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REMEMBERING EMOTIONAL EVENTS: A SOCIAL COGN ITIVE N EU ROSCIENCE APPROACH

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Daniel L Schacter Harvard University

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Available from: Daniel L Schacter Retrieved on: 08 September 2015 REMEMBERINGEMOTIONAL EVENTS: A SOCIALCOGN ITIVE NEU ROSCIENCE APPROACH

Kevin N. Ochsner and Daniel L. Schacter

Horv we respond emotionally to the peaks and valleys of research, and the strengths and weaknesses of each are lilir reveals nruch about who we are now, who we have rooted in the wavs in which their questions have been irccn, and has implications for who we could be in the posed. frrturc. The qucstion of how we remember these emotional ,,r'entsis lhus of central inrportance to understanding hu- Indelibleor Reconstructed? nran experir:nce,and is the subfect of this chapter. In ad- ,lressingthis qucstion, our goals are to understand the spe- Debate over whether emotional memories, and especially r ific neurocognitive mechanisms that preserve records of traumatic ones, are remembered poorly or well has a long significant experiences, the motivational and contcxtual historv and is central to current discussion about the re- iar:tors that influence their operation, and what their in- covery of supposedly repressed rnemories of sexual and tcraction tells us about the relationship betwet'n memory physical abuse during childhood (lbr discussion, see Con- ,rnd emotion rnore generally. lvav, 1997; Loftus & Ketcham, 1994; Schacter, 199ti). The We begin with a brief historir;al sketch of previous ap- question of whether emotion improves or impairs memory proaches to emotion and mernory and then move to our often is framed in terms of the question of whether emo- orvn multileveled social cognitive neuroscienceapproach. tional memories are indelible or reconstructed. Debate \Ve then apply this approach to understanding how the this issue has played out in three dil'fer.entare- enotional nature of an event influences the encoding, stor- ::l:"-t"t age, and retrieval of information about it. We conclude rvith suggestionsfor ways in which a social cognitive neu- Repression:Fact or Fiction? roscience approach can guide future research. First, some have argued that memories of especially aver- sive experiences n-lav be temporarily lost-driven out of Perspectiveson the EmotionalPast consciousnessby repressive mechanisms that seek to pro- tect the psvche frorn the harmful consequences of thinking Most investigations of emotion and memory have begun about them. Yet if recovered at some later time, such mem- rvith the same question: How do we remember emotion- ories are held to be highly accurate (e.g.,van der Kolk a allv evocative events? But investigators have framed this Fisler, 1995). This account seems to turn on the truth of a question differently and, as a result, have reached differ- traditional metaphor for memory as a library in which are ent conclusions. Three approaches have domirrated past stored volumes of experience that contain verbatim rec- 644 PARTV. COGNITIVECOI\4PONENTS OFEN4OTION

ords of events that can be retrievedlater (Conwav, 1997). Although it mav be trr.re that sonte traces of fearlr. On this account, repressed ntemories of erlotional expe- everlts are relativelt, long-lasting ancl enduring, it is rrr: riencesare simplr,volumes that have been lost due lo op- portant to note that tl.refir.rdings that support this cont lr. eration of a repressive process but that can later be ibrrncl sion come primarily front indirect tests of behavior iu ,rr. and reread in their entirety. As argued bv various inves- imals. In contrast, reconstruction and distortion .. tigators (cf. Lindsav & Read, 1994; Loftus, 1993; Schacter, common when memory for emotional experiences is r,\. 1996; Schacter, Korrtstaal, & Norman, 1996), this account amined using explicit tests in humans (e.g.,Eich, Recli,. is problematic because (1) traumatic memories are tvpi- Jaeger,& Craff-Radford, ltt8s; Levine, 1997; Ochsncr :. cally difficult to forget. even when ono wants to clo so (e.g.. Schacter, 2000). It appears that whether one reaches tl.. Wenzlaff et al., 1993; for review, see Sr;hacter,19ft6), and t;onclusion that emotional mcmories are indelible ol r.. (2) false memorics 1or various kinds of infornration, in- construr;tedrnav depenrl ol) the kinclsol rlata unclert:r,:. r:luding personal life evcnts,can be generatccl,sornetinrcs sicleration.Althotrgh thcsu traces are refkrxivelv expn':- with relativc ease(e.g., Hvuran, Hrrsband. & Billings. 19951 Itle on indircct tcstsof behavior,lhey utav be of trdiffer'.:.' Lofius & Pir;klell. 1995; RoediBcr & Mr;Dclntott, l!)!)5i tvpe than those rtsetl rt'herrrvr-' cotrsciousll' rct'li:ctort tnt Schactcr, Verfaellic, & Pradore, 199fi). tional experient;es.

FadingFlashbulbs Emotionls in the Details

Seconrl, investigators stuclving "flashbulll" nreutorics also A r;loselyrelatecl clcbate collcems whcther menlorv lor ('n. have argueclthat speciiil mer:hanismsmav promote the in- tiottal cvcnts ar;r;uratelyprcsorves records of only r;crrt: delible recorclingol traccs ol emotional evcnts (r.-.g.,lllrtr,r,n detailsor of both centralanc[ pcripheral cletails (c.g.. Olu., 'l'hc & Kulik, 1977). Howcvcr, lhis vicw has bccn altarrrlonccl tianson& Loftus,1991). nrajorilv of stucliesinclir;atc ti in light of a growing trrrrl,1,6i cvirlencedcrrronstlating that ccutrarltlt-.tails are lllost at;<;trratel-\'r'er;allcclbt-.r;ausc r,rr. so-callr)dflashbulb nrcnroriesalo iar frorr photographir; rc- tionzrlcvents activat() goals that lavor rlvirluationof thr,1'' ' t:ordings alld in fhct are sultjec:tto sonre oI thr: sarrrt,'kirrcls sotralrrreaninu of ltotentiallvsignific;ant stinruii tiuringlr' of distortiorrs as is rt:r:all of ltore generic pr:rsonal cxpt--- encoclingand rrltrieval.Dulirrg lhe initial appraisalarrri, .l rienr;c-s(Brerver, 992; Neisscr'& Harsch, 1992). r;oclingolan ernotionalevellt, i1 is inrprtrtatrtto underst,r: It is worth noting that conclr.rsionsaltout thc prrtaliveilt- lvhit;hcharacturistics of extemal stirnrrliare relatecl to irrt.: delibility of flashbulbrnemorics nrav dcpend on thc kinclol nal I'eelingstates. F or examplt:, wht-.nwalking alone at n i:: rnnemonic information that is assesserl.[)n the onc hanrl. along a cleserteclstrcct, it worrltlbe morc imporlant to clr,. people do not oftcn iorget tlrol an emotional event has oc;- inferencesabout the possibleintentions of the personn',,-, currcd, anci thev tencl to rcr:all act;ur:rtelvthe thenres arrrl ing towarul vou and to cleterrninewhcther the object in :. . action sequencesr:cntral to an event's cmotional signili- hands is a weapon than it worrlclbe to notir;ethe color ol r. cancc (Heuer & Rt;isberg.1992). On thc other hanrl, crno- hat,shoes, or coat(Liizams, 1991; Stein et al.,1997). Sinr i. tional experiencesinvolve substantialr:valuation of, and goals at memory retrieval nla,v firrther for;us attention infercncesabotrt, one's cl',vn and others'motir.ationsanrl in- ccntral information ancl r;an lead to biascsin lhe uur . tentions (Lazartrs,199.1: Stein. Wacle,& Liwag, 1(){)7):cur- lvhir:hevents are recalled. The kev point is that the kinri rent goals and desires can rlistort perception ancl ntelrorv inlornration that is lecalled tnost accuratelv depenrl: for these aspectsolernotioual situations during both euco(l- where attention is directed and which emotion aDDriri- ing and retrieval. Thus memories for the broad "objer;tive scriptsale activated(Levine, 1 997). facts" ofan event rnav be lesssubiect to distortion than are A methodological shortcoming of some of the ibregol: - one's subjective interpretations of its personal and emo- research involves a failure to indeper.rdentlyverifv thr, ,,: tional significance (lohnson & Sherrnan,1990). fective qualities of experimental stimuli. Because the ,.. tent to which to-be-rememberedstimuli elicit affect is r: known, when a given type of detail is remembered poor. Focuson Fear n,e cannot be sure whv this has occurred: It could be 1,. The third arena in rvhich the indelibilitv issue has caLrsethat kind of detail is not remembered well. or emerged involves fear conditioning in rats. Fear responses could be that the stimuli were not arousing enough to 1r,,, to conditioned stimuli appear to remain indefinitelv intact participants to more deeplv encode them. when brain areas responsible for extinguishing them are damaged (LeDoux. 1995). Recent accounts of the for.getting QuantityVersus of conditioned responses have suggestedthat past condi- Quality tioned associations are ltot lost but that their expression A third long-running debate in the emotion and menlor', is inhibited bv the learning of nenr responsesthat preempt literature concerns what aspect of emotion-orou:,:. expression of old behavioral patterns (Bouton, 1994). (quantitv of emotion) or valence (the positive or negatir ' CHAPTER32. REMEN4BERINGEMOTIONAL EVENTS: A SOCIAL COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACH 645 quality of emotion)-most criticallv determines how emo- Ience influenced memory because the.v used quantitative tion influences memory. Early theorists postulated that dependent measures that are insensitive to qualitative oeople pleferentially encode ancl recall positive experi- variations in the experience of recollection. The con- ',nces because reflecting on negative ones is too painful scious experience of emotion differs as a function of sce Bradley, 1994, and Matlin & Stang, 1978, for review). which emotion is being aroused, and thus we would ex- \lore recentlv, the focus has shifted toward comparing pect recollection of emotional events to reflect this quali- :nemory for negative, often highly aversive, events with tative difference in experiential awareness. In a series of :r)emory for more munclane experiences. Some of this re- studies, we (Ochsner, 2000) used the remenber/knorv .,'arch has found aversive memories to be less accurate,as procedure (Tulving, 1983) to measure conscious recollec- '.rhen encoding is disruptecl by extremes of emotion pro- tive experience of positive, neutral. and negative photos iur;ed by highly traumatic experiences (Kihlstrom, 1998; (Lang et al., 1993) that varied in degree of arousal and it hacter, 1996), whereas other research has concluded complexity of visual detail. In this method participants 'lat these memories are more accurate, as in the case of are asked to classify items presented on a recognition :.,ishbulb memories or studies of fear conditioning memory test as either new (the item was not seen during iJrcrver,1992; Brorvn & Kulik, 1977;LeDoux et al., lgBS). a prior study phase). as "known" (the item evokes a sense ',\'r'considerecl some of the problems with interpreting this of familiarity and the participant is sure it was seen pre- -.,searchin the precedingsections. viouslv, but no specific detaiis come to mind about its 'l'he relationship of arousal to memorv has been prior or;currence),or as "remembered" [the item evokes a ':rorrghtto depcnd on exar;tly how arousing an experient;e detailed sense of recollective re-experiencing of the prior -. rvith nroderatc amouuts of arortsal proclucing the nrost studv episode repletc with sensory, affective. or semantic : rrrrate memory, and either too little or too much arousal details). Previous research has shown that remernber re- irrsingnemory irnpairments(see Revelle & Lotttrs,1992, sponses are sensitive to how distinctively an item has ' ,r review). Support for this proposal in human studics been encoded, whereas knolv responses artl sensitivc to ':,rs bt:en sontewhat shaky (Christianson, 1992) but is the factors that influence general fanriliarity (Ralaram & -'rongly supportcd by stuclicsin animals showing a dose- Roeriiger,1997). Highl-y distinctivc iterns possessa greatcr :',ptrncleut relatiorrship bctween m{}rnory fbr stressful numbcr of unique attributcs, rnay be ntore deeply en- - ',t,nts and release of arousal-rclate

apply to all conditions equally well. Furthermore,Tulvr:.- TheSocial Cognitive (1983) has suggestedthat the absolute strength ol a mr,:: NeuroscienceApproach orv can never be determined becauseexpression of stor' information is strongly determined by situational and st: Past research on memorv and emotion has failed to de- tegic factors. Instead of asking lvhether memorv is goorl velop an overarching theoretical approach that specifies bad, researchshould focus on elucidating the factorsti..' what emotior-ris, how emotional information is processed, determinewhich aspectsof emotional episodeswill bt,:. and how we would expect it to influence memorv mech- membered accuratelv, when this will occr,rr.and n j. anisms. Studies have been concerned more with providing mechanisms mediate these effects. Our analyses arc r:. an explanation for a particular phenomenon than with cle- tivated bv exactly this kind of approach, and wc lrr,- veloping an intosrated theoretical approach. with a brief overviern'of current theories of menrort ,': III contrast, tht-.prcsent approach cornbincs theories of emotion to serveas the backdropagainst whir;h we disr r.- . menrorv and emotion drawn fiom social psychologv and studies of thcir relationshio in later sr-.ctions. cognitive neuroscieinc;r.'to provide an account of how we renronrber affbr:ting cxpt.'rienr:es(Ochsner & Liebern'rarr, Systemsfor the Construction of Memory 20()1). Our accor.rntcrrts across manv levels,ranging frorn the social lcvcl of experiencn antl behavior, to the r;ogni- Memor.y is not a col),vor reprcldrLr;tionof past expcrilrr, . tive lcvel of inltrrnration processing, clown to thc neural but insteadinvolves a c:onrplc-xcorrslruction thal rlrau- level of brain svstems and mer;hanisms.Wr: call this typt: various kinds of information. Sr;hactcr.Norrrrarr.,,: ol' analysis tht: sor--ialcognitivc neuroscience (SCN) att- Koutstaal (r0sa) have recentlv Jlroyrosr':rla "r:onslnt('. proach [o denotc its emphasis on intcgrating clataand thc- menrorv tramework" that sunrmarizessome of thc rrr,, ory across thcsc three broadl,v clcfined levels of analysis encoding and rctricval processosthat unclcrliersrrr:h , (Licberrnan, 2000; Licbernan, C)chsncr,Gilbert, & Schar;- structions.In this framcwork, rcprcsentationsol nr]\\ ter, 2001; Or:hsner& FelclrnanBarrett, 2001; Ochsncr & pcricnr;es arc vicwecl as patt()rns of firatures.ConstitL. Liel;errnan,2001; Ochsner & Schacter,2000; c;f.Ochsner Ieaturcsof a rncmolv represcntationarc distribrrtecln r,:. & Kosslyn, 1999).Owing sonrcwhatto the relativenovelty across ditlercnt parts of thc brain; no single lor;atronr of our approach, the account of emotion and memory we tains a r;ornplctcrcr;ord ol thc trace or cnflranl of a slrr',.' clelivc is less than a comprehensivetheorv that explains experiencc (Danasio, 1989; Sqrrirc,1992). Rctlieval , : all ernotion ar)rl n)emort/ phenontena, but ntore than a clis- past experience invcrlvesa procoss of "pattern r:onl tillation of reccnt researc;h.It is an attcmltt to rlraw plin- lion" (McClelland, McNarrghton,& O'Reill1,,199:)). 5 . cipled conr;lusions about the way in which emotional sets of the f'eaturesthat comprise a particular past tr: events arc rcmenrbered that draw on and make sense of rience are reactivaterlbv a retrieval cue, and actir,i: data at the social,r;ognitive, ancl neural levcls (Ochsner& spreadsto the remaining features. Lieberman,2001). To procluce rnainly accurartcrepresentations of pitst . , Flom an SCN perspcctive, the answer to the question perience,a memorv svstemthat oPcratesin sttchil nriu):.. ol how emotional evc'nts are remembered is that it de- must solve a number of problens. At the cncoding st.,- pends on the goals one has in encoding, storing, antl re- f'eaturesmust be linked together to tbrm a bour.rcior " trieving information. It shor,rlclbe noted that the Ierm gool herent" r'epresentation(Moscovitch. 199a). A closclr :. is shorthand for a variety of motivational processesthat lated encoding process, sometinres referred to as ptrtl' : mav influenue memorv. Goals may be conscious or uncorl- separation(McClelland et al., 1S95),is required to k' scior,rs,and mav range from relativelv basic biological bound episodes separate from one another in ntetnorr needs (such as eating food or avoiding pain) and impulses episodes overlap extensively with one another, irrclivj : (such as sexual desire) to more complex strivings that als mav recall what is comrnon to manv episodesbut :, drive us to protect our self-esteem or attain professional to remember distinctive particr-rlarsthat distinguish , success.The relationship of events to goals in turn deter- episode from another (e,g., Schacter, Israel, & Rari:. mines both the nature of our initial emotional responseto 1999). the event and hovy cognitive processeswill be deploved Similar kinds of problems arise rvhen retrievinBinl in the service of remembering it. This means that memory mation from memory. Because retrieval cues can potr': is inherently constructive and that questions about the ab- tially match stored experiencesother than the sought-ir1'.' solute strength or quality of one type of remembered in- episode, the rememberer mav form a more re1ln. formation are ill posed. Ansr.r'eringa question about the description of the characteristics of the episode to bc :. absolute acclrracy of memorv depends on specifuing ex- trieved (Burgess& Shallice,1996), referred to as a pro(,.-- actlv what it means to say that a memory is more or less of "focusing" (Norman & Schacter, 1996). lVhen the p,.' accurate, and it may be difficult to agree on criteria that tern completion process produces a match, the remt'r: CHAPTER32. REMEN4BERINGEN4OTIONAL EVENTS: A SOCIAL COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACH 647

whether the retrieved information con- berer must decide Automaticor lmplicitProcesses stitutes a specific memorv of a particular experience or a generic image. The rememberer now needs to consider the Whereas the constructive memory framework focuses on cliagnosticvalue of perceptual vividness, semantic detail, conscious, explicit, or episodic memory for specific past and other kinds of information that can help to specify the experiences, other memory systems are involved in non- origin of the retrieved pattern (fohnson, Hashtroudi, & cortscious or implicit forms of memorv (for reviews, see Lir.rdsay,19931 Schacter & Wagner, 1999). Schacter, Chiu, & Ochsner, 1993; Schacter, Wagner, & Buckner, 2001; Squire, 1992). Consider briefly two such svstems: the perceptual representation svstem (PRS) and ControllingEncoding and Retrieval procedural memorv. .\ r'ariety of brain regions have been linked to these and According to Schacter (1994Jand Tulving and Schacter related aspects of constructive memory functions (see (1990), the PRS plays an important role in the identifica- Sr;hacteret al., lSSB), However, two regions are particu- tion of words and obiects on the basis of their form and larlv relevant to memorv construction: the medial tem- structure. PRS operatesat a "presemantic" level and is not pr.lralregion and the prefrontal cortex. The medial tem- involved in representing associative or conceptual infor- polal region has long been associated with memorv mation (which is the province of yet another svstem, se- iunctions, because clamageto this region produces a se- mantic nemory; sec Tulving. 1983). Schacter(1994J has i ere impairment of rnemory for recent experiences distinguished among three major PRS subsystems:a visual Squiro, 1992). I{ecent nertrointaging data inclicatethat the word tbrm sttbsystenrthat handles inforrnation concerning :ncdial temporal area is involved in ent;oding novel events physical and orthographic features;an auditory word fornr .nto rnernory(c.g., Stern et al., 1996;for review,see Schac- system that handles phonologir;al and acoustic informa- ',,r & Wagner,1999). Incleed, a consensusaccount has be- tit-rn;ancl a strur;tural desr;ription subsystem that handles tun to cmurge regarding how exactly tlie medial tcnrporal information about thc relations betwcen parts of an object :r'.rion inplernents f'eaturcbinding and pattern scparation that specifv its global form and strur;ture. ".e., McClellanrl et al., 1.c195;see Schacternt al., 1998,for The PRS appears to play a prominent role in the phe- : stllllllldfV,). nonlenon known as prirning. which has been sttrclied in- 'l'he nedial tr:nrporal region also contributes to patt()rn tensively during the past rlecacle. Priming refers to ,rrnpletionat retrieval (r;f.McClelland et al., 1995; Mos- r;hanges in one's ability to identify a worcl or an object rrvitr;h,1994). Although thc neuroiuraging,data on medial fronr recluccd perccptual cucs as a conseqllencc ofa reccnt sttc:h Irot cntirely r)xposureto it (Tulving & Sr;hacter,1t)90). Priming appoars ",rrrporalcontributions to relrieval are Irrur-r;ut-many studies have failed to obscrve meclial to opcrate nonconsciously, in the sense that people can ",rnporal activitV cluring rctrieval-sovcral brain inraging cxhibit efl'ectsof prirning undcr conditious in which thcy .trrrlieshave implicated the meclial temporal area in the lack cxplicit mcrnorv for having studicrl a word or objet;t -trr;r:cssfulrec;ollection of rer;ently acquired inforrnation (for revicws, see Rocdiger & MclJerrnott, 1993; Schacter et \r'berg, (labeza, & Tulving, 1996; Schacter, Alpert, Sav- al., 1993). Irurthcr, patients with amnesic syndrornes that ,,tc.Rauch, & Albert, 1996;Sqtrire et al., 1992; for rcview, resrrltfrom damage to the mcclial temporal lobcs-paticnts .,'r) Schacter & Wagner, 1999). who have great difficulties explicitly rerrleml)nringrecont 'lhe prefrontal cortex has also been implicated in both experiences-exhibit intact prinrirrg across a wide varicty ..rrr;crrlingand retrieval processes.On the encoding side, oI tasks,materials, and situations (fbr review, see Scherr;ter .pccific regions within tl.reprefi'ontal t;ortex play ar.rim- & Buckner, 1998; Squire, 1992). These findings indicate lrortant role in elaborative ent;oding activities that relate that priming does not depend on the medial tcmporal .nr;oming infirrmation to previotts expcrietrces (fbr ret:ent structures that mediate explicit remembering. Rccent neu- .trrdies,see Brewer, Zhao, Glover, & Gabrieli, 1998; Wag- loimaging studies oi priming suggcst that rcgior.rsof ex- :rt'r et al., 1998). Numerous neuroimaging studies have trastriate visual cortex play a key rolc (see Schacter & ,lso documented prefrontal activitv during episodic re- Buckner, 1998, for review), Changes in the PRS that arise 'rit*'al, espec;iallyin the right hemisphere (for reviews, sec as a consequenceof analyzing pelceptual features,words, iJur:kner, 1996; Nyberg, Cabeza, & Tulving, 1S96). Al- ol objects likely constitute the basis of many kinds of 'hough the exact nature of the functions indexed by these priming. 't.tivations remains to be determined, they appear to tap Procedural menrorv refers to the acquisition of skills .tfortful aspects of retrieval (Schacter,Alpert et al., 1996) and habits: "knowing how" rather than "knowing that." :t'lated to focusing or entering the "retrieval mode" (Ny- Procedural memories are acquired gradually over time :rerget al., 19s5) and also to postretrieval monitoring and through repetitive practice. Studies of amnesic patients riterion setting (Rugg et al., 1997; Schacter, Buckner, have revealed that er,en patients with a profound inabil- Koutstaal,Dale, & Rosen,1997). ity to explicitly remember past experiences can gradu- 648 PARTV. COGNITIVECON,lPONENTS OFEMOTION ally acquire new perceptual, motor, and cognitive skills Systemsfor Automatic Emotion Processing (e.g., Cohen & Squire, 1980), habits that are involved in classification and categorization (e.g., Knowlton & At least two different systems for encoding emotional ir:- Squire, 1993), and implicit knowledge of sequences(Nis- formation can be activated automatically. The informatit,: sen & Bullemer, 1987) or grammatical rules (Knowlton, stored in these systems is the knowledge base that guicl,'- Ramus, & Squire, 1992). These results show clearly that emotional responses. The most well-studied system ir.. the acquisition of procedural knowledge does not de- volves the amygdala, which receives both coarse sensor'. pend on the medial temporal lobe structures that are input from the thalamus and highly processedinformatir : damaged in amnesic patients. In contrast, patients with about the identity and appearance of objects from high': Huntington's disease, who are characterized bv damage cortical centers(Aggleton et al., 2o0o). Lcsion studics :: to the basal ganglia, have difficulties acquiring new nro- rats and primates, as well as neuroimaging and nerrr tor and cognitive skills despite relatively intact explicit psychological studies in humans, indicate that the li'-' memory-the exact opposite of the pattern exhibited bv subcortical route enables the amygdala to cocle the polt': amnesic patients (e.g., Salmon & Butters, 1995; see Lie- tial threat value r-rfstinuli (such as shocks, averst'.. berman, 2000, for review). Recent neuroimaging cvi- noises, or f'ear laces) without conscior,tsawarcncss (.\:. dence also implicates the basal ganglia, as well as motor dcrson& Phelps,2001;Davis,1997; LeDorrx, 1995; Morr:- cortex, in procedural learning (e.g., Karni et al., 1995; Ohn.ran,& Dolan, 1999;Ochsner & Fcldrnar Barrett,20(). Pctcrscn, van Mier, Fiez, & Raichle, 1998). Whalen, 1998; Whalen et al., 1998). Thc rcgistration Ultimately, the construction of memories depends on potcntial threats promotes the last linkage of oricntir:- interactions among networks that involve multiple brain arousal, ancl fear responses to (;oarsc rcprcscntatiotrs 'l'he regions. The exact nature of the operations perforrneclbv these eliciting stimuli (Davis, lugfl). r;ortical ror;" the constituent regions remains to be spcr;ified, and wc may suppkrment this first-pass analysis with infornrali : are just beginning to explore interactions among them. about the precisecharacteristics of thrcatcningstimuliti:,' difTerentiatethem from nonthreatening ones (Darris,1!ltr- LcDoux. 2000). A ser;ondsystcm involvcs the basal ganglia and is ir: Systemsfor the Constructionof Emotion portant for coding behavioral and cognitive sequencestl: , As was the case for memory, emotion depends on mr-rlti- have become habitual over time. The basal ganglia r:an : . ple systems, each dedicated to proccssing a specific typc activatcd automatically by posiiive or rewarding stittrr. of information. In general, emotion systcnrs arc con- including subliminally presented positive fact-.s(Morrir . ' cerned with determining whether stimuli are significant al., tgso) and cor;aine(London et al., 1990). Stimuli ti: '' to current or long-term goals and guiding action and consistently have been reinforccd ovcr time promot(' :. thought accordingly. An emotional response is generated lease of the neurotransmitter dopaminc, whit;h stantp: . by the pattern of activity across these systems and nrav learning of responses to those stimuli (Lieberman, 2t)tt, include physiological, behavioral, experiential, and cog- Schrrlz,Apicella, Romo, & Scarnati,1995). nitive components (Lazarus, 1991). The process of deter- mining the significance of a stimulus often is called op- Systemsfor Controlled Emotion Processing praisal, and may involve separate processes that organize perception of and responses to emotional stimuli (van Three svstems are essential for the regulation and ntor:. Reekum & Scherer, 1997). Various theorists have argued toring of affective reactions to internal and external stir:.. that appraisals involve the interaction of two kinds of uli. The first depends upon areasof the ventral medial ar: . processes:those that quickly and automatically evaluate orbital frontal cortices and is used to represent the currt'r.' the valence of a stimulus and can promote appropriate motivational value of an external stimuius and use il ' behavior without need of conscious processing and those guide behavior. Neuroimaging studies show activation ' : that operate consciously and deliberately to control, mod- these areasby perceived or imagined positive and negatir' ify, or initiate ongoing emotional responses (Damasio, stimuli (e.g.,Rauch et al., 1997; Rolls, 1999; Shin et tr. 1994; LeDoux, 1995; Leventhal & Scherer, 1987; Ochsner 1997) and damage to these areas impairs abilitv to use,':' & Feldman Barrett, 2001; Ohman, 19BB). Although our fect to guide decision making (Bechara et al., 1995, lggr understanding of emotion systems is still in its infanc1,, at Damasio, 1994), the ability to change behavior to'rlar: present it is useful to broadly organize them along the stimuli with learned affective value (Rolls, 1999), and mu', continuum between automatic and controlled processing cause general disinhibition and socially inappropriate ar- to better understand their contributions to the appraisal fect and behavior (Rolls, 199s). A second svstem depentl- process (Ochsner & Feldmann Barrett, 2001; Ohman, 198B; upon the anterior cingulate cortex and is used to monitt : van Reekum & Scherer, 1997; see also Dalgliesh. chap. 33. the extent to which the current motivational state deviatt'- this volume). from one that is desired (Ochsner & Feldman-Barrett CHAPTER32. REN,IEN4BERINGEN4OTIONAL EVENTS: A SOCIAL COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACH 649

3001; Ochsner, Kosslyn et al., 2001; cf. Botvinick et al., ple, it takes more time to name the color in which words l!)99; Posner & DiGirolamo, 1998). This function is im- rvith strong personal significance are printed than it takes I)ortant for manv behaviors, and activation of regions of to name the print color of neutral words (Macleod, 1992; , ingulate cortex has been associatedwith manv phenom- Mineka & Nugent, 1995; Williams et al., 1990). This effect "na including mental imagery (Kosslyn, Aipert et al.. seems most pronounced for aversive words (e.g.,Pratto & 1993),working memory (Petit et al., 1998), divided atten- John, 1991). and so long as these rvords have immediate 'ion (Corbetta et al, 1991) and attention to emotion (Lane, affective significance, they can capture our attention and liink et al., 19S7), hypothesis generation (Elliott & Dolan, interfere with our ability to do other things (Matthews, 1!)98),the experience of pain [e.g. Talbot, Marrett et al., Mogg, Kentish. & Evsenck, lggb). 'Ihe 11)91),and the detection and correction of errors (Botvin- attention-grabbing porver of affective and espe- :r k, 1999; Carter et al.. f SsA). The third structure is the cially threatening stimuli on memory has been demon- .,rteral prefrontal cortex. In general, this brain region is strated in studies of a phenomenon known as "weapon .rnportant for working fremorv and implementing cogni- focus." This term refers to the tendencv of threatening 'ivo control (Knight et al., 1999; Miller & Cohen, 2001). stimuli to dominate initial perception and subsequent iecent work suggestslateral prefrontal cortex may plav a men)ory of stressful events. A classic demonstration of .pecial role in emotion regulation: Ochsner, Bunge et al. this effect was provided bv Loftus and Burns (1982), who -t)01) used functional neuroimaging to compare brain asked participants to watch a videotape of a staged bank ,i tivation when participants either let themselves re- robbery in which the escaping robbers either did or did .rrond naturally to aversive images or interpreted (or re- not shoot a small bov in the face. Viewing the gunshot ,rrpraised)these irnagesin unemotional terms. They found impaired memr)rv lbr immediatelv preceding events while ':rat reappraisal activated regions oflateral preliontal cor- prcserving vivicl recall of the shot itself (see also Loftus, ".r and deactivated regions of the ventromedial prcfrontal Lofh.rs,& Ivlesso,1tl87). The apparont automaticily of this rrtex and aml,gciala.These results are important because elfect is urrdurscorcclin a stucly by (lhristianson, Loftus, ':rel su6;gestthat t'xcrting r;ognitive control over emotion Hoffmann, and Loftus (1991). Using vcry brief stimulus ,rn influcnr;e ltoth automatic (amygdala) and controlled presentations or eyc-tracking records, they cquated view- ', entromedial prcfrontal cortex) emotion processingsys- ing tirnc fbr enrotionaI and ncutral slides ancl found that ",rns (r:f. Hariri. Bookheimer, & Mazziotta, 2000). mer)orv for the ernotional stimuli was consistontly more aLlctuate. In sorrrc cases. unexper;(eclancl int;ongruent, but non- Emotion Guidesthe Encodingand thrcatcning, stilruli {srrt;}ras a baniina held by bank rob- Storage of Information ber) also nray grab attention ancl be bctter rcmembered )Lrrernotional rcsponses signal the occurrence of events (l'ir;kcl, 1998). .Suchstimuli arc not directly thrcatening, ,nrl stimuli of particular significanceto both short- and howt,'ver,and it is likelv that incongruenl ard affectivc .,rng-termgoals (Lazarus,1991). In general,these re- stinuli are rcnrenrbered well ibr diffurent reasons. This .l)onses serve to protet:t the self from hann and help us to was clernonstratedby a recerlt functional neuroirnaging :,,,.lulalecurrollt mood and behavior (Lazarus, 1991). Ento- str-rclvthat related memorv to patterns of neural activation 'ions thus motivate us to attend to, appraise.reappraise, drrring eucoding of bizarrc aud affectivc stirnuli malchcd rnd organize our untlerstanding of the pursonally signifi- for theil rlegrceof intcrcst (Ilamann et al., 1999).Although ,rnt stimuli that arouscd our I'eelings(r;f. Dalgleish, this both alfective and bizarrc stimuli were rccalled better than ,oltrtne).The conscquenceof this added attention and neutral stimrrli. onlv for af'fective stimuli was arnygdala onsideration is that we tcnd to remember affer;tivelv activitv at ent:oding correlatecl with subsequent memory harged events difl'erently than we remember mundane (seealso Cahill et al., 1996). rnes.This interaction between ernotion and encoding has i.roenstudied .primarily in four domains: the way in which Attention and Emotion Regulation threatening stimuli automaticallv grab attention, how "nrotion regulation strategiesinfluence attention and inr- Although the emotional content of stimuli mav automati- pact on nlenrory, how existing emotion knowledge (in the call,y glab hold of our attention, we can consciouslv re- lbrm of schemasl guides encoding of inlbrmation, and direct it to change our resllonse to an event before, during, post-event rehearsal of aftective events. or after it has occurrecl. Such attempts at active emotion regulation can change the way in which we encode events and, therefore, how we remember DetectingThreats, Attention, and Weapontocus them later on fGross. 199B). One commonly used regulatorv strategy entails Quite often, the activation of an emotional responseis au- suppressing the expression of emotional behavior (e.g., tomatic, as strongly valenced stimuli are classified as pos- keeping a neutral facial expression or tone ofvoice so that rtive or negative. In the emotional Stroop task, for exam- others do not know that one is unhappy). Although ex- 650 PARTV. COGNITIVECON/PONENTS OFEMOTION pression suppression mav lle successful, it takes a phvsi- Heuer,& Reisberg,1992; Christianson & Loftus,1987; Clif - ological toll (Gross & Levensorr, 1993) and impairs ntent- ford & Scott,1978: Yuille & Cutshall,1986). The particulirr ory accuracy, possibll, bv diverting attention from external kind of information central to the schema depends on thl events to the internal regulatorv process (Richards & emotion (Levine & Burgess.1997: Stein et al., 1997),an(i Gross, 1999). Suppressing one's experience also mav im- there is good evidence that schemas help us draw infi,r- pair memory, but by redr-rcingthe detail with rvhich events encespertaining to causaiitvand intention during the cn- are recollected (Ochsner, 2000). Another comr.rronlvusecl codillg of art ernotional event and cause us to misrenrcnr- regulatory strategy is to trv to forget rregativeevcnts after ber these inl'erenr;esas facts later on (Heuer & Rcisber,t. thev har.,eended. Stirdies of interrtional ol tlirer;tetlforget- 19e0). ting using emotior.rallycvocativr.' rvords suggest that this Self-schemas represent thc positir,e or negative vicrr - strategy can be successfirlfbr norrnal indiviemotions, it is rel- and Reminiscence evant to find out rvhether voul'spouse intencleclto express himself or herself in this lvav and rvhat might be motir,at- The enrotions lve experience in response to signil)r,, ing his or her actions (Lazarus,1991: Stein, Wade. & Li- evellts lla,r' reveal to us r,vhatwe consider importairt. rr:. wag, 1997). To determine which scenario is correct, one we want. and whv we want it (Ross & Conrvar', ltti' can search for relevant emotion knowledge in associative Singer& Salovev,1396). Whether personalor public. r,l or episodic nlemorv (e.g.,whenever I am late, mv spouse tional events ter.rdto retain their significance tbr long ; . is upset) or in the environment (e.g.,m1, spouse had a big riods of time and are recounted and rehearsedmore oi: presentation today and it might have gone badly), than neutral ones (Neisser & Harsch, 1992; Scharr. - The use of schematic emotion knowleclge during en- 1996), and the amount of rehearsal is generally assor-i,tl' coding suggeststhat we will remember information central with increased subsequent nernorv [Cohen, Cortu'ar. ', to and congruent with the schema for a particular kind of N{avlor, 1994: Conrvay & Bekerian, 198B; Rubin & Kuz. emotional experience. Numerous studies have demon- 1984;see. hon,ever, Christianson & Loftus, 1990;Pillt'rn. - strated better recall for so-called central than peripheral 1984). Negative events are hard to ignore and mav be nr, . details, including enhanced memory tbr the actions and important to revisit because they mav signal ihreats tir weapons, rather than appearance, of attackers (Burke, could continue in the future fSkowronski & Carlstr: CHAPTER32. REMEN4BERINGEMOTIONAL EVENTS: A SOCIAL COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE APPROACH 651

1989); diary studies have shown that people tend to re- study has examined memory for positive, as well as neg- hearse unpleasant experiences more than pleasant ones ative, information. Hamann et al. (199s) found that recall and, as a result, may ter-rdto overestimate the frequency of both positive and negative photos was correlated with rvith lvhich they occr,rrred(Thomas & Diener, 1995). amygdala activitv at encoding, which fits with animai Although memorv for arousing events ultimately sur- studies that shorv that amygdala lesions block learning of passesmemory for neutral events, initially it may actually associations between stimuli and appetitive, as well as lre worse (Revelle & Loftus, 1992). The initial decline and aversive, visceral states (Holland * Gallagher, 1999). .ubsequent improvement in memory for arousing events It is possible that the amygdala's role in emotional is called the "reminiscence effect," and it has been dem- menorv is to help consolidate the storageof events to the urstrated lvith both words (Bradley & Baddelev, 1990; extent that they are arousing, irrespective of their valence, Kieinsmith & Kaplar.r,1963) and pictures (Kaplan & Kap- ar-rdthat the effects of valence on memorv are mediated .,rn. 1969). The effect is somewhat small ancl variable bv schematic knorvledge stored in associative memorv. L.r llulke et al., 1992; Corteen,1969) but is reliable (Park & keeping with this notion, amygdala lesions eliminate the ilanaji, 1996) and may depend on as yet unclear particu- memorv advantage for emotional stimuli only on episodic .,rrsol the paired-associateparadigm most commonlv used memory tasks in which the valence or emotional theme of ' r studv it. stin.rtrli could r-rotbe used to help organize encoding of Theoretical accounts of the reminiscence effect have them (Phelps & Anclers<-rn,1997). ,ppealed to various kinds of consolidatiou mechanisms Processing and storing informatior.r about appetitive ':rat take moro time to intcgrate cmotional events into ex- states that involve moving closer to a goal state or stimu- rting knowlcdgc strur;turcs. Rcvcllc and Loftus (rgg2) lrrs,regardless of whcther that stimuius is exclusivelypos- .uqgested that bec;ausertre extract more infbrmation per itive, seems to be the job of thc basal ganglia. In some -nit time fron emotional than from ncutral cxpericnt;es studies, basal ganglia ar;tivation has becn obscrved during (.hristiansonet al., 1991),it mav be clifficultto accessthat thc rccall of positive, but not negative.personal experi- :rlormationinitiallv. Thc anrygtlala,r,r'hich is essentialfor ences (Lare, Rcinran,Bradley, et al.. 1997) and in others :.,te(;tingproattcntivc thrcals, sccnls to be the essential during recall of sarl,but not happy, onos (Lane,Reiman, ':rlrliator of this consolidation. LaBar and Phelps (tssa) Ahern, & Sc;hwartz,19.t)7). Animal work has indir:ated that ' ,rrnd that reminiscence is eliminatetl by darnageto the the basal ganglia are important for potentiating and rrlin- '..rnporallobe that inr;lutlesthe amygdala. forcing conclitionerl assor;iationsbetween stirruli and ap- petitive reinlbrr;crs, srrc:has food and sex; firtr.rreneuroim- a64irtgresearch rnav expliciite a sirnilar role lbr the basal Neural Mechanisms for Encoding and Storing ganglia in humans. EmotionalInformation

. :rt' svstems rcsponsiblc fbr cncocling and storing specif- .rlll' aff'eclive information include the svstcms fbr auto- EmotionInfluences and Guides Retrieval 'l'he ':,rtir;r:notion proccssing rcvicwccl herein. system in- 'lr ing thc anygdala is best ttnderstood. Lesiotr research Althr-rughthe product of thc encoding process forms the '. ruts (e.g..LerIJoux ct al., lg8g) ancl lcsiort (e.g.,LaBar founclation fbr or.rrrecollections, rvhv arrtl holv we pull up ''I)oux,Spencer, & Phelps,1995) ancl rteuroitnaging stud- a rccord of a past errr,rtionalexperienr;e is as important a . rvith humans (e.g.,Lal3ar et al., 1998)indir:ate that the cleternrinantof what wc renember as is why and how we ::rqclalais csscntialfor coding conditionetl associations initially encoded certain aspects of it. Incleed,retrieval of -'\\'eon stirnuli and visccralresponsos. Encoding of emo- emotional information does not takc place in a vacuum, rr,rl information depen

gether. Thus retrieval cues themselves ntay be incorpo- ences are judged desirable or accurate.and b1' guirlir: rated into our conscioLrsrecollections. As discussed ear- conscious or nonconscious inferences that fill in missir. lier, unless we have reason to believe the information that or unknown information that rvas not encoded initiall comes to mind is incorrect, the second stage of retrie\rai Because of their close interdependence on a shared I)( that allows for monitoring and correction of the memory of knowledge, each of these schematic influences often , seatch mav not proceed (Norman & Schacter, 1996). curs in cornbinationwith at leastone olthe others.In e;r, Affective cues can por.t'erfullv bias memorv in this wav. of the examples that follow, although we highlight on 'fhus In some r;ases,these cues rraV be internal states. Eich one kind of influence for purposes of illustration, nr,: et al. (1985)founcl that for chronic pain patients,recall of than one kind may be present. past levels of pain were systematicallvlriased upward or downward in the direr;tionof the level of pain r;urrentlv Self-and Mood-RegulatoryGoals being experienccrl. Interestingl,v,onlv if current pain is emotionallv evocativc does it distort rnemorv for past Our seif-knowledgt: rlav ar;t as a r;hronic goal that gui(i pain, indicating that it is tho cmotional, not the pht'sical, retrierral of past expericnc-esto r;onfirnr or create a r r,:: slatc that provides the cues that bias mernorv (Eich, Rach- patiblc self-image in the present (Or;hsner& Sr;hart. nan, & Lopatka,1990). Tht-.sc cues also ruay involvc more 2000;Ross, 19Bti). For nrostindividrrals. this nroiu)sIr),jr: r;ornplexpattems of cmotional appraisal.[Juring the 19{]2 taining a positiv{) self-viow (Tavlor, 1gtl9) that (jiln gu. . prcsidentialr;ampaign, Levine (tttStZ)studiecl the support- rrs, for exarnple, to renember pasl faults ancl lbiblcs. sr: ers of former pr()sidential t;anrlidate Ross Perot trfter he as poor grad()s(tsahrir;k. Hall, p Burger.1996) or rrn... had reentcrt:d the lacc in Oc:tobcrto deterrninc how wcll c:essfulgarnbling verrtrrres (Frank & Gilovir;h,19t19). r:iti.. thev could renrenrbr)rtheir feelings about his withclrawal as less connlon or as more positive thiin lhcv ar;ttr,,. liorn the race in JuI,y.In gcneral, past teelilgs wL're re- were (Oonway & Rrrss, 1984). Sirrrilarly, nrarrietl rr.. callcd as Lreingmore consistent with c;urrentfitt:lings than nright protect themselvesfronr fccling rcsponsiblealr the-var;tuallv were. l.or examplo. if an individual was e-r- rnarital rleclinc bv mislrmerlbr:ring carlv nrarital lil, citccl alrorrt Perot's relurn in Oc;tcrberbut had ltecn ultset lessrosv lerns (Holnrbcrg& Holrnes,1994, as r;iterlirr 1.. about his departr-rrein Julr.,hc or she ror;alledhaving been ine, 1997).As discusserlearlier, deprcssives mav rer:ull. . rriore hopciirl for his retrrrrithan he or shc actually nas. poriences ils mor() negativo tharr the1,ar:ttrallv wcre. rr lr. Thc specific direction and kind of bias clependcd on thc reinfbrces their nogative scll-vicw (Nolen-Hoeks,,r: spcr;ific ellotions expcricnced and were recallecl accu- 19911. 'l'ykocinski, ratclv (or rverc overestinratted)onlv if culrent li:clings hacl Higgins (Higgins & 1992) has sugg,,-' renrainecl cionstant.Bias also mav bc r;aused bv cxternal that there mav be two ways in r,r'hichwc maintarn our ., cues, as shor'r'nb], Or;hsner,Schar;ter, and Eclrvartls(1997), rricu,s:Wr,'cithel Iocus on attairrincorrr idcals ol on ir\ | who found that rt'hcr-rasked to rcr;all the plr:asant or un- ing the consequon(;esof lailing to fulfill our dutir)s,,1 pleasar.rttone of voice in u,hich a person had spokcr.rear- responsibilities.He has found tl.rateacl.r typu of inrlivirl.. lier, r'cr;allwas biascd in thc direction of after;tt)reseut in rvill tenclto rct;alldifferent kiuclsof intbrrlation: An ir:. a photo of that person used as a retrieval t;ue. tbcLrs lcads one to rr:r;all more positive infbrnral: Althorrgh nunrorous lactors likel_vinfluet-rce the degree u'hereasa dutv tbcrrs[ol oughl-focrrs,as he calls it) l'., 'l of bias caused by a retrieval cue, such as the relative per- orle to recall more negatirreinfirrnation (Higgins & r r ceptual dominance of one tvpe of r;ue over another (Ochs- cvnski, 19921see also Singer,1990). ner et al.,1997) anclthe lelative specificitvofthe cue and Retrievalof ernotionalexperienr;es also mav be Lrsr,,:' completeness of the mentorv trace (Norman & Schacter, regulateour presentmood. |ust as we want to mainl,rr: 1996),this important topic has been little studieclfbr erno- positive self-concept, most of the time we rvant trr l tional metnories (for discussion of retrieval bias in other good and will recall positive life events wher-rfeeling 1,, : domains, see Schacter,1999). Thus Josephson,Singer, and Salovey (t994, as citt'ri Singer & Salovev, 1996) found that, although negirt.. memories lvere initially brought to mind b1, a saci ti.:, Schemas:The Goals,the Biases, participants recall positive ' - andthe Unknown tended to then experit'rr' and most were consciouslv attempting to change th. The second stage of the retrieval process involr.es evalu- mood by doing so. The tendencv to recall positive n),,:l ating the information brought to a\,varenessblr the retrierral ories in response to negative r-noodsmay be more Ir: cues. When recalling emotional events, our schematic nounced in individuals with high self-esteem (Smlth r emotion knowledge can guide this process in at least three Petty, 1995) or who exhibit a repressive coping st.. prirnary rvays: by setting the goals which initiate memorv (Boden & Baumeister,19S7J, aithough thev mav havt' ,i.: search, bv setting the criteria against which past experi- ferent reasons for exhibitins this tendencv. IndividLr,, ,\ ith high self-esteemmay acknowledge that they felt bad, Bulnan, 1992). For individuals with this belief, recollec- ..,lrcreas repressors Dlav not. As a consequence, individ- tion serves to restructure beliefs about the past and the . rls rvith high self-esteem may learn that they can suc- ability to cope in the future, therebv fostering a sense of ..ssfullv cope rvith negative affect, whereas repressorsfail learning and grolvth by allowing people to feel that they learn that thel' can adapt and may continue to avoid have gained control over the factors that influence their .:luations in rvhich negative affect may be evoked (Mc- happiness (Janoff-Bulman, 1992; Folkman & Lazarus, 'rland & Buehler, 1S97). It is important to note that in 1sB4). . nre cases recall of negative experiences may be desir- For example, when recounting traumatic experiences, ,: lc. such as when we want to dampen a playful mood to understanding and expressing one's feelings ar.rd their , r.rson work or other tasks (Panot & Sabini, 1990). sources can have salutarv effects on mental and physical health (Pennebaker, 1997). Studies of the wav in which we recall pain also illustrate this point nicely: Sometimes (riterion Settingand Reevaluation recalling pain as less severe than it was can make people ,',:ren cleciding what to search for in nemory and decid- feel more hopeful and in control, as is the casefor mothers .: nhether rvhat r.r'ehave recalled is accuraie, our judg- recollecting tl.re pain of childbirth (Norvell, Gaston- . nts nay be informed by cultural and personal theories )ohansson, & Fridh, 1987); but sometimes recollecting . ,rrt how feelings and attitudes rise or fali over time pain as nlore severe can serve the same end, as shown by :. ,ss.198O). Irr some cases,these theories are implicit and people with high dental anxietv who recall more pain than - .:rlethe assumptionslve make without our being aware they actually reported cxperiencing following a trip to tl.re ,t our rccollections are being biased. For example, clentist (Kent, 1985). In the long tern, our tendencies to . rrrentend to re<;allpast monstnlal r;yclesas being more construe and re-recollcct errents positivclv or ncgativel,y ,.nfirl then they actr-rallywere, whir;h fits with popular can determine our overall levcl of happiness (Seidlitz & ' jons that anxicty inc;reaseslust befbre rnenstruation be- Diener, 199Ii;Suh, Diener,& Fulita, 1996). . :.s l-l1,1contrasts with enrpirir;al researr;hthat indicates Our goals in remenbering past events and our abilitv ,1 this increase in anxicly lnay not occur (McFarland, to learn from thenr nray be ditferent clepending on how - -.. & De[]ourville, 19U9;Ross & Buehler, 1l]94). long ago they occurred. Strar;k et al. (tSaS) suggestedthat Ilr r;ther .jasos,oul lhcories rnay l-lcmore explicit and recent events nray indir;atc how able wo aro to r;opc wilh ,.. lrtrusccl to r;ontrol thc. irnpact that past everttshavc rin stressesand enjoy succr-rsscsatrd can shiti mood in a di- . rrr thc prcsent. Ol'partir:ular irnportance are theorios rcction congruent with the ernotion recallecl.In contrast, . lrrrlclsalrout the need to revisit past experiences,be- we may recall Lrng-distant evcnts whcn we want to rnake . -.r, the nature of these theories determincs whelher or infercnces allout how we have developeclover tinre.'l'hus ' rlc learn from thcrn. Fcl' exarnple, one coulcl believe rcntenrbering an arglrnrent with onc's lather coulrl nrakc ,: rclivirrgpast pain begetsmore pain in the present,and rusnostalgic and wistftrl if thc argunrent took plar;e during -..,rlt;hdoes suggostthat recollecting trnpleasantexpe- r:hildhood but upset ancl angry if it Look place only a few :)(.(rscan depress mood and rnay bring other, like ex- days ago (Strar;kct al., 1985). . ir'n(iesto mind, espec;iallyif the experiences are trau- ,'ir (Bower & Forgas, 2000; Strack, Schwarz, & Fillingin forWhat ls Unknown - lrneirling,er,1985). Onc nright hold this belief becaust: : ,rrtir;rrlarlv cxtrernt: past experier-rcehas changecl the Another reason that schematic cmotion knowleclge r;artin- , . in lr'hir;h one evaluates thc quality o[ preserrt expe- fluence memory for past events is that our initial al'fective ' :rr.rs. Lottery winncrs, for exarnple, take less plcasure responsesto them rrraynot have been wcll cncodcd in the :ronnal cveryday activitit-.s,presumably because they iirst place. If our ir.ritialleelings are not easily rccoverable to match the pleasure of thcir win (Brickman, Coates, becausethey wert-.not well stored, then schematic knowl- . i,ruoff-Buirnan,1978). Similarlv, paraplegicsalso may edge rnay be rrsed to fill in rvhat is missing. ,r the presr:nt less than theV did befbre their life- For example, information about thc duration of events 'nr.lingcvent because thev remernber lif'e before the ac- is one attribute that seernsto btl poorly encoded, and we :,,nt as having becn better than it is now. Belief that the use memory of the intensity of the experience to draw in- ,'t produces pain that cannot be controlled or dimin- ferences about it. Thus, whcn asked to rate the likability -::',tl ma-v foster avoidance and fear of new pair-rfulex- of a film, our judgrnents are based on its conterrt and not .rt'nces,as well as a repressivecoping style that has its duration (Fredrickson & Kahneman, 1993), and esti- : , ',rst:health consequences. mates of the duration of violent scenes increase as a func- llorver,er, if one believes that the causes of past trage- tion of the intensitv of our emotional reactions to them . or joys can be understood and controlled, then past (Loftus et al., 1987). We may focus on intensitv and ne- :.n: rian be recollected much r-norepositively (Janoff- glect duration to such an extent that we prefer a longer 654 PARTV. COGNITIVECOI\4PONENTS OF E[4OTION

lasting, br-rtless painful, experience to a shorter but more to a lesser extent automatic, emotion processiltg. In this painful one (Varey & Kahneman, 1.592). section rve focus on the contributions of those structures invoh'ed in emotion. The two automatic emotion svstems that encode and Altered Statesof Awareness store information about the link betrveen conditioned A final way in which emotion mav influence retrieval is stimuli or behaviors and visceral states are involved in bv influencing the subjective state of awareness accom- retrieval of those links. For example, studies of fear con- panying recollection of past events. In general, as conl- ditioning have shown that expression of conditioned fear pared to neutral events, en'rotionalevents tend to be sub- responses is eliminated if the amygdala is lesioned after jectively re-experienced in a wav that seems to more training has been completed (LeDoux, 1995). Similarlr'. closely approximate our original experience of them. The posttraining lesions of the basal ganglia can disnrpt ex- effects of emotion on awareness may stem from the fact pression of well-learned sequencesof rewarded behavior. that affecting stimuli activate physiological responsesthat including grooming (Berridge & Whisharv, l992). Al- can add heat and color to our initial experiences and our though amygdala activity at encoding may be correlated memories of them. The senseof subjective re-experiencing with memor,v for episodic and associative informatiort has been studied in at least three different wavs. (e.g..Cahill et al.. l996i Harnannet al., 1tlg0),presunrablr' The first involves simply asking people to rate the viv- becauseit is helping to consolidate storageof it, the amyg- idness with which they recaii past personal experient;es. dala does not seom to bc so inrportant for the rctricval ol' 'l'he Numerous studies have shown that recollections of sig- declarative emotion knowledge. dissociabilitv of c:on- nificant, affecting, or consequential events are rated as ditioned and episodic emotional knowlcdgc also has boerr morc vivid than neutral events (e.g.,Conwav & Bekerian, shown in studies that compare arnnesiacswho cannot rc- 1988; Christianson & Loftus, 1990). Vividness ratin5lsarc member a fear-conditioning procedure evcn thorrgh ther ambiguous, however, with respect to the basis on which show conditioncd fear responsesancl paticnts lvith anr-r'g- they are nrade (see Ochsner & Schacter, 2000, for discus- dala lesions who remember the procedurc but acquireclno sion), and a second-more direct-method for assessing conclitionedassociations (e.g., tsechara, Tranel, Damasio. states of awareness employs the rentenber/know method & Adolphs, 1{}95). of Tulving [1983), Cardiner, and others (e.g., Gardiner & Although it is likely that the basalganglia also do nor fava, 1993). As discussed earlier, this mcthod asks partic- participate in the retrieval crfassociatir,e or cpisodic emo- ipants to indicate whether their recall or recognition of an tion knowledge, the requisite studies have not vet beerr event is accompanied by a detailed sense of re- pertbrmed. One study did show basal ganglia activatiorr experiencing an event (in which case, a rentenber re- cluring retrieval of positive memories (Lane, I{einran. sponse would be made), or whether it simply seems fa- Bradley,et al., 1gg7),but it is uot clear whether the ar;ti- miliar (in which case, a know response is made). C)chsner r.'ationwas due to retrieval of inforrnation or to thc exltt'- (in press) found that emotionallv arousing and especiallv rience of positive affect per se. This interpretive protrlcrrr negative photos were more likely to be remembered than is quite general and affects other studies of the retrieval oi neutral ones, and also found that this effect did not require emotional memories: It is seldorn r;lear whether activation one to explicitly appraise the emotionality of the images or the failure to find activation of a putative emotion areir when they first were seen. The final way in rt'hich aware- means that it is or is not involved in retrie','al or expcri- ness has been assessedhas to do with our subjective point ence (e.g.,George, Ketter, Parekh, t Horwitz, tgss). of view when visualizing past experiences. Events can be Areas involved in controlled emotion pr<-rcessingar'' re-viewed in the mind's eye either fiom orre'soriginal first- important lbr mediating retrieval of emotional infornra- person, or field, perspective or from a detached, third- tion. For example, the orbital and ventral medial prefrorr- person obseruerperspective in which the rememberer sees tal regions seem to be essential for gating the expressiorr herself as part of the memory. Focusing on recovering past of learned conditioned behaviors. L,esionsto these area: feelings makes us more likely to see events unfold from a in rats, monkeys, or humans will cause perseverative re- 79eldperspective (Robinson & Swanson, 1933J. sponding to stimuli that are no longer being reinforceri (Bechara,Damasio, Tranel, & Damasio,1996, 1997;Rolls. NeuralSystems for Retrieving 1999; Stuss, Eskes,& Foster, 1994). An inability to inhibit EmotionalInformation previouslv learned responses following medial prefrontal damage also can slow extinction of conditioned fear re- Retrieval of emotional memories seemsto involve most of sponses (Morgan & LeDoux, 1995). the systems used for retrieval in general (reviewed in the Retrieval of emotional memories also may activatt, section titled "Systems for the Construction of Memory"), more strongly systems that are used to retrieve informa- in combination with the systems used for controlled, and tion more generaliv. Shin et al. (1997) asked normals and CHAPTER32. 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