University of Pennsylvania ScholarlyCommons

Culture and Community Revitalization: A SIAP/ Reinvestment Fund Collaboration—2007-2009 Impact of the Arts Project

1-2008

From Creative to Creative

Mark J. Stern University of Pennsylvania, [email protected]

Susan C. Seifert University of Pennsylvania, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: https://repository.upenn.edu/siap_revitalization

Part of the Civic and Community Engagement Commons, Commons, and the Urban Studies and Planning Commons

Stern, Mark J. and Seifert, Susan C., "From Creative Economy to Creative Society" (2008). Culture and Community Revitalization: A SIAP/Reinvestment Fund Collaboration—2007-2009. 6. https://repository.upenn.edu/siap_revitalization/6

The Culture and Urban Revitalization project was a collaboration between SIAP and The Reinvestment Fund (TRF), a financial institution, with support by the Rockefeller Foundation.

This paper is posted at ScholarlyCommons. https://repository.upenn.edu/siap_revitalization/6 For more information, please contact [email protected]. From Creative Economy to Creative Society

Abstract Public policy promoting the creative economy has two serious flaws: one, a misperception of culture and creativity as a product of individual genius rather than collective activity; and, two, a willingness to tolerate social dislocation in exchange for urban vitality or competitive advantage. This brief recaps current culture and revitalization research and policy and proposes a new model—a neighborhood based creative economy—that has the potential to move the toward shared prosperity and social integration.

Disciplines Civic and Community Engagement | Social Policy | Urban Studies and Planning

Comments The Culture and Urban Revitalization project was a collaboration between SIAP and The Reinvestment Fund (TRF), a community development financial institution, with support by the Rockefeller Foundation.

This policy brief is available at ScholarlyCommons: https://repository.upenn.edu/siap_revitalization/6 From Creative Economy to Creative Society

to both the renewed prosperity of the city and the inequitable social and geographic distribution of From Creative its benefits. So what’s wrong? Public policy promoting the Economy to creative economy has two serious flaws: one, a misperception of culture and creativity as a product of individual genius rather than collective Creative Society activity; and, two, a willingness to tolerate social dislocation in exchange for urban vitality or A social policy paradigm for the competitive advantage. In this brief, we recap creative sector has the potential current culture and revitalization research and policy and propose a new model—a neighborhood- to address urban as based creative economy—that has the potential to move the 21st century city toward shared well as urban vitality. prosperity and social integration.

Mark J. Stern and Susan C. Seifert The Creative Sector and Urban Policy Can the creative economy ameliorate urban poverty? The contemporary U.S. city is witness to The creative economy represents the latest wave an increasing proportion of its residents denied of interest in culture as a post-industrial urban active participation in the local economy, social revitalization strategy. Beginning with the 1983 institutions, and broader civil society. While many landmark study by the Port Authority of New a metropolis have weathered the transition from York and New , economic impact studies an industrial to an information-based economy, have quantified the contribution of the nonprofit most urban neighborhoods bear the persistent cultural sector to a regional economy based on the physical and social manifestations of economic multiplier effect of organizational and audience inequality and . expenditures. In time, policy-makers realized that Urban policy-makers generally agree that regional economic impacts are magnified when bounded and job growth are the spatially. So the planned cultural district came solution to urban poverty and its associated blight into vogue, along with the development of major and pathology. The creative economy is one of cultural facilities like museums or performing arts today’s most popular remedies for ailing . centers, as catalysts for downtown revival. What is the creative economy? According to Karen Davis, Arts & Business Council of Greater The creative economy literature has examined Philadelphia President and CEO: a wider set of industries in which “creativity” is viewed as an asset and spur to productivity. The creative economy is defined as Studies by the Rand Corporation of the the sum of economic activity arising performing and media arts took the lead in from a highly educated segment treating nonprofit and commercial cultural firms of the encompassing a as a single sector. Richard Florida’s —with A collaboration the of Social Impact the of Arts Project and The ReinvestmentFund fundedby The RockefellerFoundation wide variety of creative individuals its claims about the role of the “” in

—like artists, architects, computer global competitive advantage—encouraged the programmers, university trend to treat nonprofit and for-profit firms as a and writers from a diverse range single sector and expanded definitions of culture of industries such as technology, to include design and related fields as part of the entertainment, journalism, finance, creative economy. high-end manufacturing and the arts. The excitement among public and corporate The logic is that attracting the “creative class” to executives about the creative class has the region will generate jobs and tax revenue, overshadowed a growing literature on the a trickle down of benefits to all citizens. community benefits of the arts and culture. Like Unfortunately, it appears that growth of the the creative economy, the community-building creative economy is exacerbating inequality and literature has moved beyond the focus on official exclusion. The creative economy is contributing nonprofit cultural organizations. But rather than

 | January 2008

Creativity & Change Creativity & Change

New York City’s Creative Economy, Total Workers, 2002

People Working Within Firms With Industry Description Employees Sole Proprietors Total

Publishing Periodical, book, publishers 4,2 ,4 52,1 Motion picture and video production, Film and Video distribution 11, ,1 15,4 Record production and distribution, sound Music Production recording, music publishers 5, 0 , Cable networks, television and radio Broadcasting broadcasting, news syndicates ,52 0 ,52

Architecture Architecture, landscape architecture services 10,0 2,25 1,2 Applied Design Specialized design, photographic services 14,112 1,2 2,4 Advertising agencies, direct mail, display, Advertising other services ,15 4,45 ,20 Theater, dance, performing arts companies Performing Arts and musical groups 22,4 1,4 24,11 Visual Arts Museums, art dealers ,2 1,15 11,124 Independent artists, writers and performers in Other creative industries , 4,44 50,11

Total Workers in Creative Industries 198,627 79,761 278,388 Source: Center for an Urban Future, 2005

While economic impact analyses compute expenditures and consumption, creative economy studies focus on and production. The Center for an Urban Future with Mt. Auburn Associates identified nearly 280,000 workers--200,000 nonprofit and for-profit employees and 80,000 sole proprietors--in NYC’s nine creative idustries. An additional 31,000 creative workers are employed in other sectors.

seeking to integrate culture with global economic evidence, is the expansion of inequality. Economic change, community arts researchers have focused on inequality—attributed to structural changes the integration of grassroots cultural practices and including globalization, the decline in unions, and informal arts with contemporary urban community. deindustrialization—has exploded in the United Economic geographers have developed a third States over the past thirty years. stream of literature, which explores production- Of particular relevance to the arts is the emergence driven cultural clusters and the social networks of “winner-take-all” labor markets. Robert Frank underpinning productivity. It is this cultural cluster and Philip Cook, who developed the concept, show perspective that has the greatest potential to meet that changes in the American labor market have the dual policy goals of economic equality and social expanded the number of job categories in which inclusion. the most skilled members reap a disproportionate share of rewards. The archetypical winner-take-all social costs of the creative economy labor market is professional sports, where the most talented members receive salaries far higher than Neither the creative economy nor the community those of the average member. Frank and Cook building literature has focused on the possible suggest that what used to be a relatively rare feature negative effects of culture-based revitalization. is now common in a great number of occupations, remains the most commonly raised serving to accelerate . objection, although what evidence there is hardly justifies the concern. Indeed, the tendency of Within the creative economy, artists are especially artists to trigger population turnover appears to be vulnerable to the winner-take-all dynamic. The counterbalanced by their role in stabilizing ethnically handful of opera singers, concert pianists, dancers, and economically diverse neighborhoods. and authors seen as the best in the world garner that dwarf those of gifted practitioners A less commonly discussed drawback of culture- who are seen as less extraordinary. Indeed, SIAP’s based revitalization, but one for which there is more 2005 study of artists in six U.S. metropolitan areas

 From Creative Economy to Creative Society

between 1980 and 2000 found artists consistently • shifting attention away from formal among the occupations with the highest degree of organizations toward non-chartered groups and inequality. other “informal” cultural and creative practices; In his 2005 work, Richard Florida acknowledged that • exploring the links between “informal arts” the growth of the creative class has contributed to the and other parts of the cultural system; and rise in economic inequality and its social and political repercussions. • focusing on the contribution of the arts and Perhaps the most salient of what I culture to social network and community consider the externalities of the creative building. age has to do with rising social and economic inequality. Less than a third of the workforce—the creative class—is employed in the creative sector of the economy. ... Even more discouragingly, SIAP’s research on Philadelphia inequality is considerably worse in leading creative regions. … The creative economy suggests a relationship between is giving rise to pronounced political and cultural engagement and social polarization… “collective efficacy”—the term Florida’s newfound concern about income inequality is used by Felton Earls to explain striking. Since its publication in 2002, The Rise of the why some poor neighborhoods Creative Class has been used by city officials from New York to Spokane as a how-to manual for stimulating are safer than others—that is, . The realization that pursuing “social cohesion among neighbors creative class strategies will actually exacerbate the combined with their willingness divisions between rich and poor should give public officials pause. to intervene on behalf of the The job mix within the creative economy offers common .” both promise and concern for its role in promoting economic revitalization. Overall, the creative industries are dominated by jobs with high educational Much work on community culture is concerned with requirements. Empirical research indicates that the inclusion of historically marginalized populations. as culture increases its share of the metropolitan The Urban Institute has developed a broad framework economy, increasing inequality is a much more for tracking community cultural vitality—which significant downside than gentrification. The it defines as “evidence of creating, disseminating, expansion of both arts occupations specifically validating, and supporting arts and culture as a and the creative economy overall will create more dimension of in communities.” The opportunities for highly-skilled workers than for informal arts sector, in particular, is associated with urban residents with modest educational qualifications. minority, immigrant, and other out-of-the-mainstream communities. Informal arts include participatory, hands- social benefits of community culture on creative activity in informal settings as well as the of under-employed professional and A significant number of studies have altered our traditional artists. understanding of the role that culture plays in urban communities. Research conducted over the past Ethnographers in Chicago and the Silicon Valley have decade across the U.S. has shaped the field by: documented the community building potential of the informal arts. A recent study, for example, found • articulating an ecological view of the cultural that Mexican immigrants in Chicago “use artistic and sector—with nonprofit, public, and commercial cultural practices to break down social isolation, create providers and independent artists—and its new social networking relationships, strengthen … relationship to communities; bonds among group members, and … create local and transnational ties with [outside] institutions …”

 | January 2008 Creativity & Change

Cultural engagement contributes to the quality of and … by stimulating the formation community life by reflecting and reinforcing social of new businesses, which expands and diversity. Ethnic, economic, and/or household strengthens the cluster itself. A cluster diverse urban neighborhoods are more likely than allows each member to benefit as if it homogeneous communities to house cultural had greater scale or as if it had joined programs, cultural participants, and artists. Likewise, with others formally—without requiring culturally-active neighborhoods are more likely to it to sacrifice its flexibility. maintain demographic diversity over time. In a study of the craft, fashion, and cultural SIAP’s research on Philadelphia neighborhoods has products industries of Los Angeles, Allen Scott documented links between cultural engagement, observed that clustering is a critical feature for social diversity, and community capacity-building. cultural producers to improve the quality of work Residents who participate in the arts and culture produced and benefit economically from the work. tend to engage as well in other types of community L.A.’s small-scale, labor-intensive crafts firms activities. Moreover, the presence of cultural cluster in dense industrial districts throughout organizations in a neighborhood stimulates local the inner city and region to reduce costs through community participation overall. This kind of “agglomeration .” Moreover, the spatial community cross-participation helps stabilize proximity of individuals and firms facilitates intense heterogeneous communities as well as enhance overall community capacity. SIAP has documented a connection between A cultural cluster perspective community culture and child : low-income highlights the social organization block groups with high cultural participation were of the creative economy, and it is more than twice as likely to have very low truancy this socio-economic dimension that and delinquency as other low-income neighborhoods. The child welfare indicators reflected not the is culture’s link to neighborhood number of kids in arts programs but rather the revitalization. relationship of cultural engagement to collective efficacy—that is, according to public researcher social networks, which spur a cross-pollination of Felton Earls, “social cohesion among neighbors ideas and innovation. Manuel Castells calls this combined with their willingness to intervene on organizational structure a network enterprise and the behalf of the common good.” location where proximity generates synergy a milieu of innovation. “Social networks of different kinds regeneration potential of powerfully contribute to the consolidation of a cultural clusters milieu and to its dynamics.” The cultural cluster literature, therefore, reinforces Cluster economic theory appears to offer the the creative economy focus on production and cross- greatest potential for the creative sector to sector interactions. At the same time, however, a regenerate distressed cities. Production-driven cluster perspective steps out of standard economic cultural clusters, which occur at both the concerns to explore the social relations that spur neighborhood and regional scales, arise out of the innovation and investment. Thus, clusters highlight social networks developed to meet common needs the social organization of the creative economy, and among producers in a given sector. it is this socio-economic dimension that is culture’s link to neighborhood revitalization. Clusters, says economist Michael Porter, are geographic concentrations of inter-connected Community arts researchers have found direct companies, specialized suppliers, service providers, connections between culture and revitalization. In and associated institutions in a particular field. a study of ten Chicago neighborhoods, Grams Famous industry clusters include Hollywood and and Warr identified social networks as a key “Silicon Valley.” mechanism by which community arts contribute to neighborhood improvement. By developing social Clusters affect competition … by networks, low-budget arts programs leverage local increasing the productivity of companies and non-local assets that result in direct economic based in the area; … by driving the benefits for the neighborhood—new markets, new direction and pace of innovation, which uses of existing facilities, new jobs for local artists— underpins future productivity growth; as well as broader community engagement.

 From Creative Economy to Creative Society

SIAP has developed empirical methods to measure and between neighborhoods, cultural engagement the arts’ impact on the broader socio-economic fosters collective capacity, especially in low- processes of urban neighborhoods. Indeed, SIAP’s communities. research on Philadelphia shows a strong and long- SIAP’s findings demonstrate a clear correlation standing relationship between cultural assets and between cultural engagement and community well- neighborhood regeneration. During the 1980s being, but there remain several empirical holes. We and 1990s, low-income neighborhoods with many have yet to: cultural providers or participants were three to four times more likely to revitalize as other at-risk areas. • measure directly the link between cultural Between 2001 and 2003, distressed neighborhoods participation and neighborhood change— rich in cultural assets were more likely to see a the “collective efficacy” hypothesis; dramatic improvement in their housing markets. • collect comparable data on other forms How might we explain a connection between of community engagement to assess the cultural engagement and poverty decline? SIAP’s relative effectiveness of culture in analyses of metropolitan Philadelphia demonstrate promoting neighborhood revitalization; or that cultural production and participation reinforce

one another, both within communities and across • sort out the temporal relationship between the region. Cultural providers (nonprofit and cultural engagement, civic vitality, and for-profit), individual artists, and participants neighborhood regeneration. tend to locate in similar communities. Moreover, neighborhoods rich in cultural resources send In addition, it would be useful to do case studies participants to programs throughout the city as of neighborhood cultural clusters—what SIAP well as draw outsiders into the neighborhood. Even calls “natural” cultural districts—to look at the among small grassroots arts centers, nearly four-in- social and spatial dynamics of cultural production five participants come from other neighborhoods. and participation and their implications for Unlike most community activities, culture builds neighborhood revitalization. bridges across the divides of geography, ethnicity, and . By building social networks within

Percent of block groups revitalized (above average population increase and poverty decline) by number of cultural providers within one-half mile, Philadelphia 1990-2000

In Philadelphia, during the 1980s and 1990s, the odds that a neighborhood would revitalize were highly related to presence of cultural resources. Even among the most at-risk neighborhoods, those with many cultural organizations within one- half mile were three to four times more likely to see their poverty decline and population increase as those with few groups.

Cultural providers within one-half mile Source: SIAP

 | January 2008 Creativity & Change

Culture fosters community capacity by building social networks. Philadelphia, 2001. Cultural engagement builds networks within and between neighborhoods. Neighborhoods with a critical mass of cultural assets—and a dense web of social networks—are more likely to experience stable social diversity as well as economic revitalization.

Artists (65 red dots) and organizations with which Community cultural providers (10 red dots) and they worked in one year. non-arts organizations with which they worked.

Source: SIAP

A New Model: A Neighborhood- At its core, the creative economy perspective misunderstands creativity. Proponents don’t Based Creative Economy recognize the collective nature of the creative process and, in particular, the social organization of Can the creative economy expand economic the creative and cultural industries. The productive opportunity and social inclusion without generating as well as the revitalization potential of the creative the inequality and displacement that its critics have sector depends upon an of social and noted? The answer, we suggest, lies in linking the spatial networks. Here we propose a neighborhood- creative economy, community-building, and cultural based creative economy as a framework for strengthening cluster literature in an alternative model for low- the social and spatial networks of creativity from the wealth urban neighborhoods. The three perspectives bottom-up. share an interest in moving beyond traditional nonprofit models of the arts and in focusing on We begin with a model of the community cultural a community’s assets rather than its deficits. All sector as an ecosystem. The model highlights how view cultural organizations not in isolation but as the capacities and impacts of the sector as a whole “network enterprises” in which their connections to are greater than the sum of its parts. Other features wider systems are more important than their internal include: organization. • the sector’s variety of agents, some operating “under the radar”—nonprofit cultural A neighborhood-based creative organizations, informal arts groups, for-profit economy is an ecosystem cultural firms, and community-based programs; approach to culture-based • the interdependence of community and neighborhood revitalization that regional agents and of producers and integrates urban residents with the consumers; regional economy and civil society. • the essential but often invisible role of artists and cultural workers as connectors;

 From Creative Economy to Creative Society

• the under-appreciated role of cultural patrons for the less “gifted.” In his latest book, Florida and practitioners as cross-participants and bemoans that creative places have high levels of community connectors. social and economic inequality. Yet, it is difficult to see how his conceptualization of creativity could An ecosystem approach to the community cultural have any other consequences. sector views the connections and flows between The unhappy denouement of the creative class agents and resources—their institutional and social raises a provocative implication that has been networks—as more important than individual largely unexplored. In his seminal work, Art Worlds, entities. sociologist Howard Becker made a compelling case that the image of the artist as a genius existing An effective revitalization strategy should be outside of any social organization was fallacious. both place- and people-based—that is, it should Individual creativity—even in its most idiosyncratic be grounded in a given locale but have active form—is tied to patterns of organization of connections with other neighborhoods and social activity that allow the genius to play that economies throughout the city and region. A role. “Works of art,” Becker explains, “are not the neighborhood-based ecosystem approach to the products of individual makers, ‘artists’ who possess creative economy is a way to integrate urban a rare and special gift.” neighborhood residents with the regional economy [Works of art] are, rather, joint products and civil society. of all the people who cooperate via an art world’s characteristic conventions to bring works like that into existence. From creative economy to economic Artists are a small subgroup of opportunity the world’s participants who, by common agreement, possess a special gift, therefore make a unique and The concept of the community cultural ecosystem indispensable contribution to the work, fits uneasily with current interest in the creative and thereby make it art. economy. At least in its American manifestations, the creative economy is thoroughly market-oriented. Like Sassen, Becker is as likely to see the stage hand, The profit motive is the “change agent” and cultural the printer, or the guitar string maker as critical to and social arrangements are expected to respond art as the famed actor, author, or singer. Becker’s accordingly. point was to shatter the idea of creativity outside of social organization and to revalue the role of

cooperative activity in creative production. Creative Class Myopia. Florida’s work is based on a reasonable and important insight—that the role of Much recent work on the creative economy creativity has become a central element of a region’s and creative class turns Becker’s insight on its comparative economic advantage. His contribution head. Where Becker showed how art requires is to hone in on the particular skills and knowledge the contribution of an ensemble of people with that contribute to innovation and to see these skills different skills and aptitudes who can successfully as relevant across a variety of sectors. coordinate their activities, creative class advocates take the classic idea of the artist—a gifted individual But there is a dark side to the creative class with unique vision and skill—and generalize it argument. As Saskia Sassen noted years ago, the to all creative workers. Where Becker sought to global economy tends to “valorize” particular demystify creativity, many creative economy writers jobs while it “devalorizes” others that are equally seek to generalize the artists’ aura to encompass important to the overall functioning of the stockbrokers, scientists, and university professors! economy. In his enthusiasm for the role of the truly It appears that we should subordinate our own well- creative in stimulating economic growth, Florida being to that of the geniuses among us, the true font values particular workers—typically high-wage, of our collective well-being. well-educated workers—which has the effect of devaluing those who make a less visible contribution. But if we make life better for the creative class, in a world of limited resources, we make life less good

 | January 2008 Creativity & Change

A Creative Sector Workforce Development not creative in the conventional sense—are critical Strategy. Could the creative economy have to the social organization of the creative industries. implications for an urban workforce development With the digitization of audio and video production, strategy? What if we take Howard Becker’s insight for example, it has become almost impossible to and turn the creative economy back on its feet? distinguish where the “technical” work stops and the If the sector’s success is based on the social “creative” work starts. organization of people with different skills and aptitudes, the creative economy might provide the Digital media production presents only the most foundation for a variety of new jobs and skills not obvious illustration. Philadelphia’s Charter High covered by current definitions of creative worker. School for Architecture and Design has developed Someone has to lay the fiber optic cable for the web a curriculum that combines traditional academics designer, someone has to sew the costumes for the with design skills and hands-on training in carpentry, dancers, and someone has to create the drawings building trades, and structural systems. for the architect. From this perspective, the creative economy could provide opportunities for young Across the creative sector, we need a thorough adults who have not been successful in pursuing inventory of the actual work involved and the paths traditional academics. for entering these occupations. U.S. localities can look to the and , where workforce development planning for the creative and cultural industries is underway (see page 9). Howard Becker’s book, Art Worlds, shatters the idea of creativity outside of social organization and From economic opportunity to social revalues the role of cooperative activity in creative production Can a neighborhood-based creative economy … providing the foundation for combine wealth-creation and social inclusion? a creative sector workforce Can cultural engagement foster an open society? development strategy. Can we leverage a creative economy to a creative society? Yes, but not by avoiding the lessons of past experience. The valuation of the creative class, in fact, flies in the face of a profound reorganization of work life The Limits of Trickle-down Prosperity. As st at the beginning of the 21 century. The trajectory we have noted, a market-driven creative economy th of work organization during the 20 century was is remaking the world, or at least the U.S. the separation of mental and manual work. During Government’s job, according to this perspective, the course of industrialization, work restructuring is to set property rules that encourage was devoted to the removal of knowledge from entrepreneurs but don’t hamstring innovation and the “hands” who did the work to the engineers and otherwise get out of the way. As Sassen would say, managers who oversaw and directed the process. the rest of us are “devalorized” to the point of By the end of the century, however, the pendulum invisibility. had begun to swing back. In sector after sector, Much of the literature on culture-based information technologies permitted a reduction in revitalization focuses on large-scale projects and the minute division of labor and a reintegration districts as a means of reanimating downtowns. of manual and mental labor. The reorganization Significant public investment in culture is directed of occupational classifications for the 2000 census, at others—tourists, conventioneers, high-income for example, focused increasingly on the functions downtown residents, and suburbanites. The case for associated with particular occupations rather than benefits to residents of modest means is typically their level of formal or remuneration. the creation of service sector employment and the Indeed, the reintegration of mental and manual trickle down of economic advantages to the region. work required for creative and cultural production The development potential of the regional creative provides a fertile ground for examining economy is characterized more by intriguing opportunities for the urban work force. To do so possibilities than proven facts. By comparison, we have to identify the range of skills that—while the social benefits of the arts are persuasive and

 From Creative Economy to Creative Society

CREATIVE AND CULTURAL INDUSTRIES WORKFORCE DEVELOPMENT To develop a creative industry urban workforce development strategy, we can look to the UK and Canada. The few US localities thinking about creative sector “workforce development” focus on facilitating labor markets.

UNITED KINGDOM CANADA UNITED STATES

In the UK workforce development The British Columbia Cultural , plans are part of the national Oregon Creative Services Alliance Sector Development Council a public-private partnership with the education agenda. All industrial focuses on issues of human capital Portland Development Commission sectors, reorganized into 25 Sector and the infrastructure workers and City of Portland, is working to Skills Councils, develop a framework navigate to earn a living. Its goal foster a network infrastructure among of common interests, issues, and is to build long-term creative Portland’s creative service groups interventions needed to close skills and economic for and to address workforce quality gaps. Creative & Cultural Skills, individuals, cultural organizations, by developing partnerships with operative since June 2005, is the and industries by working with local colleges and universities, art skills council for advertising, crafts, existing networks and resources schools, and workforce development cultural heritage, design, music, and, where gaps are identified, agencies. performing, literary and visual arts. coordinating stakeholders to achieve The Santa Fe Arts and Culture The Music Industry Workforce effective solutions. website, a project of New Mexico Development Plan, completed in The City of Vancouver, Office of CultureNet, is designed primarily December 2004, set the tone for Cultural Affairs documents the local for residents and visitors. The portal the creative industries. The plan creative sector by occupation and uses three parts for workforce specified professional development, industry (cultural and information development: Classifieds—a listing organizational, and “entry-to-the- industries & arts, entertainment, and of employment opportunities and workforce” objectives that included “a recreation). The City tracks changes individuals looking for work; Arts structured dialogue” between industry in its culture labor force, demographic Directory—a listing of businesses and and education and workforce diversity and minority characteristics of culture individuals doing business in Santa that reflects the demographics of the workers, and creative industry Fe; and Google Search—a unique country. employment by neighborhood. URL for each Arts Directory listing. The Museums Libraries and The Saskatchewan Motion Creative New York, a December Archives Council and MLA London Picture Association completed a 2005 report by the Center for an published workforce development workforce development plan for the Urban Future, recommends that New strategies. Priorities are to improve province’s growing film and video York begin to address its creative access to training and development industry, which benefits from a Film core’s workforce development and diversify the workforce so that Employment Tax Credit. The plan needs. “City leaders and industry museums, archives and libraries has several components: training stakeholders … [should] align reflect the communities they serve. and employment programs for workforce organizations, industry London’s Innovation for Success women and aborigines, so that the leaders, trade associations and is a workforce development program workforce represents the diversity unions to coordinate the skills for creative, cultural and media of the populace; an occupational development needed for creative professionals and companies to survey to determine the number of industries [… and …] collaborate develop networks and build technical, entry- and upper-level jobs and their with the city’s network of workforce management, and leadership skills. training needs in film, television, and training providers and educational The accredited program is free or new media; and a skills data base of institutions to develop programs to subsidized for creative professionals individuals working or wanting to work meet these multiple needs.” trading from 10 inner London in the industry. boroughs. “We are particularly keen to work with Black, minority ethnic and disabled-led businesses, freelancers or employees.” Funding is by London Development Agency, , and Ravenscourt Media.

 | January 2008 Creativity & Change

relatively well-documented. Virtually all social impact studies find a consistent set of positive neighborhood effects associated with community Scribe Video Center in arts and culture. They bridge long-term barriers Philadelphia provides of class and ethnicity as well as age and . training in all aspects of film, They foster social and institutional connections video, and audio production both within and between neighborhoods. They for novice, emerging, and animate public spaces. They create in the established media artists. form of physical amenities and quality of the built environment. SIAP’s research provides evidence that the social benefits are connected to wider trends in community capacity-building and economic well-being. The regeneration potential of cultural clusters demonstrates that the economic vs. the social impact of the arts is a false choice. If policy- making were a rational decision-making process, the lessons of the past 20 years would be loud and clear. Large-scale cultural projects—under the right circumstances—can generate significant economic return, but the bulk of these benefits accrue to high-wealth populations. By contrast, small-scale projects entail modest investments and yield modest direct economic return. However, clusters of even low-budget arts and cultural resources generate significant spill-over effects that contribute to the quality of community life, which in turn can trigger long-term economic benefits.

Creative Economy as Social Inclusion Strategy. To succeed on social—and economic— justice grounds, a neighborhood-based creative economy must integrate economic opportunity and social inclusion. For the creative economy to become a creative society, we need to see people as more than cogs in the economy. We need to see people simultaneously as workers and citizens and develop an approach that recognizes both.

For the creative economy to become a creative society, we need to see people simultaneously as workers and citizens.

The starting point would be a political ideology Center Video Scribe Photos: that acknowledges, rather than denies, the potential for exclusion. The British experience might be a Scribe gives area residents of all ages the guide to reassessment of the social and economic equipment and skills to make documentaries and value of culture-based development. The priority chronicle their community . given to social inclusion—by Creative London, for example—is an attempt to combine market principles with social purposes.

10 From Creative Economy to Creative Society

The ideology of the creative economy is a significant “natural” cultural districts AS barrier to such a shift. If the competitive advantage Anchor of neighborhood-based and economic prosperity of our cities and regions is dependent upon a creative class, it is difficult to creative economy make a case for the welfare of the mass of ordinary The community cultural ecosystem model described citizens. above suggests a neighborhood-based culture Earlier, we used Howard Becker’s discussion approach to community revitalization, urban of “art worlds” to turn the creative class on its regeneration, and regional economic development. head. Becker’s insight provides the foundation for The model illustrates the interdependencies of development of a creative economy workforce. If cultural producers, providers, and participants and a successful creative economy is based on social the network flows between community and regional organization—not individual endowment—then entities. a strategy of social inclusion would identify UK cultural planner Chris Murray recognizes opportunities for and wealth-creation neighborhoods as cultural entities that are both across the sector, not just at its top. Such a strategy sustained by and sustaining of the contemporary would have implications for education and training urban economy. and create a virtuous cycle of orienting urban kids Provision for cultural needs helps to toward jobs that really exist and re-valuing those develop and sustain communities, but jobs within the creative economy. local communities also have a function A social inclusion strategy would develop renewable in sustaining and developing the culture resources to support emerging and innovative of as a whole. It is at the community-based and community-serving creative margins that innovation often occurs: and cultural programs and artists. Relatively modest the blending of culture, the expression but sustained local investment, especially with of individual identity, alternative technical and resource network support, could lifestyles. ‘Cool Britannia’ packages and foster cultural participation that in turn builds social sells popular culture on a global level, networks within neighborhoods, across the city, and but much of this product originates ‘on throughout the region. the street,’ in neighbourhoods. A social inclusion strategy would support urban Murray promotes “taking neighborhoods out of neighborhood-based creative businesses and sole the cycle of ‘urban problem’ [and] rethinking them proprietors. For the Los Angeles craft industries, as special, individual cultural centres that are the Scott and Rigby recommended a policy framework life’s blood, the atomic nuclei of cities.” All urban that would “not involve ‘picking winners’ [but neighborhoods have the potential to become rather be] based on a bottom-up and industry- “cultural hubs,” says Murray, but not without wide approach directed toward improving coordinated action. He advocates an approach localized external economies [by] stimulating the that engages both artists and citizens in planning entrepreneurial and creative capacities of all local and design processes and provides for community firms.” We should invest in producer and provider appropriation and ownership of space. “Artists collaborative networks to enhance institutional tend toward flexible, open-minded approaches; infrastructure and . Scott and Rigby innovation; critical and questioning methods; and “envisage the creation of communities of firms, people-centered solutions. Artists also have a role in workers, and public agencies engaged together in facilitation and keeping the debate open.” reconstructing the collective competitive advantages While all urban neighborhoods have the potential of the region’s craft industries.” to become cultural hubs, some have the potential to In any case, we need a hard-headed strategy that become “natural” cultural districts. Many low-wealth takes both market realities and the very real neighborhoods possess a critical mass of cultural human, social, and cultural impacts of the arts assets-cultural firms and organizations, workers into consideration. Such a strategy would likely be and participants, artists and creative entrepreneurs. characterized by smaller investments, smaller risks, As an alternative to top-down planned cultural and more gradual change than most cultural facility districts or as a complement to local community and district plans. But a social inclusion strategy development, planners and developers could identify must also have a bigger vision and commitment these grassroots nodes as leverage points for public, to the integration of all local residents with the private, and philanthropic investment. In this regional economy and civil society. model, “natural” cultural districts would be centers

11 | January 2008 Creativity & Change

Community artists facilitate dialogue and foster social inclusion. Photo by:Photo Sally Payen Photo by: Photo Mueller Kneer Associates. Coleshill Shelter completed Warndon completed

Youth Space Project, Midlands Architecture and the Designed Environment, 2006

Community design projects can offer young people voice as well as skills and the opportunity to improve their environment. Youth Space was a project in West Midlands, UK where young people, artists, and architects collaborated to design and construct six youth shelters.

Photos courtesy of www.communityplanning.net (case study No. 4). Photo by:Photo Sabine Gollner Coleshill Shelter in use

of social and economic development and serve as process; contribute to the social, cultural, and neighborhood anchors of the creative economy. commercial lives of local neighborhoods; and “pay A natural cultural district could reinforce a economic dividends for the region.” Coleshill Shelter in use creative sector workforce development initiative, A neighborhood-based creative economy—anchored for example, as the site for a design technology by a network of “natural” cultural districts— school, a music industry training program, or an provides an inclusive vision of an expanding urban artists’ center. Artists’ centers, in particular, appear economy. The concept addresses three types of to be generative in terms of stimulating creative market failure intrinsic to the creative economy work and careers as well as neighborhood and that contribute directly to inequality and exclusion: regional economies. Regional economist Ann one, growth of winner-take-all artist and creative- Markusen, based a Minnesota study, found that class labor markets; two, proliferation of informal dedicated spaces for artists to work and convene arts, although a source of energy and innovation, “help to maximize artistic spillover” within a local also a symptom of the informal economy; and, community. Artists’ centers enable residents to three, neighborhood displacement of residents and interact with artists and participate in the creative entrepreneurs who have initiated revitilization.

12 From Creative Economy to Creative Society

Ultimately, we have no choice. If we don’t work on A cultural planning approach to economic equality and social inclusion, the creative economy unabated will accelerate inequality and neighborhood revitalization exclusion. Florida highlights the issues “hindering the rise of a more fully creative society”: UK community planners use art workshops help local people get involved in the design of their environment. Though the creative economy generates People of all ages, backgrounds and abilities work tremendous innovative, wealth-creating, closely with community artists and sculptors in studio and productive promise, left to its own devices it will neither realize that workshop sessions to generate design ideas. Architects, promise nor solve the myriad of social landscape designers, and technical experts ensure that problems facing us today. … And, far the designs are buildable. The community chooses from inequality being the only creative- which designs should be built, usually by voting at an age social concern, the creative economy exhibition. Installation of the artwork is often marked generates other related externalities: by a celebration. [decline in] housing affordability …, uneven regional development …, sprawl and ecological decay …, and mounting The Community Planning Website and … www.communityplanning.net, Nick Wates Associates (2007). Ironically, policy-makers cite Florida in promoting the creative economy as a strategy for urban regeneration and regional competitive advantage. Given their narrow focus on regional economies, these policies—if successful—will feed broader social dislocation. alone won’t get us to inclusion. If we see the creative sector only as a market, the logic will be to increase inequality and exclusion. We need a vision that possesses a social and political, as well as economic, rationale. Culture can foster social inclusion—but it isn’t automatic. With political will and coordinated action, we can stem a divisive tide and channel the promise and prosperity of the creative economy toward innovative economies, remunerative employment, social citizenship, and dynamic communities— toward a creative society.

Community Art

Street lights designed by local residents with community SIAP January 2008. An early version of this article was artists. published in Progressive Planning, The Magazine of Planners

Network, No. 170, Winter 2007. Art (method, workshop.). Courtesy of www.communityplanning.net Trust. arts Form Free by Photo

13 | January 2008 Creativity & Change

References

For a full literature review, see “Culture and Urban Revitalization: A Harvest Document” (SIAP, January 2007).

Alvarez, Maribel with Lisa van Diggelen. 2005. There’s Frank, Robert H. and Philip J. Cook. 1995. The winner- nothing informal about it: Participatory arts within the cultural take-all society: Why the few at the top get so much more than ecology of Silicon Valley. San Jose, CA: Cultural Initiatives the rest of us. New York: The Free Press. Silicon Valley. Grams, Diane and Michael Warr. 2003. Leveraging assets: Americans for the Arts. 2007. Arts and economic prosperity How small budget arts activities benefit neighborhoods. III: The economic impact of nonprofit arts and culture Chicago: Richard H. Driehaus Foundation and The organizations and their audiences. Washington DC: John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation. Americans for the Arts. Innovation for Success. 2007. http://www. Becker, Howard S. 1982. Art worlds. Berkeley and Los innovationforsuccess.co.uk. Angeles: University of California Press. Jackson, Maria-Rosario, Joaquin Herranz, Jr., and British Columbia Cultural Sector Development Council. Florence Kabwasa-Green. 2006. Cultural vitality in 2007. http://www.sectorcouncil.ca/. communities: Interpretation and indicators. Washington DC: Urban Institute. Castells, Manuel. 1996. The information age, economy, society, and culture: Volume I, the rise of the network society. Malden, Jacobs, Jane. 1993 (1961). The death and life of great MA: Blackwell Publishers, Inc. American cities. New York: Random House, Inc. City of Vancouver, Office of Cultural Affairs. 2007. Katz, Michael B. and Mark J. Stern. 2006. One nation divisible: What America was and what it is becoming. New http://www.city.vancouver.bc.ca/commsvcs/oca/. York: Russell Sage Foundation Press. Community Action Programme on Social Exclusion. Keegan, Robin and Neil Kleiman. 2005. Creative New 2005. The role of culture in preventing and reducing poverty and York. New York: Center for an Urban Future. social exclusion. Brussels: European Communities. Kennedy, Maureen and Paul Leonard. 2001. Dealing with Creative & Cultural Skills. 2007. http://www.ccskills.org. neighborhood change: A primer on gentrification and policy uk. choices. Washington DC: Brookings Institution. Creative London. 2007. http://www.creativelondon.org. Kleiman, Neil Scott with Robin Keegan, et al. 2002. The uk. creative engine: How arts and culture is fueling economic growth Davis, Karen. 2006. Creative economy is smart business. in New York City neighborhoods. New York: Center for an Philadelphia Daily News http://www.philly.com. Posted Urban Future. on Wednesday, June 14. Laing, Dave, compiler. 2004. Music industry workforce Evans, Graeme. 2005. Measure for measure: Evaluating development plan. London, UK: National Music Council the evidence of culture’s contribution to regeneration. for Sector Skills Council and Music Industry Research. Urban Studies 42: 5/6 (May). McCarthy, Kevin F., Arthur Brooks, Julia F. Lowell, and Florida, Richard. 2002. The rise of the creative class: And how Laura Zakaras. 2001. The performing arts in a new era. it’s transforming work, leisure, community and everyday life. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corp. New York: Perseus Books. McCarthy, Kevin F. and Elizabeth Heneghan Ondaatje. ----- 2005. Cities and the creative class. New York: 2002. From celluloid to cyberspace: The media arts and the Routledge. changing arts world. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corp. ----- 2005. The flight of the creative class: The new global competition for talent. New York: HarperCollins.

14 From Creative Economy to Creative Society

Markusen, Ann, Amanda Johnson, et al. 2006. Artists’ Sassen, Saskia. 2006 (Third edition). Cities in a world Centers: Evolution and impact on careers, neighborhoods and economy. Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press. economies. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota. Scott, Allen J. and David L. Rigby. 1996. The craft Moriarty, Pia. 2004. Immigrant participatory arts: An insight industries of Los Angeles: Prospects for economic growth and into community-building in Silicon Valley. San Jose, CA: development. Los Angeles: University of California. Cultural Initiatives Silicon Valley. Seifert, Susan C. and Mark J. Stern. 2005. “Natural” Murray, Chris. 2004. Rethinking neighbourhoods: From cultural districts: Arts agglomerations in metropolitan urban villages to cultural hubs. In David Bell and Mark Philadelphia. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Jayne, eds., City of quarters: Urban villages in the Social Impact of the Arts Project. contemporary city. Burlington, VT: Ashgate Publishing Stern, Mark J. 2002. Performing miracles. City Limits, Co. New York’s Urban Affairs News Magazine (Nov). Museums, Libraries and Archives Council. 2007. http:// ----- 2005. Artists in the winner-take-all economy: Artists’ www.mla.gov.uk and http://www.mlalondon.org.uk. Inequality in six U.S. metropolitan areas, 1980-2000. Nick Wates Associates. 2007. Community Planning Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania, Social Impact Website. http://www.communityplanning.net/. of the Arts Project. Port Authority of New York and New Jersey. 1983. The Sterngold, Arthur. 2004. Do economic impact arts as an industry: Their economic importance to the New studies misrepresent the benefits of arts and cultural York-New Jersey metropolitan region. New York: PANYNJ. organizations? Journal of Arts Management, Law, and Society 34: 3 (Fall). Porter, Michael E. 1998. Clusters and the new economics of competition. Harvard Business Review (Nov/Dec). Wali, Alaka, Noshir Contractor, and Rebecca Severson, et al. 2007. Creative networks: Mexican immigrant assets in Portland Development Commission and the Oregon Chicago. Chicago: The Field Museum. Creative Services Alliance. 2007. http://www.pdc. us/programs/ed/strategy/PDFs/creative_services- Wali, Alaka, Rebecca Severson, and Mario Longoni. appendix.pdf. 2002. Informal arts: Finding cohesion, capacity and other cultural benefits in unexpected places. Chicago: Columbia Sampson, Robert J., Stephen W. Raudenbush, and College Chicago. Felton Earls. 1997. Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science 277: 5328 (Aug 15). Santa Fe Arts and Culture. 2007. http://www. santafeartsandculture.org/. Saskatchewan Motion Picture Association. 1999. Report on the sector partnership workforce development initiative: Executive summary. SaskNetWork http://www. sasknetwork.ca.

15 | January 2008 Creativity & Change

About The Reinvestment Fund TRF is a national leader in the financing of neighborhood revitalization. A development financial corporation with a wealth building agenda for low- and moderate-income people and places, TRF uses its assets to finance housing, community facilities, commercial real estate and businesses and public policy research across the Mid-Atlantic. TRF conducts research and analysis on policy issues that influence neighborhood revitalization and economic growth both to help it identify opportunities to invest its own resources and to help public sector and private clients with their own strategies to preserve and rebuild vulnerable communities.

About Social Impact of the Arts Project SIAP is a policy research group at the University of Pennsylvania’s School of Social Policy & Practice. Since 1994 SIAP has conducted research on metropolitan Philadelphia to explore the structure of the creative sector, the dynamics of cultural participation, and the relationship of the arts to community well-being. SIAP leads the field in the development of empirical methods for studying links between cultural engagement, community-building, and neighborhood revitalization.

16