Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143

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Quaternary International

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Investigating human and megafauna co-occurrence in Australian prehistory: Mode and causality in fossil accumulations at Cuddie Springs

Melanie Fillios a, Judith Field a,b,*, Bethan Charles c a Australian Key Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, Electron Microscope Unit F09, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006 Australia b School of Philosophical and Historical Inquiry, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia c Department of Archaeology, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006 Australia article info abstract

Article history: Human arrival in Sahul – Pleistocene Australia and New Guinea – has long been argued as the catalyst in Available online 3 May 2009 the decline and disappearance of a suite of extinct animals referred to as megafauna. The debate con- cerning causality in Sahul is highly polarised, with climate change often cited as the alternative explanatory model. On continental Australia, there are few datasets available with which to explore the likely processes leading to the extinction events. At the present time, there is one site in New Guinea (Nombe Rockshelter) and one on continental Australia (Cuddie Springs) where the coexistence and temporal overlap of humans and megafauna has been identified. The Cuddie Springs Pleistocene archaeological site in southeastern Australia contains an association of fossil extinct and extant fauna with an archaeological record through two sequential stratigraphic units dating from c. 36 to c. 30 ka ago. A taphonomic study of the fossil fauna has revealed an accumulation of bone in a primary depositional context, consistent with a waterhole death assemblage. Overall the faunal assemblage studied here (n: 8146; NISP: 1355) has yielded little direct evidence of carnivore damage or human activities. Post depositional factors such as physical destruction incurred by trampling, compaction of sediments, and/or the hydrological status of the lake at that time have played important roles. As the only known site on continental Australia where megafauna and humans co-occur, the Cuddie Springs faunal assemblage yields equivocal evidence for a significant human role in the accumulation of the fauna here. At the present time there is no evidential basis to the argument that humans had a primary role in the extinction of the Australian megafauna. The first colonisers are likely to have preyed upon those few species known to have persisted to this time, but their impact may have been restricted to the tail end of a process that had been underway for millennia prior to human arrival. Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction Australian continent, the impact of colonising humans on habitat and fauna is much less clear (see Wroe and Field, 2006). First, The arrival of humans into new environments is often linked identifying the exact timing of colonization by humans has been with distinct and irreversible changes in habitat and faunal pop- problematic due to methodological issues with dating techniques, ulations. One of the best cited examples is New Zealand and the taphonomy and interpretation of stratigraphy (see O’Connell and subsequent extinction of the Moa and other bird species (Anderson, Allen, 2004, 2007); and second, the currently available chronolo- 2003). However, the events that have been well documented on gies for megafauna are few and provide no clear indication of islands are not always mirrored on continents, though the two are timing or direction in the extinction process (Field et al., 2008). The often treated as one (see Wroe et al., 2002, 2004a). On the nearby result of these two separate dilemmas is that almost any cause can be invoked for the Late Pleistocene faunal extinctions, and the two primary candidates – humans and climate change – are mostly presented as opposing positions rather than two elements of * Corresponding author: Australian Key Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis, a complex puzzle (see Horton, 1984; Flannery, 1990; Wroe et al., Electron Microscope Unit F09, The University of Sydney, NSW 2006 Australia. Tel.: 2004a; Johnson, 2006; Koch and Barnosky, 2006; Wroe and Field, þ1 612 9351 7412; fax: þ1 612 9351 7862. E-mail addresses: m.fi[email protected] (M. Fillios), j.fi[email protected] (J. Field), 2006; Prideaux et al., 2007; Turney et al., 2008). As a debate [email protected] (B. Charles). continues over primary causes, empirical evidence implicating

1040-6182/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2009.04.003 124 M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 people in the extinction of the megafauna is yet to be revealed. Brook et al., 2006; Gillespie and Brooks, 2006). In each case the Recent claims of a human mediated extinction process in Tasmania association of megafauna and humans is proposed to be the result (Turney et al., 2008) are unsupported and no evidence of of disturbance: the megafauna bones have been ‘reworked’ into the a temporal overlap of humans with megafauna has yet been found more recent levels, and/or the artefacts have been introduced into (R. Cosgrove personal communication). Furthermore, full consid- the deeper megafauna bearing deposits from overlying disturbed eration of the potential for humans to effect a mass extinction is horizons. Initially, the megafaunal bones were argued to be a lag rarely given; though modeling studies have attempted to predict deposit (Roberts et al., 2001b). Gillespie and Brooks (2006) have this potential (e.g. Brook and Bowman, 2004), they are usually declared that the megafaunal bones are in fact ‘bed-load’ derived based on the rather poor datasets currently available and unproven from a palaeo-channel which can be seen in aerial photographs. assumptions about human behaviour (see Field et al., 2008). Roberts et al. (2001b) argued that the original (and older) sedi- Further advances in understanding the extinction problem in Sahul ments were removed by wind or water. Subsequently, 36 ka year are constrained by the sparse nature of the fossil record (Wroe and old sediments, charcoal and stones accumulated around the bones. Field, 2006). While megafauna in Australia are widely known from If the bones were bed-load or a lag deposit then they should exhibit pit traps in caves (e.g. Reed and Bourne, 2000; Prideaux et al., signs of significant weathering and abrasion. Skeletal elements 2007), it seems likely that any records of megafauna co-occurrence with thin cortical bone such as vertebrae would be severely with people will be located near or in watering points on the degraded, the processes either missing or damaged. If they are bed- landscape (e.g. the sites of Lancefield Swamp, Lime Springs and load there would be no coherent association of bones and fluvial Cuddie Springs), where large animals will more often be encoun- sorting would be evident in directionality and skeletal part repre- tered and taken (O’Connell, 2000). sentation (after Voorhies, 1969). Assuming that 36 ka bones would also accumulate with the archaeology, then the 36 ka faunal 1.1. Megafauna and Archaeology assemblages from this horizon (SU6A and SU6B) would exhibit markedly different preservation to the lag assemblage, and overall Sahul (Pleistocene Australia–New Guinea) has yielded only two there would be a great variation in Rare Earth Element signatures sites where the questions of human and megafauna coexistence can consistent with this scenario (see Trueman et al., 2005). be explored: Nombe Rockshelter, a limestone shelter in the New Other researchers have proposed a mechanism by which the Guinea Highlands; and Cuddie Springs, an ephemeral lake in semi- stones were moved downwards from a pavement (SU5) which seals arid southeastern Australia (Field et al., 2008). If humans have had the more recent (European) deposits from the underlying Pleisto- a profound impact on the Australian Pleistocene fauna, then this cene megafauna bearing sediments (Gillespie and David, 2001; should be apparent at one or both sites where an association and David, 2002; Brook et al., 2006). This thin capping (c. 5 cm thick and temporal overlap of humans and megafauna are found. At Cuddie c. 1 m subsurface) was interpreted by the site investigators and Springs, the association occurs over at least two stratigraphic geomorphologists as a deflation pavement, comprised predomi- horizons and is coincident with a palaeoenvironmental record of nantly of flaked stone artefacts, which formed over an extended vegetation and lake hydrology spanning this period (Field and time period of c. 10,000 years (Field and Dodson, 1999; Field et al., Dodson, 1999; Field et al., 2001, 2002, 2008; Field, 2004, 2006). 2002, 2001). In contrast, David and others believe it was laid down Cuddie Springs is part of a dreaming track across central by farmers 60 or so years ago, to stop cows sinking in the mud northern New South Wales. A long known Aboriginal Dreamtime around a central well. It is argued that ‘local farmers’ raided other story about Mullyan the eagle-hawk relates the formation of the (as yet unidentified) local archaeological sites for ‘gravel-sized fossil deposits (Anderson and Fletcher, 1934). While the presence of stones’ which they brought in with horse drawn drays (Gillespie giant, extinct marsupials and flightless birds at Cuddie Springs has and Brooks, 2006). Any stones found in association with the been established for over a century, it was only in the early 1990s megafauna were pushed down by cow hooves when the sediments that an archaeological record was identified (Wilkinson, 1885; were wet. If the faunal assemblages are in situ and have not moved Anderson and Fletcher, 1934; Dodson et al., 1993; Furby et al., 1993). from elsewhere, then the archaeological stone assemblages intro- The evidence recovered therein helped to reignite the debate on the duced by the trampling of cows, would effectively be homogenous timing and cause of the Late Pleistocene faunal extinctions in through the whole of SU6. It is not clear whether David et al. expect Australia. Systematic excavation of the site has since revealed a long there to be any stone in a primary context in SU6 or what the faunal sequence to at least 10 m depth. In the uppermost levels, the characteristics of this stone would be. If the movement of stone by fossil fauna overlap with a record of humans in a sealed unit the cows was random then the features of the stone in the deflation beginning around 36 ka ago (optically stimulated luminescence pavement (SU5) should be mirrored in the stone assemblages from determinations), with the megafauna disappearing from the record SU6A and SU6B, and this is not the case (Field and Dodson, 1999). around 30 ka ago (Field and Dodson, 1999; Field et al., 2001, 2002, The expectations are that the stone should be distributed as 2008; Field, 2004, 2006). In the lower megafauna/human horizon, a ‘blanket’ over the bones in the underlying Pleistocene horizons flaked stone tools consistent with butchering were found in direct and not underneath any of the material. Furthermore, modern association with the bones of megafauna including Diprotodon sp. European material should be found in SU6 that is ‘intrusive’ from and Genyornis newtoni (Field et al., 2008). The Diprotodon was the the upper horizon (SU1–4). These intrusive materials should largest marsupial known and weighed around 2.7 tonnes and was include wire, glass and tin, as well as modern fauna such as dog, 4 m from head to tail (Wroe et al., 2004b). Genyornis newtoni was cow or horse, but in fact no intrusive modern material has ever a large flightless bird known from the arid zone to the more been found below SU5 (Field et al., 2001). The original excavators temperate settings of southeastern Victoria (Gillespie et al., 1978; (Anderson and Fletcher, 1934) reported the presence of bullock and Rich, 1979; Field and Boles, 1998; Miller et al., 1999; Murray and horse bones in the uppermost levels at Cuddie Springs and the Vickers-Rich, 2003). current site investigators also found cow bones on the surface of SU5 (Field et al., 2001). Presumably these too should have been 1.1.1. Intrusive or Primary Deposition at Cuddie Springs? pushed into the Pleistocene sediments by trampling. Alternative interpretations have been forwarded to account for A third possibility accounts for the co-occurrence of bones with the co-occurrence of the stones and bones at Cuddie Springs (see the stone artefacts by the lateral movement of bones from another Gillespie and David, 2001; Roberts et al., 2001a,b; David, 2002; (as yet unidentified) fossil bearing horizon. In this case it must be M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 125 assumed that the events that led to the formation of SU6B were 2. Site Setting repeated during the formation of SU6A, which has yielded a faunal assemblage of markedly different characteristics to that observed in Cuddie Springs is an ephemeral lake in the semi-arid zone of SU6B, but still including elements from some megafaunal species. southeastern Australia (Fig. 1A). During the Pleistocene, when the As for the first scenario, the faunal assemblage should be charac- fossil deposits were formed, this region was located well within the terized by surface abrasions, preferred orientation of bone and size arid zone. The lake is approximately 3 km in diameter and the fossil sorting as seen in fluvial deposited assemblages (see Voorhies, deposits are found in a treeless pan, approximately 200 m in 1969). diameter that lies at the lowest point in the lake (Fig. 1B). Cuddie Springs is situated in a landscape of low relief on the riverine plains 1.1.2. Why is Cuddie Springs contentious? of central northern New South Wales and is not connected to any There are a number of reasons why Cuddie Springs attracts current river system. The closest permanent channels are the Marra critical review. First, it is the only known site where megafaunal Creek, about 20 km west of the site, the Macquarie River, c. 15.5 km remains and a human record co-occur in a stratified deposit on the to the east and the Barwon River, c. 40 km to the north. A recent Australian continent. Second, the archaeology and faunal evidence electromagnetic (EM) survey of the site has shown that no channels and the associated chronologies do not sit comfortably with the occur within the top 10 m of deposit and that the site is a closed widely cited terminal extinction date of 46.4 ka proposed by Rob- basin (Field et al., 2008). The grey lacustrine sediments of Cuddie erts et al. (2001a) for the Australian megafauna (but see Field et al., Springs are part of a back-plain depression of the Marra Creek, 2008). Third, the long overlap of humans and megafauna at Cuddie abutting the red-soil plains to the east of the site. There are distinct Springs undermines the blitzkrieg theory and brings into question changes in vegetation from the lake floor across to the red-soil the notion of a human mediated extinction process (see Flannery, plains. The lake vegetation is dominated by Coolabah (Eucalyptus 1990; Wroe et al., 2004a; Johnson, 2006). And finally, extinct fauna microtheca/E. coolabah Blakely & Jacobs) and Blackbox (E. largi- aside, some believe that the presence of grinding stones in the florens) trees with scattered belah (Casuarina sp.) and wattle (Acacia 30,000 year old horizon draws into question the notion of strati- sp). The understorey is comprised of lignum, chenopods and graphic integrity at Cuddie Springs (e.g. Mulvaney and Kamminga, a range of herbs. The red-soil plains to the east support a vegetation 1999: 222). While the arguments for site disturbance as the community typical of semi-arid conditions: Callitris sp., Poplar Box primary mechanism for the co-occurrence of the archaeology and (E. populnea) and Leopardwood (Flindersia maculosa), including an faunal remains have largely been dealt with elsewhere (see Wroe understorey of Eremophila species and Wilga (Geijera parviflora) and Field, 2001a,b; Wroe et al., 2004a; Field, 2006; Field et al., 2006, (Field et al., 2002). 2008), the most intractable problem has yet to be fully resolved (see Field, 1999). Is the accumulation of faunal remains at Cuddie 3. Materials and Methods Springs the result of natural processes (associated with an ephemeral waterhole in a marginal environment), the activities of 3.1. Excavation people, or a combination of both? Excavation was undertaken in arbitrary spits within strati- graphic units by trowel and dental pick in 1 m squares. All material encountered during excavation (e.g. charcoal, ochre, stone and 1.2. Aims bone) was bagged and logged (including 3D coordinate data). All sediment was wet sieved through 3 mm and 5 mm mesh sieves. The aim of this paper is to present the results of a taphonomic Many of the bones that were encountered during excavation were study of the faunal assemblages from stratigraphic unit 6 (SU6) (a complete or mostly complete and very fragile. Those bones in total 5 1m2 excavations) at Cuddie Springs (Field et al., 2002). A danger of being damaged after exposure were stabilized with taphonomic approach was adopted to determine whether the Primal 500Ô or PlextolÔ with a gossamer stabilizer. Before accumulation of faunal remains through two depositional episodes removal, the bones were covered in a layer of plastic wrap and documented in SU6A and SU6B, was correlated with human aluminium foil followed by jacketing either in Plaster of Paris or activities or the result of natural processes either contemporary expanding foam (Macgregor, 2009). Sieve residues were sorted with, or predating human activities at the site. either on site or in the laboratories at the University of Sydney. Establishing humans as the primary accumulator of the faunal Bones were cleaned in the same laboratories with water, an aspi- remains at Cuddie Springs has implications for debates concerning rator and brushes. the disappearance of the megafauna in this region and the impact of colonising humans on the Australian landscape. It is important to 3.2. Site Sample note that producing a definitive statement on site formation, and separating out the primary depositional agent at Cuddie Springs is The faunal assemblage reported here is from stratigraphic unit 6 a challenging task, considering the inevitable time averaging that which represents two depositional episodes (SU6A and SU6B) and occurs especially in open sites such as ephemeral lakes or water- was recovered from squares excavated across the central area of the holes (e.g. Conybeare and Haynes, 1984; Stern, 1993). While site where the fossil bone and archaeology is concentrated: squares numerous studies have been undertaken at modern waterholes E10–12, and E17–18 (Fig. 2). The five squares were excavated at the (e.g. Haynes, 1983), there have been no investigations of the centre of the Cuddie Springs claypan between 2001 and 2006, subsurface record at these locations. The Cuddie Springs data has sampling sediments from either side of a central well that was sunk the potential to provide important information on waterhole death in 1878 (see Wilkinson, 1885; Anderson and Fletcher, 1934; Field assemblages as the processes occurring here have been ongoing for et al., 2001)(Fig. 2). From the slope of the excavated horizons – millennia (see Field et al., 2001). The taphonomic study of these which is towards the historic well – it would appear that the well fossil faunal assemblages provides a robust and independent test of was sunk in the very centre of the depression. The well placement some of the alternative arguments that have been proposed for the also appears to coincide with the centre of the fossil accumulation. co-occurrence of bones of extinct animals and the archaeological Squares E10–12 are on the northern side of the well, and squares record, and these will be explored here. E17 and E18 are on the southern side. 126 M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143

Fig. 1. (A) Location of Cuddie Springs in southeastern Australia. It is not part of any of the current river systems and may be dry when the surrounding area is in flood. (B) View of the Cuddie Springs claypan where excavations from 1991 to 2007 have taken place. (Photo: J. Field). M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 127

Fig. 2. Excavation plan of the Cuddie Springs claypan showing the location of excavated squares discussed in text and the location of the well that was sunk in the 1870s. North is to the top of the figure. Contour lines relate to the deflation pavement (SU5). The pale-grey shading shows the location of some of the pits from the 1933 Australian Museum excavations.

3.3. Faunal Analysis number of elements (MNE) were calculated (after Lyman, 1994, 2008) by stratigraphic unit. MNE’s were minimized by dividing each The faunal assemblage analysed for this study comprised a total element into zones (adapted from Cohen and Serjeantson, 1996)and 8146 bone fragments, of which 6791 were non-diagnostic, with summing the identifiable portions, including shaft fragments. For a number of identified specimens (NISP) of 1355 (roughly 17%). The example, if a proximal humerus (zone 1), a medial humerus shaft range of attributes measured in this study targeted those features that fragment (zone 4), and a distal humerus fragment (zone 8) were all provide key information about site formation in this particular context – an ephemeral waterhole. Weathering stage, degree of Table 1 mineralization, bone breakage/fragmentation patterns (portion/ Weathering stages and descriptions for fossil bone used in the analysis of the Cuddie Springs assemblage (following Behrensmeyer, 1978). zone, crushing), skeletal element representation, surface modifica- tion (abrasion, root etching, cut marks, gnaw/tooth marks, burning), Weathering Description articulation, and mortality profiles were assessed. Percussion marks stage were not visible on the analyzed material when examined under low Stage 0 Bone shows no cracking or flaking, surfaces are smooth. or high power magnification. Measurements, where possible, were Stage 1 Cracking parallel to the fibre structure and articular surfaces may show mosaic cracking of the bone. takenwith Mitutoyo digital calipers following von den Driesch (1976). Stage 2 Outermost concentric layers show flaking, usually associated with cracks; long thin flakes. More extensive flaking follows until most of 3.3.1. A Note on Weathering Stages the outer layer of bone is gone. Crack edges are angular in cross- Weathering stages described by Behrensmeyer (1978) for section. Stage 3 Surface of bone characterised by patches of rough, homogeneously modern assemblages were modified to accommodate the fossil weathered bone, resulting in a fibrous texture that eventually material from Cuddie Springs. In brief, on a 0–5 scale a value of 0–1 extends to cover the whole bone. Weathering does not penetrate suggests that the bones were exposed for a short period of time if at more than 1–1.5 mm at this stage. Crack edges are rounded in cross all, before burial. A value of 5 indicates bone has been severely section. affected by surface environmental conditions because of extended Stage 4 Bone surface is coarsely fibrous and rough in texture; large and small splinters occur and may fall away from the bone when moved. exposure to physical or chemical processes (see Table 1). Weathering penetrates inner cavities. Cracks are open and have splintered or rounded edges. 3.3.2. Quantification Stage 5 Bone falling apart in situ with large splinters lying around. Bone is All bone fragments were counted, recorded and identified to fragile and easily broken. Cancellous bone usually exposed and may outlast all traces of former more-compact sections. skeletal element and species where possible, and NISP and minimum 128 M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 present, and from the same side of the body, a NISP of 3 and an MNE early-to-middle stages of manufacture, in clear contrast to the finds of 1 were recorded. Furthermore, if a proximal and distal humerus from SU6A. Charcoal concentrations are also very low relative to were both present, but one was from a larger individual, a NISP of 2 SU6A (Field and Dodson, 1999). The environment at this time was and an MNE of 2 were recorded. dominated by saltbush (Chenopodiaceae) shrubland and the sedi- Minimum number of individuals (MNI) calculations, while ments are predominantly green/grey structured silts and clays; the a useful analytical tool in most contexts, was not an appropriate fine grained sediments indicating a low energy depositional envi- application for this study. At Cuddie Springs, MNIs do not provide ronment (Field et al., 2002). The presence of abundant plant roots, an accurate reflection of the number of individuals in the assem- Azolla massulae, Nitella oogonia, and Chyclorid Cladocera carapace blage due to the heavy fragmentation of the bone and the time head and shield fragments is also indicative of still shallow fresh- averaging of the deposit. SU6A and SU6B both represent deposi- water conditions (R. Ogden personal communication; Field et al., tional episodes spanning several thousand years and further 2002). refinement of the chronological sequence has not been possible (Field et al., 2001). 4.1.3. Stratigraphic Unit 7 Stratigraphic unit 7 underlies the human/megafauna unit and 4. Results has been described as an old land surface (see Figs. 3 and 6; also Field et al., 2002, 2008). It comprises a consolidated horizon of 4.1. Stratigraphy well-sorted bone (of widely varying preservation and condition) and non-artefactual stone. Most of the bone is present as fragments The upper portion of the stratigraphic sequence at Cuddie that are rounded and abraded, though complete elements do occur. Springs consists of 3 m of lacustrine clays (Field et al., 2002). Bone is The horizon is consistent with a ‘fragipan’, which forms in open found throughout the sequence in varying concentrations. The arid/semi-arid environments. It is consolidated but not concreted horizon of interest in this analysis is SU6, where the megafauna- when dry, and may become relatively fluid when wet, which would human overlap is found, and occurs at a depth of between c. 1.7 and account for some bones that are consistent with SU6B becoming c. 1 m from surface (see Field and Dodson, 1999; Field et al., 2002). embedded in the surface of this horizon (see Fig. 13 in Field and SU6 is sealed between two old land surfaces (SU5 and SU7) (Fig. 3). Dodson, 1999). It overlies a discontinuous horizon of ferruginized sands then a highly stratified lacustrine deposit of fine silts and 4.1.1. Stratigraphic Unit 5 clays which continues to c. 3 m depth. Stratigraphic unit 5, at c. 1–1.05 m depth, is a deflation pavement comprising mostly artefactual stone with bone and charcoal (Fig. 4). Radiocarbon determinations and OSL analyses have returned ages 4.2. Faunal Analysis of c. 28,000 BP and 27 ka respectively (Field et al., 2001). SU5 is only a few centimetres thick and has yielded c. 800–1000 stones per 4.2.1. Species Representation metre square. The upper surfaces of the stones are weathered and The range of taxa identified from SU6 is presented by strati- the undersides of the stone are generally fresh and sharp. Most of graphic unit in Table 2 and the distribution of bone through SU6 is the stone is artefactual, being either flaked or ground (Field and shown for square E12 in Fig. 5. Extinct and extant taxa are present Dodson, 1999; Fullagar et al., 2008) and the bone is heavily throughout SU6, with Genyornis newtoni and Macropus sp. mineralized. Charcoal is also found in this unit. contributing the largest number of elements to SU6B. The repre- sentation of Genyornis newtoni drops markedly from SU6B to SU6A. 4.1.2. Stratigraphic Unit 6 Also notable is the presence of Crocodylus sp. in SU6B, the repre- Stratigraphic unit 6 is divided into two units, SU6A and SU6B, sentative elements of which are comparable in size to Crocodylus corresponding to at least two different depositional episodes as johnsoni, the modern freshwater crocodile. Crocodylus sp., along indicated by the geomorphology, pollen and lake records, bone with the turtle and fish remains are consistent with the palae- geochemistry, archaeology and fauna (Furby, 1996; Field and Dod- oenvironmental record of lake full conditions at this time (see Field son, 1999; Field et al., 2001, 2002; Field, 2004, 2006; Trueman et al., et al., 2002), and notably are not present in the overlying SU6A. 2005). In SU6A, megafauna are still present though reduced in element Stratigraphic unit 6A lies directly under SU5 (Fig. 4) and has frequency. Palorchestes cf. azael (sometimes referred to as been dated by radiocarbon and OSL to c. 30 ka (Field et al., 2001). It a ‘marsupial tapir’) is represented by a single isolated tooth and is was formed during a period of extended dry conditions for the lake, considered intrusive. Isolated teeth have been identified in other and accumulated in an environment of grasslands with scattered squares not included in this study (e.g. a Palimnarchus sp. [terres- trees. The sediments comprise intercalated, pale-grey silts and trial crocodile] tooth from SU6A F10) and are also considered clays with some fine sands, and is consistent with a low energy intrusive. Species not represented in the lake full period but depositional environment (Field et al., 2002). Stone artefacts are appearing for the first time in SU6A are Onychogalea fraenata found throughout this unit as well as some ochre and high (bridled nailtail wallaby) and Trichosurus vulpecula (common brush concentrations of charcoal and bone. The first appearance of tail possum). Bettongia sp. (bettong), while present in SU6B, has not grinding stones is documented in SU6A, at the interface with SU6B been identified in SU6A in this analysis and perhaps reflects the (see Fullagar and Field, 1997; Field and Fullagar, 1998). Functional change in environment and climatic conditions. studies of the stone artefacts indicate that the assemblage from SU6A consists of tools from all stages of manufacture, with use- 4.2.2. Physical Condition of the Skeletal Remains wear/residue studies identifying a wide range of tasks including 4.2.2.1. Weathering Stage. Over 96% of the material from SU6 falls butchering, woodworking, plant working and seed grinding (Furby, within the 0–1 weathering stage (Table 1,afterBehrensmeyer, 1996; Fullagar and Field, 1997). 1978). No specimens were identified beyond stage 3 and the low Stratigraphic unit 6B was formed under lake full conditions. weathering stages are consistent with rapid burial after death. Any While the sediments were constantly wet, there was not always subsequent re-exposure of the skeletal elements would have been standing water in the lake (Field et al., 2002). The concentration of reflected in more advanced weathering stages, or abraded surfaces stone tools in this horizon is low, expedient in nature, and from the (see below). In general, the bones were in good condition though M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 129

Fig. 3. The section profile at square E10–F10 at Cuddie Springs covering parts of the sequence discussed in text – SU5–7. The horizons slope towards the centre of the pan where a well sunk in the 1870s is located. (Illustration: J. Dortch and J. Field).

very friable (Fig. 6) and deteriorated very quickly if allowed to dry over 32% (n ¼ 36) are complete or nearly complete, and 39% out. (n ¼ 44) are over 50% complete (Table 3). Of all the complete specimens, 49% are attributed to G. newtoni. 4.2.2.2. Degree of Mineralization and Colour. An inductively The SU6 assemblage as a whole shows a high degree of frag- coupled plasma-optical emission spectroscopy (ICP-OES) analysis mentation, as indicated by NISP:MNE and epiphyses:diaphyses of bone from Cuddie Springs has shown that the degree of miner- ratios (see Grayson, 2001; Grayson and Delpech, 2003). Chi-square alization with Manganese (Mn) is correlated to the colour of the analyses comparing E17–18 with E10–12 for SU6A and SU6B show bones (K. Privat and J. Field, unpublished results): the darker the no significant differences in fragmentation between the two areas bone the higher the Mn content. Overall, the bones were similar in (P ¼ 0.6580, c2 ¼ 0.196 df ¼ 1). Upper-limb elements were rarely colour in SU6, with over 99% being a mottled brown or dark-grey complete, while in contrast, a relatively high proportion of the colour (see Fig. 6). The assemblage is completely fossilized, with no lower body limb elements are complete or nearly complete. collagen preservation (Coltrain et al., 2004). Longitudinal breaks/cracks and dorso-ventral crushing is typi- cally due to the weight of overburden (see Figs. 6 and 7A; cf. Villa 4.2.2.3. Fragmentation and Breakage Patterns. In SU6A c. 3% and Mahieu, 1991: Fig. 2). In SU6B, evidence of crushing appears as (n ¼ 11) of the identifiable specimens are complete, in contrast to c. in situ breaks – that is fragments of the same bone lie adjacent to 6% (n ¼ 45) in SU6B (Table 3). A distinctive feature of SU6B is the one another and several ‘‘intact’’ bones were characterized by large number of nearly complete elements belonging to Genyornis incomplete fractures prolonged by fissure lines (see Villa and newtoni. Of the 111 post-cranial specimens identified as G. newtoni, Mahieu 1991: 29). Fracturing as the result of trampling is often 130 M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143

et al., 2000: 208). The presence of complete skeletal elements, coupled with crushed elements in which all fragments are extant, attest to in situ breakage (Fig. 7). As such, the effects of crushing from the weight of overburden and trampling have resulted in a high number of unidentifiable long-bone-shaft fragments and intact distal elements. Physical evidence of trampling (e.g. fine striations, see Fig. 11 in Norton et al., 2007) are not present on the bone surfaces because the enclosing sediments are a fine-grained silt/clay composition. A number of vertically orientated bones from G. newtoni in SU6B are indicative of trampling as a significant factor in this horizon (Fig. 8) (cf. Haynes, 1985).

4.2.3. Spatial Patterning – Bone Orientation, Articulations and Site Patterning In SU6B, several G. newtoni lower-limb elements show semi- articulations; in a number of cases the main leg elements (tarso- metatarsus, tibiotarsus and femur) are found within a 1 m square (Figs. 9A,B). The fragile nature of these bones, the good preservation (i.e. completeness and low weathering) plus the close proximity to one another indicate that they are in a primary deposit. The remains in SU6B were buried quickly with no significant post depositional disturbance. The argument for a rapid burial is also supported by experimental data where a direct correlation has been established between the degree of dispersal of individual bones and the length of time an individual is exposed prior to burial (Lyman, 1994: 162). Furthermore, individuals and/or elements buried rapidly prior to skeletonization are more likely to remain articulated than those exposed on the surface for long periods of time or those subject to re-deposition. If fluvial action were responsible for the accumulation of the faunal remains, then sort- ing would be apparent in the preferred orientation of elements. Presence or absence of particular elements (Voorhies groups)

Fig. 4. Stratigraphic unit 5 at Cuddie Springs being exposed during excavation. SU5 is relative to flow would be observed and those bones retained would a deflation pavement of stone, predominately flaked stone artefacts, which forms present as perpendicular to the flow if partly buried or parallel to a continuous capping across the site sealing the Pleistocene deposits from the the flow if lying on the surface (Voorhies, 1969; summary in Lyman, disturbed overburden (see Field et al., 2001). (Photo: J. Field). 1994: 180). Orientation data prepared as rose diagrams (Kreutzer, 1988) from SU6A and SU6B reveals no preferred orientation (Figs. 10A,B; see also Field et al., 2008). Further support for random characterized by transverse breaks and fragmentation of long patterning is offered by statistical analysis with a one-sample bones into three main parts (Fig. 7B). It has been noted, in some Kolmogorov–Smirnov Test. The bone orientation in SU6A and SU6B cases, that the shaft may be more deeply sunk into the sediments presents as a normal distribution (SU6A: mean ¼ 76.25, SD ¼ 51.23, than the epiphysis (cf. Alberdi et al., 2001: 13). Several intact n ¼ 16; SU6B: mean ¼ 89.38, SD ¼ 52.67, n ¼ 131). If the bones had elements exhibited fractures consistent with either trampling by been subject to transport resulting in preferred orientation then the large animals, or breakage/compression due to weight of frequency distribution would not plot as a normal curve. overburden. Crushing is more frequent in SU6B than SU6A (11% n ¼ 86 vs. 4.2.4. Bone surface modifications – cultural <2% n ¼ 6, respectively), is found on most major bones, and does Possible cut marks were discernible on three specimens in not appear to be confined to any particular element or species SU6A, and six specimens in SU6B (Table 5). In all cases but one (Table 4). The faunal assemblage in both strata is dominated by (pelvis), these marks were located on the diaphyses of long bone shaft fragments (Table 3), which is a pattern commonly associated fragments (Fig. 11). Marks were only identified on macropod with nutritive processes resulting from human or carnivore activity elements, and no marks were found on G. newtoni elements. (Klein and Cruz-Uribe, 1984; Lyman, 1994; Marean et al., 2000). Ethnographic observations indicate that modern Emu bones are not However, the absence of percussion marks coupled with low broken to recover marrow (see below). frequencies of cut and tooth marks suggests that the fragmentation Trampling is known to produce features that mimic cut marks. cannot be wholly attributed to either humans or carnivores. A Chi- These usually result from sediment or stone being dragged across square analysis with Yates correction indicates that there is no the bone surface (see Behrensmeyer et al., 1986; Olsen and significant difference in fragmentation between strata (P ¼ 0.5928, Shipman, 1988). The orientation of mimic cut marks is usually c2 ¼ 0.286, df ¼ 1). There is however a statistically significant random and will be affected by the particle size of the enclosing difference between the degree of fragmentation between macro- sediment matrix (e.g. coarse grained sands) as well as deposition pods as a whole and G. newtoni (P ¼ 0.0430, c2 ¼ 4.095, df ¼ 1). rates. All of the marks tentatively identified as the result of Fragmentation of the bone in SU6B is principally comprised of butchery in SU6A and SU6B are found on shaft fragments and tend transverse breaks, which is often a feature of dry bone. Spiral to be parallel pairs. Their specific location and orientation is fracturing which is usually associated with fresh bone, occurs in consistent with skinning (see Binford, 1981). The fine grain low frequency (<1%; n ¼ 16) and was only observed in SU6B (see enclosing sediments at Cuddie Springs comprises silts and clays Johnson, 1985; Haynes, 1988, 2006; Villa and Mahieu, 1991; Marean with little sand (Field et al., 2002). As such the particle size is M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 131

Fig. 5. Graph showing extant and extinct NISP by excavation unit through stratigraphic unit 6. The spread of bones throughout the unit is not consistent with a lag deposit. The patterning seen here correlates to bones incorporated into the waterhole sediments after death. (Illustration: J. Wells). inconsistent with the morphology and dimensions of the putative 4.2.5. Bone surface modification (non-cultural) cut marks on the bone surfaces. There was little or no abrasion of the bone examined in this Six fragments from SU6A exhibited traces of burning, and only study, nor was there any rounding and polishing of the bone three in SU6B (Table 5). All the burnt bone from SU6A is calcined surfaces. At Cuddie Springs, root etching is present on approxi- and therefore white in colour. Calcined bone is generally a product mately 3% of the assemblage in SU6A and nearly 13% of the of campfires as opposed to natural bush fires or landscape burning assemblage in SU6B (Fig. 12). Gnaw marks from rodents and/or by people (David, 1990; Stiner et al., 1995). carnivores were identified on only two specimens.

Fig. 6. Square E12 showing an element of Genyornis newtoni in situ. The bone is very fragile and prone to damage if allowed to dry. Note the longitudinal cracks (arrows), from crushing (weight of overburden), and also the good condition of the bone surface compared to the rounded and abraded material in the exposed surface of SU7. The bone was enclosed in the fine silts and clays of SU6B. Centre scale is 10 cm. (Photo: J. Field). 132 M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143

Table 2 NISP of extinct (*) and extant taxa by stratigraphic unit for squares E10–12 and E17–18 at Cuddie Springs (LM ¼ Large Mammal, MM ¼ Medium Mammal, SM ¼ Small Mammal).

Class Family Genus/species Common name (description) SU6A SU6B Mammalia Diprodotontidae Diprotodontid* 10 31 Diprotodon cf. optatum* Diprotodon 0 2 Palorchestidae Palorchestes cf. azael* Marsupial Tapir 1 0 Vombatidae Phascolonus sp.* Wombat 1 1 Vombatus sp. Wombat 0 1 Macropodidae Sthenurus sp.* (Giant Wallaby) 2 10 Protemnodon cf. brehus* (Giant Wallaby) 0 2 Protemnodon sp.* 04 cf. Macropus giganteus titan* (ancestor of the Eastern Grey Kangaroo) 30 87 Macropus giganteus Eastern Grey Kangaroo 10 9 Macropus rufus Red kangaroo 19 42 Macropus sp. Kangaroo 71 143 Macropus cf. rufogriseus Red-necked Wallaby 20 11 Onychogalea fraenata Bridled Nailtail Wallaby 27 0 Lagorchestes cf. hirsutus Rufous Hare-wallaby 1 2 Phalangeridae Trichosurus vulpecula Common Brush-tail Possum 11 0 Potoroidae Bettongia sp. Bettong 0 3 Bettongia lesueur Burrowing Bettong 0 1 Indeterminate extinct* 19 64 LM – Indet. 62 100 MM – Indet. 77 84 SM – Indet. 86 Aves Dromornithidae Genyornis newtoni* (giant flightless bird) 2 141 Casuariidae Dromaius novaehollandiae Emu 1 1 Aves sp. 23 Reptilia Crocodylidae Crocodylus sp. Freshwater Crocodile 0 2 cf. Pallimnarchus sp.* Terrestrial Crocodile 0 1 Varanidae Varanus sp. Lizard 0 3 Testudinae Testudinus sp. Giant turtle 0 1 Fish 01

Total NISP 374 764

M. giganteus titan has been included with the extinct taxa because, while recognized as the ancestral form of M. giganteus, it is morphologically distinct and much larger than its modern form.

4.2.6. Skeletal Element Representation Cuddie Springs. Rose diagrams do not show any preferred direc- Long-bone-shaft fragments (18%), vertebra (13%), tibia (12%) and tionality, and analysis of elemental frequencies reveal not only the innominates (9%) consistently comprise the highest percentage of presence of most appendicular and axial elements, but several skeletal elements in the SU6 (Table 6). Although the relative body- different size classes (see Fig. 10 and Tables 2 and 6). part frequencies are similar within the two distinct horizons in SU6, there are significant differences between SU6A and SU6B. Most 4.2.6.1. Age profiles. Few cranial elements were present in the notably, SU6A and SU6B differ with respect to degree of fragmen- assemblage and the degree of epiphyseal fusion was therefore used tation and element distribution. In general, SU6A is characterized to estimate the numbers of juvenile vs. mature individuals. While by a high frequency of lower-limb bones and axial elements, as well only a small percentage of the assemblage could be evaluated in as a statistically significant higher number of long-bone fragments, this way, the results suggest that the difference between the SU6A 21 vs. 16% (P ¼ 0.001, c2 ¼ 127.415, df ¼ 1). As it was not possible to age profile and the SU6B age profile is statistically significant discern between forelimb and hindlimb fragments, the possibility (P < 0.001, c2 ¼ 15.908, df ¼ 1). SU6A contains a higher proportion remains that the frequency of lower-limb elements may in fact be of unfused limb elements, suggesting a younger and prime-age much closer between SU6A and SU6B than indicated by the relative dominated profile (Table 7). Furthermore, isolated macropod frequencies of part or whole elements. The high fragmentation rate molars, the most frequently occurring teeth, show little wear and in SU6A could reflect human breakage for marrow consumption are suggestive of prime-aged individuals. (see Solomon, 1985; Outram, 2004; Outram et al., 2005) and cut- marks on some extant species have been observed (see Field and 5. Discussion Dodson, 1999). As for SU6B, percussion marks were not visible, and evidence for human agency in the formation of SU6A is best sup- The Cuddie Springs assemblage is unique in the archaeological ported by the association of stone tools with faunal remains. record for Australia. As the only site known with a stratigraphic Furthermore, the relatively even distribution of elements from the association of megafaunal remains and cultural material, the level entire skeleton in SU6B, including a high frequency of G. newtoni of proof required to establish an association and perhaps interac- vertebrae and ribs may be due to the lake conditions at the time tion, exceeds those normally demanded of archaeological finds. and perhaps limited access for people to all animals that died here. Investigating the nature of the archaeological record at Cuddie Differential bone density is recognized as an important factor in Springs brings a range of logistical and methodological issues the survival of skeletal elements (Brain, 1981; Lyman, 1994; Lam associated with the investigation and interpretation of an open site. et al., 1998, 2005; Stiner, 2002; Faith et al., 2007). Low density There has been little research into open-site taphonomy in bones are more susceptible to breakage from the weight of over- Australia, as these types of deposits are relatively rare. The burden and/or trampling; and they are also subject to transport and archaeological and palaeontological endeavours have often been loss by alluvial and fluvial action. There is no evidence for any size more successfully focused on caves and rockshelters, though spring sorting and patterning with respect to long bone orientation at deposits have received some attention (e.g. Black Swamp: Wells M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 133

Table 3 Fragmentation of major post-cranial limb bones by taxon for SU6A and SU6B.

Element M. titan M. giganteus M. rufus Macropus sp. G. newtoni

6A 6B 6A 6B 6A 6B 6A 6B 6A 6B Humerus ** Complete 1 1 Proximal 2 1 1 1 Shaft 1 1 1 2 Distal 1 1

Radius ** Proximal 1 1 Shaft 1 1 1 2 2 Distal

Ulna ** Proximal 111 Shaft 3 12 Distal

Femur Complete 1 6 Proximal 2 1 1 2 1 Shaft 2 1 1 2 5 Distal 3 1 2 1 6

Tibia Complete 8 Proximal 2 3 2 2 1 4 Shaft 2 11 1 7 7 9 17 10 Distal 2 22 5

Metatarsal Complete 11 1 12 Proximal 3 21 2 Shaft 2 1 1 2 1 3 2 Distal 2 1 1 2 3

NISP/MNE 8/3 32/18 3/3 4/3 13/6 22/13 24/12 35/11 n/a 38/16 Ratio 2.7 1.8 1.0 1.3 2.2 1.7 2.0 3.2 2.4

MNE was calculated independently for E10–12 and E17–18, and the resulting sums added to produce MNE for NISP/MNE ratio. Complete bones were not factored into these ratios (after Lyman 1994: 103). *The humerus, radius and ulna in Genyornis are not meat bearing bones and are very small in comparison to macropod elements and therefore are not relevant as a direct comparison (see Murray and Vickers-Rich, 2003: 67–69).

et al., 2006, Lancefield Swamp: Gillespie et al., 1978, and Lime in the centre of the fossil deposits (Wilkinson, 1885). To further Springs: Gorecki et al., 1984). Much of the information about large understand the overall site structure it has been important to animals and waterholes is derived from African models, but investigate the patterning and composition of the fossil records subsurface investigation of these modern day environments is yet across the central area of the site where the fauna and archaeology to be pursued (Haynes, 2006). For Australia, the taphonomic liter- are concentrated. Importantly, the stratigraphy and faunal content ature is fairly sparse (but see Solomon, 1985; Solomon et al., 1990; was found to be consistent through the ‘E transect’ as the strati- Reed, 2001) and there have been few advances on characterizing graphic sequence identified in E10–12 of the main excavation the taphonomy of open sites where the combination of fauna and trench is also found in squares E17–18. environment differ markedly to other continents. Nonetheless, the The study of the faunal remains in SU6 has shown them to be principles of site formation in ephemeral waterhole deposits are a primary deposit in an ephemeral waterhole setting. There is no global, and the analysis of the Cuddie Springs deposits has drawn evidence to support the proposal that any fossil material is a lag on much of the international literature to establish the primary deposit that has been re-exposed and buried in more recent sedi- factors at play. ments, or has been transported either from a lateral (and older) The horizon of interest at Cuddie Springs, as it relates to the local accumulation, or derived from the bed-load of a palaeo- extinction of the megafauna, is stratigraphic unit 6 which is dated channel. The palaeo-channel noted by Gillespie and Brooks (2006) from c. 36 ka (OSL) to c. 30 ka (OSL). There are two depositional is clearly unrelated to the lacustrine deposits discussed here and is episodes in SU6: the first correlates to the first detectable human significantly older than the horizons in question (Field et al., 2008). occupation at Cuddie Springs, which began around 36 ka, is up to c. Furthermore, there is no geomorphological explanation that would 35 cm thick and is referred to as SU6B; the second episode dates to account for this type of event, especially when the strongly banded c. 30 ka, is up to 30 cm thick and is referred to as SU6A. The low sequence that characterises the lacustrine sediments underlying chronological resolution (c. 5 ka window) in each unit precludes SU6 (see Figs. 3 and 13) and the low-relief landscape (Fig. 14)are resolution of a more detailed depositional sequence, though it is taken into account. likely that the site was continually visited through this time period. An in situ bone bed has been discovered around c. 40 cm below The analysis undertaken here is only a sample of the total site the level of SU7 in which articulated and separated articulations excavation, and this area was targeted in order to explore whether were found in enclosing silts (Figs. 3 and 15). It also represents the deposits were continuous across the central portion of the a waterhole death assemblage associated with a small, closed basin, claypan. It extends either side of a 19thcentury well that was sunk as demonstrated by the Electromagnetic Survey undertaken in 134 M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143

2007 (Field et al., 2008). In a direct parallel, the remains of modern cows were recovered in the disturbed overburden immediately overlying SU5, the pavement that seals the Pleistocene deposits from the disturbed overburden. Excavation of the cow remains revealed separated articulations (Field et al., 2001), with bones of a number of cows found separately in discrete areas where most of the axial and appendicular elements are found together. The more recent depositional episodes suggest a continuity of events that has been ongoing for millennia. The fossil fauna deposits are restricted to a tightly defined area in the middle of a treeless pan at the lowest point on the lake floor. Despite additional excavation and survey, no evidence has been found of any additional fossil deposits beyond the central area of the claypan. The suggestion that reworking and re-deposition of the fossil bone from elsewhere (either below or laterally) is rejected, primarily because there is no empirical evidence to support such an interpretation. Samples collected from Cuddie Springs and ana- lysed by Roberts et al. (2001a) showed mixed age populations in single grain and small aliquot samples. These results were inter- preted by these authors as evidence of sediment mixing, and as such brought into question the stratigraphic integrity of the site. The Cuddie Springs OSL analysis yielded two to three age pop- ulations for the samples analysed from SU5 and SU6 (R. Roberts, personal communication):

SU5 1-26.6 1.9 ka (50%), 2-c.10 ka (25%), 3-3 ka (25%) SU6A 1-30.3 2.3 ka (>80%), 2-c.8 ka (<10%) SU6B 1-36.5 2.9 ka (50%), 2-9 ka (c. 25%), 3-2 ka (c. 25%)

The site was dismissed by Roberts et al. (2001a,b) on the basis of these dating results, even though the majority of the samples (1) are consistent in age with the existing radiocarbon chronology (Field et al., 2001). Considerable site data is also available which contradicts the conclusions by Roberts et al., but these have been ignored or overlooked (e.g. Field and Dodson, 1999; Field et al., 2001, 2002; Trueman et al., 2005). In a recent study by the same authors, similar results were obtained from sediments recovered from a museum specimen apparently collected from Mt Cripps in NW Tasmania and identified as Protemnodon cf. anak. The OSL analyses revealed multiple age populations in samples extracted from the skull nasal cavity (Turney et al., 2008). The age populations were:

P. cf. anak k3-36 3 ka 77% (n ¼ 53) k2-13.2 1.4 ka 22% (n ¼ 15) k1-1.5 0.2 ka 7% (n ¼ 5)

No report on the Mt Cripps site, describing details concerning the recovery of material or contextual data, has yet been published, and any explanation other than that proposed by the authors could not be explored. Turney et al. accepted the result that appeared to be most consistent with the radiocarbon ages (k3) and the remaining two age populations (k2 and k1) were dismissed. The inconsistency in the treatment of results from Mt Cripps and Cuddie Springs highlights the deficiencies of using dating studies alone to evaluate either the stratigraphic integrity of a site or the possible/probable age of material associated with these samples. It is well established that single grain OSL studies provide useful data when investigating bioturbation in archaeological and fossil deposits and palaeoenvironmental contexts (e.g. Forrest et al., 2003; Bateman et al., 2007). The OSL single grain method is Fig. 7. Fragmentation of bones is common in stratigraphic unit 6. (A) An example of in a valuable taphonomic tool, but as pointed out by Boulter et al. situ breakage is the Genyornis tibiotarsus from square E10, which shows longitudinal (2006), these investigations are just one component of multidisci- cracks (small white arrows) as a result of crushing by weight of overburden. Large plinary approaches to establishing confident interpretations of white arrows in background indicate stone artefacts. Scale ¼ 1–2 cm markings. (B) A Genyornis tibiotarsus (square E17) with three postmortem transverse breaks typical of stratigraphy and depositional histories. The importance of contex- damage to dry bones and consistent with trampling. (Photos: J. Field). tual information is well illustrated in the Cuddie Springs example M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 135

Table 4 (Field, 2006; Field et al., 2008). Rather than representing massive Frequency of crushed bone by species/element in SU6A and SU6B. sediment disturbance, the OSL results from Cuddie Springs attest to Stratigraphic unit Element/NISP Species bioturbation, an active process identified in most fossil deposits 6A Tibia/2 Macropus sp. and one that does not compromise the overall integrity of the Non-diagnostic/3 Non-diagnostic associated archaeological or faunal accumulations. 6B Humerus/1 Macropus sp. The taphonomic study of the faunal accumulations presented Radius/1 Diprotodontid here, when considered with the geomorphological, geochemical Ulna/2 Macropus sp. Ulna/1 Diprotodontid and archaeological investigations, points to an in situ accumulation Femur/1 Diprotodontid of both fauna and cultural material. As such, three possible site Femur/5 Genyornis newtoni formation scenarios remain and are presented below. Femur/1 Macropus titan Femur/1 Macropus rufus Femur/2 Macropus sp. 5.1. The fossil fauna are a lag deposit that predates human arrival Tibiotarsus/9 Genyornis newtoni by several millennia Tibia/3 Macropus titan Tibia/3 Macropus sp. Tarsometatarsus/3 Genyornis newtoni Bones in SU6A and SU6B that were re-exposed for any period of Metatarsal/1 Macropus rufus time should exhibit significant weathering and abrasion and Rib/1 Diprotodontid general physical deterioration, and no articulations or separated Rib/7 Genyornis newtoni articulations would be evident. If the bones were exposed then Rib/7 Macropus sp. there would also be some dispersal of material away from the Rib/2 Non-diagnostic Vertebra/1 Diprotodontid claypan centre and only the most robust elements would have Vertebra/11 Genyornis newtoni survived. As it has already been established that there is no Vertebra/2 Macropus sp. evidence of any older sand grains in the OSL samples, it must be Vertebra/3 Non-diagnostic assumed that if these bones were re-exposed, then all enclosing Sacrum/1 Genyornis newtoni Sacrum/1 Macropus titan sediments must have been removed (by wind or water). Sacrum/1 Macropus sp. Physical/taphonomic evidence is absent for re-exposure of the Pelvis/1 Diprotodontid fossil bone from SU6B as the bone exhibits low weathering with Pelvis/1 Macropus titan well preserved surfaces. No bias was detected in the range of Pelvis/3 Macropus rufus skeletal elements preserved and extinct and extant bone was Pelvis/1 Macropus sp. Pelvis/2 Non-diagnostic recovered throughout SU6B. The bone in SU6B lying immediately Non-diagnostic/7 Non-diagnostic above the surface of SU7 is similar in many respects to the cow Total NISP 6A ¼ 6 bones recovered from the surface of SU5 (Field et al., 2001). These Total NISP 6B ¼ 86 latter remains are from cows that have died on site and their bones have been rapidly incorporated into the claypan sediments, having moved to the base of the uppermost horizon at Cuddie Springs through bioturbation – principally trampling by large herbivores

Fig. 8. View of partially excavated square E17 SU6B showing a Genyornis tarsometatarsus on end (GTB) and in association with other leg elements – two femurs (GF) and a tarsometatarsus (GTM). Note, upper left Genyornis femur has been encased in Plaster of Paris to reduce damage from drying before removal. Scale ¼ 10 cm. (Photo: J. Field). 136 M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143

(cattle and horses). The general experience during site excavation was that the Pleistocene material was very friable and vulnerable to damage (as described in materials and methods). In summary, the faunal remains in SU6B are consistent with a waterhole death assemblage that is in a primary depositional context and is not the product of any lateral movement, transport, or re-deposition. There is no evidence to suggest the megafauna bone is a lag deposit (see Fig. 5). The content and form of the bone assemblage is consistent with rapid burial shortly after death. Changes to the physical state of the bone are a post depositional artefact due to trampling, and/or sediment compaction from the weight of the overburden.

5.2. The bones are in a primary depositional setting and became incorporated into the 36 ka sediments just prior to human arrival with any megafaunal material in SU6A being intrusive

The available chronological resolution cannot eliminate the possibility that humans first arrived locally decades, perhaps centuries, after the megafauna had died at the waterhole. However, the presence of flaked stone artefacts above, beside and beneath the bones suggest otherwise, and perhaps it will be the analysis of the residues from use on these tools that will end up providing the definitive answer (see Field et al., 2008). We argue that there is compelling evidence for a human involvement based on the func- tional studies of the stone (indicating butchering) and their stratigraphic location in the deposits (Field, Fullagar and van Gijn, unpublished results, 1997; Field and Dodson, 1999). The low inci- dence of stone artefacts in SU6B and the fact that they are all in the early to middle stages of manufacture (Field and Dodson, 1999), suggests an expedient technology. People were not camping on the claypan during the formation of SU6B as it was a marshy lake at the time, but instead they were preying on animals tethered to a diminishing water supply. The presence of cutmarks has been argued to be one of the key criteria in assessing evidence for a human-megafauna association (see Haynes and Stanford, 1984), and are specific to, and dependent on, contextual data, (see Solomon, 1985; Lyman, 2005). As such it is difficult to confidently predict the incidence of cutmarks on a faunal assemblage comprised of a range of extinct fauna for which we have no modern analogues, such as many of those found in SU6B. In general terms, it has been established that a higher frequency of cut marks will be found on bones at camp sites, where on-site butchery, food preparation and consumption occurs. It is also possible that evidence of butchering by humans may be absent from large animal remains (Pickering, 1995; Lyman, 2005: 1726). Certainly this appears to be the case for the Cuddie Springs assemblage from SU6B where only extant fauna have exhibited limited evidence for butchering (see Fig. 11). Pickering (1995) has argued that in Pleistocene Australia, small, mobile groups would not be able to consume a large animal like a Diprotodon, targeting only the removal of the gluteal and lumbar muscle portions, as observed in butchering of modern bovids. In these contexts, people might have filleted carcasses or undertaken only selective removal of edible portions because of the size of the group, the amount of meat they could consume, the presence of other scavengers (e.g. crocodile and Megalania sp.) and/or environmental conditions at Fig. 9. (A) Plan of skeletal elements from the same depth in SU6B in squares E10–12 (each square is approximately 1 m2). The plan for E10 was at the base of excavation the time. It is also likely that the remains of megafauna preyed upon overlying SU7. In E12, the Genyornis bones in this plan were lying about 20 cm above by humans will be scattered thinly across the landscape. As noted SU7, the surface of which slopes steeply to the south, and further elements of Genyornis previously, it will only be at particular focal points on the land- were recovered from SU6B below this depth, immediately overlying SU7. Elements scape, such as places with standing water, that the evidence for marked with arrows are the three lower-limb bones (left-hand side) from Genyornis newtoni. (B) The (LHS) tibiotarsus and (LHS) tarsometatarsus of Genyornis newtoni from a human association may be found and where the faunal remains square E10, as shown in the plan. will be preserved (O’Connell, 2000). Soft tissues such as the periosteum shield bones from being marked by either stone or metal tools. This could help explain the M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 137

Fig. 9. (continued). low percentages or absence of cut marks on bones of butchered of human activities while others were human prey. People were not animals (Shipman and Rose, 1983; Pickering, 1995). Consistent with permanently camped at Cuddie Springs but were highly mobile the evidence from Cuddie Springs is the suggestion by Pickering of hunter gathers. In the arid environment of this time small bands ‘‘a trend to minimal artefact generation or use, bone damage or would have covered a large territory following resources and this is disarticulation’’ (Pickering, 1995: 20). reflected in the diverse stone tool raw materials that have been Fragmentation of major post-cranial limb bones, with respect to recovered here (Field and Dodson, 1999). The geomorphological the ratio of diaphyses to epiphyses and NISP:MNE ratios reveals evidence indicates that the sediments were permanently wet a highly fragmented assemblage dominated by diaphyses for all through this period (P. Hughes, personal communication). The low macropods, and epiphyses and complete elements for G. newtoni.The incidence of artefacts (expedient technology and primarily used for relatively high proportion of complete and mostly-complete lower- butchering) through this unit suggests that people were filleting limb elements with respect to G. newtoni might partly be explained some of these animals and transporting the meat away from the by the lower-limbs being rapidly buried and subsequently seques- marshy centre. tered from destructive taphonomic processes. Furthermore, the The faunal taxa at Cuddie Springs ranges from the largest lower-limb elements from G. newtoni are substantial; the largest marsupial known – the Diprotodon – to red kangaroos, bettongs and tibiotarsus we have encountered was close to 60 cm in maximum bandicoots. How hunters may have dealt with any of these animals length. However, humeri have also been recovered from the same will have varied significantly (see Metcalfe and Barlow, 1992). The species, are on average only measure c.10 cm in length, and are much large Diprotodon is unlikely to have been dismembered or trans- more vulnerable to complete destruction, as are the lightly built ported, especially by the small human populations that were cranium and sternum (see Murray and Vickers-Rich, 2003). Elements present (see Pickering, 1995). As observed for the Alyawara, animals from the upper portion of the body if not buried rapidly are likely to up to the size of the modern day red kangaroo (mean weight of degrade very quickly yet they are also represented here. 25 kg) would have been transported away from the point of kill and Some of the faunal remains at Cuddie Springs may have been the were likely to be butchered elsewhere where hunters often result of animals dying prior to human arrival and buried. It is also removed the metapodials and tail (O’Connell and Marshall, 1989). It entirely possible that extinct and extant taxa perished there without has been observed that when transporting kangaroos, a cooked and human involvement, when people were present elsewhere on the butchered kangaroo is more difficult to handle than a whole animal landscape. Human population densities in the marginal environ- (O’Connell and Marshall, 1989: 395). ment of the arid zone were very low in modern times and this is Macropod skeletal element frequencies initially suggest a classic likely to have been the case in the arid environs of Cuddie Springs reverse utility curve, in which the higher economic elements (with around 36 ka ago. Nonetheless, the multiple lines of evidence respect to greater amounts of meat and marrow) are under-rep- present at Cuddie Springs imply a complex story and the evidence resented (see Marean and Frey, 1997). For the red kangaroo, these for a human involvement is compelling (Field and Dodson, 1999). elements are the vertebrae and lower-limbs, followed by the upper- limbs (O’Connell and Marshall, 1989: 400). However, the high 5.3. The fossil bones in SU6B are c. 36 ka old and contemporary frequency of long-bone fragments may represent the missing limb with the archaeology elements and these may have been crushed through a human (butchering/consumption) or natural agency (trampling/over- The fossil assemblages at Cuddie Springs are likely to be burden weight) (see Solomon, 1985: 42–47). It is predicted that comprised of some faunal remains that accumulated independently large animals such as a Diprotodon sp., G. newtoni and even the 138 M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143

Other factors such as local environmental conditions (which may have reduced the keeping period of the meat) as well as the lower subsistence requirements of small mobile populations, must also be taken into account. O’Connell (2000) reports modern intercept hunting of Emu (Dromaius novaehollandiae) at points where water is either peren- nial or seasonal. O’Connell posits that in the prehistoric past some of the practices used in these modern day contexts, such as drug- ging the water with Nicotiana leaves, may also have been used for the purpose of making the Pleistocene megafauna a more acces- sible prey. Butchering of modern Emu involves dismembering as well as filleting, followed by cooking (O’Connell, 2000: 177). Gould (personal communication) relates that the bones of Emu were not broken for marrow but were placed in trees away from dogs and children, presumably to prevent access to the long bones. It has been suggested that some long bone may contain spicules (calcified bone on medullary bone surfaces) (cf. Dacke et al., 1993: 63), and are therefore dangerous to ingest (S. Solomon personal communi- cation). Spicules are a feature of the medullary bone in female egg laying birds and act as a mineral reservoir, although they are present only during ovulation (Schweitzer et al., 2005). At the present time it is unclear whether spicules are a factor in the avoidance of Emu (and by extension Genyornis newtoni) long bones for marrow. The sample size in this study is relatively small (2 1 and 3 1 m) and as such provides only a limited window on the events that occurred here. In order to investigate site patterning, much larger areas are required for study (e.g. Spurling and Hayden, 1984; O’Connell, 1987; Nicholson and Cane, 1991; O’Connell et al., 1992), so broader statements about the site are not currently possible. What we can say from the limited spatial data that is available pertains mostly to the site formation processes, which are the subject of this investigation. The most parsimonious explanation for the co-occurrence of the megafauna and the cultural material, based on the available evidence, is that at the very least humans and megafauna co-existed at Cuddie Springs. The presence of flaked stone artefacts primarily used for butchering suggests that opportunistic acquisition of prey occurred during periods when people were passing through this area, perhaps travelling from the Macquarie Marshes in the southeast up to the Barwon/Darling River system to the north. Fig. 10. Rose diagrams for the orientation of bones. (A) SU6A (n ¼ 16); (B) SU6B (n ¼ 131). There is no preferred orientation of the bone in either horizon. (Images courtesy of L.D. Field). 5.4. Megafauna bones in SU6A are either reworked from another horizon and intrusive or are part of the archaeological record larger extinct kangaroos would have been filleted due to their enormous size. It is predicted that the bones of these larger animals The megafauna bones in SU6A are in the same preservational will be over-represented at a kill-site when compared to the condition as the extant fauna in this horizon, suggesting the two are smaller more easily transported species such as the kangaroos. contemporaneous, as confirmed by a rare earth element (REE) study (Trueman et al., 2005). The REE study also demonstrates that Table 5 Frequency of burning and cut marks on bone by stratigraphic unit, species and the SU6A assemblage has an REE signature that is different to the element for the Cuddie Springs assemblage from squares E10–12, E17–18. SU6B material. As in SU6B, the bone in SU6A is very friable and difficult to recover intact from the enclosing sediments. The Stratigraphic unit Genus/species Element Location frequency of megafauna in SU6A is reduced compared to SU6B, and 6A – Cut marks Macropus giganteus IV metatarsal Shaft a number of species are no longer represented there (e.g. Pro- Macropus rufus Tibia Shaft Macropus giganteus Long bone shaft fragment Shaft temnodon sp.), while other species appear for the first time. Bone in 6B – Cut marks Macropus giganteus titan Tibia Shaft SU6A is mostly fragmented with few complete elements, a situation Macropus rufus Pelvis Ilium that is paralleled in SU6B (the G. newtoni remains aside). Macropus sp. Tibia Shaft The overall picture drawn from the SU6A record is in contrast to Macropus sp. Long bone shaft fragment Shaft Macropus rufogriseus Ulna Shaft that obtained from SU6B. SU6A is also completely different to SU6B Medium mammal Long bone shaft fragment Shaft with respect to the stone assemblages, (all stages of manufacture, 6A – Burning Non-diagnostic 6 fragments (<2 cm) a wide range of tasks, and ground stone tools), the environment 6B – Burning Non-diagnostic 3 fragments (<2 cm) and the lake hydrology. Some material may be intrusive (e.g. iso- Total NISP Cut ¼ 9 lated teeth from Palorchestes sp. and Palimnarchus sp.), and its Total NISP Burned ¼ 9 presence can be explained by the activities of people digging for M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 139

Fig. 11. Surface modifications on bone from SU6B. All putative cutmarks are on the long bones of extant macropods and are indicated by arrows (in B, C and D). Individual find numbers are listed in brackets and denote square, spit, quadrant of square and allocated find number. Note that all bones with cutmarks shown here are from the same square and spit. Three are from quadrant C. (Photos: J. Field). water and breaching the lower fossil horizons which are within 30– extended dry periods which allowed people to camp around the 40 cm of this level (SU7). claypan centre. There are various reasons why people camp in the People were camping on the lake floor at Cuddie Springs around open; these include visibility in the event of the presence of large 30 ka. The lake hydrology for this period was characterized by predatory carnivores, perhaps Megalania – the giant goanna or

Table 6 Element frequencies by stratigraphic unit for the Cuddie Springs square E transect.

Element SU6A (%) SU6B (%) Total NISP (%) Cranium 3 (<1) 10 (1) 13 (1) Mandible 4 (1) 4 (<1) 8 (1) Tooth 17 (4) 78 (10) 95 (8) Scapula 8 (2) 7 (1) 15 (1) Rib 12 (3) 73 (10) 85 (7) Vertebra 35 (9) 108 (14) 143 (13) Pelvis 30 (8) 68 (9) 98 (9) Humerus 12 (3) 16 (2) 28 (2) Radius 1 (<1) 8 (1) 9 (1) Ulna 11 (3) 13 (2) 24 (2) Femur 20 (5) 52 (7) 72 (6) Tibia 51 (14) 83 (11) 134 (12) Fibula 4 (1) 17 (2) 21 (2) Long Bone frag. 77 (21) 12 (16) 203 (18) Metatarsal 32 (9) 43 (6) 75 (7) Tarsal 5 (1) 11 (1) 16 (1) Cuboid 2 (<1) 1 (<1) 3 (<1) Fig. 12. Evidence for root etching was more prevalent in SU6B then SU6A and is Calcaneus 16 (4) 5 (1) 21 (2) consistent with ‘lake full’ conditions at Cuddie Springs. Numerous small plant roots Astragalus 12 (3) 2 (<1) 14 (1) were found through the SU6B sediments, evidence that is typical of marshy conditions Phalanx 21 (6) 39 (5) 60 (5) (see Field et al., 2002). Arrows indicate roots growing across the surface of two Gen- Total NISP 374 764 1138 yornis femurs from square E17. (Photo: J. Field). 140 M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143

Table 7 Fusion of epiphyses of ageable populations from SU6A and SU6B at Cuddie Springs.

Epiphysis SU6A SU6B Fused 7 40 % of ageable population (F) 35 87 Un-fused 13 6 % of ageable population (UF) 65 13 NISP ¼ 66

Thylacoleo carnifex – the marsupial lion if they were still extant, and protecting their water source from fouling by other animals. The latter is especially important if a well had to be dug to obtain clean near-surface water. In terms of the aim of this paper, the faunal evidence for SU6A provides no indication of reworking or re-deposition and the most

Fig. 14. A bone bed identified about 40 cm below the base of SU6. The bone accu- mulated prior to human arrival and is estimated to be >350 ka. No artefacts were identified and articulated elements and a range of extinct species, not identified higher up the sequence, were present. The bone from this horizon exhibits low weathering and is found in an enclosing clay-silt matrix. (Photo: J. Dortch).

parsimonious explanation for this horizon is that the archaeology and the fauna are contemporary. The fossil record indicates that megafauna were in decline, and with the shift in the local envi- ronment to grasslands, the habitat for some of the megafauna had disappeared and with that so perhaps had the animals. An increasing presence by people and a diminishing water supply in the lead up to the Last Glacial Maximum could have led to the local extinction of megafauna from this region.

5.5. Stratigraphic Unit 6 Summary

The main finding of the taphonomic study of the Cuddie Springs faunal assemblage is that the animals died here, were not washed in, and did not accumulate as the result of carnivore activities. The site is an ephemeral waterhole where animals perished over tens of thousands of years, their remains becoming incorporated into the fine grained sediments of the lake bed. These findings are further supported by an REE analysis (Trueman et al., 2005). Coupled with the pollen and sedimentary studies of the site (Field et al., 2002), a clear picture of faunal turnover through time and changing climatic conditions can be drawn. G. newtoni remains dominate the assemblage in SU6B and accumulated during a period of constantly wet conditions at Cuddie Springs around 36 ka. Other extinct and extant species are also represented. The involvement of humans in the accumulation of these remains is implied by the presence of stone artefacts throughout SU6B. While the stone artefacts are predominantly butchering tools, the absence of cutmarks on the megafaunal remains is inconclusive (see Pickering, 1995). In the transition to SU6A, a number of species disappear, including Protemnodon sp., while there is a sharp decline in the Fig. 13. Part of the stratigraphic section for square E11/F11 at Cuddie Springs. SU6B and representation of G. newtoni. These changes coincide with a shift in SU7 are shown towards the top of this image; the white lines mark the change to local vegetation and lake conditions (Field et al., 2002). The sharp different depositional episodes. These horizons are clearly defined by changes in sediment and colour. Bones are present throughout most of the deposit in varying increase in flaked and ground stone artefacts, charcoal and other concentrations. (Photo: J. Field). cultural material is consistent with people camping on the claypan M. Fillios et al. / Quaternary International 211 (2010) 123–143 141

Fig. 15. Surveyed east–west profile of the Cuddie Springs lake. Note the exaggerated vertical scale to 1 m. Cuddie Springs is in a landscape of low relief and the lake itself exhibits only a 1 m drop from edge to centre in this and the north south profile (see Field, 2004). around a central watering point, perhaps digging for water when those that may have persisted were restricted to isolated pockets required. across the continent (Wroe and Field, 2006; Field et al., 2008). The events at Cuddie Springs occur against a backdrop of large scale climatic change and the presence of people through both 6. Conclusions phases. By association, the remains of the extinct and extant fauna are part of the archaeological record. In SU6B, functional analyses of A primary role for humans in the demise of the Australian the stone tools have indicated that they were primarily used for megafauna cannot be demonstrated on the basis of one site, and butchering. The concentration of stone in this ‘lake full’ phase is low support for this position is further undermined when most of the and the predominance of butchering implements provides megafauna cannot be placed within 100,000 years of human arrival compelling evidence that people were butchering the fauna found (Wroe and Field, 2006; Field et al., 2008). As with the formation of there. In SU6A, the composition of the stone tool assemblage the Cuddie Springs deposits, the Late Pleistocene faunal extinctions sharply contrasts with the SU6B assemblage. Grinding stones are a complex puzzle. Humans may have had a defining role in the appear for the first time, and the flaked stone tools are used for final moments of the extinction process but a range of other envi- a variety of tasks, signifying a broad-based subsistence economy. ronmental factors are likely to have had a significant impact. Cutmarks on the bones of extant species have been identified and burnt bone is also found. The radiocarbon dates from single pieces of charcoal and the OSL dates on sediments overlap, the latter Acknowledgements providing a chronological resolution not forthcoming from the radiocarbon sequence. We are indebted to the continuing support of the Brewarrina The notion of sediment disturbance/reworking of the deposit Local Aboriginal Land Council and the Ngemba Community and re-deposition of material is refuted by the taphonomy of the Working Party. The field work could not have proceeded without faunal assemblages and is consistent with previous analyses the generous support and assistance of the Johnstone, Currey and undertaken at the site (see Field et al., 2001, 2002, 2008; Trueman Green families, the Walgett Shire Council and the many volunteers et al., 2005). It is likely that the fossil-fauna record is the product of and colleagues involved in the work. Garry Lord, Brett Cochrane, natural events and the activities of people. Separating these two Tom Cochrane, Chris Boney and Colin Macgregor were indispens- factors is still a problem, as it is with most archaeological sites able in the field. Thanks to the Australian Museum (esp. Sandy where faunal remains are found, especially those in an open setting Ingleby) for access to reference collections. We are enormously such as this. grateful to Don Grayson for comments on an earlier draft – the mistakes and errors are truly our own. We appreciated the 5.6. Humans and Megafauna In Australia comments by Chris Norton and two anonymous reviewers. Thanks also to Kyle Ratinac for comments and discussions. The authors Australia is the driest continent on earth and consequently there acknowledge the facilities as well as scientific and technical assis- have been limited preservational opportunities for fossil fauna tance from the staff in the Australian Microscopy and Microanalysis through the Late Pleistocene. Most finds are restricted to pit traps in Research Facility (AMMRF) and the Australian Key Centre for caves, secondary deposition in fluvial settings and the occasional Microscopy and Microanalysis at the University of Sydney. The swamp or aeolian deposit (see Wells, 1978). The thin datasets project was funded by the Australian Research Council and the currently available are dominated by dating studies and as such University of Sydney. provide few answers to the critical questions of context and asso- ciation (see Field et al., 2008). The evidence for a human-mega- References fauna association on the Australian continent is tantalizing at best, yet aside from Cuddie Springs and Nombe Rockshelter, no other Alberdi, M.T., Alonso, M.A., Azanza, B., Hoyos, M., Morales, J., 2001. Vertebrate empirical evidence has been found of an in situ co-occurrence, let taphonomy in circum-lake environments: three cases in the Guadix-Baza Basin alone interaction between the two. 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