DOCUMENT RESUME ED 029 294 AL 001 940 By-Ervin-Tripp. Susan Summer Workshops in Sociolinguistics:Research on Children's Acquisition of CommunicativeCompetence. California Univ.. Berkeley.: Social Science ResearchCouncil. New York. N.Y. Committee on Sociolinguistics. Pub Date Jun 69 Note- 5p. Available from-Limited number of copiesavailable from the Social Science ResearchCouncil. 230 Park Avenue, New York. N.Y. 10017. Journal Cit-Items: v23 n2 Jun 69 EDRS Price MF-$0.25 HC-$0.35 Descriptors- Child Language. °CrossCultural Studies. Cultural Differences. DoctoralPrograms. Intercultural Programs. Interdisciplinary Approach.Language Usage. Nonverbal Communication. ResearchDesign. Research Methodology.Sociocultural Patterns.Sociolinguistics. Student Research. Summer Workshops. Verbal Commuira*7-tion During the summer of1968 a special summer program insociolinguistics (Language. Society, and theChild') was held at the University ofCalifornia. Berkeley. This program grew out of theresearch on 'children's language acquisition in avariety of cultures* which has beenunderway at that institutionfor four years. Originally it was planned torestrict the program to32 pre- and post-doctoral students with backgrounds in linguistics and, thesocial sciences. Among these were sevenwho had recently returned from makingfieldstudies. guided by the 'Field Manualfor Cross-Cultural Study of theAcquisition of Communicative Competence*(ED 015 434). The participants attended fourworkshops. each restricted to eight participants: one on child grammar.two on sociolinguistics.and one on child phonology.They also took courses in theregular University summer program.It was found. upon opening the workshops to auditors, that the extraparticipants were one of the-factors working against successful analysisof the field data. Some of the importanttopics which were discussed werethe structure of early grammaticalconstructions, the rules for social uses of language in children'scultures, and the effects of themilieu of the child on the rateand type of language development.The effectiveness of these workshops as trainingdevices is also evaluated in thisarticle. (JD) WELFARE U.S. DEPARTMENT OfHEALTH, EDUCATION & OFFICE OF EDUCATION

EXACTLY AS RECEIVED FROMTHE '1 THIS DOCUMENT HAS BEEN REPRODUCED POINTS OF VIEW OROPiNIONS rAPERSON OR ORGANIZATION ORIGINATING IT. Eattat STATErake NECESSARILYREPRESENT OFFICIAL OFFICE OF POSITION OR FOLICY. RESEARCH ONCHILDREN'S SUMMER WORKSHOPSINSOCIOLINGUISTICS: ACQUISITION OFCOMMUNICATIVECOMPETENCE by Susan Ervin-Tripp*

in foreign cultures as thetests in themanual while living DURING the past )7:our years, aresearch group at completion studyingparticipant observers for a year ormore after University of California,Berkeley, has been training. variety of cultures.of their formalanthropological and linguistic children's languageacquisition in a consisted of fourworkshops, Sociolinguistics, because The summer program The Council'sCommittee on participants: one on child grammar, earlier research onsuch learningeach restricted to 8 of its concern that most conducted by Slobin; two onsociolinguistics, conducted the processes bywhich children had largely neglected by Ervin-Tripp andGumperz; and one onchild learn not simply the grammarand phonetics of a Stanford different social con-phonology, conducted byCharles Ferguson of language, but whenand howin Sociolin- extend theUniversity (chairman ofthe Committee on textsto useit, encouragedthe group to wereparticularly geographically andsubstan-guistics). The sociolinguistics groups scope ofits project both in assessing beliefsabout lan- field studies in severaldifferent areasconcerned with problems tively, to include guage, studyingcode-switching, discoveringsociolin- of the world and toinvestigate the broaderaspects of meaning of "acquisition of communi-guistic rules, anddetermining the social learning implied in the term was tointegrate micro- Thus the group hasbeen concernedspeech variation. Their purpose cative competence." sociolinguistics by relatingthe insights ofgenerative of that subject: (1)What features of with three aspects grammar tosocial interactiontheory, in the context of phonological, grammatical,and semanticdevelopment be related tospecific research problems. seem tobe universal?What features can included 32 pre- and post- (2) What are The workshop participants special structuresin particular languages? backgrounds in linguisticsand development in varioussocial uses ofdoctoral students with the patterns of the social sciences.Among these were sevenwho had language? How earlyand in whatforms do sociolin- guided by relations betweenrecently returned frommaking field studies, guistic rules appear?(3) What are the which had also been usedby the direc- organization of thecommunity, valuesaboutthe Field Manual the social tors of theworkshops in their ownresearch.2 The language and its uses,and how thechild is spoken to seven fieldworkers visited thevarious workshops when and rewarded forspeaking? in the field and collaborators havebeen Johncalled upon, todiscuss their experience In this project my in collecting andanalyzing data. and linguist, DanSlobin, psy-problems encountered Gumperz, anthropologist distinguished visitingscholars took part of advancedgraduate studentsA number of cholinguist, and a group weeks in the workshops; someof them in preparationof a preliminaryFieldfor one to three who participated also gave publiclectures.3 The workshopparticipants Manual to guidetheir joint effortsin sites around the appeared in the world.' The firstfruits of this research who had completed fieldwork prior to the 2 The seven students Blount, data and experiencebrought summer sessionand the sites oftheir research were: Ben summerof 1968 in the Samoa; Claudia Mitchell students, who hadattempted to apply the Kenya; Jan Brukman,India; Keith Kernan, back by these (blacks); Brian Stross,Mexico; Rodney Vlasek, Kernan, California participating in Nigeria; Carolyn Wardrip,California (whites). Also Professor of Rhetoric at theUniversity of California, about to begin research in * The author is the workshops wereDavid Argoff who was Berkeley, and a memberof the Council'sCommittee on Sociolinguistics. bilinguals, and EdwardHernandez, on Professor of Anthropology, also Finland on Russian-Finnish With her colleaguesJohn J. Gumperz, Funds for the field workof Messrs. Dan I. Slobin, AssociateProfessor of Mexican-American bilinguals. had been pro- a member ofthe committee, and Argoff and Brukman, Mrs.Kernan, and Miss Wardrip engaged for some time inresearch on chil- supported Psychology, she has been vided from the committee'sresearch budget; the others were learning and in preparationof a manual of field study the National Sdence Founda- dren's language by other agencies.A training grant from granted to the Councilby the National Science following students fromvarious universities to at- methods. With funds GZ-994) for the com- tion enabled the Foundation (Grant Nos.GS-1241, GS-1919, and before undertaking fieldwork: Kay Atkinson, provided for field work in1966-68 by tend the workshops J. Mehan, P. David mittee's program, support was Mary Ann Campbell,Ronald W. Casson, Sybillyn associated with the project.The summer work- Risen, James N. Schenkein,Abigail B. Sher, predoctoral students partially Pavy,III, Diana J. here were cosponsored bythe committee and Merrill K. Swain. shops described will appear as "The Sandra M. Storm, and supported by its funds.Part of the present report given on child language,by Edward Klima and Competence by Children inDifferent 3 Public lectures were into diversity of language Acquisition of Communicative Martin Braine; onsocial factors entering Cultures," in Proceedinpof the EighthInternational Congress of Bernstein, Vera John, andCourtney Cazden; on Sciences, in press. and its use, by Basil Jakobovits; on Ethnological and Anthropological cross-cultural studies ofaffective meaning, by Leon ed., Field Manual forCross-Cultural Study of the Schegloff; and on com- 1 Dan I. Slobin, units in naturalconversation, by Emanuel Communicative Competence,University of California, their visits, the work- Acquisition of municative competence,by Dell Hymes. Besides Berkeley, ASUC Store,1967. IPIF VOLUME 23, NUMBER 2 224O1O were offered courses in the regular summer programand analysis of the data collected by others. From these of the University, according to the convenience of thepapers 4 and the discussions, the issues considered in the relevant departments. These courses included trans-workshops will next be illustrated. formational grammar, phonetics, child language, lan- The first area of concern, traditional structural de- guage and society, and language and the individual. velopment, has the longest and richest history, but we The actual operation of the summer program waswished to extend knowledge of the variety of language somewhat different than we had expected. The moststructures. The field workers found that the earliest conspicuous change was in the composition of the work-sentences in English, Luo, and Samoan are so similar shops. The original restriction of each to 8 students wasin structure and content as to seem like translations. based on the belief that a larger group would work lessThe most interesting test for these early fixed-order efficiently. However, many more students were per-sentences was Finnish, since the adult model has free mitted to audit the workshops, and the effect was to alterword order. Melissa Bowerman, a graduate student at completely the nature of the groups, to inhibit theHarvard University, found that one Finnish-speaking participation of some members, and to convert the ses-child, before he used suffixes, invented a fixed-order sions from workshops into lectures or large seminars.rule, and another invented fixed order in the one place In any such training program there is of course a pain-where it mattered for ambiguityin subject-verb-object ful choice to be made between the benefits of added ex-sentences. posure of "extra" participants to the ideas discussed When samples of children's babbling in Chinese, by each group, and the deeper analysis and freer inter-Russian, and English were compared, judges could not change possible in small groups of persons with greaterdifferentiate them,5 which does not, of course, rule out commitment. In the ena, one workshop group votedthe possibility that differences are objectively present. to meet secretly to make the latter choice possible. Furthermore, some of the well-accepted generalizations The workshops accomplished somewhat less analysisabout phonological development did not hold true in of field data than we had anticipated. I believe threedetailed cases. From the very earliest stages of language factors were responsible. One was of course the structuredevelopment, we could find evidence of style shifting for of the workshops, which became in some cases, depend-different addressees and different social contexts, usually ing on the number in attendance and the diversi ty ofin the form of whispering vs. shouting, or intonational disciplines represented, general forums for theoreticalvariation. These variations are the early features enter- argument. A second factor was the series of very stimu-ing into sociolinguistic rules. lating visitors, each of whom discussed his own material. Their visits inevitably disrupted somewhat the con-SOCIAL USES OF LANGUAGE tinuity of work and also attracted additional auditors. Least controllable was the fact that many of the data The social uses of language by children or adults could were not yet in a form to beanalyzed, since the workersbe examined in two ways. One is with reference to a had just returned from the field and had not reducedpsychological system of categories of motive or intent, their tapes to transcriptions or even catalogued ade-such as playing with sounds and patterns, obtaining quately the sociolinguistic data scattered through thegoods and services from others, and so on; the other is in tapes. Those topics for which quite specific tests wereterms of categorieswithin the culture of the child proposed in the manuale.g., babbling and imitationsor of the adultof speech events, episodes, andspeech presented the least difficulties for profitable workshopacts. A marriage ceremony, a conference, judicial trial, use. The field workers haveconcluded that there woulddramatic performance, or alphabet game is a speech have been advantages in postponing the summer sessionevent with identifiable components and rules. To quali- for a year to give them time to gain greater control overfy as a native speaker in a speech community one must their materials. learn to behave as though one knew these rules. Episodes Papers written during the summer included researchor discourse stages are unified byparticipants, topic, and proposals, further reports on projects already begun,focus, for example, a story embedded in a conversation, a set of toasts at a bridaldinner, an exchange of vows in shops profited from visits of Harvey Sacks and Aaron Cicourel, who are a wedding ceremony.Speech acts are the briefest com- concerned with the study of natural conversation, and Ursula Bellugi- Klima and Carlota Smith, who have studied children's language. Daniel 4 The papers have been made available under their titles through Dato reported on his studies of the grammatical structure of compe- the EducationalRest=t1riformation Center system at the Center tence in bilingual children; William Geohegan, on the structureof for Applied Linguistics as Working Papers of the Language-Behavior address rules; Wick Miller and Roger Shuy, on sociolinguistic fieldResearch Laboratory. work; John Ross, on new developments in linguistic theory. Erving 5 "An Experiment on the Recognition of Babbling," by Kay Atkinson, Goffman joined the group to analyze filmed interaction. Brian MacWhinney, and Caroline Stoel. JUNE 1969 23 ponents in episodes: included are requests, commands,tial style to some addressees, colloquial style to others, greetings, farewells, apologies, introductions, and ex-English to one set, Spanish to specific others. William pressions of thanks.° Geohegan's comparison of address structures of Samal We would like to know what uses of language existspeakers in the Philippines suggests that the number of in children's cultures, which uses are derived from inter-social features which are involved and the size of the action with adults, what the structure of speech eventsrepertoireofalternatives both change evenafter appears to be to children, and what rules of social dis-age U.° A paper by Ronald Casson describes in detail tribution speech events may have, i.e., when they shouldhow the study of kin terms of address and reference can occur and who the participants should be. help to define relevaat social features and examine the Examples of "affirmation, testing truthfulness, bets,social meaning of alternations. bargain making, swapping, giving, gaining possession, We are concerned, second, with the internal structure claiming precedence, avoiding, secret keeping, andof these systems of alternation. How early do children obtaining respite" were found by the Opies in theirlearn to use a uniform formal style, a narrative style, research on the oral tradition of children in Greatthe separation of two languages? Edward Hernandez Britain,7 but whether these exist as ethnological cate-found phonological separation of languages in three- gories, and the rules for their use remain to be studiedyear-old Mexican Americans, but in Claudia Kernan's in specific face-to-face groups. In the Oakland black com-role-shifting data the "co-occurrence rules" seem much munity studied by Claudia Mitchell Kernan, childrenless strict. It is as though a few stereotyped features are wereas others have noted abouturban black childrenused to mark the role, but the children resume un- very verbal and concerned with verbalskills. From themarked normal speech readily. age of two they knew a rich collectionof nursery rhymes Third, we are concerned with sequences within speech and songs, and at older ages engaged in such verbal playevents as formal structures that children must learn. as alphabet games, poems, stories,riddles, and role-They do, of course, learn sequences in games quite early. playing games. Taunts were used for group definition.A simple example of "boundary marking" is that greet- Young children already knew about a form of insultings come first on encountering someone. We might called "sounding," although they produced simplifiedexpect that the most conspicuous frames for speech versions of it, and did not until adolescence becomeevents, such as changes in personnel, might be most adept at the more complex and subtle verbal insulteasily identified by children and be communicated earli- game called "the dozens" or"signifying." 8 est in their rules of sequence. In each of these three Numerous instancesof roleplaying revealthatkinds of sociolinguistic rules, we are concerned with both routines and speech features may identify roles.their productivitythat is, with their effect on the For example, it was found that four-year-olds know thatchild's ability to behave appropriately without explicit the term "honey" belongs to mothers. InOakland ainstruction or without imitation; this provides some nine-year-old "doctor" said to his patient, "What aboutevidence that he perceives the appropriate social fea- about what, young man?" The child knew that a doc-tures of the addressee or situation, and that he knows the tor speaking to his patient uses formalEnglish. Even thelinguistic patterns required. youngest children use baby talkfeatures in addressing infants. However, these styles lack internal coherenceINFLUENCES OF ADULTS and tend to appear fleetingly as role markers rather than ON CHILDREN'S SPEECH with the consistency of adult styles. The kinds of sociolinguistic rules we examinedin- We also examined the effects of the milieu of the child clude, first, those in which social features govern theon the rate and type of his languagedevelopment. The selection of linguistic alternatives, for instance,deferen-most concrete results were presented by KerryDrach, Ben Kobashigawa, Carol Pfuderer, and Dan Slobin in a 6 Tor further discussion of sociolinguistic concepts,see John J.series of papers on the linguistic structure of speech to Gurnperz and Dell Hymes, eds., "The Ethnography of Communica- tion," American Anthropologist, Vol. 6, Part 2,1964; Hymes andchildren. There has been considerable discussion about Gumperz, Directions in Sociolinguistics, New York: Holt, Rinehart & how children can handle complex and "degenerate" Winston, in press; Susan Ervin-Tripp, "Sociolinguistics" in L. Berko- linguistic material. However, the workshop analyses of witz, ed., Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 4,New data from Cambridge and Oakland samples of speech to York: Academic Press, in press. 7 Iona Opie and Peter Opie, The Lore and Languageof Schoolchildren by adults and other children suggest a dramatic Children, New York: Oxford University Press, 1967, Chap. 8. characterization of the style used in addressing children. 8 A full report on the verbal skills found among theOakland chil- dren will appear in Mrs. Kernan's doctoral dissertation (Unive_sity 9 A detailed report will be included in his dissertation (Stanford of California, Berkeley). University). 24 VOLUME 23, NUMBER 2 It is brief, highly repetitive, syntactically simple, lacksa large difference in the elaboration of lexicon and the hesitations and false starts, has few subordinate clauses,conceptual framework for discussing questions about and abounds in questions and imperatives encouraginglanguage itself. On some concrete points there was a lot response. The frequency of basic syntactic devices isof agreement, as on when babies first talk, but terms for sufficiently similar in the different samples to suggestspeech acts, for styles of speech, and for differences in a common adaptation to child addressees, althoughspeech were sometimes absent. One needs, then, to con- speakers varied somewhat in ability to adjust their stylesider what kinds of societies require that their members to the changing competence of children as they growbe aware of aspects of speaking. This is just a special older. We have made this analysis only for English, andcase of the question why an elaborated lexicon for any do not know whether there are similar features insemantic domain is developedif in some societies speech addressed to infants in other languages. speech is a domain as such. While the structure of speech to children may be simi- The arguments over interviewing brought to the lar in different social groups, there may be quite dif-surface a conflict between the points of view of anthro- ferent uses of language in different families. In this fieldpologists who are very conscious that surface forms may the most fully developed research has been done inhave different meanings in different social groups, and England by Basil Bernstein and his collaborators, whopsychologists who are concerned with standardization have recently complete(' a detailed study of the relationsand comparability. The psychologists among the work- between adult communicative needs and values, prac-shop participants, as a result of some vivid illustrations tices toward children, and children's speech. He haspresented by the field workers, became more aware of argued that the uses of communication, for example inthe relevance of ethnographic context, and the inade- adult occupations, may vary widely and systematically.quacy of translation as a device for retaining the "deep These in turn affect what adults value in children'sstructure" of information sought. The conflict of values speech, what uses they stimulate, what kinds of appealsin such encounters is best reconciled through prolonged they make to children during socialization, and so on.informal discussion and joint commitment to a research For example, if parents allow children to talk about theproblem, such as ',hose examined last summer, which reasons for an act, from an early age the children mayraises questions of comparability and validity. be rewarded for verbal persuasion. In contrast, families The sociolinguistics involved in the summer training in which behavior is in accordance with status-specificprogram is a special branch which has come to be known rules or power and authority alone do not stimulate simi-as microsociolinguistics. Features of the larger society lar uses of language. In the children's speech studiedsuch as degree of industrialization, literacy, and popula- there were considerable differences in the elaborationtion density were considered relevant only as they were of nominal categories in terms of variety, adjectivalrepresented in the language uses to which the child was richness, and amount of modification, in relation to so-exposed, the values of his socializers, and his linguistic cial variations." These differences were attributed todaily cycle. the uses of language in families. Bernstein spent several weeks participating in the workshops, explaining hisTHE WORKSHOPS AS TRAINING DEVICES theories and data schedules, and enabled the partici- pants to correct common misconceptions of Americans How efficient were the workshops as training devices? about the London research. Since their conclusion we have been working on con- How many of these findings can be tested by tradi-vercrent data from the several field sites. We have a tional methods of informant work with adults? Notglimpse of what could have happened if the participants many. We compared the various interview scheduleshad defined narrower issues and remained committed to about language and values concerning language use em-them for three months, rather than visiting all the work- ployed in our field sites and found that often only in-shops as many did. From the standpoint of training, tensive preliminary exploration of the framework ofthere are advantages in working jointly on the same terminology and belief with a few individuals could laybody of data. On the other hand, many participants be- an appropriate foundation for extensive interviewing.lieved strongly that they ne,!cled breadth of training too, Comparing interviews in the Koya tribal group in Indiaand that if they were confined, for instance, to studying with those of lower middle-class Californians, we foundthe grammar of two-word sentences, they would not learn about bilingual code-switching rules and the struc- 10 Basil Bernstein, "A Sociolinguistic Approach to Socialization," ture of address-term selection as examples of the "gram- in Hymes and Gumperz, eds., Directions in Sociolinguistics, op. cit.; W. Brandis and D. Henderson, Social Class, Language and Communi- mar" of sociolinguistic regularities. Because of the broad cation, London: Routledge & Kegan Paul, in press. areas covered by the workshops, and the unusual degree JUNE 1969 25 the encounters made of cross-disciplinary backgroundrepresented by theby collaboration across disciplines, faculty, the students were exposed to awide range of re-may lay thebasis for future productive research. lated work, and for many the experience wasintense. For most of the participants thesummer's interchanges and groups at the Univer- participatedin advancedcross-raised many new questions, Anyone who has Texas, Harvard, and Cali- disciplinary groups knows how painfullyslow the mutualsities of Illinois, Michigan, and Berkeley are con- education is, once the participantsyield part of theirfornia at Irvine, Santa Barbara, of their own field to a commontinuing research along the linesdiscussed.11 In Berkeley sense of the primacy the field results with the commitment to a conceptual orresearch task. This ofwork continues on integrating issue behind the question of open oraim of developing a morecomprehensive theory of ac- course was the (or communi- closed workshops, and on the basisof experience withquisition of sociolinguistic competence including linguists, educators,psychologists,cative competence), on studiesof the use of language in a group the structure and devel- anthropologists, sociologists, andspeech teachers, weidentifying group boundaries, children, and still do not know the wisersolution. opment of code-and style-switching in In farewell some of thestudents pointed out that un-formal analysis of the structureof coding rules. like faculty who travel toconferences, they had never met their fellowsfrom other universities.For some, 11 In Santa Barbara, AaronCicourel, Kenneth Jennings, and Robert had met anyone sharing theirBoese are continuing work onthe development of communicative this was the first time they deaf sign language, some of whom it was an exhilarating ex-competence in children who use intellectual ccrnmitments and later become skilled at code-switchingbetween native sign, English.. perience, imparting some of theshock of realignment of influenced sign and finger-spelling, andoral-lipreading.Boese, whose beliefs. Since we believe thatthe kind of field research mother tongue is sign language, gave severalvideotaped presentations we envisionin sociolinguistics canbest be conducted of these phenomena.

THE INTERNATIONALCONFERENCE ON SOCIALPSYCHOLOGY IN PRAGUE, OCTOBER7-11, 1968 by Jaromir Janozdek and HenriTajfel* invitation to hold it in Prague wasproffered by the THE idea of the Pragueconference grew out of discus- of social psychologistsCzechoslovak Academy of Sciences.Funds for partial sions at the international meeting conference were made available to the held in Vienna in April1967, under the joint auspicesofsupport of the the Council's Committee onTransnational Social Psy-Council by the Ford Foundation. Association for Experimental At a meeting of the planningcommittee with Henry chology and the European in January 1968, joint Social Psychology.' Theparticipants in the Vienna con-W. Riecken at Aix-en-Provence research in-sponsorship of the conference bythe Czechoslovak ference found that they had many common Transnational that a second meeting tocontinue andAcademy of Sciences, the Committee on terests and agreed European Association for extend the contacts initiatedin Vienna would help toSocial Psychology, and the Experimental Social Psychology wasarranged; a pro- advance research andinternational scientific cooperation gram of lectures,sessions of working groups to examine in social psychology. Aplanning committee 2 was named special topics, and informaldiscussions of developments to explore the prospectsfor such a conference, and an in social psychology invarious countries was worked out; invited were selected. * The authors areaffiliatedrespectively withthe Czechoslovakand the scholars to be Academy of Sdences, Prague,and the University of Bristol,and are The conference was held atthe Hotel International members of the Council'sCommittee on TransnationalSocial Psy- in Prague, October 7-11,1968. Forty-three participants chology. The other members areLeon Festinger, New School for the United Morton Deutsth, ColumbiaUniversity; were able toattend; they came from Canada, Social Research (chairman); France, West Germany, Italy, Harold H. 10,1ley, Universityof California, Los Angeles; JaapKoeke- States, United Kingdom, bakker, Netherlands Institutefor Preventive Medicine, Leiden;John the Netherlands, Norway,Czechoslovakia, Poland, Ro- of Paris; T. Lanzetta, DartmouthCollege; Serge Moscovici, University mania, the Soviet Union,and Yugoslavia?' Short wel- and Stanley Schachter,Columbia University; staff, StanleyLehmann. Social Psychology; Notes on theInternational 1 Cf. "Transnational Deutsch, Festinger, Irle, Janoukk, Kelley, and 9-14, 1967," Items, September 1967, pp. 3 In addition to Messrs. Conference in Vienna, April Tajfel, the participants wereRobert P. Abelson, Yale University; 30-32. Erika Apfelbaum and Michel Pécheux,Laboratory of Social Psychology, 2 Henri Tajfel (chairman);Martin Irle, University of Mannheim; Barbiero, Anna Maria Galdo, and H. Kelley; Serge Moscovici; andVladimir University of Paris; Maria Carmela Jaromir Janoukk; Harold Gustavo Iacono, University ofNaples; Vera Bokorová, Zdenek Helus, A. Yadov, University ofLeningrad. VOLUME 23, NUMBER 2 26