“Scapegoatability”: Assessing Spatial Variations in Collective Violence Against the Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia

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“Scapegoatability”: Assessing Spatial Variations in Collective Violence Against the Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia Degrees of “Scapegoatability”: Assessing Spatial Variations in Collective Violence against the Ethnic Chinese in Indonesia Suranjan Weeraratne, Department of Political Science McGill University, Montreal April 2009 A thesis submitted to McGill University in partial fulfillment of the requirements of the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.) © Copyright Suranjan Weeraratne, 2009 ABSTRACT Many instrumental expositions of collective violence have examined the role of self–interested ethnic/religious entrepreneurs in inciting riots. The concept of scapegoating is frequently used to explain how opportunistic elites attempt to deflect blame onto vulnerable ethnic minorities, particularly during times of socioeconomic and political upheaval. However, the notion of scapegoating is under-theorized in the conflict literature and the question of why elite scapegoating only sometimes leads to violence is seldom addressed. This dissertation seeks to redress the balance by interrogating spatial variations in violence against the ethnic Chinese in Indonesia (a widely scapegoated group) in the late New Order period of President Suharto. The study argues that elite-orchestrated campaigns of scapegoating succeed only if specific attributes invoked in such campaigns resonate at the local level; violence is more likely when prevailing local conditions amplify the pointed nature of the elite rhetoric. This in turn magnifies the threat perceived by the local community, provides focal point/s for mobilization against the disliked ―other‖ and in turn makes certain Chinese communities more ―scapegoatable.‖ Typically, scapegoating of the Chinese entails invoking entrenched stereotypes of the group as non-Moslem, non-native, economically dominant outsiders. Local mechanisms which activate these stereotypes include higher visibility of non-Moslem sites of worship, heightened ethnic competition and ostensible symbols of wealth associated with the Chinese. The study draws on literature from political science, social psychology and ethnic demography, highlights the salience of local cleavages and stresses the ii interaction between macro- and micro-foundations of violence. Existing research practice often takes the ―riot episode‖ as a single observation. The extent of spatial variations in violence demonstrated in this dissertation cautions against such homogenization and stresses the need to disaggregate the unit of analysis in conflict studies. The study adopts a mixed-methods approach. Three large-N datasets compiled at city, regency and neighborhood levels across Indonesia allow variations in anti-Chinese rioting to be explicated at different spatial aggregations. This is complemented by qualitative material obtained through field surveys and interviews conducted in several cities in Indonesia during six months of fieldwork in 2006 and 2007. Further, the study employs geospatial technology (GIS) to digitally map patterns of violence at various spatial units. iii RÉSUMÉ De nombreuse explications instrumentales sur le violence collective ont examiné le rôle d'entrepreneurs ethniques et religieux intéressés dans des émeutes d'incitation. Le concept de bouc émissaire est fréquemment employé pour expliquer comment les élites opportunistes essayent de guider le blâme sur des minorités ethniques vulnérables, en particulier pendant des périodes de bouleversement socio-économique et politique. Cependant, la notion de bouc émissaire est sous-théorisée dans la littérature de conflit, et la question : pourquoi l'élite choisi un bouc émissaire mène quelquefois à la violence? est rarement abordée. Cette thèse cherche à redonner un équilibre en interrogeant des variations spatiales de violence contre les personnes d'origine Chinoise en Indonésie (un groupe largement considéré comme bouc émissaire) vers la fin de la ‗Nouvelle Période d'Ordre‘ du Président Suharto. L'étude argumente que les campagnes orchestrées par élite qui choisissent un bouc émissaire réussissent seulement si les attributs spécifiques invoqués dans de telles campagnes résonnent au niveau local; la violence est plus probable quand les conditions locales amplifient la nature aiguë de la rhétorique des élites. Ceci amplifie la menace perçue par la communauté locale, fournit un ou plusieurs points focaux pour la mobilisation contre ‗l‘autre‘ peu apprécié et `assure aux communautés chinoises d‘être plus ‗bouc émissair-able‘. Typiquement, la faire bouc émissaire du Chinois nécessite d'appeler des stéréotypes indélogeables du groupe comme non-Musulmans, étrangers économiquement dominants non-natifs. Les mécanismes locaux qui activent ces stéréotypes incluent une visibilité plus élevée des emplacements de iv non-Musulmans du culte, de la concurrence ethnique intensifiée et des symboles apparents de la richesse liés au Chinois. Inspirée par la littérature des sciences politiques, psychologie sociale et démographie, l'étude souligne la prépondérance des clivages locaux et l'interaction entre le macro et les micro-fondations de la violence. La pratique existante de recherches prend souvent l'episode d'émeute `comme un événement simple‘. L'ampleur des variations spatiales de la violence démontrée dans cette thèse avertit contre une telle homogénéisation et souligne la nécessité de désagréger l'unité de l'analyse dans des études de conflit. L'étude adopte une approche des méthodes mélangées. Trois grands-N ensembles de données compilés aux niveaux de la ville, de la région et du voisinage à travers l'Indonésie permettent des variations de l'émeute anti-Chinoise d'être explicitées à différentes échelles spatiales. Ceci est complimenté avec les données qualitatives obtenues par des enquêtes et des entrevues de terrain dans plusieurs villes en Indonésie sur une durée de six mois de travaux sur le terrain en 2006 et 2007. De plus, l'étude utilise la technologie geospatial (IGS) pour tracer digitalement des modèles de violence à diverses échelles spatiales. v CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES ...................................................................................................x LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................... xi ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................... xi ABBREVIATIONS ............................................................................................. xvi GLOSSARY ...................................................................................................... xviii CHAPTER ONE ......................................................................................................1 Introduction ..............................................................................................................1 Background to the Problem................................................................................. 1 The Problem ........................................................................................................ 6 Entrepreneurial Ethnic Minorities – Ripe for Scapegoating .......................... 7 Entrepreneurial Ethnic Minorities and Spatial Variations in Violence ....... 10 Anti-Chinese Violence in Indonesia .............................................................. 12 Anti-Chinese Violence in the late New Order: Rationale for Case Selection .............................................................................................. 15 The Argument ................................................................................................... 19 Theorizing Scapegoating .............................................................................. 20 Activation of Ethnic Scapegoating ................................................................ 24 Activation of Economic Scapegoating .......................................................... 25 Activation of Religious Scapegoating ........................................................... 28 Research Design ................................................................................................ 30 Quantitative Methods .................................................................................... 30 Qualitative Methods ...................................................................................... 32 Geo-Spatial Analysis ..................................................................................... 33 Significance of Study ........................................................................................ 34 Organization of Study ....................................................................................... 35 CHAPTER TWO ...................................................................................................38 Understanding Anti-Chinese Violence in Indonesia: Constructing a Theoretical Framework .............................................................................................................38 Surveying the Literature on Anti-Chinese Violence in Indonesia .................... 38 Alternative Framework for Understanding Anti-Chinese Violence ................. 46 Ethnic Chinese as Scapegoats ...................................................................... 47 Theorizing “Scapegoatability” ..................................................................... 51 Activation of Ethnic Scapegoating ................................................................ 55 Local Mechanisms that Heighten Ethnic “Scapegoatability” .................. 56 Activation of Economic Scapegoating .........................................................
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