Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Unit 4 Volcano Hazards
In this unit, you will • Examine records of historical volcanoes. • Use the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) to categorize volcanoes. • Investigate the effects of major eruptions on climate. • Explore the effects of the most explosive volcanoes in history. Lyn Topinka,USGS
Mt. St. Helens viewed from the north, showing Spirit Lake and the new summit crater. The lateral blast from the May 18, 1980 eruption damaged or destroyed over four billion board feet of usable timber, enough to build 150,000 homes.
89 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
90 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Warm-up 4.1 The tragedy of Mont Pelée Location map After reading the account of the volcanic eruption that destroyed the town of St. Pierre on the island of Martinique in (pages – ), list and describe all of the volcano-related hazards discussed. Feel free to add other hazards from your previous knowledge or experience with volcanoes. Volcano hazards Atlantic Ocean .
Lesser Antilles (see inset) . Caribbean Sea
Pacifi c Ocean .
Atlantic Ocean .
Caribbean Sea Martinique .
.
.
.
Volcano hazard examples (optional) If you have access to a computer, you can see examples of these and other volcanic hazards. Be sure to add any new hazards you find to your list. Launch ArcMap, and locate and open the ddde_unit_.mxd file. Refer to the tear-out Quick Reference Sheet located in the Introduction to this module for GIS definitions and instructions on how to perform tasks.
The tragedy of Mont Pelée 91 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
In the Table of Contents, right-click the Geological Hazards data frame and choose Activate. Expand the Geological Hazards data frame. To see examples of other volcano hazards: Turn on the Hazard Links layer. Select the Hazard Links layer.
Using the Hyperlink tool , click on each of the brown volcano hazard symbols (brown volcanoes) on the map. Read the caption for each picture, then close its window. There may be more than one picture for each link.
Questions . In St. Pierre, which of the hazards you listed caused the greatest amount of damage and cost the most lives?
. Do you think anything could have been done to reduce the loss of life and property in St. Pierre? Explain.
. What warning signs did the people of St. Pierre have of the coming eruption? Why do you think so many people ignored the signs?
. Why do you think people build farms and cities so close to volcanoes?
. Would you rebuild the city of St. Pierre? Explain why or why not.
92 The tragedy of Mont Pelée Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Eyewitness accounts Th e Destruction of St. Pierre, 1902 Volcanoes in the Caribbean water vapor and other gases in the magma tend to Th e islands of the Lesser Antilles are the surface build pressure until it is released explosively. Th is expression of a volcanic arc above a subduction type of eruption forms steep-sided cones called zone. For the past 40 million years, the Atlantic stratovolcanoes that can reach thousands of plate has been slowly plunging beneath the meters in elevation. Mt. Rainier (outside Seattle), Caribbean plate, building this chain of tropical Mt. Fuji (in Japan), Popocatépetl (towering over islands. Mexico City), and Mt. Etna (on the island of Sicily) are all stratovolcanoes, and all are located above subduction zones. Florida Gulf of Atlantic Ocean Th e tropical islands of the West Indies are a series Mexico of stratovolcanoes that occasionally erupt with spectacular violence. Th e fi rst recorded eruption in the West Indies occurred about 1660 on the island of Montserrat. Since that time, dozens of eruptions have been observed and activity Caribbean Sea Lesser continues with regularity today. Th e deadliest Martinique Antilles eruption of the 20th century occurred in the West Indies on the island of Martinique. Mt. Pelée and the island of Martinique Th e rock and sediment of the ocean fl oor contain signifi cant amounts of water. As the Atlantic plate Th e island of Martinique sits at the midpoint of carries these rocks downward into the mantle, the Lesser Antilles island arc. For several hundred the increasing heat and pressure releases the years the island had been a stopping point for trapped water. At a depth of about 100 km (60 pirates and buccaneers, but by the start of the 20th mi), this combination of heat, pressure, and water century it was home to over 160,000 residents. Th e vapor cause the subducting plate to melt. Th e largest city, the port of St. Pierre, was a thriving molten rock — magma — is much lighter than community of over 25,000. Spread out along a the surrounding mantle, so it rises toward the gently curving beach at the foot of cone-shaped surface. Near the surface, the magma accumulates Mont Pelée, it billed itself as the “Paris of the in reservoirs known as magma chambers. West Indies.” Famous for its rum, St. Pierre had a Occasionally, the pressure in the chamber distillery fi lled with barrels of the potent spirit. increases, forcing magma to the surface in a Mont Pelée, rising several miles to the north of St. volcanic eruption. Pierre, was draped in a thick cover of jungle. At its Th e shape and explosive nature of these volcanoes summit, a bowl-shaped crater held a lake, Lac des is a direct result of the magma’s chemical content. Palmistes. Below the summit was a second crater, At subduction zones, minerals with relatively breached by a V-shaped canyon aimed like a rifl e low melting points such as silica (quartz) melt, sight at St. Pierre, 6 km (3.8 mi) away. Th ough it whereas minerals with higher melting points was well known that Mont Pelée was a volcano, remain solid. Magmas high in silica are very having produced minor eruptions in 1792 and viscous; that is, they do not fl ow easily. Rather, the 1851, the 1300-m (4265-ft ) peak was assumed by
The tragedy of Mont Pelée 93 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
most to be dormant and therefore harmless. In On May 5th the water in the crater lake was fact, it was considered by many to be the island’s heated to a boil and the crater rim failed. Th e benevolent “protector.” hot water rushed down the canyon towards St. Pierre, mixing with the recently fallen ash to Mt. Pelée awakens create a volcanic mudfl ow called a lahar. Th e lahar destroyed everything in its path, including the In late January 1902, Mont Pelée began to show premiere distillery where 23 workers were swept signs that it was awakening from its long slumber. away and killed. When the lahar reached the ocean Smoke and steam began to puff from the summit. it created a local tsunami that fl ooded low-lying For the people of St. Pierre, it was more a source of areas around the waterfront. wonder than alarm. Th is activity, called fumarole activity, gradually increased through the spring. Obviously, life in the shadow of Mont Pelée was Citizens occasionally noted the smell of sulfur, and becoming unbearable. People were trying to leave on many days the mountain’s summit was covered the island, but passage aboard ships was diffi cult with an ashen fog. to secure. Th e cathedral was crowded with people A. Lacroix waiting to make confessions. Seeking to comfort the populace, the governor sent a team to the summit to assess the danger. Only one scientist, the local high school science teacher, was in the group. Th e team delivered a positive report to the governor stating, “Th ere is nothing in the activity of Mt. Pelée that warrants a departure from St. Pierre,” and concluded that “the safety of St. Pierre is absolutely assured.” Unfortunately, the report was not accurate. On May 7th Pelée continued to be rocked with explosions, and people noted that two fi ery “eyes” A later cloud of hot gas and debris (nuée ardente) roars appeared near the summit. Above the summit down the side of Mont Pelée in June 1902, passing over hung a gray ash cloud fi lled with lightning. the already destroyed city of St. Pierre. Marino Leboff e, captain of the Italian merchant On April 23rd the townsfolk heard a loud ship Orsolina, knew what was coming. His home explosion, and the summit of Mont Pelée billowed port was Naples, which lies in the shadow of Mt. gray ash skyward in a minor eruption. Over the Vesuvius, a volcano that erupted with deadly next few days, there were numerous explosions force in A.D. 79, completely burying the cities of and tremors, and several times St. Pierre was Pompeii and Herculaneum. Leboff e ordered the dusted with fi ne volcanic ash. Conditions for the Orsolina to leave port only half loaded with cargo citizens of the town deteriorated; several times and noted, “I know nothing of Mont Pelée, but if clouds of sulfurous gases, smelling of rotten eggs, Vesuvius were looking the way your volcano looks permeated the city. Th e increasing activity of this day, I’d get out of Naples; and I’m going to get Mont Pelée caused the wildlife of the mountain out of here.” Th reatened with arrest for leaving to seek safer surroundings, while deadly snakes port without clearance papers, Leboff e replied, and swarms of insects invaded St. Pierre and “I’ll take my chance of arrest, but I won’t take any surrounding villages in search of food. Reports chances on that volcano.” from diaries and letters described how livestock screamed as red ants and foot-long centipedes bit them. Many livestock and an estimated 50 people, mostly children, died from snakebites.
94 The tragedy of Mont Pelée Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Th e eruption on May 8th Th ousands of barrels of rum exploded, sending Shortly before 8:00 a.m. on May 8th a series of fl aming rivers down the streets of the city and out violent explosions rocked Mont Pelée. Th us began to sea. a huge volcanic eruption, fi rst sending a plume Th e eruptions were immediately followed by of gases and ash skyward, followed by a lateral torrential rains. Th e runoff mixed with volcanic eruption that sent a deadly superheated cloud of ash to form lahars that swept down river valleys, gases through the V-notch directly towards St. fi lling them with debris and burying or sweeping Pierre. Th e eruption that went upward created houses off their foundations. Th e lahars fl owed a huge mushroom cloud that blocked out the into the sea so suddenly that they generated large early morning sun and was pierced by fl ashes of waves — tsunamis — that were observed around the lightning. People 30 km from the volcano were Caribbean. immersed in darkness, and could not see even an arm’s length away. Th is cloud reached an elevation When the eruption fi nally subsided, more than of nearly 9 km (30,000 ft ) in a matter of a few 29,000 people had been killed. Only two residents minutes. of St. Pierre were reported to have survived, making
William E. Scull this eruption the deadliest of the 20th century. Stories of survivors Th e force of the eruption was not limited to the city. In the harbor, the shock wave capsized steamships, and raining pyroclastic debris set ships afl ame. Chief Offi cer Ellery Scott of the Canadian steamship Roraima later told about his experience. Below is a translation of his account.
Chief Offi cer Ellery Scott According to Scott, “Th e ship arrived at St. Pierre at 6 a.m. on the 8th. At about 8 o’clock, loud An artist’s depiction of the May 8, 1902 eruption. rumbling noises were heard from the mountain Although spectacular, the vertical plume of ash overlooking the town, the eruption taking place was not the deadliest messenger from Mont Pelée. immediately, raining fi re and ashes; lava running Th e lateral eruption of superheated gases roared down the mountainside with a terrifi c roar, toward St. Pierre at over 160 km per hour (100 sweeping trees and everything in its course. I went mph). Th e shock wave fl attened brick buildings and at once to the forecastle-head to heave anchor. ripped branches from trees. “Rubble walls three Soon aft er reaching there, there came a terrible feet in thickness had been torn to pieces as if made downpour of fi re, like hot lead, falling over the of dominoes or kindergarten blocks.” Not a single ship and followed immediately by a terrifi c wave roof remained attached. It was reported that a 3- which struck the ship on the port side, keeling her ton cast-iron statue was thrown 15 m (50 ft ) from to starboard, fl ooding ship, fore and aft , sweeping its pedestal. Th e nuée ardente, or “fi ery cloud” of away both masts, funnel-backs and everything at superheated gases and debris, glowed red, searing once. everything in its path and igniting fi res throughout “I covered myself with a ventilator standing the city. At the distillery, rocks propelled by the nearby, from which I was pulled out by some of the cloud pierced centimeter-thick iron storage tanks stevedores, and dragged to the steerage apartment with holes as large as 30 cm (1 ft ) in diameter. forward, remaining there for some time, during
The tragedy of Mont Pelée 95 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
which several dead bodies fell over and covered Ciparis me. Shortly aft er, a downfall of red hot stones and Although only two people survived the eruption in mud, accompanied by total darkness, covered the St. Pierre, several people lived in the surrounding ship. As soon as the downfall subsided, I tried to communities and chronicled some remarkable assist those lying about the deck injured, some tales. Th e most amazing story was that of Louis fearfully burnt. Captain Muggah came to me, Auguste Sylbaris, also known as Ciparis. Ciparis scorched beyond recognition. He had ordered was a robust 25-year-old who had a passion for the only life boat left to be lowered; but it was too drinking and brawling. In early April, he was badly damaged. From that time, I saw nothing of arrested and jailed for wounding one of his friends the captain; but was told by a man that the captain with a sword during an argument. Jail time meant was seen by him to jump overboard. Th e man that Ciparis was required to labor in the service of followed him in the water, and succeeded in getting the city, and he soon tired of the regimented life. the captain on a raft fl oating nearby, where he died Near the end of April, he escaped and partied all shortly aft er.
A. Lacroix night with friends. In the morning he turned himself in to the authorities, who sentenced him to one week of solitary confi nement in the dungeon. Th e dungeon was next to a steep hillside, totally isolated from the outside world. On the morning of May 8, while Ciparis was waiting for his breakfast to be delivered, his cell became very dark. Gusts of hot air and steaming ash came through the cracks in his cell door. Th e heat became unbearable and he held his breath as long as he could. Finally, the heat began to subside and he slumped to the fl oor. He was horribly The ruined city of St. Pierre, as it appeared on burned, but had some water in the cell to drink. February 19, 1903. Ciparis managed to survive for four days before “I gave all help possible to passengers and others being rescued. An American journalist interviewed lying about the deck in dying condition, most of him shortly aft er his rescue and stated, “He had whom complained of burning in the stomach. I been more frightfully burned, I think, than any picked up one little girl lying in the passageway man I had ever seen.” Ciparis eventually recovered, dying, covered her over with a cloth, and took her and was pardoned for his crimes on the basis of the to a bench nearby, where I believe she died. About miracle of his survival. Later, he joined the Barnum 3 p.m. a French man-of-war’s boat, the Suchet, and Bailey Circus, and he was billed as the “Lone came alongside and passed over the side about Survivor of St. Pierre.” twenty persons, mostly injured, and myself and other survivors were taken to Fort de France. I Aft ermath of the eruption aft erwards saw the Roddam steaming out to sea, News of the deadly eruption was telegraphed to with her stern part on fi re. Th e Roraima caught fi re the world, and soon aid and supplies were rushed and was burning when I left her in the aft ernoon, to Martinique. Along with this aid came scientists the town and all shipping destroyed.” to study the volcano including Alfred Lacroix, Overall, 48 of the 68 crew members and oft en called the “father of modern volcanology.” It passengers died in the horrible ordeal, while on was Lacroix who coined the phrase nuée ardente, other ships the casualty rate was even higher. which he described as a “lateral blast propelled down-slope by gravity.”
96 The tragedy of Mont Pelée Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
On May 20th, 1902 Mont Pelée exploded again Source — Morris, C. (1902). The volcano’s deadly work: with a giant eruption, probably larger than that of From the fall of Pompeii to the destruction of St. Pierre. May 8th. No one died in this event, mostly because (Washington, DC: W. E. Scull) there was no one left . Th roughout the summer For a detailed account of the events surrounding the 1902 and fall there were many small eruptions, and on eruption, see The Day the World Ended by Gordon Thomas August 3rd another nuée ardente destroyed the and Max Morgan Witts. (New York: Stein and Day, 1969.) village of Morne Rouge southeast of St. Pierre, killing 1000 to 2000 people. In October 1902 a lava dome began to rise out of the crater fl oor. Th is dome formed an imposing obelisk that has been described as the most impressive lava dome ever produced; it was 100 – 150 m (325 – 500 ft ) thick at its base and soared to 358 m (1175 ft ) above the crater rim. At times it rose at the remarkable rate of 15 m per day! Th is obelisk, nicknamed “the tower of Pelée,” glowed an incandescent red at night until it fi nally became unstable and collapsed into a pile of rubble in March of 1903. A. Lacroix
View of the obelisk, or spire, rising 358 meters above the crater rim.
The tragedy of Mont Pelée 97 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
98 The tragedy of Mont Pelée Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Investigation 4.2 Deadly volcanoes Volcanoes have the potential for affecting much larger areas and numbers of people than earthquakes. Mudflows generated by an eruption can travel hundreds of kilometers, and ash can be carried by atmospheric currents all the way around the world. In this activity, you will investigate different types of volcanic hazards and their effects on people and the landscape. Launch ArcMap, and locate and open the ddde_unit_.mxd file. Refer to the tear-out Quick Reference Sheet located in the Introduction to this module for GIS definitions and instructions on how to perform tasks. In the Table of Contents, right-click the Volcano Hazards data frame and choose Activate. Expand the Volcano Hazards data frame.
Historical volcanoes The Volcanoes layer shows the locations of all volcanoes that are known to have been active in the past , years. The Volcanic Eruptions layer contains information about known volcanic eruptions since , B.C. These data are primarily gathered through written historical accounts as well as field investigations by geoscientists. The data are reliable for those regions where written history was preserved and sparse where oral history was the tradition. Use the Zoom In tool and the Pan tool to closely examine the relationship between volcanoes and plate boundaries. . With which type of plate boundary are the volcanoes most strongly associated?
Click the Full extent button to view the entire map. Turn off the Volcanoes and Plate Boundaries layers. Select the Volcanic Eruptions layer.
Click the Open Attribute Table button . Read the total number of volcanic eruptions at the bottom of the table (your answer will be different than the example shown below). read total here
Deadly volcanoes 99 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
. How many volcanic eruptions have been recorded since , B.C.?
Close the attribute table.
Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) No single feature describes the size of a volcanic eruption. To compare the energy of eruptions, volcanologists developed a magnitude scale called the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI). The calculation factors in the height of the eruption plume, the distance ejected materials traveled, the duration of the blast, and the volume of material erupted. A VEI difference of represents a difference in energy of approximately times. For historical eruptions, VEIs range from – , with being the most explosive.
Volume Tephra — the solid material that of Tephra 3 is ejected into the air during a (m ) 10 11 12 volcanic eruption. <104 104 106 107 108 109 10 10 10 10s 100s 100s 1000s 10,000s How often? daily daily weekly yearly of years of years of years of years of years
Which one’s the biggest? VEI 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Hawaiian Vulcanian Plinian The only eruption in recent history Eruption Type Strombolian with a VEI of 7 was the April 18, (VEI Range) > 10 km 1815 eruption of Mt. Tambora in Indonesia. To see a table of other historic eruptions and their intensities, click the Media Viewer Plume 2 – 10 km button and choose VEI Index Height 500 m – 2 km Table. < 500 m
Hawaiian Strombolian Vulcanian Plinian
Now you will examine the largest historical eruptions.
Click the Select By Attributes button . To display volcanic eruptions with a VEI or greater, query the Volcanic Eruptions layer for (“VEI” > 4) as shown in steps 1 – 6 on the following page:
100 Deadly volcanoes Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
1) Select 2) Double-click 3) Single-click 4) Update Values and Layer Field Operators Double-click Value
Read query statement here as you enter it. QuickLoad Query • Click the QuickLoad Query button and select VEI Query. • Click OK. • Click New.
5) Choose Display Mode 6) Click New If you have difficulty entering the query statement correctly, refer to the QuickLoad Query described at left. Close the Select By Attributes window. The volcanic eruptions with a VEI or greater should now be highlighted on your map.
Click the Open Attribute Table button . Read the number of major eruptions at the bottom of the table (your answer will be different than the example shown below). read number here
. How many major eruptions (VEI or greater) have there been since , B.C.?
. What percentage of the total eruptions were major ones (VEI or To calculate a percentage greater)? Report your answer to the nearest tenth of a percent (see Divide the number selected by example at left). the total number and multiply by 100. For example, if 145 of 1300 eruptions were VEI 5 or greater, the percentage of eruptions of VEI 5 or greater would be . If an average of volcanic eruptions occur each decade, how % = (145÷1300) x 100 many eruptions would have a VEI greater than in that same = 0.112 x 100 period? = 11.2
Click the Clear Selected Features button .
Deadly volcanoes 101 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Close the attribute table.
Historical records: a window to the future? Scientists routinely use records of the past to make educated guesses about events in the future. . What factors might affect the reliability of historical data and our estimation of future hazards? Explain.
Historical data are often used to calculate recurrence intervals of major Recurrence interval —how geologic hazards in a region. These are then used to estimate future often an event happens, or the levels of hazards. Recurrence can be calculated by dividing the number number of years between similar of years over which an event is repeated by the number of times the events. Calculate this by dividing event occurred. the total number of years by the number of events that occurred in Next you will examine the recurrence interval of Mt. St. Helens that amount of time. eruptions with VEI ratings of or greater.
Click the Select By Attributes button . To determine the recurrence interval of VEI eruptions or greater of Mt. St. Helens, query the Volcanic Eruptions layer using the following query statement: (“VEI” >= ) AND (“NAME” = ‘St. Helens’) Click New. If you have difficulty entering the query statement correctly, refer QuickLoad Query to the QuickLoad Query described at left. • Click the QuickLoad Query button and select Mt. St. Close the Select By Attributes window. Helens Query. Click the Open Attribute Table button . • Click OK. • Click New. The number of eruptions found by your query is shown at the bottom of the table (your answer will be different than the example shown below). read number here
102 Deadly volcanoes Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Click the Selected button at the bottom of the table to view only the highlighted records. Use the table to answer the following questions. . How many times has Mt. St. Helens erupted with a VEI of or greater? Over what time interval did those eruptions occur? (Hint: The database lists eruptions through the year .)
. What is the recurrence interval for eruptions of VEI greater than or equal to by Mt. St. Helens? How would you use this information in managing the future development and use of the area surrounding the volcano?
Close the attribute table.
Click the Clear Selected Features button .
Range of volcanic hazards On May , Mt. St. Helens erupted with a blast of VEI = that deposited a blanket of ash over areas as far away as km ( mi). Lahars flowed down river valleys as far as km ( mi). Spokane, Washington was significantly affected by the event. What would be the Finding Seattle impact of a similar eruption at Mt. Rainier near Seattle, Washington? Seattle, Washington is located To figure this out: near Puget Sound, on the U.S. west coast. Turn off the Volcanic Eruptions layer and turn on the Volcanoes layer. Turn on the Cities layer. Select the Cities layer. Use the Zoom In tool to zoom in on the Seattle area. (See locator map, left.) The black circle shows the area within a radius of km of Mt. Rainier.
Using the Select Elements tool , click on the circle to select it. Small black “handles” or a dashed line will appear around the Seattle circle when it is selected. Area Click the Select by Graphics button to select the cities within km of Mt. Rainier. They will be highlighted.
Click the Statistics button .
Deadly volcanoes 103 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
In the Statistics window, calculate statistics for only selected features of the Cities layer, using the Total Population field.
Click OK. Be patient while the statistics are calculated. The number of people affected by an eruption of Mt. Rainier is given as the Total. . How many people living within km of Mt. Rainier would be significantly affected if it erupted like Mt. St. Helens?
Close the Statistics window.
Click the Clear Selected Features button . In Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines erupted, causing widespread damage. The eruption was similar to the Mt. St. Helens eruption of , only larger. With a VEI of , this larger blast affected an area around the volcano within a radius of about km. Finding Mt. Pinatubo Click the Full extent button to view the entire map. Mt. Pinatubo is located on the Use the locator map at the left to zoom in on Mt. Pinatubo in island of Luzon in the Philippines. the Philippines. Repeat the Select by Graphics and Statistics procedures above to determine how many people would be affected by another eruption of Mt. Pinatubo. . How many people would be significantly affected by another eruption of Mt. Pinatubo?
Close the Statistics window.
Click the Clear Selected Features button . Quit ArcMap and do not save changes.
104 Deadly volcanoes Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Reading 4.3 Volcanic hazards Volcanoes are capable of affecting much larger P.Michael USGS/CVO Doukas, areas and numbers of people than are earthquakes. Fortunately, they often provide warning signs of upcoming eruptions, allowing people to evacuate to safety. Still, there have been volcanic eruptions in the past years in which or more people were killed. Volcanic hazards fall into two categories.
• Direct effects — eruption clouds, shock waves from the eruption blast, lava and pyroclastic flows, and volcanic gases.
• Indirect effects — lahars (mud flows of volcanic ash), flooding, tsunamis, and post-eruption starvation. Eruption clouds Explosive eruptions blast rock fragments, or tephra, and superheated gases into the air with tremendous force. The distance these fragments travel depends on their size — smaller particles go farther than larger fragments. Volcanic bombs, the largest Ash column of the July 22, 1980 eruption of Mt. St. Helens. fragments, generally land within km of the vent. Particles less than mm (. in) across, called huge, billowing eruption cloud or column. volcanic ash, can rise high into the air forming a Eruption columns grow rapidly and can reach
E. Endo, USGS heights of more than km ( mi) in less than minutes. Large eruption clouds extend hundreds of miles downwind, resulting in ashfall over broad areas. Ash from the eruption of Mt. St. Helens covered more than , km (, mi). Heavy ashfall can damage or collapse buildings. Even minor ashfalls can damage crops, electronics, and machinery. Volcanic ash clouds also pose a serious hazard to air travel. Each year, thousands of aircraft fly routes over volcanically active areas. During the past years, about commercial jets have been A heavy load of ash from the September 1994 eruption of damaged by accidentally flying into ash clouds. the Rabaul Caldera in the Philippines damaged the roof Several have nearly crashed when ash clogged of this house. Dry ash weighs 400 – 700 kg/m3 (880 – 1545 lb/yd3). If ash becomes saturated with rainwater, its weight the engines and caused them to fail. The drifting can double. In addition to the collapse risk, people trying cloud can carry the hazard far from its source. In to remove the ash face health and safety hazards. , Chicago’s O’Hare airport was forced to close
Volcanic hazards 105 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
for several hours due to a drifting ash cloud from McGee, USGS K. Alaska’s Mt. Spurr volcano, which is nearly km ( mi) from Chicago! Volcanic gases At depth and under high pressure, magma can hold large amounts of dissolved gases. As the magma rises toward the surface and the pressure decreases, the gases bubble out and escape. This is similar to what happens when you open a can of soda. Trees killed by CO near Mammoth Mountain, California. Near the surface, the magma interacts with the 2 surrounding rocks and ground- or surface water Carbon dioxide to generate more gases. These gases may be Carbon dioxide is denser than air, causing it to released suddenly in explosions or seep slowly to accumulate in low areas. High concentrations the surface through cracks in the overlying rock. of CO (above %) are poisonous, but even The behavior of magma is related to the amount lower concentrations can be deadly because CO of silica and water it contains. Magmas with a high displaces oxygen required for respiration. silica content are generally more explosive. At California’s Mammoth Mountain, the
Location Source % Silica Explosivity accumulation of CO in the soil and in low areas is hot spots lower mantle 50% low killing trees and small animals and poses a threat divergent upper mantle 50% low to humans unaware of the danger. boundaries Lake Nyos, in Cameroon, west-central Africa, convergent upper mantle 60-70% medium to sits in a large volcanic caldera. A caldera is a boundaries and crust high large depression at the summit of a volcano; The table below shows magma temperatures and formed when magma erupts or withdraws from volcanic gas compositions (by percent) from three a subsurface reservoir, causing the overlying rock types of volcanic sources. to collapse. Groundwater carries large amounts of dissolved CO from the underlying magma Gas Kilauea Erta’Ale Momotombo hot spot divergent plate convergent plate into the bottom of the lake. Over time, the water
1170 °C 1130 °C 820 °C becomes over-saturated with CO. If a disturbance J. Lockwood, USGS
Water vapor (H2O) 37.1 77.2 97.1
Carbon dioxide (CO2) 48.9 11.3 1.44
Sulfur dioxide (SO2) 11.8 8.34 0.50
Hydrogen (H2) 0.49 1.39 0.70 Carbon monoxide (CO) 1.51 0.44 0.01
Hydrogen sulfi de (H2S) 0.04 0.68 0.23 Hydrogen chloride (HCl) 0.08 0.42 2.89 Hydrogen fl uoride (HF) - - 0.26 As you can see, much of the gas released by volcanoes is water vapor. Some water is dissolved in the magma itself, but most water vapor is produced when the magma comes in contact with Lake Nyos in western Cameroon, ten days after releasing a groundwater. cloud of carbon dioxide gas that killed 1700 people in the valley below, at distances up to 25 km from the lake.
106 Volcanic hazards Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
causes some of this water to rise, the decreased C. G. Newhall, USGS
pressure allows bubbles of CO to form. The rising bubbles further disturb the water, triggering a chain reaction, resulting in a sudden, massive
release of CO.
In a tremendous amount of CO suddenly escaped from the depths of the lake, formed a cloud, and flowed down a valley toward a nearby village. Before the dense gas dissipated, it had killed more than people as well as livestock up to km ( mi) from the lake. This is not a unique event — similar cases have occurred Pyroclastic flows descend the southeastern flank of Mayon elsewhere and will continue to occur. Volcano, Philippines on September 23, 1984. Lava flows and domes Air pollution — vog and laze Constant eruptions, like those that occur at When magma emerges at the surface, it is called Hawaii’s Kilauea volcano, can be significant lava. Lava flows bury land and structures, start sources of local air pollution. Under the right fires, and may block roads or streams. It also creates new land. conditions, erupting sulfur dioxide (SO) gas combines with water vapor to form tiny sulfuric How easily lava flows depends largely on its silica acid droplets. These interact with other volcanic (silicon dioxide, SiO) content. Low-silica basaltic gases, dust, and sunlight to produce volcanic lava can form fast-moving ( – km/hr, – smog, or vog. Vog reduces visibility, causes health mph) streams or spread out in thin sheets many problems, damages crops, and corrodes metals. kilometers wide. Basalt is a dark grey or black When molten lava comes in contact with seawater, rock formed during magmatic or volcanic activity. the intense heat produces clouds of lava haze, or Since , basaltic lava flows from Hawaii’s laze, which is more complex than simple clouds Kilauea Volcano have destroyed more than of steam. Heat breaks down the salt to form buildings and cut off a nearby highway. hydrochloric acid (HCl). The resulting cloud has In contrast, flows of higher-silica lava tend to be a pH of . – . and can create significant health thick and sluggish, traveling only short distances problems for downwind populations. from the vent. These thicker lavas often squeeze out of a vent to form irregular mounds called lava domes. Between and , a lava dome at Mt.
Pyroclastic flows T. N. Mattox, USGS
Pyroclastic flows — sometimes called nuées ardentes (French for “fiery clouds”) — are hot, often glowing mixtures of volcanic fragments and gases that flow down the slopes of volcanoes. These flows can reach temperatures of °C ( °F) and move at speeds up to km/hr ( mph), flattening and burning everything in their path. The eruption of Mt. St. Helens on May , produced a sideways “lateral blast” that destroyed an area of sq km ( sq mi). Trees were mowed down like blades of grass as far as km Lava from a 1993 eruption of Kilauea reacts with seawater ( mi) from the volcano. to produce plumes of highly acidic laze (lava haze).
Volcanic hazards 107 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards Inset photo byInset S. R. Brantley, USGS USGS
Lava flowing from Kilauea toward the sea blocks Hawaii’s Highway 130. St. Helens grew to a height of about meters ( feet). Lava domes seldom pose risks to humans. Landslides Ancient landslide from Mt. Shasta, California, shown Volcanic landslides range from small surface in red, was 20 times the size of the 1980 Mt. St. Helens movements of loose debris to collapses of the landslide. entire summit or sides of a volcano. These about , years ago when nearly the entire landslides are triggered when eruptions, heavy volcano collapsed. Debris traveled almost rainfall, or large earthquakes cause material to km ( mi) from the volcano in an enormous break free and move downhill. landslide nearly times larger than the Mt. St. Landslides are particularly common on Helens landslide. stratovolcanoes, which are steep volcanoes often built up of layers of loose volcanic rock fragments. Heavy precipitation or groundwater can turn Lahars volcanic rocks into soft, slippery clay minerals, Lahar is an Indonesian term for a mixture of water reducing the energy needed to trigger a slide. and rock fragments flowing down a volcano or The largest volcanic landslide in historical time river valley. These flows can rush down valleys and occurred at the start of the May , Mt. St. stream channels at speeds of – km per hour Helens eruption. Over . km (. mi) of the ( – mph) and can travel more than km ( mountain were transported as far as km ( mi) mi). As lahars pick up debris and water, they can downhill at speeds over km/hr ( mph). easily grow to more than times their initial size. The slide left behind a hummocky (lumpy) Some lahars contain so much rock debris ( – deposit with an average thickness of m ( percent by weight) that they look like fast-moving ft). For years, geologists were puzzled by a similar rivers of wet concrete. Close to their source, these strange, hummocky landscape north of Mt. Shasta flows are powerful enough to rip up and carry trees, in northern California (shown above right). houses, and huge boulders miles downstream. As slopes level out and the flows lose energy, they After witnessing the eruption of Mt. St. Helens, entomb everything in their path in mud. with its tremendous landslide and the hummocky terrain it left behind, they could then make sense Historically, lahars have been one of the deadliest of Mt. Shasta. A massive landslide occurred there volcanic hazards. In , Colombia’s Nevado
108 Volcanic hazards Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards R. J. Janda, USGS P. T. Pringle, Washington Resources Division of Geology and Earth
Aerial view of the Armero, Colombia devastation. The pattern of the city streets and buildings is still visible Volcanic soils are rich in minerals and have high water- through the debris. The river valley from which the lahar holding capacities. In the state of Washington, volcanic emerged can be seen in the background. soils around the Cascade mountains, such as Mt. Rainier, del Ruiz volcano produced a relatively modest, provide rich cropland. VEI eruption. The pyroclastic flow melted sound information to decision makers and the about . km ( mi) of snow and glacial ice on public. the mountain. Meltwater mixed with volcanic ash rushed down river valleys at speeds up to km/hr ( mph), stripping away rocks, soil, and Climate change vegetation. Major eruptions like the June , eruption Two hours later, a -m (-ft) wall of hot mud of Mt. Pinatubo inject huge amounts of sulfur dioxide gas (SO ) into the stratosphere. There, and debris slammed into the town of Armero, SO combines with water to form tiny droplets of Colombia, km ( mi) from the volcano, sulfuric acid (H SO ) as in the diagram (below). killing nearly , people and destroying homes. Surprisingly, Armero had previously been These droplets, called aerosols, scatter sunlight, devastated by lahars in and again in , lowering Earth’s average surface temperature for only to be rebuilt on the same spot. long periods of time. The satellite images on the following page show the spread of aerosols from the Pinatubo eruption. Volcanic resources For two years after the Pinatubo eruption, global These short-term hazards of volcanoes are temperatures were about . °C (. °F) lower than
balanced by many long-term benefits to humanity. Report: Based on illustration from R. Turco in AGU Special In many places, fertile volcanic soils make it profitable to live near volcanoes. Volcanic Volcanism and Climate Change materials are used in construction and other industries. Heat energy from young volcanic systems may be harnessed to produce electricity. Most volcanoes are located near oceans, and
many are found in mild climates. Because these , May 1992. volcanoes can lie dormant for long periods of time, people often consider them harmless. The challenge to volcanologists is to minimize the risks associated with volcanic hazards, so that Large eruptions pump fine ash and gases into the stratosphere. There, chemical reactions produce sulfuric society may continue to enjoy volcanism’s long- acid (H2SO4) and other chemicals that increase Earth’s term benefits. They must continually improve albedo, or reflectivity. Less sunlight reaches the ground, their ability to predict eruptions and provide causing Earth’s surface to get cooler.
Volcanic hazards 109 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards NOAA
May 1991 September 1991
July 1991 January 1994 These images show how the transparency of the atmosphere changed following the eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in June 1991. The dark blue colors of the May 1991 image indicate a clear atmosphere. After the eruption, the red band around the equator (visible in the July and September 1991 images) indicates a murky atmosphere that gradually thins as it spreads to higher latitudes (January 1994). normal. Sulfuric acid also contributes to the destruction of the ozone layer. These aerosols may persist for months or years, until they eventually settle out of the atmosphere or are “scrubbed” out by precipitation or other processes. Historically, periods of rapid global cooling have occurred after the largest eruptions.
110 Volcanic hazards Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Questions . Why do volcanoes at hot spots erupt less violently than volcanoes near subduction zones?
. What is tephra, and how does it cause damage?
. Why is carbon dioxide gas (CO) a dangerous eruptive product?
. In , a relatively mild, VEI = eruption of Colombia’s Nevado del Ruiz volcano destroyed the town of Armero, nearly km ( mi) away. What eruptive product or process destroyed the town, and what warnings did the inhabitants have that this type of event was possible?
. Describe three ways in which volcanoes benefit humans.
Volcanic hazards 111 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
. How does sulfur dioxide gas (SO) from major volcanic eruptions cause global cooling of Earth’s climate?
. How long does the cooling effect from SO typically last?
112 Volcanic hazards Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Investigation 4.4 Volcanoes and climate In this part of your investigation of volcanoes, you will look at some of the major eruptions occurring since A.D. and explore the relationship between these eruptions and changes in Earth’s climate. Launch ArcMap, and locate and open the ddde_unit_.mxd file. Refer to the tear-out Quick Reference Sheet located in the Introduction to this module for GIS definitions and instructions on how to perform tasks. In the Table of Contents, right-click the Volcano Hazards data frame and choose Activate. Expand the Volcano Hazards data frame. Turn off all layers except Topography and Countries.
Major Eruptions and the Volcano Explosivity Index (VEI) How often do major volcanic eruptions occur? You will look at the historical record over the last several hundred years to answer this question.
Turn on and select the Major Eruptions ( – AD) layer.
Select the Major Eruptions ( – AD) layer. This layer shows the largest volcanic eruptions occurring since A.D. . To determine the number of major eruptions of VEI category :
Click the Select By Attributes button . To determine the number of VEI eruptions, query the Major Eruptions ( – AD) layer for (“VEI” = 5) as shown in steps 1 – 6 on the following page. Your query will actually read: (“MAJVEI” = 5)
Volcanoes and climate 113 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
1) Select 2) Double-click 3) Single-click 4) Update Values and Layer Field Operators Double-click Value
Read query statement here as you enter it. QuickLoad Query • Click the QuickLoad Query button and select the Major Eruptions VEI = 5 query. • Click OK. • Click New. 5) Choose Display Mode 6) Click New If you have difficulty entering the query statement correctly, refer to the QuickLoad Query described at left. Close the Select By Attributes window.
Click the Open Attribute Table button . Read the number of major eruptions at the bottom of the table (Your answer will be different than the example shown below.) read number here
. Record the number of eruptions with a VEI of in the table below.
VEI Value 5 6 7 Number of eruptions of this VEI Number of years covered in data set Recurrence interval (average years between eruptions) QuickLoad Queries To select VEI 6 eruptions: Close the attribute table. • Click the QuickLoad Query Repeat the query process above for VEI = and VEI = , and button and select the Major record the number of eruptions of each magnitude in the table. Eruptions VEI = 6 query. If you have difficulty entering any of the query statements • Select the Highlight option. correctly, refer to the QuickLoad Queries described at left. • Click New. Close the Select By Attributes window when you are finished.
To select VEI 7 eruptions: Click the Open Attribute Table button . • Click the QuickLoad Query Read the number of major eruptions for each query at the bottom button and select the Major of the table. Eruptions VEI = 7 query. • Select the Highlight option. . Record the number of VEI and VEI eruptions in the table. • Click New.
114 Volcanoes and climate Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Close the attribute table.
Click the Clear Selected Features button . Next you will determine how many years the data set covers.
Click the Open Attribute Table button . Examine the years listed for each major eruption in the Year column of the attribute table. They are in chronological order, starting with the oldest eruption at the top of the table.
How many years? . How many years are covered by the Major Eruption data set? Record this number in the table on the previous page. (The To find the number of years covered, subtract the year of the number is the same for all three columns in your table.) most ancient eruption from the year of the most recent eruption The recurrence interval for eruptions of a particular VEI is the average in the data set. number of years between eruptions of that magnitude. . Calculate the VEI recurrence interval by dividing the number of years by the number of eruptions in that VEI category. Record the recurrence intervals in the table.
. What problem might there be with the recurrence interval you calculated for the largest VEI categories? Does it represent a full recurrence interval?
. As the VEI increases, what happens to the number of eruptions and the recurrence interval?
Close the attribute table. Major eruptions and Northern Hemisphere climate In this section, you will look at a graph recently published in the science journal Nature that shows changes in atmospheric temperature in the Northern Hemisphere over the last years. Scientists cannot measure past temperatures directly, but they can infer temperatures indirectly by measuring the spacing of growth rings in trees. Closely spaced rings indicate poor growing conditions such as cold weather or low rainfall, and widely spaced rings indicate warmer temperatures and more rainfall.
Volcanoes and climate 115 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Tree rings record climate The scientists were looking for large anomalies, or irregularities, in the Trees grow by adding new layers data, which reflect years when the temperature was much lower than of woody cells just beneath the normal. You will examine the graph to identify these major atmospheric bark. Each spring in temperate cooling events, then use ArcMap to determine which volcanic eruption latitudes, as temperatures warm triggered each event. up, trees begin to grow more rapidly. The cells are larger and Click the Media Viewer button and choose Volcanoes and this new wood appears lighter Climate from the list. in color. As temperatures drop in the fall and growth slows, the The graph shows how the average temperature varied from normal cells become smaller and the over a -year period. The bottom portion of the graph shows the wood appears darker. This pattern repeats itself yearly. By counting VEI intensity of volcanic eruptions over the same time period. Six the number of these cycles, or temperature anomalies — major atmospheric cooling events — are rings, you can determine the age marked with yellow dots. They are the same as those in the following of the tree. table. (Note: If needed, use the Zoom In tool to examine the graph in The width of each ring is more detail.) determined by rainfall and other factors. The pattern of ring . For each event, read the temperature anomaly on the right-hand widths provides a record of the axis of the graph and record it in the table below. climate during the life of the tree. Matching these patterns between Year of Temperature Name of Year of VEI of living and dead trees allows anomaly anomaly (°C) volcano eruption eruption scientists to reconstruct long histories of climate for a region. 1453 1601 1816-1818 1884 1912 1992 Close the Media Viewer window.
Click the Open Attribute Table button . Scroll down the table and look for volcanoes with high VEI values (VEI > ) that erupted in the same year as (or the year before) each temperature anomaly you recorded.
. Use the Major Eruptions ( – AD) attribute table to complete the table. Fill in the name, date of eruption, and VEI for each eruption. . How well do the years of the temperature anomalies match the dates of the corresponding eruptions? What might account for differences between the two dates?
116 Volcanoes and climate Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
. According to the graph, how is the VEI of an eruption related to the degree of atmospheric cooling following the event, as indicated by the temperature anomaly? Give examples to support your answer.
Close the attribute table.
The big ones — prehistoric VEI 7 & 8 erup- tions You’ve seen that the Tambora eruption was a big one. The only VEI eruption of the last years, Tambora cooled the Northern Hemisphere by an average of . °C for several years. In fact, has been called “the year without a summer.” The Northeastern U.S. was hit particularly hard, with snow in June and killing frosts from June through September. Beginning in , large numbers of people started leaving northern New England for warmer climates. The most recent powerful eruption was the VEI eruption of Mt. Pinatubo in the Philippines in . The eruption produced a global cooling of around . °C. In terms of total material ejected, Tambora was nearly times greater than Pinatubo and about times greater than the Mt. St. Helens eruption.
Turn off the Major Eruptions ( – AD) layer. Turn on the Ashfall Events layer. Select the Ashfall Events layer. Turn on the Ashfall Sources layer. In the not so distant past, geologically speaking, there have been tremendous VEI eruptions that dwarf those of Tambora and Pinatubo. What exactly is the difference between an eruption with a VEI of and one with a VEI of ? In this next section you will compare some of the larger eruptions in human history with some of the biggest eruptions in geologic history by comparing the areas and volumes of their ashfall deposits. The Ashfall Events layer shows the distribution of ash from several historic and prehistoric volcanic eruptions. Notice how the ash plumes overlap, particularly in what is now the United States.
Click the QuickLoad button .
Volcanoes and climate 117 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Select Spatial Bookmarks, choose Eastern Hemisphere Plumes from the list, and click OK.
Eastern Hemisphere The volcanoes that produced the plumes are labeled by name in the ashfall deposits figure at left. To select the ashfall plumes for Vesuvius and Pinatubo, you will probably have to zoom in even closer.
Click the Open Attribute Table button . . Find the VEI of each eruption and the area of the plume it produced, and record them in the table below. Close the attribute table.
Using the Measure tool , click on the source (the purple Pinatubo triangle), drag across to the farthest extent of each plume, and double-click to find the distance. The distance in kilometers is Vesuvius displayed in the lower-left corner of the map. Toba . Record the distance in the table below. (Round it to the nearest Tambora km.)
Volcano Eruption Area of Maximum distance name VEI ashfall plume from volcano km2 km data source: attribute attribute table measure table Vesuvius Pinatubo Tambora Toba Now, consider the Indonesian volcano Toba, which erupted about , years ago. Toba deposited ash over an estimated percent of Earth’s surface, left telltale chemical traces in the ice caps of Greenland and Antarctica, and produced a prolonged period of cold and darkness that severely stressed humankind’s ancestors. Genetic evidence suggests that the human population may have declined significantly due to Toba’s effects, and that our species survived only by finding refuge in isolated pockets of tropical warmth. Scientists estimate that the Toba eruption caused global cooling of – °C ( – °F) for a period of up to seven years, with summertime temperatures in some areas dropping by as much as °C ( °F).
118 Volcanoes and climate Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
. Consider the effects that the . °C cooling from the Tambora eruption had on society. How might an eruption similar in
Caldera — a volcanic crater many magnitude to Toba affect society today? times broader than a vent; formed by the collapse of the central part of a volcano.
Crater — circular depression (smaller than a caldera) created by an explosive excavation of rock during eruptions. On a human time scale, VEI eruptions are rare, occurring once or twice every , years. Geologically speaking, however, VEI eruptions are relatively common. Next, you will look at three of the biggest eruptions to occur in the United States over the past million Yellowstone Caldera years, the Yellowstone Caldera eruptions. ashfall deposits The Yellowstone Caldera eruptions Occupying the northwest corner of Wyoming is a spectacular area of geysers, hot springs, and abundant wildlife. This region was so unusual and notable for its geological and biological wonders that it was protected back in as the United States’ first national park. Called Yellowstone, the park today is considered one of the three “crown jewels” of the National Park System, and receives about million visitors per Yellowstone year. Many visitors are unaware that Yellowstone is a giant collapsed volcano, or caldera, that produced three gargantuan eruptions within the past million years. Next, you will take a closer look at this slumbering volcanic giant. Click the Full extent button to view the entire map. Use the Zoom In tool to zoom in on the continental United States. You should be able to see several overlapping ashfall plumes across the middle and southwestern parts of the U.S. Three of these plumes were produced by volcanic activity at Yellowstone; the fourth plume was created by another massive eruption from the Long Valley Caldera in California. To highlight the Yellowstone ashfall plumes:
Click the Select By Attributes button . Click the QuickLoad Query button inside the Select By Attributes window. Select the Yellowstone Caldera Deposits query and click OK. Click New. Close the Select By Attributes window.
Volcanoes and climate 119 Data Detectives: Dynamic Earth Unit 4 – Volcano Hazards
Now the Yellowstone ashfall plumes should be outlined on your map. Next you will use the Ashfall Events attribute table to obtain information about each eruption.
Click the Open Attribute Table button . . Complete the following table with information about the three Yellowstone ashfall deposits. List them in order from oldest to youngest.
Name of deposit Age Area of deposit years before present km2
. Estimate the area in square kilometers that the ashfall from the next Yellowstone Caldera eruption might cover. You can do this by calculating the average area of the three historical ashfall deposits.
Close the attribute table when you are finished. Finally, calculate the recurrence interval. You can use the recurrence interval to predict when the next major eruption from the Yellowstone Caldera might occur. • Subtract the youngest (most recent) age from the oldest age in the table above. • Divide by the number of times the original eruption was repeated; in this case, divide by . . What is the recurrence interval for the Yellowstone Caldera?
. Use the most recent eruption and the recurrence interval to estimate when the next eruption might take place.
Quit ArcMap and do not save changes.
120 Volcanoes and climate