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Routledge Handbook on the

Michael M. Gunter

The Kurdish

Publication details https://www.routledgehandbooks.com/doi/10.4324/9781315627427-4 Michael Eppel Published online on: 08 Aug 2018

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Turkmen of service the in dynasty Ayyubi the of descendants by ruled , the was principalities Kurdish the the accepted turn, in which, emirates, and tribes Kurdish the of status independent, even times at and autonomous, the accepted rulers Turkmen The ble. unsta essentially were society tribal Kurdish and elites tribal military Turkmen the between dynasties. tribal ( Sheep” “White the by ruled confederations tribal by Turkmen dominated was century, fifteenth the of end the until century mid-fourteenth the From conquests. of Mongol waves by region the on inflicted destruction years 1420–1436, the White Sheep confederation was forced to fight the and and tribes Kurdish the fight to forced was confederation Sheep 1420–1436, White the years the power, in to rise its of stages early the Even in Sheep. Black the of vassals, indeed and allies, were which of many tribes, and emirates Kurdish the by joined It was ations. known as . as known (1137–1193),al Ayyubi al-Din Salah of dynasty the Ayyubi was rule Seljuk under fighters Muslim as won renown that dynasty Kurdish prominent The arenas. political their into rated incorpo were or rulers Seljuk the to submitted either dynasties and emirates Kurdish The world. Muslim the in force amajor arose sultanate Seljuk the century, eleventh the In tribes. Turkish of east the from migration of pressure growing the to exposed were emirates and tribes Kurdish the century, tenth the From dynasties. and states Qajar) and (Safavid Iranian and Ottoman, Turkmen, Seljuk, Abbasid, –the overlords Muslim successive of vassals be to Banu Marwan () (984–1083). (951–1075), (990–1116), Shaddadid and (Annazids) (959–1095), Annaz Banu (Hasanwiya) Hasanwahids the were dynasties tribal Kurdish major The units. political supra-tribal sive exten creating sometimes control, their to populations non-tribal and tribes weaker subjected and tribes their dominated which dynasties, tribal Kurdish strong by ruled were emirates The (or mirs). emirs by headed emirates or principalities quasi-feudal tribal, the and tribes the were era premodern the in Kurdistan in frameworks sociopolitical main The O During the fifteenth century, conflict broke out between the two Turkmen confeder two the Turkmen between brokeout conflict century, fifteenth the During relations The recover. to emirates Kurdish the enabled Kurdistan of control weak Their the from suffered emirates Kurdish the centuries, fourteenth and thirteenth the During Although the Kurdish emirates experienced varying degrees of autonomy, they continued continued autonomy, of they degrees varying experienced emirates Kurdish the Although bstacles or precursors to Th 2 1 e K u r d Michael Eppel Michael i s 3 37 h Aqqoyunlu) K e ur mi and “Black Sheep” ( Sheep” “Black and dish nationalism?dish Turkmen. Prominent among among Prominent Turkmen. r at es Karaqqoyunlu - - - - ) Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:13 24 Sep 2021; For: 9781315627427, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315627427-4 Selim I in 1514, the remaining emirates were subjected to direct Ottoman rule. Ottoman direct to subjected were emirates 1514, Iin remaining Selim the Sultan Ottoman the by Kurdistan of 1455. conquest in the With confederation tribal Sheep White Turkmen the of suzerainty the accepted had emirs whose Hasankeyf, of emirate the (Muks), and Chemiskezek (Chamishgazak) in the Dersim-Tuncheli area. Dersim-Tuncheli the in (Chamishgazak) Chemiskezek and (Muks), Mush (Bhadinan), al-Jazira), (Cizire, Chizire (Bidlis), , , (Sohran), Soran Hakkari, Kurdistan: eastern and southern in day, mainly his of emirates jor century. sixteenth early the in Kurdistan in forces local major the became fragmented, although emirates, Kurdish the Empire, Ottoman and state Safawid–Iranian emerging strong, the of face the in Sheep White the of collapse the With Turkmen. the of rule loose the under consolidate to continued emirates Kurdish the Nevertheless, Ayyubis. of descendants by ruled emirate Hasankeyf old the conquered Sheep White the century, fifteenth the of half second the In dynasties. Sheep. White the with quently subse and dynasty, ruling its and confederation Sheep Black the with relationship pendent inde an maintained emir and tribe Each actions. their in uniformity no was Even there so, strength. in grew Bitlis, of emirate the especially emirates, Kurdish independent virtually the regime, Sheep White unstable and loose the of background the Against clashes. violent with fraught and suspicious, unstable, were tribes and emirates Kurdish the and elite tribal military Turkmen the between relations but rulers, Sheep White the of court the at places found Kurds Some charge. take to governors appoint and leaders, tribal and emirs their of families the eliminate to sought leaders Sheep White the Sheep, Black the of allies were tribes and emirates Kurdish of majority the Because . in capital their established and 2). Endnote (see now ruled they that emirates and tribes Kurdish the of some of help the had they but Sheep, Black the with allied emirates Chizire (Cizire, al-Jazira in Arabic) to support the Ottomans. the support to Arabic) in al-Jazira (Cizire, Chizire and , Soran, Baban, Baradost, Hasankeyf, Palu, Bitlis, Chemiskezek, of areas the of emirs Kurdish 18-strong the persuaded Bidlisi instructions, latter’s the On I. Selim (1481–1512) II Sultan Bayazid heir, his of Sultan and Ottoman the of court the at served He subsequently Safavids. the by eliminated was dynasty that before ruler Sheep White last the of secretary the been had who Bidlisi, Idris Mevlana courtier, and statesman Kurdish the valleys. and the Tigris and Kurdistan of conquest Ottoman the in role asignificant played and Empire Ottoman the with sided had emirates Kurdish the of most powers, two the between confrontation the In Kurdistan. of part 1514, greater in the of control took Chaldiran century. nineteenth the of half first the until up declined eventually and expanded, survived, emirates the which in environment the created and Kurdistan, in tions condi social and political the on impact aprofound had powers regional two these between struggle continual The state. Shi’i Safavid Iranian the and Empire Ottoman the powers: regional rival two the between divided was Kurdistan century, sixteenth early the From At the end of that century, Emir Sharaf al-Din Bitlisi (or Bidlisi) published a famous book, book, a famous published (or Bidlisi) Bitlisi al-Din Sharaf Emir century, that of end the At Turkmen rival the between allegiance their divided thus emirates and tribes Kurdish The Azerbaijan, and Kurdistan of over most took Sheep White the victory, their Following The successful cooperation between the Kurds and the Ottomans was the achievement of of achievement the was Ottomans the and Kurds the between cooperation successful The of Battle the in Iranians Safavid over the victory their of wake the in Ottomans, The The role of the Kurdish emirates in the Ottoman–Iranian struggle theOttoman–Iranian in The role theemirates of Kurdish (1597), about the history of the Kurdish states and emirates. In it, he lists the ma the helists it, In emirates. and states Kurdish the of (1597), history the about Michael Eppel Michael 38 3 He also mentions mentions He also - - - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:13 24 Sep 2021; For: 9781315627427, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315627427-4 1527, the leaders of 17 emirates are defined as the great emirs of Kurdistan. of emirs great the as defined are 17 of 1527, emirates from leaders the dating provinces Ottoman of alist In administration. Ottoman the of orientations izing decentral and centralizing the between fluctuations the on and relations Ottoman–Iranian in developments the on also depended survival Their . of rulers Mamluk the and at the Shah’s court. Shah’s the at positions significant held sometimes and dynasty Safavid the into married dynasty ruling Ardalan’s of the heads of Some court. Shah’s Iranian the at influence considerable enjoyed Ardalan of emirs The century. eighteenth the in emirate Baban strong the and century seventeenth the in emirate Bahdinan the were which emirates, vassal Ottomans’ the of val ri main the was and Empire Ottoman the against struggle the in role important an played It rule. Iranian under principality avassal as autonomy its maintain to emirate Kurdish only the was Ardalan rulers. Iranian the to loyal therefore and on dependent families marginal favor to and emirates, independent and emirs strong undermine to however, was Safavids, Iranian the of autonomy. policy of The measure some preserve to them allowed century.) sixteenth the during Kurds the of rivals major who were tribes, the among Turkmen influence considerable had Qizilbashis the of order Sufi Shi’i (The Safavids. Iranian the of ally an was Sufi which order, Qizilbashi the against and state Shi’i Iranian the against Sunnis as interest common which became subordinate to the Ottoman sanjaks Ottoman the to subordinate became which emirate, the weaken to thus and sons emir’s the among lands the divide to sultan Ottoman the enabled Hüseyin Pir Emir strong the of death the following family ruling the within Adispute century. thirteenth the since existed had which River), Tigris northern the of west Dersim, east and Ararat Mount between (or Chamishgazak, Chemiskezek of emirate strong the 1830s. until flourish to even and exist to continued emirates the forces, local various between and dynasties emirs’ the in struggles internal exploiting by emirates the of autonomy the limiting gradually in ceeded suc Ottomans the Although independent. too became emirs whose poweror much too accumulated that those eliminated but with struggle the in emirates Kurdish the lized ported the Ottoman forces of Sultan Selim I, and its emirs were awarded the title of “Noble “Noble of title the awarded were emirs its and I, Selim Sultan of forces Ottoman the ported sup emirate the century, sixteenth 1573. early the in In Hasan, Uzun leader, Turkmen powerful the of death the after emirate independent almost an as emerged Bitlis erations. confed tribal Turkmen powerful more the of patronage the under remained they century, which took control of the city of Bitlis during the tenth century. tenth the during Bitlis of city the of control took which dynasty, Marwanid the of a branch tribe, (Rozhiki) Rojiki the from were Bitlis of emirs the narrative, historical the to According emirates. Kurdish the of prosperous and dominant most the as emerged Bitlis of emirate the century, seventeenth the of half first the In Ottoman confederations, Arab tribal emirates, other – forces different between maneuvering in succeeded emirs ruling their as long as survived emirates The The Kurdish emirs preferred the decentralized rule of their Ottomans because it because Ottomans their of rule decentralized the preferred emirs Kurdish The their as well as Ottomans the of strength the recognized tribes and emirs Kurdish The Over the course of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, the uti Empire Ottoman the centuries, eighteenth and seventeenth the of course the Over As early as the mid-16th century, Sultan Sulayman the Magnificent had conquered the conquered had Magnificent the Sulayman Sultan century, mid-16th the as early As The Kurdish emirates: relative strength and cultural flowering cultural and relative emirates: strength The Kurdish The Kurdish emirates Kurdish The Bitlis 39 (administrative districts). (administrative 5 Until the late fifteenth fifteenth late the Until valis 4 (governors), (governors), ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:13 24 Sep 2021; For: 9781315627427, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315627427-4 enabled the Ottomans to weaken it. weaken to Ottomans the enabled centuries eighteenth and seventeenth the in dynasty emir’s the in strife Internal Barzan. and t ci the of environs the Van, and Lake of southeast and east the to area Hakkari the of over portions extended emirate (Bhadinan) Bahdinan the of authority the centuries, eighteenth through sixteenth the during periods various For Botan. and Soran importance. and strength its it lost and exiled, and arrested was emir its limited, was autonomy Its Ottomans. the by conquered was Bitlis, city, capital Its might. Ottoman against stand to unable was emirate the strength, relative its power. Notwithstanding growing its by worried was power, the emir was subject to the sovereignty of the Ottoman sultan.) Ottoman the of sovereignty the to subject was emir power, the relative and autonomy broad his despite fact, (In Shah. the or sultan the to either subject not was emir its that and independent it was that impression mistaken the gained also tury, tribe and the author of the Sharafnama the of author the and tribe Rojiki the of amember (Bidlisi), Bitlisi al-Din Sharaf installed and autonomy emirate’s the Ottomans. the by defeat its to led that a move side, Safavid the to allegiance switched 1530–1531, In Khan”. emirate however, the the title of pasha and enjoyed a solemn reception in Istanbul, in recognition of his services to to services his of recognition in Istanbul, in reception asolemn enjoyed and pasha of title the awarded was (Baban) Baba 1678, In Suleiman powergame. local the in independence and status their reinforce to order in Iran with Empire Ottoman the of border the on location their exploited Baban of emirs The emirate. Bitlis the of decline the by created vacuum regional the by facilitated probably was rise Its century. seventeenth the of half second the in Baban of emirate the of growth the to background the was struggle Ottoman–Iranian The somewhat exaggerated). seems that figure (a fighters 70,000 up call to able was emir the that noted Chelebi court. his in Ulema, medicine”. and astronomy raphy, physics, geog on French, in mostly books, European of hundreds and Arabic and Persian in books of thousands contained library “Abd Chelebi, al-Khan’s to According drawing. and medicine, poetry, architecture, in talented and sciences; and arts the of a patron interests; intellectual broad and education considerable of a man Bitlis, of (d. 1666?), ruler the Rozhiki Khan services. military for exchange in rulers local other and emirs the to sultans Ottoman the by granted were 13 zeamet owned Bitlis of emirs The activity. lectual intel and religious of centers maintained –which Bakhtashiyya the and Naqshbandiyya medresat mosques, with hub acultural It was workshops. center. religious and cultural burgeoning a it as described and independence, its of extent the by and vitality, economic and strength military emirate’s the by impressed were period this during Bitlis visited who travelers pean Euro and Chelebi Evliya official and traveler Ottoman The emirates. the of prominent most and strongest the became it century, seventeenth the of half first the In flourished. lis The decline of the emirate of Bitlis allowed the ascent of the emirates of Bahdinan, Baban, Baban, Bahdinan, of emirates the of ascent the allowed Bitlis of emirate the of decline The which Empire, Ottoman the with collided emirate the century, mid-seventeenth the In cen seventeenth the in region the visited who traveler aFrench Tavernier, Jean-Baptiste The period of greatest prosperity in Bitlis began in 1578, when Sultan Murad III restored restored III Murad 1578, Sultan when in began Bitlis in prosperity greatest of period The Chelebi’s description reflects the special, quasi-Renaissance character of Emir ʿ Emir of character quasi-Renaissance special, the reflects description Chelebi’s and shops 1,200 had century mid-seventeenth the in Bitlis Chelebi, to According 6 8 , as emir. Under its talented and educated emirs, Bit emirs, educated and talented its Under emir. , as Michael Eppel Michael Baban 40 who wrote poetry in Kurdish, were active active were Kurdish, in poetry wrote who and 124 timars 124 and , and influential Sufi orders – the – orders Sufi influential , and ies of Aqra, ʿ Aqra, of ies 7 , feudal estates that that estates , feudal Amadiya, , Zakho, Amadiya, Abd al------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:13 24 Sep 2021; For: 9781315627427, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315627427-4 district of Shahrizur. of district nearby the of governors Iranian the and Ardalan, of House the Baghdad, in Mamelukes the valis Ottoman the against were nineteenth the of beginning the and century eighteenth the during survival for struggles Their loyalty. owed their ostensibly they which to Istanbul, in court Ottoman the to close not were Baban of emirs the court, Muntafik against the Ottoman–Mamluk vali Ottoman–Mamluk the against Muntafik of federation Bedouin tribal the and Basra of governor Ottoman the with alliance an forged Pasha Baban Ibrahim in Emir 1788, example, For Baghdad. in influence gain to the help would and emirate, the pressure to ability limited had leaders, local on dependent was Avali forces. local strong among from nominated not and Istanbul in . of governors Iranian the to also taxes pay to obliged were they weakness their of because Ottomans, the of vassals were Babans the Although Iran. in refuge took sometimes Baban of House the of members and Baban of emirs the interference, Ottoman and struggles tic domes of wake the In Baban’s affairs. in interfere to Ardalan, of emirate the proxy, their and Iranians, the and Ottomans the enabled Baban within struggles domestic and strife internal constant the Nevertheless, Iranians. the against barrier important an as position its and strength, military relative its Baghdad, to Sulaymaniyya of proximity the to due was Baghdad Sulaymaniyya. in capital their built 1784 1788, Babans the and between but Chilawan, Qal of fortress and village the was Baban of 1784, capital the Until Empire. Ottoman the Soran, centered around Rawanduz; and Botan (), based around the city and fortress fortress and city the around based (Bohtan), Botan and Rawanduz; around centered Soran, region; Sulaymaniya the in Baban of emirate the vassals: Ottoman as autonomy and strength Empire. Ottoman the with aconfrontation in achance them give to might military and political sufficient accumulate to unable were dominance regional of ambitions harbored who Those struggles. local their in embroiled were emirs the Kurdistan, of conditions the In quasi-feudal Ottomans. the against uniting from emirates Kurdish the hindered interests emirate and tribal of primacy However, the administration. modernizing centralized, the of control the to and authority central of strengthening the to counter ran independence whose forces mous autono any suppress to sought Empire Ottoman The emirates. Kurdish the with frontations con to led which administration, the of modernization and acentralization by characterized emirates. Kurdish the them among forces, centrifugal local against Empire Ottoman the supported Britain this, with line In Russia. against abuffer as Empire Ottoman the preserve to intended apolicy 1830s, the since adopt, to Britain led had that factors important were Gulf Persian the of direction the in the through and Istanbul toward push Russian The confrontation. Ottoman–Iranian the in forces proxy as importance their lost emirates the all, of First emirates. Kurdish the of existence continuing the fostered had that conditions the changed that reforms Iranian and Ottoman of a series and region, the in Russia and Britain of involvement growing 1823, the in Erzrum of Treaty the with ended wars Ottoman–Iranian the after relations international in changes The Unlike their rivals, the House of Ardalan, which had considerable influence at the Shah’s Shah’s the at influence considerable had which Ardalan, of House the rivals, their Unlike The Babans preferred that the valis the that preferred Babans The The emirs of Baban played an important and complex role in the political arena of the the of arena political the in role complex and important an played Baban of emirs The At the beginning of the nineteenth century, three of the emirates had maintained their their maintained had emirates the of three century, nineteenth the of beginning the At 1839 and between successively promulgated reforms, Tanzimat Ottoman The vilayet 9 The decline of the emirates in the nineteenth century nineteenth the in the emirates of The decline and in the cities of Basra and . Its importance in the regional struggles struggles regional the in importance Its Mosul. and Basra of cities the in and 10 The Kurdish emirates Kurdish The of Baghdad would be sent by the Ottoman authorities authorities Ottoman the by sent be would Baghdad of of Baghdad. 41 and other local forces: forces: local other and sent from Istanbul Istanbul from sent 1876 , were were , ʿ - a - - Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:13 24 Sep 2021; For: 9781315627427, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315627427-4 and other places, forced Muhammad Kor to break off his offensive and retreat. and offensive his off break to Kor Muhammad forced places, other and Amadia outin broke that revolts the with along supporters, his and Khan Bedir by resistance The capture. to attempted Kor Muhammad which fortresses, of aseries hold to continued however, forces, Khan’s Bedir ‘Umar. ibn Jazirat capital, its conquered and Botan attacked Kor Muhammad Bahdinan, of conquest the and the of suppression his following vilayet the into Bahdinan incorporated Ottomans the policy, centralization their of part 1843, In as Ottomans. the by nominated were rulers its and recovered, 1834; however, fully in it never Ottomans the by defeated was Kor Muhammed after exist to continued Bahdinan Officially, century. fourteenth the to back dated which Bahdinan, of emirate old the of rulers the deposed Kor emirate. Bahdinan the of capital the Amadiya, and Dohuk, Zakho, over Rawanduz, taking tribes, Mamish and Surchi, Baradost, the and emirate Hakkari the to sovereignty his extended heforcibly decades, those During Kurdistan. central and southern powerin leading the He set up adiwan up He set ambition. his of signs further were mosques emirate’s the in sermons Friday in him to erences ref the and name his bearing coins of minting The cannons. even and rifles, swords, of ture manufac the for workshops established also Kor artillery. some even and infantry, cavalry, it. to weaken and affairs its in interfere to Ottomans the by exploited were emirate and vis-à-vis maneuver to ability its and rivalry Ottoman–Iranian the in asset an as importance its It lost emirate. Baban (district governor) of the area. the of governor) (district Isma of appointment 1851 the in with disappeared finally emirate The authorities. Ottoman the by appointed were emirs the but emirate, the head to continued dynasty Baban The him. replace to brother his appointed Ottomans the man Sulaymaniyya to Iran no less than five times. five than less no Iran to Sulaymaniyya from flee to forced was Baban struggles, convoluted these of context the In Baban’s affairs. in and emirate the in meddle to Iranians and Ottomans the enabled family Baban the in valis Ottoman the of fall or rise the engineer could and there ence influ of adegree heachieved sometimes and Baghdad, in powerstruggles the in involved 1789–1813). (ruled deeply Baban He was ‘Abd al-Rahman Emir was century nineteenth the emirates. stronger the by dominated were or authorities Ottoman the by limited autonomy their had either and weak were Bahdinan, and Hakkari emirates, other The ‘Umar. bin Jazirat of Soran’s capital, the city of Rawanduz, and built a citadel there. acitadel built and Rawanduz, of city the capital, Soran’s fortified and expanded Kor Muhammad Ali. Muhammad ruler 1831 in ’s by of conquest 1828–1829, the in and Russia with war the following weakness Ottoman emirate, Baban the of decline the of background the against was Kurdistan, in force local powerful most the Kor, as 1814 Muhammad from led Emir by emirate, Soran the of emergence The Only the emirate of Botan remained free of Mohammed Kor’s 1833, hegemony. In Mohammed of free remained Botan of emirate the Only became Kor Muhammad under Soran of emirate the 1830s, early and 1820s the In Most of Kor’s military force relied on the tribes, but it included a Regular Army unit, unit, Army aRegular it included but tribes, the on relied force Kor’s of Most military Otto the by initiated were territory its reduce and emirate the subdue to steps final The the sidelined Iran and Empire Ottoman the 1823 between in Erzrum of Treaty The The strongman of the House of Baban at the end of the eighteenth and the beginning of of beginning the and eighteenth the of end the at Baban of House the of strongman The vali in Baghdad, Najib Pasha, in 1847. Emir Ahmad Pasha (1838–1847) was ousted, and and (1838–1847) ousted, was Pasha 1847. Ahmad in Pasha, Emir Najib Baghdad, in , or advisory council, and cultivated the support of the “ the of support the cultivated and council, advisory , or the Ottoman authorities. The internal conflicts in the Baban dynasty dynasty Baban the in conflicts internal The authorities. Ottoman the of Mosul and finally dissolved the emirate. the dissolved finally and Mosul of Michael Eppel Michael Soran 42 11 ʿ il Pasha, a Turkish officer, askaymakam officer, aTurkish Pasha, il 12 . However, the struggles struggles . However, the ulama” . - - - -

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:13 24 Sep 2021; For: 9781315627427, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315627427-4 to assume that he was murdered by the Ottomans. the by murdered he was that assume to safe it is and hedisappeared, Sea, Black the via Soran to back way However, his on ereignty. sov Ottoman under and autonomy limited with although emirate, the of control continued Soran. in govern to continue hecould sovereignty, Ottoman accepted and hesurrendered if that Pasha, Rashid commander, Ottoman the by apromise of basis the on apparently Istanbul, to He went surrender. to agreed Kor Muhammad backing, British its and strength Ottoman against isolation his to addition in shelter, him give or him assist to unwillingness Iranian centralization within the Ottoman Empire. Ottoman the within centralization toward trends and reforms accelerated the and Empire, Ottoman the and Iran between ence belliger of end the region, the in Russia and Britain of involvement the following ditions, Shaykh Taha of Nehri also appears to have affected Bedir Khan’s conduct. The American American The Khan’sconduct. Bedir affected have to appears also Nehri of Taha Shaykh the alim of influence The over Hakkari. patronage his strengthen to nity opportu the used Khan 1839. in However, Bedir assistance for Khan Bedir approached Beg Nurallah and emirate, aweak was Hakkari Nestorians. over the authority his impose to Beg allies, the Kurdish tribes acted in their own interests and refrained from assisting him. assisting from refrained and interests own their in acted tribes Kurdish the allies, his prevailing, were Ottomans the that apparent it became When Rawanduz. in himself entrench and retreat to Kor Muhammad of forced 1836 summer the in offensive Ottoman The Syria. conquered had who Ali, Muhammad Egypt, of governor rebellious the of army the and Kor between cooperation possible by worried were Ottomans The Soran. against the local Christian population. Christian of local the strengthening the and infiltration Christian feared who Hakkari, in population Muslim Kurdish the of suspicions the aroused This reforms. Tanzimat the under them to granted been had that churches build to concessions the exploited missionaries American The ism. Protestant to Nestorians Christian convert to seeking area, Hakkari the in active became missionaries Protestant British and American decade, that During 1830s. the in deteriorated Nestorians the with relationship his but community, Nestorian the of suzerain the officially reforms. Ottoman the of impact the and activity sionary mis of growth the with intensified had These tensions. Muslim–Christian the in entangled became Ottomans the with relations Khan’s Bedir but diminished, authorities Ottoman the with tribes Kurdish the and Khan Bedir by experienced tensions the 1840, in Syria from it. to patronage his extended Khan Bedir emirate, Hakkari the of weakness the of view In southeast. the in Sulaymaniya to northwest the Van in from Armenians, –and alike peasants non-tribal and –tribes Kurds of both support broad-based the He enjoyed empire. the within position autonomous his increase to order in Ottomans the with ties and status his exploit to sought Khan Bedir rank. military Ottoman an awarded was and conflict Ottoman–Egyptian the in side Ottoman the took Khan, Bedir Muhammad afatwa issued even Rawanduz of mufti The sultan. the with conflict the to opposition their declared and sultan Ottoman the of instead sermons Friday in him of mention the to objected they influence, Ottoman der The emirate of Soran and its ambitious ruler fell victim to the changed international con international changed the to victim fell ruler ambitious its and Soran of emirate The promised again was Kor Mohammed Istanbul, in hespent that months six the During Ottoman officials, annoyed by the Western missionary activities, encouraged Nurallah Nurallah encouraged activities, missionary the by annoyed Western officials, Ottoman Kor was dealt an additional blow by the ulama blow the by additional an dealt was Kor offensive Ottoman the repelling in succeeded Kor 1834, of Muhammad summer the In (Emir) Nurallah Beg, the ruler of the emirate of Hakkari (southeast of ), Lake of was (southeast Hakkari of emirate the of ruler the Beg, Nurallah (Emir) Mir forces Ali’s Muhammad of retreat the and war Ottoman–Egyptian the of end the With ruler, Its emirate. Kurdish last the as remained Botan only Soran, of fall the After 15 The Kurdish emirates Kurdish The prohibiting war against the sultan. the against war prohibiting 14 43 in the city of Rawanduz. Possibly un Possibly Rawanduz. of city the in (religious scholar) scholar) (religious 13 In the light of light the In ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:13 24 Sep 2021; For: 9781315627427, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315627427-4 emirate. Kurdish remaining last the subdue and Khan Bedir of rid get to a pretext as themselves Ottomans the to and Empire, Ottoman the in reforms centralist the strengthening in lay est inter whose Britain, to useful was tensions Muslim–Christian in involvement Khan’s Bedir Kurdistan. and eastern in rule Ottoman strengthen to and empire the within forces semi-independent peripheral, over the authority acentralized impose to aimed Ottomans The interests. British and Ottoman both suited emirate the of elimination The reform. and centralization toward trends Ottoman the to opposition Kurdish of expression an was century. twentieth the of half first the in nationalism Kurdish for spokesmen important most the among were and nationalists (1893–1978) Kurdish became (1895–1951), (1883–1938), Celadet Sureyya Kamuran and grandchildren However, his ment. establish Ottoman the into integrated became and Istanbul, to exiled were or emigrated had who elite feudal tribal Kurdish the of members other many like Ottomanization, of a process underwent family Khan Bedir the of Two members decades. hundred more several for state Ottoman the heserved and pasha, of title the awarded and pardoned later He was Kurdistan. from exiled 1847 was in and surrendered Khan Bedir strength, Ottoman of face the In side. Ottoman the to switched had army, his in commanders prominent most the of one and Khan Bedir of relative a Khan, Moreover, Yezdansher officers. Prussian by trained and modernized been had which army, Ottoman the of might the withstand not could Mush power. alocal strong too becoming from him block to sought they time same the at but activity, Christian Western weakening in useful been had Khan dir Be perspective, Ottoman the From Khan. Bedir overthrow to pressure and protests British strong sparked and Kurdistan, in travelers and missionaries Western by reported was forces ants as well as merchants and craftsmen. and merchants as well as ants peas were who Christians, sedentary mainly the to opposed as population, pastoral–tribal a only, not but primarily, were who Turkmen, and Kurds between rifts socioeconomic reflected the times at Christians Armenian and Nestorian–Assyrian the and (Muslims) Kurds the between tensions The Armenians. and Kurds between and groups, Assyrian and Nestorian, Kurdish, between conflict internal an of Kurdistan in form the took 1830s, the since Empire Taha. Shaykh and Khan Bedir Emir both characterized that fanaticism gious reli Islamic the emphasized events these on reported who travelers British and missionaries power in Kurdistan beyond the tribal/quasi-feudal stage. These sociopolitical and economic economic and sociopolitical These stage. tribal/quasi-feudal the beyond Kurdistan power in political acentral of development the for afocus became none and tribes, and emirates other over sovereignty effective impose to enough strong became emirates Kurdish the of None century. sixteenth the since Kurdistan up divided had them between which Iran, of or Empire Ottoman the power of the with contend to enough strong force political or state independent an into coalescing and unifying from emirates the prevented region the in states Iranian and Ottoman the by enjoyed dominance the and them, within and among waged struggles constant the emirates, the of nature quasi-feudal tribal, the Nonetheless, tiveness. distinc ethnic Kurdish of expression an were generations, their throughout Kurdish as selves them identified had which emirs, ruling the of dynasties the and emirates Kurdish The The conflict between the emirate of Botan under Bedir Khan and the Ottoman Empire Empire Ottoman the and Khan Bedir under Botan of emirate the between conflict The of Muhammad Khan and Hakkari of Beg Allah Nur Emir with coalition Khan’s Bedir Khan’s 1843 Bedir by in Christians Nestorian–Assyrian 10,000 to 7,000 of slaughter The The Muslim–Christian tensions and clashes that had rumbled throughout the Ottoman Ottoman the throughout rumbled had that clashes and tensions Muslim–Christian The Implications of the destruction of the Kurdish emirates Kurdish of the Implications destruction of the Michael Eppel Michael 16 44 ------

Downloaded By: 10.3.98.104 At: 20:13 24 Sep 2021; For: 9781315627427, chapter3, 10.4324/9781315627427-4 willing and able to unify the tribes and emirates. and tribes the unify to able and willing power political acentral of emergence the to and sentiment, national Kurdish supra-emirate and asupra-tribal of dawning the to obstacles fundamental were dissensions intertribal and tribalism, rivalries, their hand, other the On arena. political Kurdistani early an created and statehood Kurdish of a nucleus constituted formations supra-tribal into developed later and tribes weaker on authority their imposed that emirates of existence very The arena. political Kurdistani early an created and statehood Kurdish of a nucleus constituted tions forma supra-tribal into developed later and tribes weaker on authority their imposed that emirates of existence very The movement. national Kurdish the of emergence the for ditions century. nineteenth late the until begin not did which movement, national Kurdish a of development the hindered greatly bourgeoisie, modern the of development slow the and Kurdistan, in prevailing conditions geopolitical the language, Kurdish the of weakness the progressed. century the as Kurdistan in shaykhs Sufi and tribes the of strengthening the for way the paved that vacuum a created century nineteenth the in emirates Kurdish the of demise the Thus, borders. their within powercenters semi-independent of existence continued the precluded policies izing modern centralist, whose state, Iranian the and Empire Ottoman the powerof superior the by overcome another, after one separately, collapsed they unite, to unable and, importance, vis-à-vis maneuver to emirs the of ity capac the reduced Russia and Britain of influence growing the and wars, Ottoman–Iranian the of end the accompanied that conditions international regional in change the century, Kurdish. in was modernization whose and language high its as Kurdish used that bourgeoisie urban affluent an of growth the to conducive not were conditions society. Kurdish modern in consciousness nationalist aKurdish of dissemination the and movement national Kurdish the of growth political the facilitating factor social an important was This distinctiveness. Kurdish of asense perpetuating in identities, religious and tribal languages. Persian or Arabic, Turkish, the in place took Kurdistan in modernization slow The establishment. political and military empire’s the and bureaucracies Iranian the and Ottoman the into incorporated were century nineteenth the in Kurds modernized of number small the of Most consciousness. national Kurdish with bourgeoisie Kurdish the of growth the impeded language, Kurdish high the of spread the to obstacles the and Kurdistan, of conditions economic and geopolitical the with together ates, emir the of structure quasi-feudal tribal and tribalism the But class. a bourgeois of opment 1

The merchants and ulama and merchants The con- of development the in role contradictory arather played thus emirates Kurdish The with along decline, their and statehood, for nucleus a potential constituted had emirates The nineteenth the of half first the in reforms Tanzimat Ottoman the of implications The However, despite their demise, the emirates were undoubtedly significant, alongside alongside significant, undoubtedly were emirates the demise, their However, despite Period fromPeriod al-Kamil fi’l-ta’rikh Crusading the for al-Athir Ibn of Chronicle The al-Athir, Ibn 9, vol. pp. 598–599; pp. 506–507; 6, Al-Kamil fi-al-Taarikh al-Athir, Ibn 2005); Mazda, CA, Mesa, (Costa Izady R. M. by commentaries and English into 1. Translation Book About the Kurdish emirates and tribes in the , see: Sharaf Khan al-Din Al-Bidlisi, Al-Bidlisi, S al-Din Khan Sharaf see: Ages, Middle the in tribes and emirates Kurdish the About wa-al-tawz Muhammad harafnama, Fi ta’rikh al-duwal wa-al-imarat al-Kurdiyah ʿ i, 2006); Sharaf al-Din al-Bitlisi, al-Bitlisi, al-Din Sharaf 2006); i, ʿ Ali Ali ʿ Uni, edited by Yahia al-Khashab (Damascus: Dar al-zaman liltiba al-zaman Dar (Damascus: al-Khashab Yahia by edited Uni, that flourished in the small urban centers created buds of devel of buds created centers urban small the in flourished that The Years 491–541/1097–1146 Years 1, The , Part The Kurdish emirates Kurdish The the dominant powers. The emirates lost their strategic strategic their lost emirates The powers. dominant the (Beiruth: Dar Beiruth liltaba’t wa-al-nashr, 1966), vol. 1966), vol. wa-al-nashr, liltaba’t Beiruth Dar (Beiruth: Notes The Sharafnama, or, The History of the Kurdish Nation Kurdish the of History or, The Sharafnama, The 45 , 2 vols. Translation into Arabic by by Arabic into Translation , 2vols. ; The Coming of the Franks and and Franks the of Coming The ʿ t wa-a-nashr t wa-a-nashr - - - - - ,

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1 13 10 11 2 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahdinan-kurdish-region-river-dialect-group and emirate. and www.iranicaonline.org/articles/bahdinan-kurdish-region-river-dialect-group “Bahdinan”, 1999) (Arabic) ( (Arabic) 1999) and India) 1844), pp. 37–38. Plon, et Bethune de Imprimerie (: L’Empire de Ottoman Histoire Hammer, De M. Persian. in books the only out point to fit saw he Chelebi, on based treasures, palace the of description brief his In emirate. the of conquest the of account his for Chelebi on relied He Empire. Ottoman the of history century a detailed nineteenth the of beginning the at wrote studies, Eastern Middle of scholar and diplomat, historian, Austrian an Von it. Hammer, described that source only the apparently It was report. ʿ of description This pp.1990), 283–295. Imperii w Pervoy Polovine 19 Beka (The Kurds of the Ottoman Empire in the First Half of the 19th 19th the of Half First the in Empire Ottoman the of Kurds (The 19 Beka Polovine wPervoy Imperii 1972). Jalil D. Publishers, International Gregg Farnborough: Reprinted: 1836; Koordistan in aResidence of Narrative Rich, R. C. Century: Nineteenth (In Russian). 1991) Nauka, USSR, Nauk Academia (: Baban) and Ardalan of Emirates the of History the in Chapters Century: Nineteenth the of Beginning the to Century Seventeenth the from Kurdistan (Southeastern ­Ce I E. Sa Je Ev (The Hague and Boston, MA: M. Nijhoff, 97. 1982), p. Nijhoff, M. MA: Boston, and Hague (The 1802–1831 between Rule Local and TribalShaykhs Pashas, : Mamluk Modern Early in Society and Politics Tom and Nieuwenhuis, 1925), pp. 232–243; Press, Clarendon (Oxford: Iraq Modern of turies Cl 1984). (Moscow, Vasileva I. E. by introduction and editing Russian, to Persian from Chronika – Kniaziestwa Istoria Ardalan Bani . Translation Ardalan, Bani Muhammad ibn Husraw Se Boundaries Ozoglu, Sharafnama The Bitlisi, see struggle, Ottoman–Iranian the in Bidlis of emirs t On 1983), p. 108. Press, University York: Columbia (New M I. Al-B 1976). Islamica, Bibliotheca Jo dynasty. aKurdish was Shadadiya the that maintained strongly 1953). Minorsky Press, Taylor’s Foreign (London: History Caucasian in Studies V. see: Minorsky, Shadadids, the on research basic 1093. For Khaldun, Ibn and of London 1838; with November, and October in Gilan to Tarom and Zenjan by Thence from and Takhti-Soleiman, Armenia and Chaldea Mesopotamia, Minor, Asia in Researches Travels and W. F. traveler: Ainsworth, British 1966) Society, Historical Royal (London: Cunningham B. A. by Imperii “Annazids”, Minorsky, Vladimir 1903), pp. 123–154; (January Society Asiatic Royal the of AD”, Journal ries Centu Eleventh Tenth the and in Mayyafariqin at Dynasty Marwanid “The F.H. Amedroz, H. C H. Fo Muslim Response Les Six voyages en turquie, en perse, et aux indes (Six Voyages to , Persia, Turkey, to Voyages Persia, (Six indes aux et perse, en turquie, en voyages Tavernier,Six an-Baptiste Les (Minneapolis, MN and Chicago, IL: IL: Chicago, and MN (Minneapolis, Empire Confederation, Clan, Aqqoyunlu: The Woods, E. hn (Irbil: wizarat al-tarbiyya, al-tarbiyya, wizarat al-’Amadiya imarat (Irbil: au al-Kurdiyya Bahdinan Imarat al-Damaluji, diq Chronicles of the Principality of Ardalan of Principality the of Chronicles e also Narrative of a Residence in Koordistan in aResidence of Narrative Rich, J. audius Translated and edited by Robert Dankoff (Leiden and New York: E. J. Brill, Brill, J. E. New and York: (Leiden Dankoff Robert by edited and Translated Bitlis. in liya Celebi Kurdi Osmanskoi Osmanskoi Kurdi Jalil, see Kor, Muhammad of fall the of discussion and description r adetailed Basra in the Beginnings of the the of Beginnings the in Basra in Company India East the of resident agent the of account The ntury Yugo-Vostochniy Kurdistan b 17-nachale 19 veki – ocharki istorii emiratov Ardalan i Baban iBaban Ardalan emiratov istorii –ocharki 19 veki b17-nachale Kurdistan Yugo-Vostochniy . Vasileva, Sultan’s Servants: The Transformation of Ottoman Provincial Government, 1550–1650 Government, Provincial Ottoman of Transformation The Servants: Sultan’s Kunt, etin he ancient origin of the al-Ruzkia (Rojiki/Rozhiki/Roshaki) tribe and the active role of the the of role active the and tribe (Rojiki/Rozhiki/Roshaki) al-Ruzkia the of origin ancient he The Sharafnama The Sharafnama,idlisi, Fi ta’rikh Bitlisi, al-duwal; and . Rawlinson The Early Correspondence of Richard Wood, 1831–1841. Richard of Edited Correspondence Early The Wood, Richard , pp. 100–102; – Russian) (London: John Parker, 1842), 1, vol. pp. 323. Parker, John (London: Kurdish Notables and the Ottoman State: Evolving Identities, Competing Loyalties, and Shifting Shifting and Loyalties, Competing Identities, Evolving State: Ottoman the and Notables Kurdish 10 (1840), p. 25. , vol. 2 (Paris: François Maspero, 1981). Maspero, François 2(Paris: , vol. (Albany, NY: State University of New York Press, 2004). York New of Press, University NY: State (Albany, a Encyclopaedia Islamica Encyclopaedia Atropatenian Ecbatana Atropatenian of Site the on Memoir Encyclopeadia Iranica Encyclopeadia . Translated by D. S. Richards (Aldershot and Burlington, 2006), pp. 240, 307, 367; pp. 240, 2006), Burlington, and (Aldershot D. by Richards S. . Translated The Kurdish emirate of Bahdinan or emirate al-’Amadiya emirate or Bahdinan of emirate Kurdish The , “Notes of a Journey from Tibriz, through Persian Kurdistan, to the Ruins of of Ruins the to Kurdistan, Persian through Tibriz, from aJourney of , “Notes (Moscow: Nauka, 1972). Nauka, (Moscow: Taarikh al-’alamat , New edition (Leiden: E. J. Brill, 1954–2003), vol. 1, vol. pp. 512–513; 1954–2003), Brill, J. E. (Leiden: edition , New , vol. 33, p. 485. Available online, accessed 23 August 2011: August 23 accessed online, Available p. 33, 485. , vol. (Beirut: Dar al-Katib al-Lubnani, 1958), vol. 4, pp. 674–686, 1958), pp. 4, 674–686, vol. al-Lubnani, al-Katib Dar (Beirut: Michael Eppel Michael Abd al-Khan’s library is based exclusively on Chelebi’s Chelebi’s on exclusively based is library al-Khan’s Abd 46 , written in the nineteenth century by Emir Emir by century nineteenth the in , written Four Cen Four Longrigg, H. S. 1,, vol. pp. 96–97; ”, ”, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society Society Geographical Royal the of Journal p. 97. See also an account by a by account an , p. 97. also See , vol. I (London: James Duncan, Duncan, James I(London: , vol. , pp. 20, 47., pp. 20, ); and Amir Hassanpour, Hassanpour, Amir ); and , pp. 339–442; Hakan Hakan , pp. 339–442; , Kurdi Osmanskoy Osmanskoy , Kurdi , vol. 3, Book III III Book 3, , vol. - -

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15 16 14

(Chicago, IL: Academy Chicago Publishers, 2005). Publishers, Chicago Academy IL: (Chicago, Kurdistan of Tribes Christian the and Dr. Grant Neighbors Their and Nestorians The Joseph, 1851), John Murray, John also pp. 122–170. See (London: Nineveh at Desert the and Kurdistan, and Armenia in Layard Henry Austen Sir archaeologist The Missionary Herald, Reports from Northern Iraq Iraq 1833–1847 Northern from Reports Herald, Missionary The eds., Khoury, K. Yusuf and Salibi Christians. local and Kamal See missionaries of viewpoints the reflect that studies and sources primary of Th Russian). (In 1900) Region, Military Caucasus the of Command General the of Press (Tbilisi): (Tiflis Century) Nineteenth the in Turkey and Persia Wars with Russian the in Kurds (The letia o demise the of period the in Russia and Kurds the between relations the about source important An Fo University Press, 2006), pp. 62–74. 2006), Press, University Jwaideh, Jwaideh, Kurdi b voinakh Rossii c Persiei i Turkei w techeniye 19 sto wtecheniye iTurkei cPersiei Rossii bvoinakh P. is Kurdi Averianov, I. emirates Kurdish f the r a detailed discussion of the relations between Bedir Khan and the Nestorians, see Wadie Wadie see Nestorians, the and Khan Bedir between relations the of discussion r adetailed e missionary activity, the Nestorian sect, and the events set forth here are discussed in a series aseries in discussed are here forth set events the and sect, Nestorian the activity, e missionary Fever and Thirst: Thirst: and 1961); Taylor, Fever Gordon Press, and University Princeton NJ: (Princeton, (New York, NY: Syracuse York, NY: Syracuse (New Development and Origins Its Movement: National Kurdish . A more balanced account may be found in the books by the British traveler and and traveler British the by books the in found be may account balanced . Amore The Kurdish emirates Kurdish The ; and Sir Austen Henry Layard, Popular Account of Discoveries Layard, Henry Austen Sir ; and , Discoveries in the Ruins of Nineveh and Babylon: With Travels With Babylon: and Nineveh of Ruins the in , Discoveries 47 -