governmental Organization
SACCOS Savings and Credit Cooperative Society
SPSS Statistical Package for Social Science
SSA Sub-Saharan Africa
TFSP Tanzania Food Security Program
URT United Republic of Tanzania
USDA United States Department of Agriculture
WFS World Food Summit
WHO World Health Organization of the UN
HH Household
HHs Households
DCS Drought Coping Strategies
TSH Tanzania Shilling
Kg Kilogram
xiii CHAPTER ONE INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Introduction This study is based on the assessment of the contribution of drought coping strategies in the household food availability in semi-arid area of Dodoma, Tanzania. The overall structure of this study has the form of five chapters, which starts with the introductory chapter. Chapter two provides the literature review together with the theoretical review of the study. The third chapter presents the methodology used in the study. The fourth chapter concerned with the data presentation and discussion, while chapter five presents summary, conclusion and recommendations which based on the study findings.
1.2 Background to the Study Drought and food scarcity are the global problem that require urgent interventions to ensure that they do not affect the lives of many people (FAO, 2014). Drought is a recurrent climatic problem phenomenon around the world which affects the most vulnerable areas characterized by semi-arid in developing countries (Maharjam, 2006). It affects people‟s life in a number of ways such as crop failures, food scarcity leading to hunger and famine in many countries, it leads to health issues that can result into many diseases and deaths. Furthermore, it results into migration of people especially youths from rural areas to urban to search for jobs (URT, 2011). This leads to another problem of shortage of labor for food production in rural areas whereas in urban, it causes overpopulation and evil problems leading to an increased rate of criminal cases. Moreover, it is also a causative of a huge environmental damage such as land degradation, aridity and desertification. The drought effects are observed at a range of geographical levels. For example, households and communities can lose livelihoods and water sources which leads to acute food scarcity. Drought is the most disaster that affects more people comparing to others in Sub-Saharan Africa (Rekacewicz, 2002). The poor households are residing in rural areas in which rain-fed agriculture is the major livelihood activity. Due to unpredictable rainfall, the agricultural activities are not able to feed the growing population (Ellis, 2003). It also anticipates events of shocks in advance which distort the ability of a community leads to widespread human and materials problem
1 (Mahrijan & Chhetri, 2006). The drought effects requires effective efforts and community capability to manage living by utilizing their own resources as well as ability such as coping strategies (Fitzgibbon and Hennessy, 2003). Webb and Braun (1994) and Cannon and Davis (2003), noted that poor people are not passive receivers of undesirable situations; they employ several strategies to make ease of the situations. When hazards or undesirable conditions happened, people try to adopt coping strategies (Mahrijan, 2006). Webb and Braun (1994), Dietz and von der Geest (2004), pointed out that coping strategies represent a set of activities that are undertaken in a particular sequence of actions by a household in response to shocks include famine. Adaptation of the strategies is related to long-term and short-term strategies to improve food availability and access through their own production and income diversification (Smit & Wandel, 2006).
Drought coping strategies are the mechanisms and strategy adapted by people, households, society, private sectors, Government and its institutions to manage living within the drought environment and negative drought effects (Kivaria, 2007). Drought coping strategies represent the actual measures to rectify the bad situation happened (Davies, 1993). They refer to the whole range of a typical behavior exhibited by individuals and households whose purpose is to enable the individuals to endure the effects of adverse situations such as drought which bring about food shortage (Njiro, 1994). For the affected dwellers in drought prone areas to continue by maintaining household food availability, rural communities/households undertake drought coping strategies (Maharjam, 2006). The coping strategies adopted are regional oriented. Therefore, every area has different ways of handling the drought effects based on household food availability. This is due to different reasons such as change in technology, food accessibility, resources availability, time, education factor, economic factor, religious belief and association with certain groups or organizations (Maxwell, 2009). Thus, assessing the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability is very important.
According to FAO (2016), food availability is the physical presence of food. At the national level food availability is based on food produced domestically, imported and exported food, food assistant as well as households/community/national stocks. Availability of food has four components, food production, efficient water use, 2 stocks and trade (FAO, 2014). According to this study, food availability at household level is from own production. According to FAO (2016), hunger and poor food availability had increased in recent years, mostly, in rural areas particularly drought prone areas. There have been growing number of people who suffer due to food scarcity (WFP, 2015). According to FAO (2019), in its Global Report on Food Crises, highlighted the plighted of millions of people who must fight every day against acute hunger and malnutrition. More than 113 million people across 53 countries experienced acute hunger (FAO, 2019). The worst food crises in 2018, in order of severity, were: Yemen, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Afghanistan, and Ethiopia, the Syrian Arab Republic, Sudan, South Sudan and Northern Nigeria. These eight countries accounted for two thirds of the total number of people facing acute food insecurity – amounting to nearly 72 million people (FAO 2019). An estimated 124 million people in 51 countries faced acute hunger. Over the past three years, the report has consistently shown that, year on year, more than 100 million people (2016, 2017 and 2018) have faced periods of acute hunger which is largely attributed to changes in climate shocks. A number of highly exposed countries faced severe drought, flooding, erratic rains and temperature rises brought on by the El Nino of 2015-16. These include countries in southern and eastern Africa, the Horn of Africa, Latin America and the Caribbean, and the Asia-Pacific region (FAO 2O19).
The situation is more pressing in the Sub-Saharan countries in which 23.2 percent of the population and one person out of four as well as one out of five people in the region may have suffered from chronic food scarcity in 2017 (FAO, 2019). Increasing food scarcity has been revealed in all countries of sub-Saharan Africa (WFP 2018). Tanzania like any other developing countries in Sab-Saharan Africa has been facing food scarcity in rural areas, especially in semi-arid regions (URT, 2016). Dodoma Region as one among the semi-arid areas in Tanzania have the highest percentage of people who live below the food poverty line at 35.5% (Mkenda et al, 2014). Dodoma Region dwellers are basically agro-pastoralists, are vulnerable and they face shocks due to drought among others that impacts food supply (URT, 2016). There is a need to increase efforts to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals target of hunger reduction by attaining and maintain food availability without leaving
3 any one with no food by 2030 ( URT, 2016). Thus, assessing the contribution of drought coping strategies for food availability is very important.
1.2 Statement of the Problem Agriculture is the main source of rural communities‟ food and stability in developing countries (URT, 2011). It is estimated that, in Tanzania above 75% of people relay on agriculture for their living (WFP, 2017). According to Ndaga, (2012), during drought periods and beyond, semi-arid areas like Chamwino District people always left with no enough food and resources to invest in agriculture that result in food scarcity.
The government of Tanzania along with other stakeholders has made some measures to overcome drought effects. For example, Tanzania adapted projects which deals with drought monitoring, such as Climate Change Impacts, Adaptation and Mitigation project (CCIAM) in cooperation with the Norwegian Universities and Research Institutions in the country. Tanzania Meteorological Agency (TMA) is the major authority of the government that provides weather forecast to farmers and all sectors. The weather forecast provided contributes to food production seasonally. This authority monitors drought condition and provide early warning in cooperation with other stakeholders, national institutions and private sectors at a local and national level for drought preparedness to ensure food availability. Despite of these entire efforts and measures drought still affects human life, environment, agricultural production and water base that results into food scarcity especially in rural areas. Rural communities/households living in semi-arid areas undertake their own drought coping strategies to maintaining household food availability for their living survival (Maharjam, 2006). Drought coping strategies adapted are dynamic and vary because of many factors like technology, accessibility, resources availability, time, education factor, economic factor, religious belief, and association with certain groups or organizations (Dercon, 2002). Kivaria, (2007), argue that, there would be dynamism of drought coping strategies adapted and applied in the community or household in ten years ago, and that would be adapted in the same community or another. It was noted by WFS, (2002) that, drought coping strategies have to be well assessed and documented. This would assist to understand how these strategies contribute to household food security especially the availability of food. Therefore, this study 4 intends to assess the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability in Chamwino District, Dodoma.
1.3 Research Objectives The objectives of this study have been divided into two parts. The general and specific objectives
1.3.1 General Objective The general objective of this study is to assess the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability in Chamwino District, Tanzania.
1.3.2 Specific objectives The purposes of this study will be attained through examining the following specific objectives:
i. To identify the drought coping strategies employed by households in Chamwino District. ii. To examine the contribution of the drought coping strategies on the household food availability in Chamwino District. iii. To examine the challenges that people encounter during the application of drought coping strategies in Chamwino District.
1.4 Research Questions In order to come up with relevant information towards the research that is going to be conducted, the following questions should be addressed clearly;
i. What are the drought coping strategies applied by household in Chamwino District, Dodoma? ii. What are the contributions of the drought coping strategies towards food availability in Chamwino District? iii. What challenges do people encounter in applying coping strategies in Chamwino District?
5 1.5 Significance of the Study This study will help to provide useful information on contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability. Furthermore, it will generate information that informs policy makers and planners, especially agriculture, food and environmental experts to develop better drought coping strategies to address households food shortage in semi-arid areas. The development of better drought coping strategies will increase food availability in the households and achieve sustainable development goal number two of “Zero Hunger”. Moreover, the findings from the study will assist rural farmers to apply drought coping strategies which contribute more food to their households. Lastly, the knowledge and information will also be used by NGOs, religious groups and other stakeholders in dealing with food insecurity problem in the area of this study.
1.6 Chapter Summary This section provided the introduction and the background of this research study covering among other things the drought effects, drought coping strategies, food situation globally, Africa, Tanzania and in Dodoma. Further, it provided statement of the problem and highlighted on research gap that provides justification for undertaking this research subject. Besides, it introduced the main and specific objectives of the study. Research questions, significance of conducting this research study are provided.
6 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter presents literature review from the findings of other studies to provide a theoretical and empirical framework that guided the structuring of conceptual framework as the basis of this study. It begins with the definition of key terms such as drought, drought coping strategies, contribution of drought coping strategies to food availability, food availability and a household. Furthermore, Theoretical Literature Review, Empirical Literature Review that include Effects of drought on household food availability, coping strategies adapted and practiced by drought victims around the world, knowledge gap, Conceptual Framework for the Study and chapter summary.
2.2 Operational Definition of Key Terms The terms that were used frequently in the study are defined operationally. These include: drought, coping strategies, coping strategies contribution, food availability, Household and the key variables used in the study.
2.2.1 Drought Drought is defined as a prolonged time of dry weather (Wilhite, 2006). Basing on the Meteorologists view, drought is defined as a result permanent large scale atmospheric circulation that leads to subsidence on environment and result into little or no rainfall (Agnew, 2008; Wilhite & Glantz, 2005). In this study, drought is considered as a prolonged dry state in a given area with semi-arid characteristics that causes the area to experience a minimal amount of rainfall. This prevailing drought state has severe effects on agricultural production that leads to food scarcity.
2.2.2 Drought Coping Strategies Drought coping strategies are defined as the mechanisms and strategy adapted by people, households, society, private sectors, Government and its institutions to manage living within the drought environment and negative drought effects (Kivaria, 2007). Drought coping strategies in this study means the strategies that communities adopt to maintain household food availability in the drought prone area of semi-arid environment.
7 2.2.3 Drought Coping Strategies to food availability The contribution of drought coping strategies is the end result, products and achievements that attained from the strategies applied (Eriksen, et al. 2005). In the context of this study, drought coping strategies to food availability means the household and community food availability that attained from the realization of application of drought coping strategies in semi-arid environment in the study area.
2.2.4 Food Availability Food availability is the physical food presence. Food availability is based on food produced domestically, imported and exported food, food assistant as well as households/community/national stocks (FAO, 2016). Basing on this study, food availability is the amount of food in terms of sacks attained by household from the coping strategies they apply.
2.2.5 A Household Household refers to the living place in which a person or more people live as a family and share the same meals/food (URT, 2016). A household also involves a single family with only one person as well as extended families living in the same roof (Maxwell, 2008). This study conceptualize household to consist of both single and extended families from which the respondent samples were selected to provide required data.
2.3 Theoretical Review Theory refers to an interrelated concepts, meanings and propositions which arranged in a systematic set to explain and predict phenomena (Adams, 2007). This research employed Entitlement Theory as the guidance to attain its objectives. Entitlement Theory is applied due to its emphasis on developing alternative ways during the times of inconvenience situation like natural disaster (drought) to have rights, opportunities and means to food availability and accesses to food.
2.3.1 Entitlement Theory The theory was developed by Sen in 1981, describing the factors affecting food availability to people and how they respond by finding alternative ways to maintain households‟ food availability and food security in general. According to Sen, (1981),
8 food scarcity happen when people lack access to food which led by drought and other natural calamities. Sen (1987) argued that famine is a result of entitlement failures and can occur even when food availability is not reduced. Therefore, Sen (1987) suggested that, it is imperative to reorient our approach away from food availability towards ability to command food. Further noted that, the dissonance between the causal analyses of famines in terms of availability and that in terms of entitlements does not lie in any belief that availability and entitlements are unrelated to each other. In fact, they are linked in many different ways and the connections are indeed worth emphasizing. The plausible explanation according to Sen (1987) is based on some people who relay on the output grown by themselves as their basic entitlement to food (e.g., for peasants growing food crops). When peasants are faced with changes in climate shocks like drought their grown food crops are too little to feed their households. Devereux (2001), conquers with Sen‟s view, explaining that, the scarcity of food is due to natural reasons. Sen (1984) added that, in the times of food scarcity and famine people develop alternative ways to acquire food. Based on this study alternatives are “drought coping strategies.”
According to Sen (1987), the two groups of the entitlement can be observed as, entitlements and endowments. The entitlements comprise the strategies or mechanisms applied by people in the society basing on their right and opportunities against the inconvenience situations he or she faces (Devereux, 2001). The endowment type utilizes available materials and resources as the mechanism of coping with the prevailing disaster like drought (Sen, 1981). Further, elaborated other two mechanisms or alternatives which lead to household food availability. Two ways among them are; first, entitlement based on trade, refers to the capability of the people to sell or buy food. Second, entitlement based on own labor, refers to capability for the people to sell their skills and labor power to purchase and produce own food (Devereux, 2001).
The theory is corresponding on this research as it acknowledges adapting new ways/ drought coping strategies for food availability in the times of natural disasters like drought. Sen‟s theory corresponding to this study on the part of objectives one and two, as the study intends to identify the drought coping strategies applied by
9 household members for food availability and assessing the contribution of such coping strategies on household food availability.
2.4 Empirical Literature Review The literature related to contribution of drought coping strategies towards food availability in Tanzania and in the world at large are reviewed and examined. This part begins with effects of drought on food availability, drought coping strategies worldwide, Africa and Tanzania and the current situation of food.
2.4.1 Effects of Drought on Household Food Availability Drought causes water scarcity on the environment that affects agricultural production (Byun and Wilhite, 1999). The soil moisture is the most first part of the hydrological system to be affected. The drought effects spread from agricultural food production sector up to other sectors. The drought effects spread beyond the community affected even after the event ended (Coleen et al., 2006). Drought impacts are diverse and are divided into the classification of environmental effects, economic and social effects (Paul, 1998). The community depends on agricultural production whereby agriculture is the main source of food. The first drought impact is observed in the form of a low food production, land degradation and forest destruction. Other impacts include reduced water level, livestock death rates, damage to wildlife and fish habitat (Coleen, 2006). Drought has been affecting global food production availability and livelihood (FAO, 2008). When drought occurs at critical of crop growth stages, the effects on agriculture becomes too severe (FAO, 2011). Tanzania like any other developing countries has been exposed to drought, which is the most common causes of food crisis in rural areas, especially in semi-arid regions like Dodoma.
2.4.2 Coping Strategies Adapted and Practiced by Drought Victims around the World The coping strategies adopted vary from one area to another, therefore every area has the different ways of handling the drought effects based on household food availability due to different reasons such as technology, accessibility, resources availability, etc. The following are few examples of coping strategies practiced in different places in the world to ensure household food availability.
10 In the years of 1973, 1978, 1981, 1982, 1989, 1992, 1994 and 1995, Bangladesh suffered severe droughts (Paul, 1998). Many crops were affected that led to food scarcity. To maintain food availability to cope with drought, sophisticated (ex ante) risk-management and (ex post) risk-coping strategies were developed (Paul 1998). Despite of those coping strategies food availability was not achieved because the strategies failed to carter the bar of the expected output.
The 2016/17 drought was one of the major hits in Sri Lanka in the past five years, causing around 227,000 households to become food insecure so far in the affected areas (FAO 2017). Community interviews also suggested that the households had never experienced that level of drought for 40 years. Coping strategies adapted for food insecurity included supplementary feeding, deep welling, reducing number of meals, begging and barter trade. The coping strategies helped them to have food in temporary time. They failed to contribute enough food to solve food scarcity problem.
Zimbabwe experienced high drought in 1980s, where agricultural production was affected and caused food scarcity in the country (Matanga et al, 2012). To continue living, people adapted coping strategies like, cultivating more crops, early planting, planting drought tolerant crops, basin tillage and migrating to towns searching for jobs. A study by Matanga, et al, (2012) further shows that, the coping strategies managed to produce expected outcome of household food availability.
In Kajiado District in Kenya, there were strategies developed to cope with the drought of 1972-1976 and 1994-1995 (Campbell, 2009). Strategies like prayer and payment to a rainmaker, movement of livestock to areas with water and pasture, liquidation of assets, use of moral economy, migration to towns and abroad in search of jobs were developed (Eriksen, et al. 2005). Some of coping strategies like the usage of moral economy and migration to towns contributed to help them to get food, but prayer and payment to a rainmakers contributed nothing on food availability.
Tanzania like any other country in the world has been experiencing drought condition more frequently in the northern and central zone (Shinyanga, Manyara,
11 Simiyu, Arusha, Singinda and Dodoma) of the country (URT, 2011). The country experienced severe drought in 1999/2000 that extended to 2005 (Kivaria, 2007). This drought led to low crop yield, food scarcity, shortage of water. It affected people in the northern part of Tanzania who were left with shortage of food and water. Drought condition is experienced more in semi-arid regions of central Tanzania particularly Dodoma. This results into unstable farming practices and low food production in the regions. As a result, rural households adopted drought coping strategies to maintain household food availability (Maharjam, 2006). The coping strategies adapted include consumption of wild food such fruits, roots and vegetables, selling land, reducing daily number of meals, consuming seed reserved seeds, harvesting immature food crops, selling livestock, consuming less preferred food and migration to search jobs (Maharjam, 2006). However these strategies keep on changing due to the factors like time, education, economic, resources available, religious beliefs, technology and environment. Some coping strategies contribute on household food availability, while others have not. Therefore, assessing the contribution of drought coping strategies contribution on household food availability is very vital.
2.4.3 Knowledge Gap From the literature review there is still a gap on the knowledge concerning the assessment of the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability. Despite of various studies which had been undertaken on coping strategies, there are dynamism due to the factors like time, technology, education, available resources and alike that requires an assessment. Therefore, there is a need to identify and document the drought coping strategies and the contribution to food availability in the study area-Chamwino District.
2.5 The Conceptual Framework for the Study The conceptual framework assists a researcher to organize his thoughts to reach a complete investigation (Smyth, 2004). The framework explains the relationships among interrelated concepts and explains the possible connection among variables (Kombo, 2006). The conceptual framework for this study consists of socio- demographic characteristics, dependent and independent as shown in Figure 1; Where, Background variables (Socio-Demographic Characteristics) determine the types of Independent variables (Drought Coping Strategies) to be applied and the 12 Independent variables determine the Dependent variables (food availability) achieved. This conceptual framework indicates that, the amount of household food contributed depends on the drought coping strategies applied and the drought coping strategies applied depends on the socio-demographic characteristics. The respondent‟s age, sex, education level, marital status and position in the household determine the types of drought coping strategies applied and the way of applying them. Furthermore, the types of drought coping strategies applied and how they applied determine the amount of food contributed in households.
Background variables Independent variable Dependent variable
Food Availability Socio- Coping Strategies Demographic Doing work to get Household food Characteristics money situation Age of Planting crops Amount of food Respondent sustain drought
Sex of Planting short term produced and Respondent seeds purchased in Education Small scale terms of sacks Level irrigation Marital Small business status Selling charcoal, Household firewood and
size glasses Respondent Exchange food
s position in with work household Selling land and cattle.
Figure 1: Conceptual Framework for the Study.
Source: Researcher‟s Construction Based on Literature Review (2019).
2.6 The Scope and Justification of the Study The study covered the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability at Mvumi Makulu ward in Chamwino District, Dodoma, Tanzania. The study included data recorded by the authorized institute as primary data, also included data that were collected by the researcher by using different data collection techniques during the researching time to observe the existing situation. Despite of
13 the studies on drought coping strategies that had been developed, drought coping strategies differ from one place to the other due to many factors. Also, there had not a study conducted on the assessing the drought coping strategies contribution on household food availability. Thus, developing a study on assessing coping strategies contribution on household food availability is very important.
2.6 Chapter Summary Chapter two has reviewed literature on the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability. While basing on an Entitlement Theory and by being critical to foregoing theoretical position, it has revealed that, there are various drought coping strategies applied such as drought resistant crops, practicing small business, doing work to get money (casual labor), exchanging food with work, applying small scale of irrigation system, the use/planting of short-term seeds, selling charcoal, firewood, grasses and selling properties like land and cattle. These drought coping strategies have direct contribution on household food availability; though the food contributed do not satisfy the household food amount required. Despite of drought coping strategies contribution on HH food availability, lacking enough money/capital to invest in food production and buying food, too little rain than expected, price fluctuation, rising of crops destructive organisms like birds and insects and lacking of redness among some households to apply some of drought coping strategies advised by ward officers have been hindering the HH efforts in applying drought coping strategies to the extent of minimizing the amount of food gained by the HH. Besides, the following Chapter two laid the foundation/base for Chapter three which presents the research methodology adopted in this study.
14 CHAPTER THREE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 3.1 Introduction This section includes; study area and its justification, research design, research approach, target population and sampling frame, sampling techniques, sample size, sources and methods of data collection, data analysis, validity and reliability of study and ethical consideration.
3.2 Study Area and its Justification The study was conducted at Mvumi Makulu ward in Chamwino District. It involved three streets of Mvumi Makulu, Chalula and Mazengo. Chamwino District is among the six districts in Dodoma Region. It is bordered to the East by Manyara Region, Kongwa and Mpwapwa Disticts, to the North by Chemba District, to the West by Singida Region, Bahi District and Dodoma District (NBS, 2013). In 2012 Tanzanian National Census, the population of Chamwino District was 495,176 made up of 96,686 households. The ward is located 30 km south of Dodoma City. Mvumi Makulu ward has population of 10218 (4,671 males and 5543 females) with 2117 households. Based on Ward Executive office‟s personal communication, the ward has 3588 household members who belonged to very active economic and food production aged between 15 to 60 years old. Area is distributed as 77km2 are suitable for agriculture, 10 km2 for livestock keeping and 12km2 are mountainous with slight bushes and scrubs (Msaki et al., 2011). Climate and vegetation of the study area is semi-arid climate with bimodal rainfall pattern of 400 mm to 1000 mm with an average of 550 mm-600 mm. This situation results to food scarcity into the area particular during the drought period. While this study could be undertaken in any other region in Tanzania, the study locations were selected for the following reasons. First, Chamwino District is located in the region which faces extreme unpredictable rainfall. This has led to the region to have very minimal and unreliable food production. Second, the region faces drought problem which affect the household food availability. Third, households in the region have been applying drought coping strategies to maintain food availability in households. Therefore, the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability was considered for this study.
15 3.3 Research Design A descriptive cross-sectional research design was employed for this study. Data was gathered from the field area at once in time. According to Bailey (1998), this design is very useful for descriptive purposes as well as for determination of relationship between and among variables at a particular point in time. It involves the analysis of data collected from a population or representative subset at one specific point in time. Thus, it allows for phenomenon under investigation to be captured at a particular point in time during one data collection period (Creswell, 2003). A descriptive cross-sectional research design has the benefit of measuring attitudes and practices as well as provides information in a short range of time, time required for administering and collecting information (Kumar, 2011). The design allowed the researcher to be able to collect data in relatively short period of time. It saved time and costs as it facilitated going to the field for few days. Therefore, it helped to enhance data accuracy.
3.3.1Research Approach Research approach is necessary to research as it steps wide assumptions to details method of data collection, analysis and interpretation, this includes qualitative and quantitative research approaches (Creswell, 2003). Employing mixed method that mix both qualitative and quantitative methods provides deeper insight regarding the problem under investigation, compared to researcher‟s use of single approach (Wisdom, 2013). In this study, mixed method were employed where qualitative approach was used as the main research approach, while quantitative approach was used to quantify specific phenomena and to compliment the other. The qualitative approach was used mostly appropriate at making sense about respondents‟ views regarding the overall contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability. Further, employing this approach the researcher was able to collect data which helped to comprehend about the types of drought coping strategies applied by households. The approach helped the researcher to make deep exploration of respondents. According to Dawson (2009), the approach enables researcher to obtain in-depth data from respondents, through their personal knowledge, experience and opinions. It also helped the research to gain deeper understanding of the subject matter investigated by entering into the respondents‟ personal world. Quantitative
16 approach is generally given to the study of the overall statistical results obtained and carried out, which has characteristics of investigative, diagnostic and predictive (Kothari, 2004). Meanwhile, in this study quantitative approach was employed in order to collect quantitative data that helped to quantify the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability in the study locations.
3.3.2 Target Population and Sampling Frame This section presents the targeted population from which a sample is drown and sampling frame to which the specific set of sample units drown from.
3.3.2.1 Target Population A target population is the population in which the researcher used to withdraw the samples for research to get the results for the study (Amin 2005). Based on this study, the targeted population was all adult household members aged 15 years and ward officials who involved in applying drought coping strategies for food availability at Mvumi Makulu ward.
3.3.2.2 Sampling Frame Sampling frame is the specific set of units from which the sample is actually drawn (Bhattacherjee, 2002). Similarly, Bhattacherjee (2012) sampling frame is an accessible section of the target population (usually a list with contact information) from where a sample can be drawn. Under this study, sampling frame constituted adults aged from 15 years in households because drought coping strategies applied by adults in households. Sampling frame constituted also ward officers from which key informants were drown. Sampling frame enables a researcher to pick respondents who are useful in data collection for research finding (Kothari, 2004).
3.4 Sampling Techniques and Sample Size This section presents the sampling techniques and sample size adopted in the study. Sampling techniques include probability and non-probability sampling and the sample size is also presented in this part.
3.4.1 Sampling Techniques Sampling techniques is the plan that describes the selection of research‟s respondents (Tromp, 2006). The study focused on both probability and non-probability sampling 17 techniques for obtaining the information from adult aged 15 years household members, government officials and other key informants in the study area. According to Kothari, (2004), non-probability sampling is applied by the researcher, selecting the items of the sample intentionally. Under this study, non-probability sampling used was purposive sampling to select the district, ward and streets of the study. Purposive sampling technique was also employed to select the streets of Mvumi Makulu, Chalula and Mazengo. This is because, firstly, the streets are only streets in the study area also the decision was influenced mainly by the time factor, since the time allocated for this study could permit the researcher to cover all streets. Additionally, from the list obtained from the Wards‟ Executive office, purposive sampling technique was used to select eight officers as key informants who are knowledgeable about the subject matter under investigation. This is in line with the study of Kothari (2004) which states that, purposive sampling enables a researcher to pick respondents who are useful in data collection for research findings. Simple Random sampling of technique was used to select samples of respondents from households to enable each member in the population to have equal chance of being selected as the sample. The selection of samples was based on the age and experience in applying drought coping strategies.
3.4.2 Sample Size A sample refers to a small part of a population that selected for observations and analysis (Rwegoshora, 2006). Sample size can also be described as the number of items to be selected from the population to represent the whole population (Kothari, 2011). In this study sample size was 100 respondents in Mvumi Makulu ward, where by 92 was households and 8 government officials in the study area.
The sample size was calculated using Slovin‟s formula, which is widely used for determining the sample size for the study.
The formula is presented as following: n=N/ (1 +Ne2) Whereas: n= no. of samples N= total population
18 e= error margin/margin of error
Based on Ward Executive office‟s data, Mvumi Makulu ward has 3588 household members who belonged to very active economic and food production age group between 15 to 60 years old. It is from this household age group a sample size of respondents was selected for this study. Using slovin‟s formula the sample population was selected as indicated below.
Since, N= 3588 selected sample was obtained following the below calculation. = 3588/ (1 + 3588*0.12) = 3588 / (1 + 3588*0.01) = 3588 / (1 + 3588*0.01) = 3588 / (1 + 38) = 3588/39 = 92 sample size of respondents.
According to Bailey, (1994) any study in which statistical analysis will be involved, a sample size of greater than 30 respondents ought to be selected regardless of the population size. This study employed a sample size of 92 respondents from Mvumi Makulu Ward. According to Matata et al. (2001), suggest that a sample size ranging from 80-120 respondents are adequate for most socio-economic researches. Furthermore, Amina (2005) reported; “researcher must determine the sample size that will provide sufficient data to answer the research problem” Therefore, the sample size of 92 respondents is enough to provide adequate data to answer the research problem in the Mvumi Makulu ward in Chamwino District.
3.5 Sources and Methods of Data Collection This section presents the sources and methods of data collection employed by the study.
3.5.1 Sources of Data Collection This study obtained data from both primary and secondary sources for the comprehension of the subject matter. The purposes of applying both sources were to collect data in a comprehensive variety. Primary data are the first hand information which is collected by a researcher directly from the respondents through interview, observation and survey (Kothari, 2004). Besides, Kombo and Tromp (2006) defined 19 primary source of data as the information obtained on first hand by the researcher on variables of interest for a specific study. The primary data were collected using household survey, focus group discussion (FGD) and observation methods. Secondary source of data are the second hand information collected by researchers through reading various written documents which are relating to the problem under the study (Rwegoshora, 2006).
The secondary source of data for this study was obtained from different documents both published and unpublished such as books, journals, reports, newspapers, articles and online source. These source were used to obtain data to complement the primary data and helped to shape the focus of this study.
3.5.2 Methods of Data Collection Multiple methods of data collection were used for triangulation on the ground of its capability to minimize the vulnerability of obtaining inaccurate information (Dawson, 2009). Methods used were literature review, utilized to get secondary data, while household survey, FGD and researcher‟ personal observation for obtaining primary data.
3.5.2.1 Literature Review Method In this study, the researcher used literature review method to collect secondary data. The researcher used relevant literatures/documents both published and unpublished such as video tapes, newspapers, journals, books and research dissertations, articles, activity progress reports and pamphlets relating to drought and coping strategies. These literature documents were obtained from the library of the University of Dodoma, internet, the public and private institutions relating to drought, drought coping strategies and household food availability. All crucial information obtained was meticulously recorded in the researchers‟ diary to being processed and analyzed. This method is in line with Kombo & Tromp, (2006) study, states that literature review method involves careful analysis of documents that contain relevant information about the subject matter a researcher is investigating (Kombo & Tromp, 2006).
20 3.5.2.2 Household Survey The household survey for this research work was conducted using questionnaire constituted both open and closed ended question. This is a versatile tool that can be used to collect qualitative, quantitative or mixed data (Rwegoshora, 2006). In this study a researcher used the household survey to collect primary data that helped to understand respondents‟ demographic and social characteristics, to identify the time of drought experienced and drought coping strategies applied. Furthermore it gathered information regarding the amount of food contributed by those drought coping strategies. Besides, the questionnaires were used to collect the information on the challenges people encounter in applying the drought coping strategies at Mvumi Makulu ward. The questionnaire was translated into Swahili language to ensure that it is well understood by the targeted respondents, and was administered face to face by the researcher.
The face to face interview was employed because it is the most feasible and practical method of questionnaire particularly when dealing with rural respondents. This is because literacy level is relatively low for most people in rural areas compared to urban areas.
3.5.2.3 Focus Group Discussion The method was used by a researcher during data collection, where three groups were created (one in each street) consisting of ten members per group. The researcher observed gender balance while creating those groups to avoid unbalanced opinions that could result, if one gender is dominating the group. Relevant questions and topics pertaining to the investigated subject were used to guide the discussions. FGD played a significant role to gather information that would not be obtained by using other data collection tools and also to complement other methods of data collection.
Furthermore, the method helped the researcher to understand perception and emotional reactions pertaining to the investigated subject of respondents. The method helped also a researcher to use low cost, short time and allowed facilitator to gain deeper insight into unanticipated issues. This is in line with Kothari, (2009) study states that, FGD is justified by its low cost, low time consumed, allowing facilitator
21 to gain deeper insight into unanticipated issues and provision of speedy results. Moreover, (FGD) is a method of data collection through which a researcher interview more respondents per once. The participants share common characteristics, interests and interact with each other, where the role of a facilitator is assumed by the researcher (Johson & Christensen, 2011).
3.5.2.4 Observation Method In this section the researcher made an observation on the following aspects; drought situation, coping strategies applied like drought tolerant crops, crops of short term seeds, small scale of irrigation they apply and the crops irrigated, livestock kept, food harvested, food stored in households and small business like motorcycle, small shops in the study area. It is under this method the researcher had the ability of taking photographs for presenting in the study report. Direct observation helped to enrich information provided by households and key informants involved in the study. According to Robinson (2018), Observation is the method of data collection that involves seeing or watching an objectives or phenomenon during the study.
3.6 Data Processing and Analysis This section explains data analysis and process utilized to arrive to the conclusion of this research work starting with data processing and followed by data analysis.
3.6.1 Data Processing Prior to embarking on detailed analysis, the data obtained was firstly cleaned to remove errors and inconsistencies. After cleaning process, the data was systematically organized, coded condensed into key themes and entered into relevant computer program to simplify the actual analysis. Data from questionnaire was initially coded and entered into the statistics package for social sciences (SPSS version 20) for systematic analysis. After analysis the data was imported into Ms Excel spreadsheet, which helped to organize them into graphs and figures for clear and precise presentation.
22 3.6.2 Data Analysis Data analysis refer to process of organizing, accounting for and explaining the data; it is to bring meaning of the data in terms of the participants‟ definitions of the situation, noting patterns, themes, categories and regularities (Tromp, 2006).
Quantitative data were analyzed using the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). In qualitative data analysis; qualitative data from field area and questionnaire was carefully summarized into meaningful sentences and themes then discussed along with descriptive statistics. Thematic approach involving establishing familiarization with data, generating initial codes, searching for themes among codes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and eventually producing the final report were used. In addition, key observations that were made by researcher on the fields were incorporated to interpret the meaning behind each key finding.
3.7 Limitations and Delimitation of the Study The limitation of this study firstly on the size of the sample. To gather exhaustive data for this study, only one ward and a random sampling of just 92 respondents were selected. Thus, the findings obtained can be generalized only in the area, Environment and conditions, which correspond to the chosen study region.
Likewise, it is worth noting that this study used questionnaires and focus group discussion to bring to light the experience, observation and the reality of the investigated phenomenon, via respondents own views and their interpretations. However, respondents‟ answers could possibly be influenced by various factors, including their aspirations, ideology and culture, apart from realities.
The researcher overcame these limitations by employing multiple tools for data collections (Triangulation) to enhance data accuracy, validity, and reliability. This minimized potential biases from respondents. The data gathered were exhaustive and carefully and systematically analyzed.
3.8 Validity and Reliability of the Study In mixed research validity and reliability are to be maintained. Both validity and reliability was maintained in this study through various techniques which described below: 23 1. Content validity: to achieve this, the research instruments were reviewed by the supervisor, who possesses extensive knowledge of research methods. Based on supervisors‟ comments all unclear questions were revised and the complex items reworded. Also, the questions which were ineffective were discarded completely. The validation of all questions was done by the supervisor to make sure that, they adequately covered the concept they were supposed to measure. 2. Triangulation method: Triangulation of the data sources was used in this study to gain different perceptions, ideas and recommendation from respondents involved in applying drought coping strategies for their household food availability. Using multiple data collection instruments is proven to enhance both validity and reliability of the data and the results obtained as they used to collect varied types of information (Kothari, 2009). 3. Thick description: In this study, the quotations made by respondents during data collection were utilized to enhance the findings obtained and to facilitate readers of this report to effectively comprehend, perception, attitude and true feelings of the respondents regarding the subject investigated. 4. Use of back translation: the questionnaire was originally designed in English, but all questionnaire was translated into Swahili language by a researcher to ease communication and interaction with respondents during interview process. The gathered information was later again translated into English for report writing. 5. Avoiding bias: the researcher gathered, analyzed and interpreted data as objectively as possible and was explicit, critical and faithful at different phases of the inquiry process. Besides, the researcher remained as nonjudgmental and clear as possible throughout the research process and stuck to the ethical principles, rules and guidelines which governs the conduct of ethically compliant and objective research. The researcher performed also the evaluation of the data as accurately as possible and reported the findings truthfully and honestly.
24 3.9 Ethical Consideration Ethics is a system of moral values based on the degree to which research procedures adhere to professional, legal and social obligations (Kombo 2006). Respondents have to be given permission prior to their participation in the study (Dawson, 2009). Since this study involved human beings, ethical standards which guide social science research were observed. The researcher deeply understood that consensual participation of the respondents, protecting their privacy, and human rights are critical for ethically compliant research, as argued by Dawson (2009). To achieve this, firstly the researcher obtained an approval from the directorate of graduate studies of the University of Dodoma, prior to embarking on field data collection. The approval was granted by the respective directorate through official letter that also served to introduce the researcher to ward officers and households in field area. Secondly, for all respondents to participate willingly, the researcher sought for the prior consent before engaging them in this study and assured them that all information gathered will remain confidential and used only to satisfy the study objectives. Thirdly, the purpose of the research, its benefits and expected risks of participating in it were openly disclosed to all participants. Finally, the researcher allowed participants to be free to withdraw from this study, when they felt like doing so. The wishes, respondent‟s future well-being and their dignity were protected in the study. Furthermore, the names of respondents were not written on interview and questionnaires guides to maintain anonymity and confidentiality. Self-determination was also maintained to give every respondents the freedom to decide voluntarily whether or not to be involved in the study.
3.10 Chapter Summary Chapter three presented the research methodology adopted in this study. This chapter started to select Chamwino District as a study area and its justification following the consideration of being one among of semi-arid areas and where drought coping strategies being applied to maintain household food availability in Tanzania. In this study, a cross-sectional research design was employed. The research approaches which were employed are qualitative and quantitative for the purpose of collecting data in a wide range. Targeted population was household members and ward officials who involved in applying drought coping strategies for food availability and
25 sampling frame for this study constituted the households farmers who apply the coping strategies in the household. Sampling techniques focused on both probability and non-probability sampling techniques. Sample size was 100 respondents where by 92 was household members and 8 government officials and other key informants in the study area. Furthermore, the sources of data used were primary and secondary sources, while methods of data collection were documentary review, focus group discussion, household survey and observation. The analysis of data based on content analysis for qualitative data which collected from interviews while on the other hand, quantitative data that collected from questionnaire were coded and processed by using SPSS version 20 computer software application. For insuring the issues of study validity and reliability was maintained through various techniques such as; content validity, triangulation method, thick description and use of back translation. The following chapter four presents the research findings and discussions.
26 CHAPTER FOUR FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION 4.1 Introduction The findings of the study are presented and discussed in this chapter based on the study objectives. There are four sections in this chapter. The first part presents and discusses the socio-demographic characteristic results, second section presents and discusses drought coping strategies applied by household. The third part discusses the contribution of those coping strategies on household food availability while the fourth section discusses challenges which people encounter during applying those coping strategies followed by summary of the chapter.
4.2 Socio-demographic characteristics This section provides the general socio-demographic characteristic involved in the analysis of drought coping strategies on household food availability in semi-arid area in Dodoma, Tanzania. These socio-characteristics of respondents include age, sex, education level, marital status, household position and household size. The results of every characteristic are presented.
4.2.1 Age of Household Respondents The household members were interviewed based on the sample selected, one of the key factors assessed was the age of the respondent and the findings are shown in Table 1.
27 Table 1: Age of Respondent involved in Drought Coping Strategies Application Age Interval Frequency Percent 11-20 2 2. 17 21-30 13 14.13 31-40 20 21.74 41-50 34 36.96 51-60 11 11.96 61-70 8 8.70 71-80 4 4.35 81-90 0 0.00 Above 91 0 0.00 Total 92 100.00 Source: Field Data Survey (2019)
Age of a person may influence the adoption and the effective application of the drought coping strategies that determine the amount of food contribution. People‟s experience in drought coping strategies adoption and application as well as people‟s power, energy, skills and awareness can reflect the level of drought coping strategies contribution on HHs food availability. The results in Table 1 shows that, about 34 (36.96%) respondents interviewed were in the age between “41-50” followed with the 20 (21.74%) respondents interviewed with the age ranged 31-40. The 13 (14.13%) respondents were in the age ranged 21-30, while 11 (11.96%) respondent interviewed were in the age ranged 51-60. This implies that, the summation of the five groups of the respondents provides the total number of the respondents to be 80 (86.96%) belonging to very active economic and food production age group between 15 to 60 years old as noted by (National Bureau of Statistics, 2015). Based on their age, energy as well as their experience, they manage to understand, adopt and apply drought coping strategies. They also able to minimize some of challenges to some extent compared to oldest age group. In contrast, the respondent aged 61 to 91 were a few 13.05% of the respondent‟s sample who considered as inactive economically and food production group.
28 4.2.2 Sex of Household Respondents Both female and male members in the households were involved in the study. It was revealed that 37 (40.2%) of all respondents in the study were male while 55 (59.8%) were female. The sex of a person determines the type of drought coping strategies to be adopted and applied. In the study area, female engage mostly in applying drought coping strategies of crops production such as planting tolerant drought crops, planting seeds of short time, providing labor power and applying small scale of irrigation. On another hand, most of male engage in managerial drought coping strategies such as selling land and cattle. These findings are supported by Sheahan and Barrett (2017) study on ten striking facts about agricultural input use in Sub- Saharan Africa. It was observed that, in Sub-Saharan Africa including Tanzania, women provide the bulk of the labor in agriculture, quoted to be 60-80%. Men provide only 20-40% of labor force.
4.2.3 Education Level of Household Respondents The level of education is very important factor for a person‟s ability to understand, adapt and apply a certain drought coping strategies. In the context of this study, an educated individual was expected to have greater ability to deeply understand good drought coping strategies and how to apply them to contribute more amount of food to their households. Findings are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Education Level of Household involved in Coping Strategies Application Level of Education Frequency Percent Informal Education 21 22.83 Primary Education 46 50.00 Secondary Education 17 18.48 Tertiary Education 8 8.70 Total 92 100.00 Source: Field Data (2019)
The levels of education of households observed were; primary education, secondary education, tertiary education level and informal education. The findings in Table 2
29 show that, out of 92 respondents interviewed, 46 (50%) attained primary education level while 21 (22.83%) attained informal education. 17 (18.48%) of respondents attained secondary education level and 8 (8.70%) of respondents attained tertiary education. In total, it is about 72.83% equal to 67 respondents out of 92 respondents were observed to attain primary education level and informal education. The fact that the low level of education is predominant in the study area could be the reason why food scarcity problem is still prevalent, despite the application of drought coping strategies. It was observed that, people with primary education level and informal education have low ability to adopt and apply some of drought coping strategies. As revealed by this study, some of drought coping strategies like doing small business, applying small scale of irrigation and all productive coping strategies were implemented below the required level. This results into household food scarcity. This is in line with the report by FAO (2017) that the more the household members are educated, the more likely are able to adopt new strategies to overcome challenges. FAO further report that in Sub-Saharan Africa, people limited access to resources and insufficient ability to adopt new strategies are products of series of interrelated social factors including lack of education.
4.2.4 Marital Status of Respondents Marriage is a common phenomenon and essential part of life. In this study; single, married, widowed and divorced/separated were taken as the key categories of the marital status which affect either positively or negatively on the matter related to drought coping strategies adoption, application and level of contribution on household amount of food. Table 3 presents marital status findings.
Table 3: Marital Status of Household Respondents Marital status Frequency Percent Married 73 79 Widowed 11 12 Divorce/ Separated 8 9 Total 92 100.00 Source: Field Data Survey (2019)
30 The findings in Table 3 revealed that, 79% equal to 73 respondents out of 92 were married, followed by 12% equal to 11 respondents were widowed while 9% equal to 8 respondents were divorce/separated marital status. It was realized that, marital status of married in household manage to adopt and apply more drought coping strategies per once that contribute more amount of food to their households compared to other marital status. Division of labor in married families becomes easier compared to widowed and divorced marital status families. They manage to conduct many to conduct various food production works and money generating works. Similar findings were also revealed by Gillo (2012), in Hanang District, Tanzania. Married couples have more family responsibilities, which necessitate them to engage in various activities to meet their households‟ food availability needs. It was observed by a researcher that, Married families in the field area have more food availability compared to others.
4.2.5 Household Position of Respondents It is important to be familiar with household position, because it is related with the economic activities and drought coping strategies applied by a person in household. Table 4 presents Household Position of Respondents.
Table 4: Household Position of Respondents Respondents household Frequency Percent position Father 29 31.52 Mother 50 54.35 Brother/Boys 8 8.70 Sister/Girls 5 5.43 Total 92 100.00 Source: Field Data (2019)
It was observed that, all adult household members (fathers, mothers, brothers and sisters) are responsible in applying drought coping strategies for household food availability. 29 (31.52%) of respondents 31.52% were fathers, 50 (54.35%) of respondents were Mothers while 8 were boys and 5 were girl‟s equivalent to 8.70 and 5.43% respectively. Furthermore, it was revealed that mothers and fathers in the
31 household interviewed were many (total percentage equal to 85.87% out of 100%) compare to brothers and sisters interviewed with total percentage of 14.13% out of 100%). The study revealed that, most of drought coping strategies which relate to agricultural activities performed by mothers and girls constitute 59.78%. While fathers and boys constitute 40.22% engage mostly in drought coping strategies related to money earnings like small business, selling charcoal firewood and glasses. Only fathers are responsible in applying coping strategies of selling family land and cattle. The findings correspond to the study by Sheahan and Barrett, (2017) on ten striking facts about agricultural input use in Sub-Saharan Africa. It was observed that, in Sub-Saharan Africa including Tanzania, women provide the bulk of the labor in agriculture, quoted to be 60-80%. It is advisable, both men and women to participate equally in applying all drought coping strategies that based on food production activities and financial earnings activities.
4.2.6 Household Size In production and managerial coping strategies, household size affects them either positively or negatively on household amount of food contributed. This is due to the fact that, the increase in household size is likely to increase the probability of amount of food contribution to household as they adopt many production and managerial coping strategies. Table 5, presents the findings of household size.
Table 5: Household Size Total household member Frequency Percent 3-5 46 50.00 6-8 38 41.30 9-12 8 8.70 Above 12 0 0.00 Total 92 100.00 Source: Field Data survey (2019)
The findings in Table 5 show that the total number of household members in the interval between 3-5 has shown to be the most predominant in many household of Mvumi Makulu ward. This is because about 46 respondents equivalent to 50.00% out of 92 respondents interviewed have the total members/ household size between 3 to 32 5. Followed with 38 respondent equivalents to 41.30% which their size interval ranges between 6-8 household members. The household size is very high, because most of families practice polygamous marriages that enable them to have more peoplev7. The study findings are supported by Matunga, (2008) who reported that, many people in Chamwino District practice polygamous marriage especially families with many livestock that enables them to have more wives and children which leads to more household members. The household s‟ size of 6.8 is larger compared to the size found during population census of 2012, which the household size of 4.7 was the highest size in Dodoma Region include Chamwino District (NBS, 2013). Household size affects households either positively or negatively on household amount of food contributed. This is because, the increase in household size members increase the probability of applying more drought coping strategies which increase the amount of food contributed to their household. But in the study field area is contrary as most of households consist many children of below 15 age and old people with above 60 ages. This group of children and old age are considered as dependent group. This is because the group of 15 to 60 years old is the group that has considered being very active economic and food production age by the National Bureau of Statistics in Tanzania (National Bureau of Statistics, 2015). Thus, in the study area the household size affect negatively on household amount of food contributed since only fewer household members engage in applying drought coping strategies compared to the dependent group in households.
33 Plate 1: The Researcher with Household Members from One of Mvumi Makulu Ward Household respondents during the Field Data Survey.
Source: Field Data Survey (2019)
4.3 Drought Coping Strategies Applied for Household Food Availability in the Study Area Specific objective number one was designed to identify drought coping strategies applied for household food availability in Mvumi Makulu, Chamwino District, Tanzania. This section covers time of drought experienced and its effects on household food availability in the study area, drought coping strategies applied by households to maintain household food availability.
4.3.1 Drought Experienced and its Effects on Household Food Availability Mvumi Makulu ward residents were interviewed on whether they have experienced drought. The findings showed that all 92 respondents equivalent to 100% experienced drought. The area is semi-arid climate which causes households to experience drought. Drought results to food scarcity into the area particular during the drought period which affects household‟s food availability. Table 6 presents the time of drought experienced and its effects on household food availability in the study area.
34 Table 6: Time of Drought Experienced and Drought Effects on Household Food Availability Time Experienced (Years) Frequency Percent 1-5 11 12.0 5-10 81 88.0 Total 92 100 Types of Effect Crop Drainage 71 77.2 Food Scarcity 21 22.8 Total 92 100 Source: Field Survey Data (2019)
The findings in Table 6 show that 11 (12.0%) of respondents have experienced drought for 1-5 years while 81 (88.00%) of respondents have experienced drought condition for 5-10 years. On another hand, about 71 (77.2) of respondents said, the drought results into crops drainage in the farms before harvesting time while 21 respondents equivalent to 22.8 said, drought causes food scarcity in their households. In ten (10) years ago except 2018, households have been experiencing drought. This year (2019) severe drought has been experienced, where some of crops were affected much as they dried immature before harvest time. Figure 2, shows the drought condition and its effects to some of crops.
35
Figure 2: Drought Effects on Crops at Mvumi Makulu Ward Source: Field Data Survey (2019)
Basing on the respondent‟s views, Mvumi Makulu ward has been experiencing different levels of drought. These are determined by the amount of rain in a particular year. They categorized the levels of drought into two major categories. First; critical drought, under this category, the rain is not enough and crops in the farms dried up before harvesting time. As such, this affects all crops including even some of drought resistant crops together with the crops of short time. This was observed by the researcher in the farms where even some crops that considered to sustain drought condition (sunflower) and crops of short time (maize) especially those planted lately, were affected much because of critical drought of this year 2019, as they seen in Figure 3.
Figure 3: Un-matured Dried Maize and Sunflower Crops Source: Field Data (2019)
36 Once such drought occurs, their economy is directly or indirectly affected. This results into severe food scarcity in the households. Moreover, due to critical drought, the harvested products are normally not equivalent to the size of farm cultivated. In Figure 4, are the few millets produced by one family from a half of one hectare cultivated.
Figure 4: Millet Crop Harvested by One of HHs from a Half of hectare Source: Field Data Survey (2019)
Second, moderate drought, under this category there is moderate rain which enables to take the crops to maturity phase, but for the only drought resistant crops and short- time seeds which are planted at the beginning of rain season. Such crops are millets, cassava, vegetables, sweet potatoes and maize. Figure 5 and Figure 6 present some of crops (sorghum and cassava) which tolerate drought respectively.
Figure 5: Drought Tolerant Crop (Sorghum) Source: Field Data Survey (2019)
37
Figure 6: Drought Tolerant Crop (Cassava) Source: Field Data survey (2019)
4.3.2 Drought Coping Strategies Applied in Mvumi Makulu Ward Based on the findings, drought affects the whole ward in terms of household food availability as it causes food scarcity. Drought existence in the ward force households to apply various drought coping strategies to maintain food availability. The study revealed that, 100% of Mvumi Makulu dwellers depend on their own production and the purchase food because households in the study area have no other means of obtaining food aid/assistance during the critical food scarcity. Thus, they invest in their own efforts to adopt and apply drought coping strategies that contribute to household food availability. Figure 7 presents the types of drought coping strategies applied in the ward
38
Figure 7: Types of Drought Coping Strategies Applied in the Study Area Source: Field Data survey (2019)
The findings in Figure 7 show the types of drought coping strategies applied in the study area. Semi-arid nature of drought in the study area and its effects on economic and food scarcity, push the household to adopt and apply various drought coping strategies. These strategies are adopted and applied as the means of minimizing food scarcity resulted from drought as confirmed by one of the key informants in study area.
“Adopting and applying drought coping strategies to acquire food is only way to sustain our lives in this environment surrounding us. Planting crops sustaining drought, seeds of short time, working to others to get money and selling our properties contribute to our household food availability. We eat what we produce and what we work for” (One of the household respondents in Mvumi Makulu ward, 2019). “All households apply drought coping strategies to acquire their daily food needs. The ward‟s nature of semi-arid drought, has always results into household severe food scarcity, but by applying various drought coping strategies, HHs manage to achieve at least amount of food that help them to survival. We as the ward officers,
39 we advise them on what and how to apply coping strategies” (Ward officer in Mvumi Makulu, 2019.)
These statements indicate the presence of household who apply drought coping strategies for food availability. The findings of the study are supported by Ndlovu (2009) in a study conducted on drought coping strategies at Mtasa District in Zimbabwe. It was reported that, farmers who were exposed to drought normally became risk averse and tended to employ drought risk reduction strategies for food security.
The drought coping strategies applied include doing work to get money, planting drought tolerant crops, use of short term seeds, practice small scale of irrigation, conducting petty business, selling charcoal, firewood and grasses, selling labor for cash or food and selling land and cattle.
The graphs of Figure 7 differ because of the times a single strategy was mentioned by respondents. Some of strategies were mentioned more times compared to others. The more the drought coping strategy was mentioned, the more it is applied by households leading to its high frequency. Furthermore, the one with low frequency was mentioned less as such less applied by the households. The findings presented in Figure 7 described that, planting drought resistant crops (such as sorghum, millet, cassava sweet potatoes and groundnuts), has higher frequency as it was mentioned most times (50) compared to other drought coping strategies. This type of drought coping strategy applied corresponds with the study done by Matanga, et al, (2012) which reported that, people who were victims of Zimbabwe drought in 1980s adapted coping strategies like, early planting of drought tolerant crops and cultivate more crops. This type of drought coping strategy contribute more amount of food to households compared to the others.
Practicing small business (petty) such as small shops, motorcycle and selling chicken eggs was mentioned 40 times. Selling labor was mentioned 31times. A study by Huysman (2009) in indicated that some of households worked as laborers in other people‟s fields and receive payment in form of cash to buy food as the means to cope with drought. Selling labor is the most common strategy practiced in many African
40 countries where by women and men go and work in other people‟s fields and are paid in terms of food or cash (Mwagile, 2006). The study noted that, selling of labor to well-off neighbors‟ farms does not contribute more amount of food. This is because, while working in other people‟s fields, they fail to work on their own fields at the appropriate time resulting into low production, hence household food scarcity (Mwagile, 2006).
Thus, the concentration of households into their own fields is needed to produce more amount of food to maintain food availability.
Other drought coping strategies were; planting short term seeds which was mentioned 20 times while small scale of irrigation mentioned 8 times. These findings supported by Tsehaye (2014) study on contribution of small –scale irrigation to household income and food security in Hintalo-wejerat of South-Eastern Zone, Tigray Region in Ethiopia. It was found that, people suffered with drought in 2001 applied small scale of irrigation which played a great role in increasing agricultural production which improved food availability. The findings of the study also reveals that in the history of drought areas, those households which have access to irrigation have survived better than their non-irrigation counterparts. In fact, farmers who use irrigation often produce more agricultural products worth a greater monetary value on fewer hectares than rain-fed farmers (Kamara, et al. 2010).
Selling charcoal, firewood and grasses was mentioned 17 times. The findings on this type of strategy supported by Mutangadula et al., (1999) who reported that, in Zambia and Uganda, rural households engage in small income generating activities such as selling firewood, brewing millet beer, charcoal, tailoring and handcrafts. The study realized that, though, selling charcoal and firewood contribute to their food availability but it causes deforestation and land degradation. Extension officers and other ward officers have to advice household to concentrate more in apply other strategies and insisting on afforestation while restricting people to cut down trees. Working to others and exchanging food with work was mentioned 17 times. The findings on this type of strategy corresponds with the findings of Mwagile (2001) study, which revealed that some members of food shortage households in Dodoma Rural District, worked as casual laborers in other people‟s fields and receive food in
41 kind or payment in form of cash to buy food. While selling land and cattle was mentioned 16 times. This findings supported by the Campbell (1996) study which revealed that, to maintain household food availability in African Villages, one among of coping strategies applied mostly is the strategy of selling productive household assets (livestock, land).
The findings of objective one which identified types of drought coping strategies applied in the study area reflect the theory of the study. The entitlement theory of this study suggests and acknowledges the adaptation of the new ways/ coping strategies for food availability in the times of natural disasters like drought existence. It describe the factors affecting food availability to people. The theory insists that food scarcity happen due to natural calamities reasons like drought where in the times of food scarcity and famine people develop alternative ways to acquire food. Based on this study, the theory corresponds with the findings of specific objective one. It has been realized by the study that drought existence in the study area affects agricultural activities that results into food scarcity. As a result, households apply drought coping strategies as the alternative ways to maintain household food availability.
The table was also established to present the findings of drought coping strategies types which applied in the study area. The purpose of establishing this table is to make more clarification on the frequency that shows how many times a single strategy was mentioned, the percentage and cumulative frequency. The table clarify in a sequence arrangement stating with the strategy that contribute more amount of food to the last one. It was noted that, planting drought tolerant crops contribute more amount of food than other coping strategies. Conducting small business (petty) is the second strategy in contributing more amount of food on household followed by selling labor, planting of short term seeds, small scale of irrigation, selling charcoal, firewood and grasses. Furthermore, selling land and cattle and exchanging food with work contribute little amount of food compared to others. These findings are presented in Table 7.
42 Table 7: Drought Coping Strategies contribute more amount of food Drought Coping Strategies Frequency Proportion Cumulative Percent Frequency 1. Planting drought 50 54.00 199 tolerant Crops 2. Doing small business 40 44.00 149 3. Doing work to get 31 34.00 109 money 4. Planting short term 20 22.00 78 seeds 5. Applying irrigation 17 19.00 58 6. Selling charcoal, 17 19.00 41 firewood and grasses 7. Selling land and cattle 16 18.00 24 8. Exchange food with 8 9 8 work Total 199 219 608
Source: Field Data survey (2019)
These findings from Figure 7 and Table 7 signifies the importance of investing more efforts in applying more drought coping strategies which has more contribution to household food availability. Applying such drought coping strategies will contribute more amount of food while reducing the problem of food scarcity in the households. For this to happen, there is a need of more supports to households in form of education, advice, financial, agricultural facilities and irrigation tools. Extension officers, central government, NGOs, private institutions and other stakeholders should join ward officers in provision of those supports. Education provided will enlarge household‟s knowledge, skills and understanding on the best way to apply drought coping strategies. Furthermore, financial support will enable household to practice modern agriculture as they will afford to buy agricultural facilities like tolerant drought crops, seeds of short time, small scale irrigation tools and fertilizers. The Tanzania Agricultural Development Bank (TADB), should also work hand by
43 hand with other stakeholders in supporting household especially financial support in form of soft loans or free grants.
4.4 Contributions of Drought Coping Strategies on Household Food Availability Specific objective number two was designed to examine the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability in Chamwino District, Tanzania. The discussion include the narrative on the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability, household‟s resources that support and contribute to household food availability. Furthermore, it discusses the size of land owned by households, size of land/farms they cultivate and types of crops produced. Moreover, it discusses the size of livestock owned by households, amount of food gained annually in terms of sacks from farms and markets, amount of food required by the household annually and amount of food consumed by household annually. It end up by discussing the necessity for improvement or change the current drought coping strategies, suggestions on drought coping strategies to be applied and ward officers‟ efforts to overcome community food scarcity.
4.4.1 Narrative on the Contribution of Drought Coping Strategies on Household Food availability The respondents were asked on whether the drought coping strategies applied contribute to household food availability or not. The findings are presented in Table 8.
Table 8: Response on whether DCS contribute on HH food Response on whether Frequency/Number of Percentage DCS contribute on HH respondents food Contribute 90 97.8 Not contribute 2 2.2 Total 92 100.00
Source: Field Data survey (2019)
The findings from the study show that 90 (97.8%) revealed that drought coping strategies applied contribute to household food availability. Only 2 (2.2%) responded 44 that there is no contribution on household food availability. The study noted that 2 (2.2%) who respondent that drought coping strategies have no contribution on household food availability are those people who pay less attention to apply strategies which contribute more amount of food. Not only that but also, they apply the strategies poorly as they lack relevant skills, knowledge and enough capital to invest. On another hand, 97.8% who said drought coping strategies contribute on household food availability are the people who apply strategies which contribute more amount of food. This is because, they have at least a knowledge and little capital to invest in drought coping strategies they apply. Education and financial support from government and other stakeholders to 2.2% respondents is required for them to benefit from the strategies they apply.
4.4.2 Household Resources that Support and Contribute to Household Food Availability Land and livestock are the two main resources which complement drought coping strategies in contributing to household food availability. This is because these resources can be used by households as food and income source respectively.
Furthermore, land and livestock are termed as supportive and managerial resources which used as the base for applying other drought coping strategies.
4.4.2.1 Size of Land Owned by Households The study was interested to know the land size owned by households as they sell the land as drought coping strategies for food. It was observed that, 40% of HHs own 2-5 hectares, 30% own 5-10. Besides, 20% of households own hectares of land ranged 10-15 while 10% own above 15 hectares.
45 Table 9: Size of Land Owned by Household Size of Land (Hectare) Frequency Percent 2-5 35.00 38.04 6-10 29.00 31.52 11-15 19.00 20.65 Above 15 9.00 9.78 Total 92.00 100.00 Source: Field data (2019)
The study realized that, despite of the few hectares of land owned by household, still household have the tendency to sell pieces of land. Though selling land increase household income that enables them to buy food, but the study observed that once the land is sold, household food situation become worse than before, because, once it is sold it cannot be obtained back. Furthermore, the land is normally sold in times of critical food scarcity for a cheaper price. Therefore, it is very important to advice and help rural households not to sell their land assets in a cheapest price because lands are assets lasts, tradable and irreversible. Households have to utilize this important resource profitably.
4.4.2.2 Households Land Size Cultivated Land was observed to be very important element that supports HHs in applying drought coping strategies concerning food production. Land availability enables both food and cash agricultural production in households. The findings in Table 10 shows that, in each type of crops cultivated, 26.6% of HHs farmers‟ respondents cultivate less than 2 hectares, and 64.8% cultivate hectares ranged 2-5 while 8.6% cultivate above 5 hectares.
Table 10: Size of Land Cultivated Size ( Hectare) Frequency Percent Less than 2 25.00 27.17 2-5 59.00 64.13 Above 5 8.00 8.70 Total 92.00 100.00 Source: Field Data Survey (2019) 46 The size of land cultivated by households has a significant result on food security particularly food availability. According to URT (2014) food production in Tanzania is done by smallholder rural farmers who either own small pieces of land of less than one hectare or do not own land themselves this limits their food production capacity, thus leading to low food availability. Based on Tanzania Bureau of Statistics, the national average land size for small-scale farmers is 2.0 ha (NBS, 2012). However the findings of the study show that 26.6% of households cultivated less than 2.0 ha of land size. These size of land cultivated are too small to produce amount of food which sustain household requirements. This is because small land size may affect the amount of harvests (URT, 2014). Thus, signifies the need for households increasing of land size so that to increase production and maintain HHs food availability.
4.4.2.3 Types of Crops Produced in the Study Area Households produce various such as maize of short time, sorghum, millets, sunflower, cassava, grapes, vegetables, sweet potatoes and tomatoes. It was revealed that maize, sorghum and millets are mostly produced compared to other crops. This is because; most of households consider maize, sorghum and millet as the back born of their food crops. These findings concur with a study conducted by De Groote, et al, (2013) in Kenya on the effectiveness of hermetic systems in controlling maize storage pests. It was noted that, cereal grains like sorghum, maize and millet are the major staple foods, sources of household daily calories intake and cash in Sub- Saharan Africa. This signifies the importance of more support to farmers in terms of education and advice to them on modern agriculture and provision of agricultural facilities for them to produce more food.
4.4.2.4 Livestock Livestock serve a number of many purposes such as income generation, meat, milk production and manure. According to NBS (2013), after Sudan and Ethiopia, Tanzania is ranked third in livestock production in Africa. About six percent of the nation‟s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) is contributed by this sub-sector (URT, 2013). However, the GDP is low compared to large number of livestock kept. This is contributed by low livestock growth rate, low off-take rates, increasing livestock mortality, low production and the poor quality of livestock industry‟s final production (URT, 2013). 47 4.4.2.5 Livestock Owned by Households Table 11 presents the livestock (cattle, goats and pigs) owned by households in the field area.
Table 11: Number of Cattles, Goats and Pigs Owned by Household Interval of Cattles Owned Frequency Percent 0 35.00 38.04 1-5 29.00 31.52 6-10 18.00 19.57 More than 10 10.00 10.87 Total 92 100.00 Interval of Goats Owned 0 39.00 42.39 1-5 27.00 29.35 6-10 16.00 17.39 More than 10 10.00 10.87 Total 92 100 Interval of Sheep Owned 0 78 84.7 1-5 4 4.4 6-10 2 2.2 More than 10 8 8.7
Total 92 100
Source: Survey Data (2019)
The study revealed that most of households own livestock which helps them to secure money and food. Table 10 presents the findings on number of livestock owned by Households. These include cattle, goats and pigs. Table 11 shows 57 (61.96%) of respondents own cattle, while 35 (38.04%) respondents own nothing. Furthermore, 53 (57.61%) of respondents own goats and 39 (42.39%) of respondents own nothing. Moreover, 14 (15.3%) of respondents own sheep while 78 (84.7%) respondents own no sheep.
48 The study observed that, livestock owned by households contribute to their cash and food for maintaining food availability. Furthermore, livestock‟s manure develops and speed up crops plants in the farms. The findings of the study supported by FAO (2017) in Sub-Saharan Africa including Tanzania, where it was revealed that, households engage in livestock keeping as a part and parcel of agricultural production for income generation source and increasing availability of daily household foods requirements. One of the key informants stated that;
“Livestock keeping has been one among our income generation activities and foods into our households. Owning livestock helps us during the hunger season in which we normally sell one or two to get money to purchase food. Not only that, but also, livestock provide milk as source of food to us. Moreover we also use livestock bio product as manure to increase yields” (From one of the key informants in Mvumi Makulu Ward, 2019)
The statement from one of the key informants indicates that, livestock kept is the household source of income and foods. The study observed that, families which do not own any type of livestock experience food insecure compared to the families that own livestock especially when critical drought happen. This findings concur with a study conducted by Mougeot, (1999) in South-Ottawa on food production in a globalization, where its findings showed that both on-plot and off-plot livestock keeping brings a lot of advantages such as; provision of income, foods, employment and returns unsuitable land for construction like seasonally flooded areas. Based on these findings, the study realized that, livestock are the important source of household food availability. Thus, the ward officers, Government and other private institutions should provide more advice and support to households to increase more livestock and facilitate them to keep livestock in modern way. Household has to be advised also not to sell livestock in times of food scarcity where they forced to sell in cheapest price. The study realized that once the household runs out of livestock to sell; the problem of food insecurity will still be there because selling of livestock is not reversible. Farmers would be in advantageous position if they sell their livestock (de-stocking) during the period of good prices so that they can purchase and store enough food for future use.
49 4.4.3 The Annual Amount of Households Food Contributed by Drought Coping Strategies The amount of household food by drought coping strategies was measured in terms of sacks. About 90 (97.8%) of respondents confirmed that drought coping strategies applied contribute on food availability. This varies from one household to another depending on types and how drought coping strategies applied. Figure 8 presents the amount of food contributed from Drought coping strategies application. It was observed that, a half (50%) of respondents in the study area households manage to gain 1 up 5 sacks of food per year from the drought coping strategies they applied. The 9% of population get 6 up to 10 bags, 13% gain 11 to 15 sacks, 8% get 16 to 20, only 3% get above 20 sacks while 17% get less than 1 sack.
Based on the findings presented in figure 8, the study realized that, families with 11 up to above 20 sacks engage mostly in planting drought tolerant crops, small business, planting short term seeds and applying small scale irrigation. These strategies are applied in an improved way to allow such amount. But the households who do not pay much attention on those strategies and not improve the ways of applying them acquire less than 1 up to 5 sacks of food. This findings supported by Dercon, (2002) study of „Income Risk, Coping Strategies and Safety Nets‟ which stated that; improving in application of drought coping strategy determine the changes the amount of food contributed. According to the household respondents, ward officers respondents and as it was observed by a surveyor, the drought coping strategies have at least brought the positive change on the community food availability. Households gain some amount of food that helps them throughout the year though the food is not enough to satisfy their required amount of food.
Thus, if much efforts would be invested to improve the way of applying coping strategies, advice households to apply mostly the three coping strategies and support them in terms of agricultural inputs both consumable inputs and capital inputs as well as irrigation tools, the support would maximize more contribution on amount of food to household. The food contributed would at least reduce if not eradicating household and community food scarcity problem. Figure 8 presents the amount of food contributed per year in terms of sucks in households.
50
Figure 8: Amount of Food Contributed on Households in terms of sucks Source: Field data (2019)
4.4.4 The Annual Amount of Food Consumed by the Household The study was also interested to know the amount of food consumed by the household at Mvumi Makulu ward per year. This will help to know if the amount of food gained satisfy household food requirements or not. It was observed that, the amount of food consumed by the household annually mostly range between 1-10 sacks. Figure 9 reveals that, about 81 (88.04%) of respondents out of 92 their annually food consumption ranges between 1-10 sacks. In addition, 8 (8.70%) respondents out of 92 their food consumption per year ranges between 10-20 sacks while 3 (3.26%) respondents their annual food consumption ranges between 20-30 sacks.
51 From the findings in Figure 9, the study observed that, the amount of food consumed by the household annually mostly range between 1-10 sacks and no respondents has the annually food consumption of more than 30 sacks. On another hand the findings from Figure 8 showed a half (50%) of households managed to gain 1 up 5 sacks of food per year and 17% get less than 1 sack. Comparing findings from Figure 8 and Figure 9, it was realized that there is a total of 67% respondents who fall under the less amount they gain compared to amount of food they consume per year. The findings are supported by FAO (2016) report in the Journal of Africa Food Crisis, where it was reported that, Most of Africa nations experience severe drought which affect production efforts and other strategies adapted to overcome food scarcity problem. Thus, most of households become food insecure throughout 12 months and living below the amount of food required. This is because households gain low amount of food compared to the amount required to consume per year.
Figure 9: Amount of Food Consumed by the household annually Source: Field Data Survey (2019)
52 4.4.5 Responses on Household Satisfaction of Amount of Food Gained The research was interested to know if the food gained by household from drought coping strategies application satisfy their needs per year. About 88.04% of respondents interviewed replied that the amount of food gained do not satisfy the household requirement, while 11.96% replied that the food satisfy their household annually requirements. The study realized that, the reasons for 11.96% of respondents to acquire satisfied amount of food are; having few number of household members with reference to amount of food acquired and having money to purchase food from local and external markets. Furthermore, the study revealed that, households with satisfied amount of food are those households engage mostly in planting drought tolerant crops, planting seeds of short time and practicing small scale of irrigation. These findings concur with a study conducted by Meena, et al, (2006) in Tanzania, on the Climate Change impacts on livelihoods and adaptation new coping strategies: experience of floods and drought in Rufiji. It was found that great flood in 1998 and severe drought in 1997 were experienced which reduced food production and cause shortages in households. Households in Rufiji developed various mechanisms and strategies to maintain food situation such as reducing food quantity to enable food supplies to last longer, planting drought resistance crops, eating new meals which were not eaten before as a main meal and changing eating habits. Despite of adapting and applying those coping strategies the amount of food gained was not satisfactory to household food requirements.
The reasons provided by households with unsatisfactory amount of food are, the reluctant to apply drought coping strategies which contribute more amount of food. The strategies are planting drought tolerant crops, planting seeds of short time as well as failing to overcome the challenges encountered during the application of drought coping strategies. The reasons lead to the limited amounts of food acquired by such families compared to their household size. Basing on these findings, it was noted that education, advice and knowledge to households on the best coping strategies to apply and how to apply them is very essential for them to gain the required food amount.
53 4.4.6 Amount of Food Required by Household Annually Figure 10 indicates the responses of the Mvumi Makulu ward residents on the amount of food required to satisfy their annually household requirement.
Figure 10: Amount of Food Required Annually
Source: Field Data survey (2019)
Figure 10 shows that, about 56 (60.9%) of respondents out of 92 interviewed explained that the amount of food required on their households to satisfy their requirement ranges between 10-20 sacks. Furthermore, 20 (21.7%) respondents their food requirement ranges between 1-10 sacks while 11 (12%) respondents their annual food requirement ranges between 20-30 sacks. Lastly, 5 (5.4%) of respondents require more than 30 sacks of food.
54 The study realized that, the amount of food acquired and consumed annually is less than the amount of food required by the household per year. Households consume 50% of the amount of food they require annually. These findings revealed that, in the study area most of households experience food deficit of about 50% sacks. As far as the drought coping strategies are concerned, this is to say, the drought coping strategies applied do not contribute enough amount of food required by household to satisfy their food demand per year. Thus the improvement of drought coping strategies applied is needed and the Government has to develop effective system of food aid to hunger families living in rural areas.
4.4.7 Needs for Improvement on Drought Coping Strategies applied for Household Food Availability The important question to respondents in the field area was “Is there a need to change or improve the drought coping strategies which have been applied?” Figure 11 presents the responses. The findings show about 90. 2% of respondents in the study area interviewed confirmed that there is a need to improve the current drought coping strategies applied while 9.8% suggested the oposite.
9.8 %
90.2%
Figure 11: Needs for changes or improvements on Drought Coping Strategies Applied Source: Field Data Survey (2019)
55 Drought coping strategies are dynamic. The dynamism of coping strategies caused by the growth of technology, world climatic changes, education, economic status, resources available, position of person in a household, age of a person and beliefs (Kivaria, 2007). Improving in application of drought coping strategy determine the changes the amount of food contributed (Dercon, 2002). Based on the findings from Figure 11, about 90.2% of respondents suggested the need to improve the drought coping strategies applied, means the current drought coping strategies are yet to answer the problems of food in drought time. In other way, it is to say, the current drought coping strategies do not contributed enough food to the household to save them during drought time that characterized by food scarcity. This is proved by the findings obtained on amount of food contributed in Figure 8 and amount of food consumed by household per year in Figure 9 which are less compared to the amount of food required by households to satisfy their annually food requirement in Figure10. Furthermore, the study realized that, despite of the food contributed by drought coping strategies applied, food availability is still a problem in many households. The respondents and key informants have suggested some slightly improvement that should be undertaken to increase the amount of food. Among the major suggestions to be undertaken is the improvement of irrigation system for both food and cash agricultural production. Few households which have been practicing small scale irrigation have been benefiting much as the irrigation applied contribute much on household food availability. The Figures 12, 13, and 14 shows how small scale of irrigation applied brought the positive results to the few people with capital to invest in irrigation system.
Figure 12 shows one among of various vegetables which contribute on household food availability. Few households with capital manage to apply small scale of irrigation to produce vegetables. Some of vegetables produced are used for food while others sold to buy other food staffs.
56
Figure 12: Small Scale Irrigation on Green Vegetables (Crookneck Squash) Source: Field Data survey (2019
Figure 13 presents tomatoes production in some households which manage to apply small scale of irrigation. This production benefits more the producers as they gain cash to buy other food staffs.
Figure 13: Small Scale Irrigation Impacts on Food Production (Tomatoes) Source: Field Data survey (2019
57
Figure 14: Grapes Farming Practiced at Mvumi Makulu Ward Source: Field Data survey (2019)
Figures 12, 13 and 14 of crookneck squash, tomatoes and grapes show how irrigation system impacts positively food production and cash crops. This implies the importance of improving this kind of drought coping strategies to increase food amount produced and income from cash crops. These findings alert the households, Government and other stakeholders to check for improvement of the drought coping strategies. The improvement will be achieved if the Government, NGOs, Private institutions and other Stakeholders would provide modern irrigation tools freely or by loans to farmers. Furthermore, the introduction of cooperative groups such as SACCOS, in which peasants can get loan in low interest for farming then after harvesting the loaned fund repaid back to credit‟s providers. The fund and tools will improve small scale irrigation that maximizes the yields for food. These views supported by the study by Tsehaye (2014) on contribution of small –scale irrigation to household income and food security in Hintalo-wejerat of South-Eastern Zone, Tigray Region in Ethiopia. It was found that, small scale of irrigation plays a great role in increasing agricultural production which improves food availability (Birhanu 2006). The result of the study also reveals that in the history of drought areas, those households who have access to irrigation have survived better than their non- irrigation counterparts. In fact, farmers who use irrigation often produce more agricultural products worth a greater monetary value on fewer hectares than rain-fed farmers (Kamara et al. 2010).
58 4.4.8 Ward Officer’s Efforts to Overcome Community Food Scarcity during Drought Time Ward officers at Mvumi Makulu ward play the great role to help households and community at large to overcome food scarcity problem. According to Ward Executive Officer (WEO), Ward Development officer (WDO) and Ward Agriculture Officer (WAO) together with other officers said that, they have been helping the community in various ways to assist them to overcome drought effects on food scarcity. Some of these efforts are long-term and others are short-term drought coping strategies to maintain household food availability. Basing on the findings, the great responsibilities which ward officers implement in the community are:
4.4.8.1 Provision of Education The major effort of ward officers, is to provide education to households on drought, its effects and drought coping strategies to be adopted as well as the best way of applying those strategies for HH food availability. They educate people about the type of crops and seeds that should be planted based on the climatic condition of the ward. The crops to be planted differ to the crops planted in the area with plenty of rain like upper southern area. Provision of education is very important as it enlarges people‟s understanding, knowledge and skills to apply DCS in a good way that leads to enough contribution of food amount required. This role, is similarly to the report of Pathak and Gupta (2015), in a study on post-harvest losses of food grains in Rajasthan, where it was reported that, the more educated the person/woman is, the more likely capable to adopt and apply new technologies in solving problems.
4.4.8.2 Saving and store food for future use The ward officers extend their responsibilities in advising the community to store food obtained in harvesting time and the food obtained from market for the households to survive throughout the year. This way of maintaining HHs food availability is supported by Radford (2002) in the study based on guides to stock fencing in Ramsbury. In which it was advised that, efforts should be made to establish stores whether traditional storage or modern storage to stock harvested and bought food for future use. Storage structures avoid pests such as termites and rodents that would destroy crops.
59 4.4.8.3 Inform the Local Government Higher Authority on the Food Scarcity Ward officers collect the information concerning severe drought effects on food scarcity and provide the information to the local government higher authority for further addressing. They advise government to support households with agricultural facilities like tools, seeds, fertilizers and pests. In the severe food scarcity times, ward officers in collaboration with district commissioners, advice and begging Central Government to help the community in terms of food aid. Though, begging help to central Government has always not materialized as they expected. This role is supported by the study of (Mukandala, 1999), on the Local Institutions of Governance in Tanzania based on Perspectives of Local Management and Development in Africa. It was found that, Local government officers work as an information‟s delivery tool to the central government, making possible for the central government to work efficiently at lower or local level.
4.4.8.4 Developing By Laws They enact ward by-laws which do not allow people to cut down trees. Any person caught cutting trees is fined to pay five thousand per tree. They also advices people to plant trees into their plots and in farms so as bring long-term environment reclamation by afforestation to attract rainfall for sustainable agricultural production. This responsibility is correlate to the findings in the study of (Warioba, 1999), on the Management of Local Government in Tanzania. Where it was found that, rural officers develop by-laws which are against overconsumption of resources (beyond replacement levels), Goods like tropical forests, grazing lands, wood lots and topsoil which are problems of broader environmental degradation.
4.5 Challenges Encountered by Households during Application of Drought Coping Strategies The findings have revealed a number of challenges ranked from highest to lowest. The research focused on identifying ways viewed by respondents to overcome those challenges to pave the way for coping strategies to contribute the required amount of food to households. Figure 15 presents the challenges encountered during drought coping strategies.
60
Figure 15: Challenges on Application Drought Coping Strategies Source: Field Data survey (2019)
About 45 household‟s people equivalents to 48.91% out of 92 respondents, said the limited capital is a greater challenge they encounter during DCs application. 14 respondent equivalents to 15.25% pointed the destructive pests as the challenge discourages their efforts of applying drought coping strategies especially in farms food production. Furthermore 13 of people equivalent to 14.13% based on the same two challenges which are minimal amount of rain and reluctant to applying coping strategies. The last challenge to be mentioned by 7 respondent equivalents to 7.61% was trend of food price fluctuation and food production materials and tools. Moreover, the research focused on identifying ways viewed by respondents to overcome those challenges to pave the way for coping strategies to contribute the required amount of food to households.
61 4.5.1 Limited Capital Most of drought coping strategies application require to be accompanied by money. Example, investing in irrigation system by buying instruments, insecticides, hiring labors to assist in farms and buying seeds of short time as well as buying drought tolerant crops. All these, are too cost for poor household to afford. The application of drought coping strategies become very challengeable to households which fail to afford the costs of important agricultural tools and assets. The findings are complemented by two of the respondent‟s views that;
“I don‟t have money to buy food production equipment like tractors, irrigation infrastructures, and I can‟t afford to buy a short term drought resistant crops. Therefore, I always cultivate small piece of land and plant normal seeds which are not modern. The traditional crops I plant are sometimes fail/dry due to low amount of rainfall as a result I harvest little or nothing completely” (From one of the household respondent in Mvumi Makulu ward, 2019).
“If the irrigation system tools could be granted free or on the cheapest price, even us youths, we could engage and spend much of our time in cultivating garden for vegetables production, producing fruits and even tomatoes. Doing these, would change our household food availability” (Quote: From one of the youths (girl) interviewed in Mvumi Makulu ward 2019)
These statements imply that most of households have been facing this challenge during the application of drought coping strategies. As they fail to get important instruments that would assist and enable them to apply drought coping strategies. This challenge is related with the findings of Mwagile (2001) who reported that, low income and lack of capital become the limiting factors in expanding more land size cultivated, buying agricultural inputs as well as farm implements.
4.5.2 Minimal Amount of Rain Based on the respondent‟s view, people have been challenged by too minimal amount of rain during the application of coping strategies. According to them, during critical drought which happen out of their expectations, rain is too little to enable the crops even that are said to sustain drought condition and crops of short time up to maturity phase. This was observed by the researcher in the farms where such crops that considered sustaining in drought condition and crops of short time were affected
62 much because of critical drought of this year 2019, as they shown in figure 9, 10 and 11. These findings complements the statement quoted from one of the respondents;
“It is very a challenging situation, we invest a lot of efforts by preparing farms, planting short term drought resistant crops, unfortunately, our efforts are discouraged by low amount of rain in some years like this year 2019, due to critical drought, even the crops we depend and expect to harvest more yields for our food are dried before harvesting time”. (Source: Key Informants in Mvumi Makulu Ward 2019)
4.5.3 Trend of Food Price Fluctuation Mvumi Makulu ward households engage in applying various coping strategies that known as managerial drought coping strategies like small business, selling land and cattle, doing work to neighbors, selling firewood, charcoal and grasses to gain money to buy food. Once they gained money for food, they face a great challenge of food price fluctuation in the market. They buy fewer amount of food compared to the amount they expected to buy for the amount of money they have. For example, the price of 1kg of beans may be 2000Tsh, but after one or two weeks price changes up to 2500Tsh. The price of flour, its price might be 1000Tsh today but after 1 two weeks might change up to 1500Tsh, the same to other food staff. This price fluctuation trend, causes many households to get very little amount of food which do not satisfy their daily food demand. Furthermore, the findings are complemented by one of the key informant‟s respondent that:
The big problem we face is, we engage in applying various drought coping strategies to get money to buy food. But once you go to the market, you find the food price changes especially before harvesting time. The same food you bought in few weeks ago by 1000Tsh or 2000Tsh per Kg, you find the same amount of food being sold by 1500Tsh and 2500Tsh respectively. When you expect to buy two or five kilogram of food you wish to buy, you find yourself buying only one or three kilograms respectively. Thus, reduces the amount of food which would satisfy our household daily demand. (Source: Key Informants in the Study Area, 2019).
This situation signifies the importance of settling permanent food price set that will enable households to meet their expected amount of food in the market. The study findings is supported by Kaminski et al., (2016), in a study on Seasonality in local food markets and consumption-evidence from Tanzania. It was reported that in most rural areas markets, food price fluctuation ends many households with food scarcity. 63 Thus, the study advised households to store part of their harvested and bought food which will save them during food price rise.
4.5.4 Destructive Pests In applying production drought coping strategies (farming), people in the study area face a challenge of their crops being destructed by pests mostly insects. Crops that are destructed mostly are maize, sorghum, millets, tomato and vegetables. These organisms may destruct a small part of the farm, a half of the farm or even a whole farm. It is not easy for the people to go to farms to watch, chasing and prevent crops against birds while there is no food to eat in the house. They instead engage in applying other coping strategies (managerial coping strategies) like working to others to get money to buy food. Also, most of families fail to afford the insects medicines which sold at highest price.
“How can I go to farm to chase birds daily while there is nothing to eat in my house? What will my children eat in the afternoon and night? Tell me researcher! What is better, going to the farm to protect crops against birds leaving my children with no food to eat, or going to find jobs to work and get money to buy food for the daily needs? I always prefer going to find money to buy food, instead of going to farm the whole day and leaving my children with nothing to eat”. Birds destruct my crops, thus harvesting little amount of yields (Source: Key Informants in Mvumi Makulu Ward, 2019).
4.5.5 Reluctant to Apply Drought Coping Strategies One among of the roles of ward officers is to educate and advice people to apply the modern agriculture system especially planting seeds of short time and plants that sustain drought condition as well as using fertilizers. Unfortunately, some of people especially old people do not accept to apply such kind of drought coping strategies. They prefer to plant the normal seeds which they have been seeing their fathers and their grandfathers planting. Basing on respondents of Ward Executive Officer (WEO) and Ward Development Officer (WDO), they said;
“Some of old people refuse to plant such types of crops by arguing that, the crops are too modern, they contain some negative effects to human health as they have been brought in Africa by European people for the purpose of shortening African‟s lives”(Source: Key Informant in Mvumi Makulu Ward 2019).
64 Refusing to follow the officer‟s advices causes some of households either to harvest too little yields or to harvest nothing from traditional seeds they plant. Harvesting too little or nothing leads to more problem of food scarcity to their households. This challenge, alerting the agricultural stakeholders, food sectors and drought coping strategies experts to add the efforts in providing education and advice to households to remove negative notion into their mind on some coping strategies as well as discovering new strategies that fits the given area environment, technology, economic status and education.
4.5.6 Respondent’s Opinions on How to Overcome Challenges The study was interested to get findings on the suggested ways to overcome challenges since the challenges identified in the previous section. Applying the suggested opinions that improves drought coping strategies applied could be sustainable way and solution to increase HH food availability. Furthermore, suggesting ways to overcome those challenges is very important as they alerts and influence policy makers of Agricultural policy and drought policy, NGOs, religious groups and other stakeholders that deal with food insecurity to facilitate and grant households all of their suggestions to overcome the challenges for increasing amount of food contributed. Table 13 presents findings of household opinions and suggestions on how to overcome the challenges people encounter during the application of drought coping strategies. The results in the Table 13, reveal that 35 equivalent to 38.0% of household respondents suggested that, agricultural production tools and materials should be provided freely or on a cheapest costs for normal people to afford. This will enable more households to afford agricultural production tools and materials which will increase size of farms, producing more food and cash crops to reduce if not to overcome household food insecurity. Further, the findings 21.7% of household respondents suggested the removal of tax on farm products and small business and 18 respondent equivalents to 19.6% pointed out the Government and other food stakeholders to support rural farmers with modern irrigation system to improve agricultural production. More provision of Education on the best DCS application is another suggestion that was suggested by 9.8% of household respondents. More provision of education on how to apply drought coping strategies in the best way, would increase awareness and skills among DCS applicants.
65 Table 12: Respondent’s Opinion to overcome Challenges Opinions Suggested Frequency Percent Agricultural production tools and 35 38.0 materials should be provided freely or on cheapest costs for normal people to afford Removal of tax on farm products and 20 21.7 small business
Supporting rural farmers with modern 18 19.6 irrigation system
More provision of Education on the best 9 9.8 Drought Coping Strategies application
Controlling food and agricultural tools 6 6.6 price fluctuation
Provision of food to rural old people 4 4.3
Total 92 100
Source: Field Data Survey (2019)
Moreover, 6.6% of HH respondents suggested the Controlling of food and agricultural tools price fluctuation that will pave the way for people to sell their properties in a profitable price and buying food in a fair price. Lastly, only 4.3% of HH respondents suggested the initiation of provision of food to rural old people system, as it will help old people to get food. This is because, in the study area there was findings observed the presence of old people who are not able to apply DCS to achieve food and they have no one to depend on. Initiation of all these suggestions would support households to improve DCS application that would lead into achieving HH required amount of food to feed them annually.
66 4.6 Chapter Summary This chapter provided systematic and detailed presentation and discussion of the findings that obtained by this study. Thus, chapter four started with the presentation and discussion of the respondent‟s social and demographic characteristics that have shown, age of people respondents, education level, marital status, household size and household position have effects on the types of drought coping strategies applied and their contribution on household food availability in the study area. Besides that, the objective number one has explained on drought coping strategies applied in Mvumi Makulu ward which include labor provision, planting crops which sustain drought, use of short term seeds, small scale of irrigation, conducting small business, selling charcoal, firewood and grasses, exchanging food with work and selling land and cattle. Among these drought coping strategies, it showed that, planting crops sustain drought (such as sorghum, millet, cassava sweet potatoes and groundnuts) is practiced mostly by many people. Followed by practicing small business/petty and provision of casual labor. This means that, these three types of drought coping strategies are mostly dominant to the Mvumi Makulu community and are mostly practiced in the ward. Objective number two has discussed on the contribution of the DCS on the HFA at Mvumi Makulu ward which consisted amount of food contributed from production and managerial coping strategies, amount of food required by the household annually, amount of food consumed by household annually, necessity for improvement or change the current drought coping strategies, suggestions on drought coping strategies to be applied and local government efforts to overcome community food scarcity. The findings have revealed that drought coping strategies have the direct contribution on the household food availability. Planting drought tolerant crops contribute more amount of food than other coping strategies. Conducting small business (petty) is the second strategy in contributing more amount of food on household followed by selling labor, planting of short term seeds, small scale of irrigation, selling charcoal, firewood and grasses. Furthermore, selling land and cattle and exchanging food with work contribute little amount of food compared to others. Though, the food contributed is not enough to the household food requirements annually. To wrap the chapter, the overall objective number three has discussed the challenges that people encounter during the application of drought coping strategies which include lack of money/capital to
67 invest in Agricultural food production, Too little rain than expected, food price fluctuation, lack of redness among some households to apply some of drought coping strategies and the rising of destructive organisms like birds and insects. These findings have revealed that all these challenges hindering people‟s efforts they invest in coping strategies to maintain their household food availability. The following Chapter winds up the dissertation by presenting summary, conclusions and the study recommendations.
68 CHAPTER FIVE SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 5.1 Introduction This chapter presents summary, conclusion, theoretical implication of the study, recommendations and suggested areas for further studies.
5.2 The Study Summary The main objective of the study was aimed to examine the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability in Chamwino District in Dodoma Region, Tanzania. The study was based on the following specific objectives;
1. To identify the drought coping strategies employed by household in Chamwino District, Dodoma
The drought coping strategies are planting crops sustain drought (such as sorghum, bull rush, millet, cassava sweet potatoes and groundnuts), practicing small business such as small shops, motorcycle and chicken eggs, doing work to get money (cheap labor), exchanging food with work, applying small scale of irrigation system (especially in production of vegetables, tomatoes and grapes), the use/planting of short-term seeds, selling charcoal, firewood, grasses and selling properties like land and cattle. The findings observed that, the drought coping strategies like planting drought tolerant crops, practicing small business/petty and labor provision are mostly dominant in the study area and are mostly practiced in the ward.
2. To examine the contribution of the drought coping strategies on the household food availability in Chamwino District It was found that drought coping strategies applied contribute to household food availability. Due to drought condition, 100% of the amount of food situation in the Mvumi Makulu is contributed by the application of drought coping strategies. A half (50%) of respondents in the study area manage to gain 1 up 5 sacks of food per year while 17% of respondent get less than one sack. About 67% of respondent gain amount of food below what they consume per year that ranged between 5 up to 10 sacks. Furthermore, it was found that despite the low amount of food contributed by drought coping strategies on households, but at least, the amount help households to
69 survive throughout the year. Moreover, it was noted that drought coping strategies like planting drought tolerant crops, practicing small business/petty and labor provision contribute more to household food availability compared to others. This signifies that, if all households concentrate more to apply such kind of drought coping strategies, will acquire more amount of food.
3. To examine the challenges that people encounter during the application of drought coping strategies in Chamwino District Basing on the study findings, the challenges encountered by households include limited capital, minimal amount of rain, trend of food price fluctuation, destructive pests and reluctant to apply drought coping strategies. All these challenges hinder and discourage household‟s effort in applying drought coping strategies. Respondents suggested some measures which have to be taken to reduce if not completely eradicate the challenges. The measures suggested include more provision of education and advice to peoples on the best way to apply drought coping strategies, free provision of agricultural production materials. Furthermore, modern irrigation system instruments have to be provided on the cheapest price for them to afford, tax removal on farm products and small business. There should be controlling system of food price fluctuation, grants and aid to poor and hunger families and provision of grants to old people.
5.3 General Conclusion Households in the study area are highly engaging in drought coping strategies application. The study revealed that, the drought coping strategies applied contribute on household food availability. Though, the amount of food contributed does not satisfy HH food required per year, but, at least the food help HH to survival throughout the year. Household‟s efforts of applying DCS for household food availability are hindered by limited capital challenges, minimal amount of rain challenge, trend of food price fluctuation challenge, destructive pests challenge and reluctant to apply drought coping strategies challenge. About 50% of household respondents in this study had primary education level.
It can be generally concluded that, despite of the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability, still there is a need to improve the DCS
70 applied for them to contribute the satisfactory household food required. Also, there is a need for the household to be supported in terms of food for them to survival well in drought environment surrounding them. Thus, it is advisable that the Government, NGOs and other stakeholders should support rural farmers with modern irrigation tools whether cheaply or freely and seeds of crops sustain drought condition as well as short term seeds. Also, the Government has to establish the applicable system of assisting rural households with food support especially in critical drought condition years. These would enable household to have satisfactory amount of food requirement throughout the year.
5.4 Theoretical Implication of the Study This study was guided by Entitlement Theory as it describe the factors affecting food availability to people and how they respond by finding alternative ways to maintain food availability to their household and their community at large. Entitlement Theory insists that food scarcity happen due to natural calamities reasons like drought (Sen, 1981). In the times of food scarcity and famine people develop alternative ways to acquire food (Devereux, 2001). Based on this study alternatives considered as the “coping strategies.” The theory corresponds with the findings of the study in specific objective one. It has been realized by the study that drought existence in the study area affects agricultural activities that results into food scarcity. Thus, households in Mvumi Makulu ward adapt various drought coping strategies as the alternative ways to maintain household food availability. The strategies undertaken contribute on household food availability. Though the amount of food contributed is not enough to the households annually requirements, but, at least the amount of food they gain help them to reduce the problem of food scarcity extent.
5.5 Recommendations Since the study findings observed that, despite of applying drought coping strategies, steal the problem of household food scarcity have not yet evacuated completely. Thus, the study recommends some measures that should be taken to improve and stabilize drought coping strategies contribution on household food availability. The following are study recommendations;
71 I. The government of Tanzania should formulate the National Policy on drought coping strategies. Various literatures and many opinions of stakeholders, revealed that, the country lack specific drought coping strategies policy. The strategies seemed to be applied loosely with no guidance, stewardship and enforcement of the Government policy. This will help semi-arid drought areas especially in rural areas to be guided by the policy in applying DCS to enhance household food availability. By achieving household food availability will result in meeting the targeted Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Number 2 which calls for Zero Hunger for society. The Ministry of Agriculture which deals for food security and Environmental institutions should develop this important policy. II. Rural dwellers should introduce and organize themselves into supportive organizations such as SACCOSS and Cooperatives etc. Organizing themselves in groups will enable them to share knowledge and experience concerning workable drought coping strategies. Not only that, but also will help them discussing ways to overcome challenges they encounter during the application of drought coping strategies. Furthermore, Cooperative groups will attract creditors to provide soft loans to them with low interest that will assist them in increasing their capital to invest in food production as they will manage to buy farming facilities such as modern irrigation tools, seeds of short time, fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides. The Tanzania Agricultural Development Bank (TADB), should facilitate the development of financial support in form of soft loans or free grants for Cooperatives and SACCOSS groups. III. Central Government, NGOs, Private institutions and other stakeholders should join ward officers in provision of more education to households concerning best drought coping strategies to adopt basing on the environment situation and other factors, the best way to apply them and supporting those households with any requirements. Education provided will enlarge household‟s knowledge, skills and understanding on their environment nature, the best DCS to adopt and how to apply them. IV. There should be the increase of extension services especially in semi-arid drought rural areas. This will help households who apply drought coping
72 strategies to receive trainings on how to cope with drought existence by applying the required DCS and how to manage the amount of food attained. For this to happen, the ministry of Agriculture together with other Agricultural institutions is responsible to increase extension services officers in drought prone rural areas. V. The household farmers has to be advised to stock their animals and their land/plots and sell them during peak period of good prices and buy enough food to meet the household food availability requirements. Also, advised not to sell their little harvested crops immediately after harvest as they are not able to afford food prices when it rises.
5.6 Suggestions for Further Studies This study examined the contribution of drought coping strategies on household food availability in Chamwino District in Dodoma Region, Tanzania. Where the specific objectives of the study were to: identify drought coping strategies which applied by household, examine the contribution of the drought coping strategies on the household food availability and examine challenges that people encounter during the application of drought coping strategies at Mvumi Makulu ward. All these objectives have been achieved. But, the study has not exhausted all aspects related to drought coping strategies in Tanzania. This is caused by the fact that, coping strategies adapted are dynamic and vary because of many factors like technology, accessibility, resources availability, time, education factor, economic factor, religious belief, person age, household size, marital status and geographical reasons. Therefore, the study suggests the following areas for further research:
i. There is a need to conduct the study on the factors for drought coping strategies dynamism and their impacts on household food availability in semi-arid areas in Tanzania. ii. There is a need for similar research on the drought strategies contribution on household food availability in semi-arid areas iii. There is a need to conduct out a research on drought coping strategies sustainability in resolving food scarcity in semi-arid areas in Tanzania. iv. There is a need to examine the impacts of household‟s education level on application of drought coping strategies towards household food availability. 73 v. There is a need to carry out the research on drought coping strategies effectiveness towards household food availability in Semi-arid areas in Tanzania
5.6 Chapter Summary This chapter presented summary of the findings, conclusion to the study and recommendations to be taken by Government, NGOs, Private institutions, Stakeholders, Ward officers and Households in order to improve drought coping strategies applied for increasing the amount of food contributed by those DCS. The chapter started by providing study summary in which all specific objectives were summarized. This followed by the general conclusion of the study. Generally, the study concluded that, the Drought coping strategies applied have significant contribution on household food availability. Though, the amount of food contributed do not satisfy HH food required annually, but, at least the food help HH to survival throughout the year and leading to significant reduction of HH food scarcity. Thus still, there is a need to improve the DCS applied for them to contribute the satisfactory household food required.
In this chapter, among the major recommendations made and presented include; Rural dwellers should introduce and organize themselves into supportive organizations such as SACCOSS and Cooperatives that will enable them to share knowledge and experience concerning workable DCS and that will attract creditors to provide soft loans to them with low interest that will assist them in increasing their capital to invest in food production. It is also recommended that, the government of Tanzania should formulate the National Policy on drought coping strategies. Various literatures and many opinions of stakeholders, revealed that, the country lack specific Drought coping strategies policy. The strategies seemed to be applied loosely with no guidance, stewardship and enforcement of the Government policy. The Ministry of Agriculture which deals for food security should develop this important policy. This will help semi-arid drought areas especially in rural areas to be guided by the policy in applying DCS to enhance household food availability. By achieving household food availability will result in meeting the targeted Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) Number 2 which calls for Zero Hunger for society. Extension services also
74 should be increased in rural area farmers. The chapter winded up by presenting suggested areas for further study basing on the theme of this research study.
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83 APPENDICES Appendix 1: Structured Questionnaire for Households Members Information gathered will be used only for the research purposes. Respondents‟ privacy as well as confidentiality are highly guaranteed. Please answer all questions honestly.
A: Personal Details
1. Street………………….…………………………. 2. No. of respondent………………..Date…………………. 3. Age……………………………….... 4. Education level: (a) Primary……… (b) Secondary…….(c) Tertiary.……(d) Informal education 5. Marital status (a) Single….. (b) Married……(c) Widowed…… (d) Divorced/Separated……. 6. Position on your household (a) Father (b) Mother (c) brother/sister (d) Other relatives 7. Total number of household members (a) Male………. (b) Female…….. B: Drought Coping Strategies Applied by Household Members
1: In recent years, have you experienced drought condition? 2: For how long have you experienced drought state and how does it affect food situation in your household?
Time Experienced Frequency Percent 1-5 5-10 Total Types of Effect Crop Drainage Food Scarcity Total
84 4: What drought coping strategies do you apply for your household food availability?
C: The Contribution of Drought Coping Strategies on Household Food Availability.
1: Do the drought coping strategies contribute to your household food availability?
1. Yes…………………………. 2. No…………………………….
2: what size of land do you own?
2-5 hectares 5-10 hectares 10-15 hectares Above 15 hectares
3: What size of land/farms do you cultivate per rain season?
Less than 2 (Ha) Ranged 2-5 (Ha) Above 5 (Ha)
4: What types of crops do you produce?
Mention them…………………………………………….
5: How many livestock do you own? In terms of Cattle, Goats and Sheep.
Number of Cattle 0 1-5 6-10 More than 10 Number of Goats 0 1-5 6-10 More than 10 Number of Sheep 0 1-5 6-10 More than 10
85 5: If yes in question 1, what are the contributions of coping strategies to your household food availability in terms of?
Amount of food gained annually (a) 1-5 sacks (b) 6-10 sacks (c) 11-15 sacks (d) 16-20 sacks (e) More than 20 sacks.
6: Which drought coping strategies have contributed more amount of food to your household? Mention them………………………………………………………….
7: Does the above amount of food gained capable to satisfy your household annually food requirement? (a) Yes (b) No.
8: What is the estimated amount of food consumed/used by your household annually? (a) 1-10 sacks (b) 10-20 sacks (c) 20-30 sacks (d) More than 30 sacks
9: What is the estimated amount of food required to satisfy your household needs annually? (a) 1-10 sacks (b) 10-20 sacks (c) 20-30 sacks (d) More than 30 sacks
10: Is there any need to change or improve the current drought coping strategies you apply?
1. Yes………………. 2. No………………..
11: If yes,
Why? Mention the reasons…………………… What coping strategies would you suggest to be applied? Mention them………………. Why have you suggested such coping strategies? Mention the reasons…………………
D: Challenges that People Encounter during Applying Drought Coping Strategies
1: What are the challenges do you encounter in applying coping strategies towards household food availability? Mention them………………. 2: In your opinion, what should be done to overcome those challenges? Mention them………………………
86 Appendix 2: Interview Guide for Ward and Village Officers Information gathered will be used only for the research purposes. Respondents‟ privacy as well as confidentiality are highly guaranteed. Please answer all questions honestly.
1: Name ……………………………………… 2: Occupation…………………………………. 3: Street……………………………………….. 4: Date ………………………………………..
5: For how long have your community experienced drought condition?
6: How have the drought condition affected food availability into your ward?
7: What drought coping strategies do your community apply for food availability?
8: What are the contributions of those strategies on your community food availability? Mention them…………..
9: Does the coping strategies applied in your community contribute enough amount/quantity of food to satisfy your community population size? (a)Yes (b) No
10: what are the challenges does the community encounter during the application of drought coping strategies? Mention them…………………………………….
11: Which efforts have you made to overcome the problem of food insufficient resulted with drought into your community? Mention them…………………..
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