palgrave advances in the crusades Palgrave Advances Titles include: Patrick Finney (editor) INTERNATIONAL HISTORY Jonathan Harris (editor) BYZANTINE HISTORY Marnie Hughes-Warrington (editor) WORLD HISTORIES Helen J. Nicholson (editor) THE CRUSADES Jonathan Woolfson (editor) RENAISSANCE HISTORIOGRAPHY Forthcoming: Jonathan Barry (editor) WITCHCRAFT STUDIES Katherine O’Donnell (editor) IRISH HISTORY Richard Whatmore (editor) INTELLECTUAL HISTORY Also by Helen J. Nicholson MEDIEVAL WARFARE: THEORY AND PRACTICE OF WAR IN EUROPE, 300–1500 THE KNIGHTS HOSPITALLER THE KNIGHTS TEMPLAR: A NEW HISTORY LOVE, WAR AND THE GRAIL: TEMPLARS, HOSPITALLERS AND TEUTONIC KNIGHTS IN MEDIEVAL EPIC AND ROMANCE THE MILITARY ORDERS, VOLUME 2 (editor) CHRONICLE OF THE THIRD CRUSADE: A TRANSLATION OF THE ITINERARIUM PERGERINORUM ET GESTA REGIS RICARDI TEMPLARS, HOSPITALLERS AND TEUTONIC KNIGHTS: IMAGES OF THE MILITARY ORDERS, 1128–1291 Palgrave Advances Series Standing Order ISBN 1–4039–3512–2 (Hardback) 1–4039–3513–0 (Paperback) (outside North America only) You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order. Please contact your bookseller or, in the case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with your name and address, the title of the series and the ISBN quoted above. Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS, England palgrave advances in the crusades edited by helen j. nicholson Editorial matter, selection, introduction © Helen J. Nicholson 2005 Remaining chapters © Palgrave Macmillan 2005 Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2005 978-1-4039-1236-7 All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this publication may be made without written permission. No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP. Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages. The authors have asserted their right to be identified as the authors of this work in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. First published 2005 by PALGRAVE MACMILLAN Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 6XS and 175 Fifth Avenue, New York, N.Y. 10010 Companies and representatives throughout the world PALGRAVE MACMILLAN is the global academic imprint of the Palgrave Macmillan division of St Martin’s Press LLC and of Palgrave Macmillan Ltd. Macmillan® is a registered trademark in the United States, United Kingdom and other countries. Palgrave is a registered trademark in the European Union and other countries. ISBN 978-1-4039-1237-4 ISBN 978-0-230-52409-5 (eBook) DOI 10.1057/9780230524095 This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully managed and sustained forest sources. A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 14 13 12 11 10 09 08 07 06 05 contents list of maps and plates vii preface viii chronology of the crusades, 1095–1798 x chronology of main secondary texts xv notes on contributors xvii introduction: definition and scope 1 helen j. nicholson part i: aspects of the practice of crusading 1. ideology and motivations in the first crusade 15 jean flori 2. crusading and canon law 37 james muldoon 3. crusading warfare 58 john france part ii: approaches to the evidence 4. the material culture of the crusades 83 maria georgopoulou 5. prosopography 109 alan v. murray 6. gender theory 130 deborah gerish vi palgrave advances in the crusades 7. frontiers 148 nora berend 8. crusades and colonization in the baltic 172 sven ekdahl 9. national feeling and the legacy of the crusades 204 jean richard part iii: images of the protoganists 10. the crusaders’ perceptions of their opponents 225 margaret jubb 11. byzantine and modern greek perceptions of the crusades 245 eleni sakellariou 12. muslim reactions to the crusades 269 helen j. nicholson further reading 289 index 299 list of maps and plates maps 1. europe and the middle east xx 2. the holy land 59 3. the iberian peninsula 155 4. the baltic region 173 plates 1. pilgrim ampulla 87 2. prayer in gethsemane, from the psalter of queen melisende 88 3. frontispiece to the book of joshua, from the arsenal bible 90 4. penthesilea and amazons with trojans, from the histoire universelle 91 5. ceramic plate showing a knight 92 6. icon of george and theodore on horseback with donor, from sinai 94 7. protomaiolica plate from ‘atlit 97 8. lead seal of john of brienne 98 9. beaker depicting buildings 100 10. brass canteen inlaid with silver, front 102 11. brass canteen, verso 103 vii preface This volume is intended as an introductory guide to how certain concerns and approaches have been applied to the study of the crusades. It is not a history of the crusades but, rather, an analysis of how different aspects of crusading studies have developed and where they are now. Each chapter offers an interpretative and historiographical study and concentrates on issues such as methodology and source analysis, rather than giving an account of events. Contributors have not concentrated solely on the crusade in the Holy Land, but also consider the crusading movement in other crusading fields as appropriate. This guide is aimed both at postgraduates and at academics within the discipline, to provide an overview and context for their research. It is hoped that it will also be useful to scholars outside the discipline who encounter crusading language, for example, in the context of other research, or who wish to view a cross-section of the research being done in the area. The contributors include older scholars with a well-established reputation within and outside the field of crusading studies, and younger scholars whose work has already made an impact within the field. As editor I am delighted to have been able to include contributions from scholars working in the US, Greece, France and Germany as well as the UK. Their various approaches to the debates they discuss present readers who are approaching the subject for the first time with an overview of the wide spectrum of views held by leading scholars in this field. The views they put forward here are their own and do not necessarily represent the views of the editor. My thanks are due to my colleague Professor Peter Edbury and to Palgrave’s anonymous readers for their very constructive and helpful viii preface ix comments, criticism and suggestions. I am also grateful to John Morgan of the School of History and Archaeology, Cardiff University, who took some of the photographs, to Nigel Nicholson for producing the maps and the index, and to the copyright owners of the plates in Chapter 4 who gave permission for the reproduction of the images in this book. All translations in this book, unless otherwise credited in the notes, are by the authors. The chapters by Sven Ekdahl, Jean Flori and Jean Richard were translated into English by the editor. Helen Nicholson chronology of the crusades, 1095–1798 1053 Pope Leo IX’s forces are defeated by the Normans at the Battle of Civitate. 1064 Barbastro (Spain) is captured by a combined Christian force. 1070s The Hospital of St John is founded at Jerusalem to care for poor sick pilgrims. Later it takes on military responsibilities. 1071 The Byzantine army under Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes is defeated by the Seljuk Turks at Manzikert. 1074 Pope Gregory VII plans a military expedition to assist the Byzantine emperor against the Seljuk Turks. 1084 The Seljuk Turks capture the Byzantine city of Antioch in Syria. 1085 Toledo (Spain) is captured by King Alfonso VI of Castile. 1086 Alfonso VI of Castile is defeated by the radical Muslim Almoravids at Sagrajas/Zallaqa. 1087 A Christian naval force attacks and plunders al-Mahdiyyah (North Africa). 1095 The First Crusade is preached by Pope Urban II at the Council of Clermont. 1099 The First Crusade captures Jerusalem. The Latin (western European) kingdom of Jerusalem is founded. 1100–01 An expedition to the East is defeated by the Turks. 1119 Battle of the ‘Field of Blood’: Prince Roger of Antioch is defeated by Il-ghazi ibn Artuk of Mardin. 1120 The military religious order of the Temple is founded in Jerusalem. 1122–24 A Venetian naval expedition goes to the Holy Land: Tyre is captured. x chronology of the crusades, 1095–1798 xi 1129 A crusader expedition sets out to attack Damascus but is unsuccessful. 1144 Zengi, ruler of Mosul and Aleppo, captures Edessa. 1146 Death of Zengi. 1147 Lisbon is captured by Alfonso I of Portugal and crusading forces. 1147–49 The Second Crusade. The crusaders besiege Damascus, but fail to capture it. Military expeditions are also launched in Spain against the Muslims and in the Baltic area against the Wends. 1153 The forces of King Baldwin III of Jerusalem capture Ascalon. 1154 Nur al-Din (Zengi’s son) captures Damascus. In Spain, the radical Muslim Almohads of Morocco win control of Granada. 1163–69 King Amaury (Amalric) of Jerusalem campaigns against Egypt. 1169 Saladin becomes vizier of Egypt. 1172 In Spain, the Almohad caliph takes control of Seville. 1174 Death of Nur al-Din. Saladin seizes Damascus. 1187 Saladin captures Jerusalem. 1189–92 The Third Crusade. Aim: to recover Jerusalem. It fails, but recovers some territory for the Latin Christians. 1193 Death of Saladin. 1197–98 The German crusade recovers some territory for the Latin Christians and converts the Teutonic Hospital at Acre into a military religious Order, known as the Hospital of St Mary of the Teutons (‘the Teutonic Order’).