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BRIEF CONTENTS

About this Book xiv

About the Author xv

Acknowledgements xvi

1. Allosaurus and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day: Introduction to Evolutionary Psychology 1

2. Evolutionary Epistemology: Research Methods in Evolutionary Psychology 21

3. How Did We Get Here? Genetics, Natural Selection, and Speciation 53

4. Let’s Talk About Sex: Promiscuity, Ovulation, Incest Avoidance, and Sexual Jealousy 93

5. Will You Never Grow Up? Human Development 123

6. Six Children and a Pickle Barrel: Parenting, Stepparenting, and Grandparenting 149

7. Thinking Hard or Hardly Thinking? Evolution, Thought, and Language 171

8. Until Someone Gets Hurt: Evolution and Aggression 207

9. Is there an “I” in Altruism? Evolution and Prosocial Behavior 253

10. Genes, Schmenes: Evolutionary Social and Cultural Psychology 281

11. Death be Somewhat Proud: Terror Management Theory 309

12. On the Origin of Specialness: And How to Save a Planet from It 323

Glossary 347

References 370

Subject Index 393

Name Index 399

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CONTENTS

About this Book xiv

About the Author xv

Acknowledgements xvi

1. Allosaurus and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad Day: Introduction to Evolutionary Psychology 1 Homology, paleontology, and psychology 2 We’re not that special 6 Five important facts about how evolution works 7 Evolution is slow 7 Evolution is conservative 7 Evolution comes with baggage 7 Evolution implies continuity 9 Evolution is (pretty) orderly 10 Evolutionary principles in psychology 11 Adaptation and natural selection 12 Love, prey, eat 13 Play dead, keep living 15 For further reading 19 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 19

2. Evolutionary Epistemology: Research Methods in Evolutionary Psychology 21 The four canons of science 22 Determinism 23 Empiricism 24 Parsimony 26 Testability 27 The three requirements for establishing causality 30 Covariation 30 Temporal sequence 31 A detour: radiometric dating 31 Eliminating confounds 33 Another detour: the Human Genome Project 37 Beyond PCR: Other non-experimental methods and techniques 40 Passive observational methods 40 Surveys and interviews 41 Unobtrusive observation 42 Archival research 43 Ethnographies 43

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Internal vs. external validity and the OOPS! heuristic 44 Operationalizations 45 Occasions 45 Populations 46 Situations 46 Is evolutionary psychology just a bunch of “just so” stories? 47 For further reading 51 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 51

3. How Did We Get Here? Genetics, Natural Selection, and Speciation 53 The likely origins of life on earth 55 The biological mechanism of evolution: genetics 59 Basic Mendelian inheritance 59 Do dominant traits “dominate” recessive traits? 61 Post-Mendelian genetics 62 Quantitative genetics and heritability 63 Natural selection happens via genetic variation 66 Mutation and genetic variation 68 Genotype-environment correlations 71 A problem with the PEA model 72 A closer look at natural selection 76 Natural selection via-à-vis artificial selection 76 Not just selective fitness: inclusive fitness 77 Adaptation vs. exaptation 80 Sexual selection 82 Speciation 85 Punctuated equilibrium 90 For further reading 91 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 91

4. Let’s Talk About Sex: Promiscuity, Ovulation, Incest Avoidance, and Sexual Jealousy 93 Sex differences in mating strategies: parental investment theory 94 Common concerns about evolutionary theories 96 Back to sex differences in sexual interest 98 Common myths about evolutionary psychology 101 Evolutionary scientists don’t always agree with one another 103 Evolution and the myth of race 105 Back to parental investment theory 106 The timing of sexual desire 107 Sexual repulsion: incest avoidance 111 A brief detour on the human sense of smell 112 From smell back to incest avoidance 114 Sexual jealousy 115 Cuckoldry rates in people and sexual jealousy 117 Good reason to be jealous: mate poaching 118 For further reading 120 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 120

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5. Will You Never Grow Up? Human Development 123 Haeckel’s time machine 124 What can go wrong sometimes does 126 Evolution and early postnatal development 127 Got milk? Not for long 127 Slow to see, quick to taste 129 Extremely quick to do what’s instinctive 131 The evolution of critical and sensitive periods 131 We’re the animal that’s hardest to study 134 Is being sensitive better than being critical? 135 It’s a jungle out there: proliferation and pruning 138 Evolution, puberty, and the cultural evolution of adolescence 139 The evolution of menopause 141 Evolution and natural versus artificial childbirth 142 The midlife crisis and socioemotional selectivity theory 144 For further reading 147 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 147

6. Six Children and a Pickle Barrel: Parenting, Stepparenting, and Grandparenting 149 Some perspectives on human parenting 150 Three unique aspects of human parenting 151 Love is (almost) all you need 153 Infant attachment style 155 Cinderella, you’re not alone 156 Culture matters, too 157 The child’s age also matters 159 Where was cinderella’s maternal grandma all that time? 161 Parental investment and life history strategies 162 A parent’s main job is conflict management 166 Adoptive parents: the fairy godmother effect? 167 For further reading 169 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 169

7. Thinking Hard or Hardly Thinking? Evolution, Thought and Language 171 Are we general purpose reasoning machines? 172 It’s just not in the cards 172 The paper-folding problem 173 Judgmental heuristics: flying on autopilot 174 Could you be more specific? Genius is domain-specific 177 A savant is neither a soap nor a wine 180 Mental modularity 181 Is there a social exchange or cheater detection module? 183 Do other evolved modules influence reasoning about rules? 185 Is bias always so bad? 186 Error management theory 186 Human brains don’t care for probabilities 189

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Maybe we’re a little too predisposed to think about frequencies 190 A final peek at detecting cheaters 193 Other examples of evolutionary cognitive psychology 194 Foraging and the “hot hand” 194 Look who’s talking 196 Feelings trump thoughts 203 That’s disgusting! 203 For further reading 204 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 205

8. Until Someone Gets Hurt: Evolution and Aggression 207 Three forms of aggression: infection, competition, and predation 209 The pervasiveness of aggression 209 Infection 210 Competition 211 Predation 214 Limitations of the three-category scheme 215 Keys to aggression: fight or flight, costs vs. benefits, and status-seeking 216 The fight-or-flight response 216 The cost–benefit rule 218 Mate hoarding and sexual dimorphism 221 Aggression is an equal opportunity employer 225 Status-seeking in social animals 226 Applying evolutionary principles to people 228 Physical, verbal, and relational aggression 228 Hostile aggression 230 Instrumental aggression 230 Predictors of physical aggression 232 Properties of the aggressor 232 Poverty and social inequality 232 Youth and maleness 233 Physical strength and fighting ability 234 Properties of the potential target 236 Dangerousness of the target 236 Gender of the target 239 Genetic relatedness of potential targets 239 Ingroup versus outgroup status of potential targets 240 Properties of the environment 241 Strength in numbers 241 Culture of honor 242 Potential for detection and punishment 243 An evolutionary spin on five major theories of aggression 243 Realistic group conflict theory 243 Frustration and aggression 244 Heat 245 Reciprocity 246 Modeling 247

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We’re becoming less violent: Pinker’s “better angels” 248 We’re getting nicer 248 Why are we getting nicer? 249 Conclusions 250 For further reading 251 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 251

9. Is there an “I” in Altruism? Evolution and Prosocial Behaviour 253 Blood is thicker than facebook friends: kin selection 256 It’s payback time: reciprocal altruism 257 Reciprocal altruism and the importance of fairness 259 Reciprocal altruism in other species 260 Reciprocal altruism and related processes in people 261 The need for connectedness aids and abets reciprocal altruism 265 Needing to belong and including others in the self 265 Empathy promotes true altruism 268 Lots of things promote helping 270 A little help here, little guys 271 Helping and religiosity: it’s complicated 273 Defectors and reduced selective fitness may not be such big problems 274 The defector argument 274 Cheating death 275 Helping others is truly rewarding 276 Group selection may not be so crazy after all 278 For further reading 280 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 280

10. Genes, Schmenes: Evolutionary Social and Cultural Psychology 281 Just how powerful are social situations? 285 Sherif’s classic conformity studies 285 Hitler as an intuitive social psychologist 287 Milgram’s obedience studies 287 Automatic social tuning illustrates the power of the situation 291 Can situations overshadow sex differences in sexual choosiness? 294 The extreme diversity of human culture 295 A peek at hofstede’s cultural dimensions 295 Cross-cultural variation in religious beliefs 297 Cross-cultural variation in the salience of honor 298 Cross-cultural variation in sexual behavior and marriage 302 For further reading 307 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 307

11. Death be Somewhat Proud: Terror Management Theory 309 Life sucks because we die 310 Cultural worldviews and the dynamics of mortality salience 311 Managing our terror sometimes makes us nicer 315 Other predictions of terror management theory 316

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Some devils (and angels) in the details of terror management 317 For further reading 320 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 320

12. On the Origin of Specialness: And How to Save a Planet from It 323 Talking + trading = writing 326 Applied evolutionary psychology: reducing overreactions 328 Reducing overreactions to recycled water: NEWater 328 Reducing overincarceration: the Len Bias story 330 Reducing helicopter parenting 334 Reducing airport hypervigilance 336 Applied evolutionary psychology: reducing underreactions 337 Saving lives via organ donations 337 Saving the earth: combating climate change 338 Some solutions: default effects 342 Back to fixing climate change 343 Another solution: immediate costs and rewards 343 Conclusions 345 For further reading 345 Sample multiple-choice exam questions 346

Glossary 347

References 370

Subject Index 393

Name Index 399

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Chapter 1 ALLOSAURUS AND THE TERRIBLE, HORRIBLE, NO GOOD, VERY BAD DAY

UCTION TO INTROD EVOLUTION

“I don’t see how we’re ever going to agree if you suggest that natural laws have changed. It’s magical [thinking].” — Bill Nye (2014), the science guy, in a debate about evolution vs. creation

rs About 66 million yea ago,

I’m pretty sure it was on a Tuesday, something truly terrible happened in modern-day Mexico. An extremely large meteorite (10 km wide) obligingly obeyed the laws of physics and smashed into the planet we have since come to adore and abuse. Striking in the Yucatan Peninsula, the massive meteorite created a blast some 30 billion times more powerful than the sum of the atomic bombs that destroyed Hiroshima and Nagasaki in World War II. In an instant, a tropical paradise became a smoldering crater 20 km deep and 160 km wide. Massive tsunamis, earthquakes, and volcanoes were triggered worldwide. Climate change, forest fires, and acid rain must have occurred on an unimaginable scale. Some scientists think it may have taken a decade just for the thick clouds of ash and dust to settle. For the first time in millions of years, it became a terrible time to be a dinosaur. As thick clouds of dust choked the planet, even the cleverest and most resourceful dinosaurs proved to be unprepared to survive on a burning-then-freezing planet practically 1 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 2 EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY

devoid of plant life (Brusatte et al., 2014). Lloyds of London was not answering any phone calls. Virtually all evolutionary biologists believe this epic tragedy for dinosaurs became a wonderful opportunity for mammals like me and you. Actually, the typical mammals who were lucky enough to surviveMorganucodon in the wake of this planetary disaster resembled a chipmunk a lot more than they resembled me and you. Beginning with descendants of the chipmunkish (aka Morgie), many ancient mammals survived the cosmic disaster and then evolved to become the incredibly diverse family of always warm and usually fuzzy creatures that zookeepers and preschoolers know and love. Post-asteroid, most of Morgie’s mammalian descendants had some huge advantages over most dinosaurs. For starters, having fur and being good at staying warm probably helped small mammals survive the harsh nuclear winter that helped extinguish all the big dinosaurs. It was probably an even bigger advantage for small mammals that they could live in small places, away from the fire, snow, and acid rain. Morgie, for example, was only about 10 cm long,extinction roughly as big as you see her in Figure 1.1. If you’re paleontologically sophisticated enough to know that many birdlike dinosaurs also survived this mass , you probably know one likely reason why many of them were able to do so. It’s a lot easier to survive a lengthy global famine when you eat like a bird than when your idea of dinner is half a ton of fresh grass, or filet of Triceratops.

Figure 1.1 Artist Michael H.W.’s impression of Morgie, one of the first known proto-mammals. Morgie’s fur, special jaws, and mammalian inner ear bones set her apart from dinosaurs or reptiles. You share quite a bit of her DNA (her genome).

HOMOLOGY, PALEONTOLOGY, AND PSYCHOLOGY

In the millions of years since the massive asteroid strike, the earth’s inhabitants have slowly but dramatically diversified. About 15–20 million years after the strike, some of Morgie’s mammalian descendants gradually returned to the oceans that spawned all life on earth, eventually evolving into modern whales

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and dolphins. Incidentally, one of the many reasons we know that whales and dolphins evolved from land mammals is that their skeletons strongly resemble those of other mammals. For example, as you can see in Figure 1.2, dolphins have forelimb (“flipper”) bones that strongly resemble the front limb bones of virtually all mammals. Dolphins even have five “finger” bones just like we do, despitehomology the fact that dolphins look totally ridiculous in gloves. The tendency for animals that share a common ancestor to share traits with one another is known as , and it occurs because animals that have an ancestor in common have genes in common. Some whales and dolphins have vestigial (tiny, left over) rear leg bones that never emerge from their bodies. In addition to breathing air, nursing their young, and having special mammalian ear bones, dolphins and whales also share a much greater percentage of their genome with you than they do with the sharks or other large fish that they more closely resemble on the outside. Finally, another piece of evidence strongly suggesting that dolphins and whales evolved from land mammals has to do with the way they swim. Unlike fish, which propel themselves by moving their tails side to side, whales and dolphins move their spines up and down to swim. As a wolf or lion runs, the same thing happens to its spine. Notice that mode of swimming is a behavioral trait grounded in a whale’s skeletal structure. It’s important to note that homology applies to behavioral as well as physical traits, and many of these behavioral traits are grounded in the brain as well as the body. Numerous arguments in this book involve ways in which human beings behave like other mammals, because of their mammalian bodies and/or brains. It would be another 20 million years after some mammals returned to the oceans (about 25–30 million years ago) before the common ancestors of monkeysHomo andsapiens apes split into these two different groups. The apes, by the way, are the ones without tails, and one particular species of great ape, the hominid (you and me), emerged only about 200,000 years ago (Ermini et al., 2015). So our species has only been around for about a fifth of a million years. In fact, it was only 11,000 years ago that we made the agricultural – and then cultural – leaps that have made us the most successful and destructive animals on the planet (Diamond, 1997). I’ll say more about that later. For now, it seems safe to say that no human leaps of any kind would have ever happened if the dinosaurs still ruled. If you’re wondering what this paleontology lesson has to do with psychology, the beginning of the answer is that you and I are mammals. Mammals and proto- mammals lived alongside dinosaurs for more than 100 million years without becoming a very diverse family. Seventy million years ago there were no bats, whales, giraffes, or gorillas. They did not exist because tens of millions of years before mammals hit the scene (or exploded in the Pliocene), dinosaurs had cornered the market on the ecological niches needed to support such highly unusual modern-day mammals. Morgie and most of her ancient mammalian cousins filled a unique environmental niche by eating bugs and being agile enough to stay out of the way of T. rex (or T. rex’s tinier cousins). Although there were some notable exceptions to this rule of tiny rat-likeness among ancient proto-mammals, mammals never became diverse and populous until the dinosaurs became extinct (Meng et al., 2011; O’Leary et al., 2013).

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Figure 1.2 Jerry Crimson Mann’s illustration of homology, which is the idea that related species often share common traits, because they share genes derived from a common ancestor. Despite their extreme diversity, mammals all have amazingly similar forelimb and hind limb bones.

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Thus, in the absence of that deadly meteorite strike, the chances are virtuallyAve Mariazero that any species of dinosaur would have ever evolved into a quirky, brainy, highly social creature that cares for its young for a couple of decades, sings , conducts psychology experiments, and is susceptible to both yellow fever and Bieber fever. Consider a whole class of animals that are even more ancient than the family loosely known as dinosaurs. Insects were around well before the dinosaurs, and they will probably be here long after human beings are extinct. But it’s exceedingly unlikely they will ever create art or write poetry. In contrast, you and I can do these uniquely human things, as well as a long list of simpler things done only by mammals. There is also a list of things done almost exclusively by vertebrates, by the way, but this discussion would take us back at least 500 million years rather than 66 million years (Kolbert, 2014; Shubin, 2008). Suffice it to say that because we are mammals, we have a lot more in common with our mammalian relatives than most people appreciate (de Waal, 1996; Diamond, We’re1992). not that special

You may have heard that we share more than 98% of our genes with chimpanzees. Perhaps that’s not so shocking. Consider the following thought experiment, adapted from Jared Diamond (1992). Take a male chimpanzee, and sedate him (so he doesn’t rip anyone’s arms off – chimps are incredibly strong). Now shave his entire body, put a Boston Red Sox cap on him, and drop him onto a New York City subway seat – making sure the train is headed to the Bronx. On second thoughts, replace the Red Sox cap with a Yankees cap – so no one rips the poor chimp’s arms off. More than 98% of subway passengers will see an ugly old man who should be arrested for indecent exposure. Chimps are a lot like human beings. This is why zookeepers who want to control their chimpanzee birth rates can simply give their female chimps human birth control pills. And it’s presumably why chimpanzees make tools, deceive each other, organize themselves into social groups, go to war, inspect the genitals of newborns to assess their sex, have sex face to face, and sometimes shake hands to greet one another – all very much like we do. According to experts such as Frans de Waal and Jared Diamond, we have way more in common with chimps than most people could imagine. Speaking of chimps, both people and chimps also have a little something in common with bananas. What percentage of our genes, if any, do you think we share with bananas? Bananas are in a whole different kingdom than animals, but they are life forms, after all. When I asked my son this question, when he was a fifth grader, his answer was an impressive 10%. It was impressive because he seems to have appreciated what genes are, and he didn’t guess a tiny number, like a bajillionth of 1%. Because I want you to be smarter than a fifth grader, I should tell you that the correct answer is 50%. Yes, we share about half of our genes (or our genome, to be a little more precise) with bananas. These shared genes go back to a time about 1.6 billion years ago when plant and animal life seem to have diverged from a common, very primitive ancestor (Meyerowitz, 2002). I know that sounds weird, but science is weird, and aside from particle physics, there

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is probably no scientific topic weirder than evolution.five key Ourfeatures surprising of evolution similarity to chimps and bananas, including the ancient point in our planet’s history when plants and animals diverged, suggests at least . FIVE IMPORTANT FACTS ABOUT HOW EVOLUTION WORKS Evolution is slow

First, evolution typically operates on a very long timescale. Both people and banana plants possess successful genes that have been in the global gene pool for 1.6 billion years. So, if I were to say that something evolved “very quickly” in people, I’d probably be talking about tens of thousands of years rather than a few centuries. Quite a few modern problems exist in large part because we have not yet had time to evolve solutions (adaptations) to living in a different world Evolutionthan the plains is conservativeof ancient Africa, or the valleys of ancient Turkey.

Second, when something works (like a gene that contributesboule to basic cell metabolism, eye formation, or sperm production), nature almost never abandons it to start over from scratch. Apparently, the single gene is necessary for sperm production in males of all species (Shah et al., 2010). It seems to have first appeared about 600 million years ago. It has been promoting evolutionarily effective male orgasms ever since. Without this gene, no male mountain goat, mountain lion, or mountain gorilla will ever produce even a mole hill of sperm. Did I mention male slippery dicks? Yes, that’s a real fish, and, no, they can’t make sperm without boule. Sperm whales? You already knew about them, but they couldn’t make any sperm without the boule gene. Without the action of this crucial gene, no male creature on earth is likely to produce any offspring, no matter how much action he gets. As another example of this principle, consider how eyes are positioned. The same PAX6 gene determines eye location in a wide range of animals from octopi to ocelots (Glaser et al., 1992). On the other hand, it looks like eyes themselves evolved independently in vertebrates (like ocelots) and invertebrates (like octopi). Homology strongly suggests this because virtually all invertebrates share one kind of eye structure, whereas virtually all invertebrates share another. These eye structures mean, for example, that Evolutionvertebrate eyes comes have blindwith baggagespots. Invertebrate eyes do not.

A third important fact about evolution is that organisms possess millions of years of evolutionary heritage and all the baggage that always comes with heritage. For example, most people, like many of our primate cousins, are born absolutely adoring sugar. The running joke at my house when my daughter was three was “You better finish that cupcake or you won’t get any broccoli next time!” Even a three-year-old who was riding the first wave of a sugar high knew this was a joke. This human preference for sweets was surely adaptive in an ancient world where sugary foods like honey or ripe bananas were precious commodities. Ripe

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fruit is usually more nutritious than sour fruit. But in a modern world where most people are constantly surrounded by sugary foods, this natural craving for sweets contributes to obesity epidemics. And if sugar doesn’t get you, fatty or salty foods may get you for evolutionarily similar reasons.

Figure 1.3 Be very afraid of motorcycles. But don’t worry about the coastal garter snake, unless you’re a mole.

preparedness

Along the same lines, we also inherited several kinds of from our ancient mammalian ancestors. Preparedness is a readiness or predisposition to learn some things very easily. It’s much easier to teach people to fear spiders or snakes, for example, than to teach them to fear guns or motorcycles. I don’t like guns, but I like the insanely dangerous machines called motorcycles so much that I keep one right in my driveway. About once a week I hop on it and cruise gleefully down the highway next to 18-wheelers that could squash me like a bug. In fact, even a speeding VW Beetle could squash me like a bug. In contrast, I don’t keep any spiders or snakes at home, at least not on purpose. In today’s world, though, guns and motorcycles kill many more people than spiders and snakes do. As a final example of preparedness, have you ever noticed how easily kids learn to talk? We’ll come back to this topic in later chapters, but I hope you can see this represents a wonderful kind of preparedness. We seem to be predisposed to learn and use language. Unlike craving sweets, however, craving conversation rarely gets us into trouble. In fact, using language helps connect us to other members of our species in ways that are simply unheard of in other animals. As sociobiologist E.O. Wilson (1978) noted, evolutionary pressures have guaranteed that we are not the “tabula rasa” (blank slate) that British philosopher John Locke once suggested. Psychologist Dan Gilbert (1989) put this third evolutionary principle (that of evolutionary baggage) colorfully when he said: “the human brain itself is essentially a reptilian weenie, wrapped in a neocortical bun.” By this, Gilbert mainly meant that people often stick with simplistic social judgments (e.g., first impressions) when it might be wiser to abandon them. E.O. Wilson (1978, p. 68) seems to have put a little more stock in instincts, arguing that: “Because the brain

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can be guided by rational calculations only to a limited degree, it must fall back on the nuances of pleasure and pain mediated by the limbic system and other lower centers of the brain.” Where these two Harvard professors clearly agree is that the big brains that mammals enjoy are not quite as different from the brains of other animals as we might like to assume. A neocortex is an evolutionary add-on. I’m really delighted to have one, but it’s not absolutely necessary. Take away my neocortex, and I stop writing this book. Take away my hindbrain and I stop breathing. I’m quite sure, then, that some of the genes we share with birds and reptiles allow us to breathe. Banana trees simply don’t have these genes – either because they don’t need to breathe like we do, or because they can hold their Evolutionbreath for a impliesvery, very continuity long time.

A fourth important fact about evolution is that it implies continuity across species, especially species that are closely related. For this reason, evolutionary psychologists tend to emphasize the traits and adaptations we share with other animals. For example, Frans de Waal (1996) argued that we are not as cognitively or morally superior to other animals as we like to assume. In fact, many of the cognitive and social skills we thought were uniquely human are not quite as special as we once thought. Naked mole rats use tools – which help keep them from choking – when they dig elaborate underground burrows with their front teeth (Shuster & Sherman, 1998). Moving from the terrestrial to the celestial, there is strong evidence that crows and magpies can identify and long remember individual human faces. They are particularly good at remembering the faces of researchers who have trapped them (later to release them, of course). This holds true even when the researchers change their hats and clothing in an effort to disguise their identities. Ravens also make and use tools. So you might just as well discard that scarecrow you put up in the Eastside Community Gardens. It won’t fool any crows or ravens for very long.

“Well, first of all, Robert, I believe I speak for crows everywhere when I say that by just coming here to meet with me today, you’ve already answered one of our most important and long-standing questions.”

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Chimps are even more adept at making tools than ravens are. Very few aquatic animals have the fingers or beaks needed to make tools, but quite a few aquatic animals certainly use them. This includes fish and octopi that spray jets of water as tools, crabs that carry stinging anemones for protection, and octopi that strategically carry broken coconut shells for the same reason (Mann & Patterson, 2013). Further, like ospreys, cheetahs, and perhaps even some ants, chimpanzees engage in teaching. Mother cheetahs even scaffold their older cubs by bringing back live prey to their dens and releasing the live prey so that the cubs can do the killing. Scholars disagree, for example, about whether ants ever truly teach, but there can be no doubt that some ants engage in communication (e.g., compare Franks & Richardson, 2006, with Leadbeater et al., 2006). Both dogs and parrots have problem-solving skills that rival or exceed those of human toddlers, at least in some domains. Likewise, chimps, dolphins, and even magpies (a large-brained bird in the crow family) can readily do what we once thought only people could do – recognize themselves in mirrors (Prior et al., 2008). Some octopi also seem to be able to learn the solution to a complex, unfamiliar problem in a matter of moments – by watching another octopus solve the problem. social learning observational learning This last point is worthy of a little more attention. We once thought only human beings engagedCebus in (aka ). Psychologist E.L. Thorndike (1911) looked for evidence of social learning in monkeys of the genus , and concluded that: “Nothing in my experience with these animals … favours the hypothesis that they have any general ability to learn to do things by seeing others do them.” To his credit, Thorndike was quick to add that this question was not settled by a mere handful of studies. But others latched boldly onto his cautious conclusion that human beings may be special in this way (see Mackintosh, 1974). It wasn’t until about 50 years later that some clever experimenters showed that rhesus monkeys could learn just by watching. Darby and Riopelle (1959) set up pairs of rhesus monkeys so that one monkey could always watch another monkey trying to get food – by choosing one of two arbitrarily marked food cup covers. After the chance to observe just one trial of this monkey game show, observer monkeys who watched the other contestant succeedincorrect usually tried a similarly marked cup in their own separate cages. This worked just as well, by the way, when the unselectedclueless other monkey made the choice. That is, a monkey who watched another monkey screw up by picking the wrong cup usually tried the cup. Fast forward another five decades or so, and now we know that a hungry octopus can do something equally impressive. She can watch another octopus unlock the lid on a clear acrylic container to retrieve a delicious crab and immediately copy this novel and highly unusual behavior. “Octopus see. Octopus do.” Evolution is (pretty) orderly

A fifth important fact about how evolution works has to do with how individual organisms develop over time, and it, too, suggests a way in which we are very much like both chimps and bananas. It is this. There are many useful and important adaptations that do not exist at all at the beginning of an organism’s

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life. Organisms develop, and development is almost never willy-nilly. Instead, things that are metabolically costly or biologically complex rarely develop until – and if – they are needed. Banana trees do not – and cannot – produce fruit until they have produced trunks and then fronds (leaves). Moving closer toneeded people, imaginedevelop how inefficient things would be if mammals were born sexually mature, with long horns, or with a full set of adult teeth. Things that are first first, and things that aren’t needed until later almost always wait. Of course, what is needed first varies radically across the animal (and plant) kingdom. On average, mammals get a great deal of care and protection from their mothers, and many mammals are born blind and helpless. Baby kangaroos do not need to see or hop when they are in their mothers’ pouches, for example, and they are born unable to do either. In contrast, most reptiles get little or no care from their parents, and most of them can see, move about, and search for food shortly after hatching. Making comparisons across mammals, gazelles can run within hours of birth because if they could not do so they would quickly become a meal for large predators. In contrast, lion cubs are born blind and helpless because few predators wish to deal with a protective mother lioness, to obtain an otherwise easy meal. EVOLUTIONARY PRINCIPLES IN PSYCHOLOGY

It‘s precisely because of the importance of principles such as baggage, continuity, evolutionaryand orderliness psychology that evolutionary psychology has done so much to enrich modern psychology. But what is evolutionary psychology? As I hope you’ve begun to see, is an interdisciplinary sciencepsychology that combines insights from evolutionary biology and psychology. More specifically,evolution it’s the scientific study of how our thoughts, feelings, and behavior ( ) are influenced by processes such as adaptation and natural selection ( ). It’s the scientific study of how we evolved to be who we are. In the remainder of this book, I introduce readers to the fascinating interdisciplinary topic of evolutionary psychology. I conclude this chapter with an introduction to two key evolutionary concepts: adaptation and natural selection. In Chapter 2, I offer a tour of evolutionary psychological research methods. In Chapter 3, I discuss crucial evolutionary concepts such as genetics, sexual selection, and speciation. In Chapters 4–11, I discuss specific areas of psychological research that were directly inspired by – or have proven to be highly relevant to – an evolutionary perspective. The topics studied by evolutionary psychologists are as diverse and fascinating as the whole field of psychology, but the topic that has probably gotten the most attention in evolutionary psychology is sex. Chapter 4 covers human sexuality and mating, including specific topics such as mate preference, estrus, incest avoidance, sexual jealousy, and mate retention. Chapter 5 discusses the implications of evolution for lifespan human development. Chapter 6 examines the joys and pitfalls of parenting, grandparenting, and stepparenting, and Chapter 7 examines how we evolved to think and communicate. Chapters 8–11 provide an evolutionary perspective on (8) the nature and functions of aggression, (9) prosocial behavior,

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(10) sociocultural processes, and (11) how we respond to death and dying. Finally, Chapter 12 focuses on the biological and cultural evolution of major social problems. For example, it examines how our evolved human nature may contribute to problems such as overincarceration, helicopter parenting, and climate change. Evolutionary psychologists provide surprising insights about all Adaptationthese important and topics. natural selection

This book will dig into an evolutionary perspective on sex in later chapters.Adaptation For now, let’s discuss why sex exists at all. From an evolutionary perspective, sexual reproduction is at the heart of adaptation and natural selection. refers to the ways in which species change over long periods to cope with the basic problems of survival and reproductionnatural in selection specific environments. It’s the way a specific gene, or set of genes, ends up sticking around inside one or more species. A close cousin of this idea is , which is the process by which genes that promote successful reproduction become more likely to be passed on to one’s offspring – compared with genes that confer no such reproductive advantage. A turtle’s strong, bony shell, like the turtle’s ability to pull all its extremities completely inside it, is a specific adaptation to the problem of predators who like to make quick meals of slow-moving targets.

“Really, Terry, all-in, again?! ”

A snake’s venom is a very different reptilian adaptation. This adaptation solves two problems­ – by serving both as a defense against predators and as an efficient method of killing one’s own prey. It is probably no evolutionary accident, then, that snake venom is not a stomach poison. If it were, how would highly venomous snakes stomach a meal into which they had just injected a generous dose of the stuff? Snake venom is only deadly when it gets into your bloodstream, which is why venomous snakes have special venom-injecting adaptations known as

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fangs. So yes, the next time you want to win a large bar bet, go ahead and drink the certified king cobra venom. Just be sure you don’t have an ulcer and be careful not to bite your lip before you swallow. To get back to the point, adaptation is a specific consequence of natural selection, and natural selection is theevolutionary engine that drives evolution. If thisgenes reminds you of the phrase “survival of the fittest,” please try to rid yourself of this notion, unless you mean the long-term survival of the fittest . Excuse my French, but I need to emphasize this. Natural selection doesn’t give a darn about an organism’s survival. It’s all about successful reproduction – passing on specific genes to future generations. To be sure, it’s hard to reproduce if you don’t survive long enough to mate. But once some animals have mated successfully, they seem content to die. Consider salmon that tirelessly swim a marathon upstream – to the place where they themselves were spawned. After reaching their destinations, they “mate” in the peculiar way Bill Clinton says he did – without actually having sexual relations – and then they die. (To clarify this technical point, female salmon deposit their eggs in the water and male salmon squirt their sperm in the general direction of the eggs. The salmon then die rather than narrowly escaping impeachment.) One poor animal, the male honey bee, actually dies in the process of having sex. When male honey bees have successfully delivered their sperm to a queen bee, their genitals literally explode with a pop and are ripped away from their bodies (Judson, 2002). I’m not sure how that feels as it is happening, but I’m guessing it sucks afterward. Male honey bees die almost immediately after their explosive orgasms. If you’re wondering how this could ever be a good reproductive strategy, let me remind you that the genitals explode after the delivery of sperm and that queen bees are pretty promiscuous. Even more important, the exploded bee penises remain inside the queen and act as partial chastity belts, making it harder for other male honey bees to get their sperm past the carnage. This means that the gene or genes that created exploding genitals right after successful mating became common in male honey bees. If this still sounds crazy, you should know that the percentage of male honey bees who ever get to mate at all is ridiculously low (less than 1%). So the strategy of saving your penis for a second one-minute stand would almost never pay off. Natural selection promotes successful reproduction – not Love,the survival prey, of eat specific organisms.

Allow me to say itredback again. Natural spider selection may promote reproduction even at the expense of an organism’s survival. Another dramatic example of this comes from Australia’s . These deadly predators have been known to take down mice and small lizards, and they love houses and sheds. Because they’re highly venomous and love the indoors, they’re responsible for many painful bites to Australia’s human population. Back before hospitals acquired the right anti-venom, the bites of redbacks occasionally killed people. Like many other arachnids (and most insects), female redbacks are much bigger than males. In fact, males often live on the edge of a female’s web and scavenge whatever leftovers they can safely grab. And here’s where it gets really weird. When a scrawny male redback mates with a big, strapping female, which only a

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lucky 20% of males ever get to do, he almost invariably somersaults right into her fangs after copulation. Of course, this puts him in a vulnerable position, and about 65% of the time the female redback rewards this acrobatic feat by consuming the male just as eagerly as she consummated with him.

Figure 1.4 This female redback spider has just taken out a small lizard. There’s a good chance she’ll also take out and consume any male redback spider who mates with her. Unlike lizards, however, male redback spiders seem to sacrifice themselves quite willingly. What’s more, those who do so are usually rewarded with more offspring.

Why would male redbacks throw themselves into the mouths of their mates? Offering oneself up for self-sacrifice seems even crazier than accepting the offer. But studies of redback mating outcomes show that male redbacks who are eaten produce more offspring than the ones who escape being eaten (Andrade, 1996, 2002). The reason for this extra success is simple. When male redbacks are in the jaws of the females, they are not just hanging out. They are busily depositing extra sperm they would not otherwise have been able to deposit. Evolutionarily speaking, then, sex is just the way successfulreproductive genes make their way into future bodies. A gene that promotes self-sacrifice will be passed on precisely to the extent that the self-sacrifice promotes selfishness (e.g., lots of offspring). And this will happen even at the cost of the body of the unfortunate animal that happens to carry the genegene for self-sacrifice. By the way, I hope this bizarre story also illustrates that natural selection seems to happen mainly (if not exclusively) at the level of the rather than the species. Evolution is about genes. Genes are little bits of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) that exist at specific sites on specific chromosomes and code for specific proteins. Organisms just happen to be the vessels that carry thousands of specific genes around and do their bidding.

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Play dead, keep living

After saying all this, I hasten to add that male redback spiders constitute a clear exception to the usual rules of natural selection. It’s normally highly adaptive for genes to promote the survival of the organisms that carry them around. The list of specific adaptations that promote survival is endless. In any one species, moreover, hundreds of genes all do their separate parts to promote survival in that particular animal’s specific environment. Camels, for example, are extremely well adapted to desert life. Their extra eyelids protect their eyes from the blowing desert sand. They’re also furry on top (to create shade) with very thin fur elsewhere – to promote heat loss. Their feet are wide to help them avoid sinking in the hot desert sand, and their legs are long and thin – to keep them far away from it. Camels also have a great deal of surface area relative to their total volume. A camel is shaped more like a radiator than a thermos. Speaking of radiators, a large camel can drink about 50 gallons (400 pounds) of water in only a few minutes, and they are great at holding onto any water they do consume (Schmidt-Nielsen et al., 1957; Wilson, 1989). In fact, camel poo is so dry that you can burn it, which desert dwellers sometimes do as a handy source of fuel. I hope it goes without saying that none of these specific desert adaptations would be useful for a raccoon, a bird, a fish, or a poison dart frog. In contrast, a couple of these specific adaptations can and do work well for other desert animals. Both camels and gerbils, for example, have really efficient kidneys.

Figure 1.5 Camels are extremely well adapted to life in the desert.

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In contrast to highly unusual desert adaptations, some adaptations are adaptive in almost any environment, and the genes responsible for these adaptations are commonplace if not universal. Remember boule? Sperm production is importanttonic immobilityenough that nature seems to have taken no chances with it. Some pretty quirky adaptations are also more widespread than you might think. Consider , also known as “playing possum.” For many animals, from ants and birds to frogs and opossums, appearing to be dead seems to turn away many would-be predators. As it turns out, most predators strongly prefer freshly killed prey. In contrast to road kill, a healthy animal you just killed yourself is probably free of deadly viruses and bacteria. In fact, the minority of carnivores who don’t mind eating dead things have special adaptations of their own that allow them to do so safely. Thus vultures have highly souped-up immune systems. Even more important, they have stomach acid that is hundreds of times stronger than ours, stronger, in fact, than battery acid (Houston & Copsey, 1994; and see especially Smallwood, 2014). It is so acidic that it can kill virtually any pathogen a vulture consumes, including things like Ebola or anthrax. But if you’re not a vulture, you should usually steer clear of day-old sushi, and even day-old frogs or birds. This seems to be why many different animals have evolved to “play possum” as a method of last resort against a deadly predator. As you can see from Figure 1.6, possums are not the only animals that play possum. What I find most interesting about these images is how convincing they are. These animals don’t just look dead. They look like they’ve been dead a while.

Figure 1.6 A possum, a common swift, a leaf frog, and a brown widow spider, all illustrating tonic immobility in response to severe threat.

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If you’re not so sure that playing possum could deter a hungry predator, I should note that, in the specific case of possums, tonic immobility is not a conscious effort to deceive. Instead, the extremely threatened possum instinctively enters a highly unusual state that truly resembles death. The possum’s breathing slows down to become almost undetectable. The possum’s limbs become somewhat stiff, as they might be if rigor mortis were beginning to set in. It all looks very real. It certainly looked real enough to fool me about six years ago. This was when an unlucky possum found itself in my backyard at the precise moment when I released the beloved canine ball of teeth and muscle I called Liberty. In the aftermath of Liberty’s attack on the possum, I shoveled what appeared to be a dead possum into a metal trash can and drove it at 5:15 a.m. to the nearest park (so I could still make my early morning flight). Let me just say that I’m happy that I got the possum out of the trash can before he really got pissed off. What followed still wasn’t very pretty, but both the possum and I survived.

“In closing, Faith G. Possum, devoted mother, skilled scavenger, and friend to us all. Now at this crucial time, David, if you could get that bucket of cold water and pour it on her face, just to be really sure.”

If you’re still not convinced that playing possum could ever be a useful adaptation, consider the results of a clever study of red flour beetles by Takahisa Miyatake and colleagues (2004). To see if tonic immobility could really ever turn away predators, Miyatake et al. painstakingly bred ten generations­ of red flour beetles in the laboratory. These pesky beetles are ideal for scientific study bec­ause they reproduce quickly and in large numbers. To see if playing possum could save a flour beetle’s life, Miyatake et al. checked to see how well possum-playing versus non-possum-playing beetles would do when trapped in close confines with a hungry predator. The researchers began with a group of 200 healthy flour beetles (100 male and 100 female). They then put each individual beetle to the test to see exactly which ones responded to a threat by playing possum (by “feigning death” as they put it) and for exactly how long. From each group of 100 beetles, they

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longest briefest chose the 10 of each sex that became immobile for the period during the artificiallongest threat test and the 10 of each sex that became immobile for the least period. They then bred the 10 male and 10 female beetles that played possum the and the 10 male and 10 female beetles that played possum the . After this, they lovingly raised each group of pedigree beetle offspring to adulthood, always making sure to keep the two genetically distinct groups separate. They repeated this selective breeding process for 10 generations, always sampling 100 adults and always choosing the top and bottom 10% of possum players in each successive group. In the end, they had two very different groups of beetles. Almost all the beetles in the group bred to be good at playing possum responded to an artificial threat by playing possum, for about two full minutes. The beetles in the other group hardly responded at all to the artificial threat. Either they never played possum at all or they did so for just a few seconds and then got right back to the usual business of looking for human crops to pillage. Finally, Miyatake et al. (2004) took each of these carefully bred 10th generation beetles and locked each one up, one at a time, in a clear plastic petri dish for 15 minutes – with an adult female Adanson’s jumper spider. They used a different spider for each beetle, and each spider had always been starved for a full week. Almost all the beetles did what they had been bred to do. In the group bred to play possum, 12/14 did so. In the other group, only 1/14 did so. More importantly, as hungry as these spiders were, they rarely ate a beetle that had feigned death. In total, 13 of the 28 beetles feigned death. The hungry spiders spared all but one of them. The beetles who failed to play possum were not so lucky. Nine of these 15 beetles became a delicious meal for their hungry hosts. Of course, it’s hard to imagine that a single gene is responsibleconvergent evolution for all the variations in tonic immobility that exist across the animal kingdom. Instead, tonic immobility in these different species is a good example of . Convergent evolution happens when much the same physical or behavioral trait evolves independently in species that do not share any recent ancestors. It usually happens because the ancestors of the different species who came to resemble one another faced similar problems of survival and/or reproduction. Another example of convergent evolution is flight, which evolved separately in bats, birds, and mosquitos – presumably because it’s a really great way to get around quickly. Thorns, quills, and spines are an even more obvious example of convergent evolution. As you can see in Figure 1.7, cacti, chestnuts, and porcupines all

Figure 1.7 Convergent evolution in three very different species: a barrel cactus, a chestnut, and the Indian crested porcupine.

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evolved similar protective structures that make them undesirable to other animals who would otherwise love to consume them. Whatever the exact genetic basis of tonic immobility is, species by species, it is clear that a quirky instinct that makes animals look dead when they are in dire trouble can sometimes be the key to staying alive. Like the genes that promote self-sacrifice in male redback spiders, genes that promote tonic immobility can, in the right species and the right environment, remain in the gene pool for a very long time. That’s natural selection – even if it took highly unnatural genetic experiments on playing possum to uncover it. FOR FURTHER READING

»» The third chimpanzee: The evolution and future of the human animal »» Diamond, J. (1992). Current. New York: Opinion HarperCollins. in Neurobiology »» Duchaine, B., Cosmides,Your inner L. & fish:Tooby, A journey J. (2001). into Evolutionary the 3.5-billion-year psychology history and of the humanbrain. body , 11(2), 225–30. »» Shubin, N. (2008). The imperial animal . New York: Pantheon Books. Tiger, L. & Fox, R. (1971). . New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

SAMPLE MULTIPLE-CHOICE EXAM QUESTIONS On the companion website you will find a multiple choice quiz for every chapter in this book. Each multiple choice quiz focuses on a single chapter and consists of 15–20 questions on key findings and concepts from that chapter. We encourage you to begin with four sample questions after you finish reading each chapter, and then move on to the full-blown on-line quiz for that chapter. You can find the chapter quizzes at:www. macmillanihe.com/evolutionary-psychology

1.01. Which statement best summarizes the connection between natural selection and adaptation? a. natural selection is the general evolutionary process that leads to specific adaptations b. homology drives adaptations, which lead to natural selection c. natural selection happens over millions of years whereas adaptations usually happen very quickly

1.02. In which pair of animals below are you most likely to observe many examples of homology? a. tigers and sharks because they are both predators b. birds and dinosaurs because birds evolved from dinosaurs c. zebras and horses because they share many genes

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1.03. The fact that people share about half their genes with many plants strongly suggests that evolution is: a. orderly b. conservative c. capricious

1.04. Why are the mating behaviors of Australia’s redback spiders interesting to evolutionary psychologists? a. because these spiders mate for life, and we once thought only a handful of mammals and birds did this b. because they illustrate behavioral homology with spiders all across the globe c. because at first blush the behavior of the male spiders seems to violate the

basic rules of evolution Answer Key: a, c, b, c. b, c, a, Key: Answer

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SUBJECT INDEX

A availability heuristic, 176, 341 climate change (evolution active genotype-environment avoidant attachment, 155 & denial of), 338–42 effects, 72 clownfish, 305–6 adaptation, 12, 80 B CNVs, see copy number adolescence, 139–40 bacteria, 201–11 variations adoption in red squirrels, baggage (evolutionary), 7–8 coatis (speciation in), 87 78–80 bananas (similarity to people), 6 codominance, 61 adoptive parents, 167–8 base-10 counting systems, 326 co-evolution (in childbirth), advertising, 97 bell-shaped curve, 64 143 adult romantic attachment Ben Underwood, 137–8 collectivism, 296 styles, 155 benefits (of aggression), 218–21 competition (and aggression (defined), 209 benefits (in Hamilton’s rule), 78 aggression), 211–14 aggression, in females (costs “Better Angels” arguments, competitive exclusion, 211–12 & benefits), 225–6 248–50 conformity, 285–6 airports (hypervigilance), Big Bang, 53 confounds, 33–4 336–7 bilateral symmetry, 125–6 conjunction fallacy, 178 allele, 60 Bobo doll studies, 247–8 conservation, 7 alpha (status of male or body strength (and aggression), conservation (logical female), 226–7 see physical strength thinking rule), 179 altricial, 95 bogus pipeline, 41 conspicuous consumption, 85 altricial visual development, bottlenecks (in speciation), 81 constructivism, 285 129-130 brachiating, 67 contact comfort, 154–5 altruism (defined), 254,see contact hypothesis, 106 also kin selection and C contingencies (life history reciprocal altruism camels (adaptations of), 15 theory), 162–5 Alzheimer’s disease, 62–3 canine teeth (canines), continental drift, 87 anchoring and adjustment, 174 88, 128–9, 222–3 continuity, 9 anger (and aggression), 217 canons (of science), 22 convergent evolution, 18–19 angry aggression, 230, see carbon-14 dating, see copy number variations, 70 also hostile aggression radiometric dating cosmology, 37 antibiotic resistance, 70 cash for clunkers, 344 cost-benefit rule (of anxious (attachment style), causality (three requirements), aggression), 218–21 155 31–40 costs (Hamilton’s rule), 78 appeal to nature fallacy, 96–7 central limit theorem (& covariation, 30–1 arbitrariness (language), 198 genetics), 54–65 critical periods, 131–8 archival research, 43 Cesarean birth, 143 crossing over (meiosis), 66–7 artificial selection, 76–7 cheater detection module, 183 cuckold, 115 assist (in basketball), 261–2 “cheating death,”see helping cuckoldry, 115–18 asteroid strike, 1–2 chess master studies, 177 cuckoo birds,115–17 astrology, 23 childbirth, 142–4 cultural worldviews, 311 auditory looming bias, 186 chimpanzees, 6, 27, 89 culture (defined), 295 autokinetic effect, 286 Cinderella effect, 157–62 culture of honor, see honor automatic, 291 Clark & Hatfield “casual culture automatic social tuning, 292–3 sex” studies, 99–100 cuneiform, 323–4

393

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D error management theory, frequencies, 189 dance club ovulation study, 75, 188–9 frustration-aggression 110 ethnography, 43–4 hypothesis, 244–5 dangerousness of target (and “even a penny will help” aggression), 236–9 technique, 271 G default effects, 342–3 evocative genotype- gambler’s fallacy, 195–6 defector argument, 274–5 environment effects, 71–2 gender (of target and deindividuation, 243 eukaryotes, 54–5 aggression), 239 dependent variable, 34 evolution, 11 gender differences in derogation of foreigners (in evolutionary psychology aggression, 229–30, 233–4 terror management), 312–13 (defined), 7 gene, 14 desire to fly (and terror exaptation, 80 genetic relatedness (and management), 316–17 exotic dancers (ovulation aggression), 239–40 detection (potential for and tips), 110–11 genetics (defined), 59 and aggression), 243 expected utility, 176 general-purpose reasoning determinism, 23 experiential system, 339 machine, 173 dinosaurs (extinction experimenter bias, 124 genome, 38, 65–6 of), see extinction external validity, 44–7, genotype, 38, 61 displacement (in language), see also OOPS! genotype-environment 198–9 extinction of dinosaurs, 1–2 correlations, 71–2 dissociations, 181 eye, evolution of the, 81 golden rule of social exchange, dizygotic twins, 72 183 DNA fingerprinting, 39 F gradualism (in speciation), 90–1 dolphins, 3,4 facial cues and social graduated driver’s license dominance (genetic), 60–2 judgment, 74 programs, 140 dominant-recessive fairness study (in grammar, 196–8 inheritance, 60–2 capuchins), 259–60 group selection, 278–9 falsifiability, 27 H E fast (K) strategy in life history h2, see heritability coefficient echolocation, in people, theory, 163–5 137–8 fear (and aggression), 217 Hamilton’s rule (rb > c), 78–80 egg yolk size, 166 fecundity, 215 hand strength and aggression, 223 elephants, 30–1, 80, 82, 86, feeding and aggression, 220 107, 112, 197, 218, 219 feelings trump thoughts, haplodiploidy, 78 elephant seals, 221, 203–4 hearing, in newborns, 130 224, 226, 304 fight or flight response, heat and aggression, 245–6 elephant’s trunk (as 216–18 height and social perception, exaptation), 80–2 firearms, death from 237 74–5 electric shock (altruism study), five key features of evolution, helicopter parents, 334–6 268–9 7–11 helping and longevity, 275–6 eliminating confounds, 33–40 fixed gene/ fixed allele, 76 helping and reward, 276–8 emerging adulthood, 140 flight in birds, evolution of, heritability, 59 empathy-altruism 81–2 heritability coefficient, 63–4 model, 268–70 flour beetles, 17–18 heterozygous, 60 empathic concern, see fMRI (functional magnetic heuristic (research value), 81 empathy-altruism model resonance imaging) heuristics, see judgmental empathy, see empathy-altruism and helping, 269–70 heuristics model founder effect (in speciation), Hockett’s key features of empiricism, 24–6 81 human language, 198–202 emulative violence, 247–8 fraternal polyandry, 304–5 homicide in honor cultures, epigenetic inheritance, 67 free sample technique, 262 301–2 EPSCoR, 191-193 free riders, 274–5 hominid, 50

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Homo sapiens, 3, 50–1, 88–9 J mental modularity, 181–3 homology, 2–5, 7, 45 Japan (WW II), 207–8 mere ownership effect, 168 homophobia, 29 judgmental heuristics, meta-analysis, 64 homozygous, 60 174, 189 midlife crisis, 144–6 honest predictor, 83–5 “just so” stories, 47–8, 51 Milgram’s obedience studies, honesty, social value of 264 287–91 honor culture, 22, 228, K Miller-Urey experiment, 55–7 230, 242, 298–302 kamikaze sperm MNP, see multiple nucleotide Hope Diamond, 95 (debunked), 102 polymorphism hospital problem, 175 kamikazes (WW II), 207–8 modeling and helping, 247–8 hostile aggression, 230 kin selection, 256–7 modeling and aggression, hot hand fallacy, 194–6 modern synthesis, 24, 68 L hot stove reflex, 131 modules, 181–3 LaMarckian theory of monozygotic twins, 72 Human Genome Project evolution, 67 (HGP), 37–40 Morganucadon, 2 Lanchester’s square law, 241 hybridization, 89 morning sickness, 127 language acquisition, 196–7 hydra, 217 mortality salience hypothesis, last universal common 311–15 ancestor, 58 I mortality salience Leaning Tower of Pisa, 25–6 identity fusion, 266–7 manipulation, 312 Len Bias Law, 330–4 illness concerns and Morton’s toe, 61 Libyan rebels study, 267 religiosity, 319 Morton’s toe jam, 62 life history theory, 132, 162–7 immediate costs & rewards and muggers/mugging, 239 Linda problem, 177–8 climate change, 343–5 multilevel selection theory, implicit prejudice, 292 linguistic relativity hypothesis, 279 see Sapir Whorf hypothesis imprinting, 132–3 multiple nucleotide incest aversion, 111– lions, infanticide in, 159–61 polymorphisms, 70 12, 114–15 logical positivism, 27 mutation, 68–70 including the other in lowball technique, 263 mutualism, 258 the self, 265–7 loss-aversion, 176 myth of race, 102–3, 105 inclusive fitness, 77–80 LUCA, see last universal incomplete dominance, 61 common ancestor N independent variable, 34 “Lucy” (early hominid), naive scientist, 23 individualism, 296 88–9 natural selection, 12, 76–7, 98 infant attachment style, 155 lynx, speciation in, 87 Neanderthals, 25, 89 infection (as a form of need to belong (need for M aggression), 210–11 connectedness), 265–7 male warrior hypothesis, ingroup vs. outgroup targets NEWater, 328–30 240–1 and aggression, 240–1 Ngorongo Conservation mass extinction, 91 institutional review Area, 219 masculinity-femininity board, see IRB norm of reciprocity, and (culture of), 157 instrumental aggression, 230–2 aggression, 246, see also intergroup conflict, 105 mate hoarding, 118–20, 221 reciprocity internal validity, 44 mate poaching, 118–20 norm of reciprocity, and interspecific competition, mating rights (and helping, 262–4, see also 212–14 aggression), 220 reciprocity intraspecific competition, “maze-dull” rats study, 281–3 normal distribution (genetics), 212–14 meiosis, 66–7 64 IRB (institutional review menarche, 139–40 nucleotides, 69 board), 291 Mendelian inheritance, numbers (and cost of isolation (in speciation), 85–6 59–62 aggression), 241–2 isotope, 32 menopause, 94, 141–2 numerosity heuristic, 190–3

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O personal fitness, 78 prospective studies, 31 obedience, see Milgram’s phenotype, 61 pseudocoelomic fluid, 217 obedience studies physical aggression, 228 psychology, 11 observational learning, 10 physical attractiveness psychophysics, 187–8 occasions, 45–6, see also stereotype, 185 puberty, 139 OOPS! physical strength and punctuated equilibrium, “ontogeny recapitulates aggression, 234–6 50, 90–1 phylogeny,” 124–6 Pirahã tribe (language), 200–2 Punnett square, 60 OOPS! heuristic, 44–7 placebo, 283 Purple Heart (medal), 255 operational definitions, 28 plate tectonics, 87 operationalizations, 45, see also playing possum, see Q OOPS! tonic immobility quantitative genetics, 63 opossums (tonic immobility in), polar bears, speciation in, 88 16–18 polyandry, 304–5 R opt-in approach, 338 polydactyly, 61 radiometric dating, 31–3 opt-out approach, 338 polygyny, 222–3, 303 random assignment, 34–5 orderly, property of evolution, polymerase chain reaction ratio-bias phenomenon, 190 10–11 (PCR), 39 reaction formation, 29 organ donation, 337–8 populations, 46,see also realistic group conflict theory, organogenesis, 126 OOPS! 243–4 overimitation, 248 possums, see opossums recessive inheritance, 60–2 overprotective parenting, 334 positive test bias, 173 reciprocal altruism, 257–64 overregularization, 196–7 poverty and aggression, reciprocity and aggression, ovulation (& sexual desire), 232–3 246–7 107–11 power and aggression, 224 red flour beetles, 17–18 power distance (aspect redback spider, 13–14 P of culture), 296 red-necked phalaropes, 106 palmar (grasping) reflex, 131 power law, 187 reflex, 131 Pangaea, 87 power of the situation, 285–95 relatedness (in Hamilton’s rule), panspermia, 57 pragmatic reasoning schemas, 78–80 paper-folding problem, 173–4 193 relational aggression, 229 paramecia, 211 praying mantis, 225–6 relative deprivation, 233 parasitism (as aggression), precocial, 95 religion, cross-cultural 215–16 predation, 214–15 variation, 297 parental care, 150–1 predictors of physical religion and terror parental care motivational aggression, 232–43 management, 319 system, 168 pregnancy, 95–6 religiosity and helping, 273–4 parental investment theory, preparedness, 8 representativeness heuristic, 94–5, 100, 106, 114, prevarication (language), 199 174–6 117–18, 151, 162–5, principle of contagion, 204 rest and digest, 217–18 188, 221, 294 “prison industrial complex,” rhesus monkeys, 10, 153–4, parenting, unique aspects 333–4 195 of human, 151–3 problem of induction, 49 rhinos (and aggression), 219 parsimony, 26–7 productivity (aspect of risk-benefit rule (ethics), 291 passive genotype-environment language), 202 risk contact theory of warfare, effects, 71 prokaryotes, 54–5 240–1 passive observational methods, proliferation (in brain), 138 Robber’s Cave studies 40–4 prosocial behavior, 254, (intergroup conflict), 243–4 PEA model (genetics), 71–6 see also helping Roman numerals, 325 peafowl, sexual selection in, 84 prosocial behavior in kids, Romanian orphanage studies, penile plethysymograph, 28–9 271–3 134 pentadactyal limb, 4–5 prospect theory, 186–7 rooting reflex, 131

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 SUBJECT INDEX 397

S SNP (aka “snip”), see single T salmon (mating), 13 nucleotide polymorphism taste, sense of, 130 Sapir Whorf linguistic relativity social dominance theory, teacher expectancies, 284 hypothesis, 199–200 106 temporal sequence, 31–3 savant, 180–1 social exchange teratogen (defined), 126–7 scapegoat, 287 theories, 261–4 terror management theory, “Scrooge effect,” 316 social hierarchies, 226 311–20 seahorses, 106 social inequality (as cause testability, 27–30 secure attachment, 155 of aggression), 233 third variable problem, 34 segregation (in plants), 212 social learning, 10, 247, tonic immobility, 16–18 see also modeling selective fitness, 61 trolley problem, 256–7 social norm of reciprocity, self-fulfilling prophecies, 283 Thales, 21–2 see norm of reciprocity selfish grandparent effect, theory, 24 social norms, 262, see also 161–2 norm thermography, 29 semi-permissive countries, 302 social psychology, 285 tradeoffs (life history theory), sensitive periods, 135–8 162–5 socioemotional selectivity sequential hermaphrodites, theory, 145–6 true experiment, 34 305–6 speciation, 50, 85–91 Trump, Donald (and serial monogamy, 303 aggression), 224 specialization (in sex differences in physical speciation), 88–9 TSA (thermographic stress strength, 223–4 analysis), see thermography species, 50 sexual behavior and marriage, TSA (Transportation Safety specificity principle, 177–81 cross-cultural variation, Administration), 336–7 spiders, preparedness to 302–5 twin studies (of heritability), detect, 35–7 sexual cannibalism, 13–14, 72–6 225 speed dating, 284 sexual dimorphism, 221–4 sperm competition, 102 U sexual interest and promiscuity, spermatophores, 83, 225 unobtrusive observation, 98–101 status seeking and 42–3 sexual jealousy, 118 aggression, 226–8 sexual parasitism, 216 status quo bias, 338 V sexual selection, 82–5 stinky t-shirt paradigm, vampire bats, 258–9 108–9 sexual strategies theory, venom, in snakes, 12–13 99–100 straw-man fallacy, 101 verbal aggression, 229 sexually permissive countries, structural violence, 231 vicarious learning, 247, see also 302 suicide, 297 modeling, social learning sexually restrictive countries, suicide bombers (in WW II), violence, historical declines in, 302 207–8 248–50 shared reality theory, 292 supergiants, 54 viruses, 210–11 single nucleotide supernovas, 54 vision, development of, polymorphism, 69 superordinate goals, 129–30, 134, 136–7 situations, 46–7, see superorganisms, 279 vitamin D, 103, 105 also OOPS! surrogate mother, 153 skate boarders, 85 surveys and interviews, 41 W slow (r) strategy in life survival instinct (critique of), waist-to-hip ratio, 84 history theory, 163–5 318 Wason card task, 172, 183–5 slowness (property of suspicion and social judgment, water bears (tardigrades), 57 evolution), 7 193 water fleas, and life smell (olfaction), sensitivity sweat glands (and life history history theory, 132 in dogs, 112 theory), 136 weaning, 127–8 smell and sexual interest, symbiosis, 216 weather reporters, and 108–9, 112–13 synaptic pruning, 138–9 climate change, 341–2

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 398 SUBJECT INDEX

widowbirds, sexual selection, world record holders, running Y 82–3 vs. swimming, 192 yolk size, in eggs, 154–66 within-subjects design, 35–6 World War II, end of, 207–8 youth (as predictor of wolves, dogs, and speciation, working models (in aggression), 233–4 86 attachment theory), 155 woodpeckers, adaptations, written language, invention of, Z 221 326–8 zooids, 279

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942

NAME INDEX

A Aristotle, 25 Bartone, N., 381 Abbott, R., 89, 370 Arndt, J., 380, 386 Bassett, R., 374 Aboud, F., 382 Arnett, J.J., 139–40, 144–5, Batman, 316 Abramson, P.R., 100, 234, 351, 371 Batson, C.D., 254, 268–9, 102, 216, 370 Arnold, R.J., 384, 392 273–4, 280, 371 Abrevaya, J., 383 Arnone, M., 389 Baum, D., 331, 371 Ackerman, P., 280, 371 Arntzen, J.W., 370 Baumeister, R.F., 187, Adams, A., 313 Aron, A., 266, 371, 374 265–6, 276, 371, 376 Adams, E.S., 241, 370 Aron, E.N., 371 Beall, A.T., 373 Adams, H.E., 29, 116, 370 Aronson, E., 382 Becker, G.S., 233, 372 Adams, S., 116, 370 Aschenputtel, 158 Becker, E., 320 Adelson, E.H., 182 Ashida, H., 182, 382 Beckett, C., 134, 372 Adolph, K.E., 178–9, 370 Ashmore, R.D., 376 Beck-Johnson, L.M., 140, 372 Agarwal, N., 377 Asimov, I., 22, 26, 371 Beggan, J.K., 168, 372 Ahmed, O.M., 377 Atran, S., 184, 371 Bell, A.V., 281 Ahn, W.K., 193, 370 Au, T.K.-F., 199, 371 Bell, E.A., 54, 372 Ainsworth, M., 155, 370 Au, W.T., 271, 382 Bellis, M.A., 102, 371 Aknin, L.B., 276, 370, 376 Ault, L., 388 Belsky, G., 176, 372 Aktipis, C.A., 204, 275, 370 Austad, S.N., 141, 371 Bennett, K., 372 Albach, D., 370 Ayres, T.J., 200, 385 Benton, D., 372 Alberts, S.C., 118, 370, 389 Ayton, P., 195, 371 Benyamin, B., 386 Alcalay, L., 388 Azrin, N.H., 217, 245, Berko, J., 196, 373 Alexander, M., 332, 345, 370 301, 371 Berkowitz, L., 209, 228, 232, Allen, W., 309 244–5, 251–2, 372 Allik, J., 388 B Bernard, H.R., 21, 43, 372 Allport, G.W., 106, Bacon, K., 79 Berra, Y., 21, 171 285, 366, 370 Bagley, K., 341, 371 Berscheid, E., 376 Almakias, S., 380 Baird, S.J., 370 Betrán, A.P., 142, 372 Al-Shawaf, L., 383 Baker, J.H., 71, 382 Bias, L., 330–4, 337, 357, 362 Altmann, J., 370, 389 Baker, J.P., 372 Bickman, I., 47, 372 Amsel, R., 382 Baker, R.R., 102, 371 Bidon, T., 377 Anderson, C., 373 Baldwin, A.J., 145, 374 Bieber, J., 6 Anderson, C.A., 245–6, Baldwin, I.T., 382 Bill, 227–8 251, 370, 376 Balshine, S., 151, 371 Binik, Y.M., 382 Anderson, K.G., 117, 370 Banaji, M.R., 381 Birch, K., 280, 371 Anderson N., 263–4, 370 Bandura, A., 247–8, 273, 371 Blakely-McClure, S.J., 385 Andersson, M., 82 Bannister, R., 178 Blanchard, T.C., 195, 372 Andrade, M.C., 14, 370 Barber, N., 167, 169, 371 Blanton, H., 22, 51, 291, 386 Angleitner, A., 388 Bargh, J.A., 378, 385 Bleske, A.L., 372 Ansell, A., 370 Barkan, S.E., 233–4, 239, 371 Bleske-Rechek, A., 257, Ansuini, C.G., 302, 370 Baroud, C.N., 380 372–3, 380 Araki, Y., 208 Barrett, P.M., 194–5, 373, 392 Bloch, J.I., 385 Arce, A., 379 Barry, 226, 371, 373 Bobo, 247–8 Archie, E.A., 112, 370 Bartholomew, K., 155, 371 Bodenhausen, G.Y., 46, 372

399

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 400 NAME INDEX

Boehnkea, P.T., 372 Butler, R.J., 373 Clemens, A., 180–1, 364 Boggs, P., 370 Buunk, A.P., 390 Clemson, P., 377 Boksem, M.A.S., 30, 372 Bygren, L.O., 381 Clinton, H., 229 Bolt, U., 191 Clinton, W., 13 Bolter, D.R., 128, 372 C Clore, G.L., 389 Boothe, R.G., 130, 372 Cacioppo, J.T., 374 Clutton-Brock, T.H., 151, Borgida, E., 385 Caesar, 304 225, 304, 374, 388 Boutin, S., 379 Cahill, J.A., 88, 373 Cohen, D., 230, 298–301, Bowdle, B.F., 374 Cairns, W., 335 374, 377, 385, 391 Bowlby, J., 155, 370 Callaway, E., 86, 373 Cohen, F., 316–17, 374, 379 Boyd, R., 307, 377 Camerer, C.F., 390 Cole, J.R., 377 Boyer, S., 305, 372 Campbell, B., 390 Collcutt, S., 381 Boyle, W., 76 Cannon, W.B., 216–17, 373 Collett, P., 42, 374 Brannoch, S.K., 390 Carey, M.P., 388 Collins, N.L., 155, 374 Bratslavsky, E., 371 Carrano, M.T., 373 Coltman, D.W., 379 Bremner, G., 389 Carroll, J.B., 100, 373, 392 Colvert, E., 372 Brethel-Haurwitz, K., 384 Carstensen, L. L., 145, Combettes, L., 380 Breus, M., 379 248, 373, 386 Conley, T., 99, 294, 374 Brewer, A.A., 147, 381 Carter, G.G., 74, 258, Connolly, T., 168 260, 373, 381 Brock, F., 387 Contreras, M., 376 Carter, J.D., 227 Bro-Jorgensen, J., 225, 372 Coomes, D.A., 383 Carton, A.M., 383, 389 Bronmark, C., 147, 391 Cooper, F., 91, 377 Cartwright, D., 287, 374 Brooklyn, 154, 197 Copi, I.M., 30, 374 Carvallo, M.R., 45, 375, 386 Brookman, F., 229, 239, 372 Copsey, J.A., 16, 381 Casida, J., 381 Brosnan, S., 168, 258– Corpuz, R., 373 60, 280, 372 Castle, J., 372 Cosmides, L., 19, 183–4, Brown, A.M., 129, 372 Castro, J., 216, 374 186, 193, 205, 240, 261, Brown, D. O., 246 Cavnar, P.J., 391 329, 374, 377, 382, 390 Brown, R., 137, 179, Cesana, D.T., 375 Costello, E.K., 376 199, 372–3, 378 Chan, A., 379 Crabtree, S., 273, Brown, S., 383 Chaplin, G., 103, 381 297, 374, 386 Brown, S.L., 278, 373 Charles, S.T., 373 Crawford, C.B., 375 Brownell, C.A., 390 Charles-Sire, V., 271, 374 Creagh, S., 330, 374 Brueland, H., 98, 373 Charlton, B.D., 222, 374 Crews, D., 306, 375 Brusatte, S.L., 2, 373 Chatel, D., 379 Crowther, S., 38 Bryant, G.A., 109, 373, 387 Chen, Y., 377 Cullen, T.M., 222, 375 Buckels, E.E., 168, 373 Cheng, P. W., 193, 362, 374 cummings, e.e., 203 Buckley, T., 280, 371 Cheng, S., 380 Czilli, T., 391 Bugental, D., 163, 373 Cheung, B.Y., 375 D Buhrmester, M., 390, 392 Cheung, J., 391 Da Vinci, L., 126 Bullock, A., 374 Chiaradia, A., 169 Daly, M., 43, 119, 156–7, Bunch, G.B., 248, 373 Chincotta, D., 200, 374 159, 161, 169–70, Burger, J.M., 270, 291, 373 Chittka,L., 383 240, 249, 375 Burke, B.L., 315, 373 Chloe, J., 373 Darby, C.L., 10, 375 Burling, J., 379 Chomsky, N., 197, 200, 374 Dar-Nimrod, C., 97–8, 375 Bushman, B.J., 246, 251, 370 Chung, C., 145, 374 Darwin, C., 24, 49, 50, 59, Buss, D.M., 55, 75, 81, Cialdini, R.B., 262–3, 67, 68, 76–8, 80, 82, 95, 99, 117–20, 186, 271, 374, 383 85, 90, 103, 124, 203, 188, 224, 238, 257, Cinderella, 156, 158–9, 257, 274, 358, 375 297, 309, 365, 373, 161, 168, 375 Darwin, E., 67 378, 380, 383 Clark, R.D., 99, 349, 374 David, 17, 75, 249, 299

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 NAME INDEX 401

Davidai, S., 338, 375 Duan, J., 378 Festa-Bianchet, M., 220, 386 Davidson, L.A., 382 Duchaine, B., 19 Festinger, L., 168, 377 Davies, P.G., 375–6 Duell, B., 381 Fiddick, L., 184–5, 377 Dawkins, R., 24, 48, 54–5, 58, Duffy, C.D., 26, 376, 385 Fiddler-Woite, J., 370 70, 80, 93, 209, 211, 214, Duncan, B., 280, 371, 374 Fiedorowicz, L., 375 256, 274, 278–80, 375 Dunkel-Schetter, C., 383 Field, T., 136, 377 Dawood, K., 93, 387 Dunn, E.W., 276, 370, 376 Fincher, C.L., 158, D’Anastasio, R., 327, 375 Dupuis-Williams, P., 380 297–8, 307, 377 de Fraja, G., 85, 375 Durante, K.M., 109, 376 Finkel, E.J., 294, 377 de Leeuw, C.A., 386 Duval, S., 42, 376 Finkenauer, C., 371 de Waal, F., 6, 9, 27, 216, Dworkin, I., 378, 390 Finn, J.A., 213, 377 220, 226, 258–61, Fisch, C., 380 270, 273–4, 280, 290, E Fischer, I., 195, 371, 384 297, 372, 376, 381 Eagly, A., 295 Fiske, S., 378 Deacon, R.M.J., 375 Easterling, T.R., 383 Fitch, W.T., 374 Deamer, D.W., 91, 391 Eastwick, P.W., 294, 377 Flavell, J.H., 179, 377 Dean, C.M., 388 Eberhardt, J.L., 73, 376 Flaxman, S.M., 127, 378 Deaner, R.O., 101, 392 Ebert, J.E.J., 379 Fleming, A., 75 DeBruine, L.M., 391 Echterhoff, G., 292, 376 Flinn, M.V., 391 DeCasper, A.J., 375 Edvinsson, S., 381 Florian, V., 384 DeHart, T., 168, 335–6, 375 Egan, P.J., 341, 376 Flynn, J.J., 139–40, 378, 385 DeLoache, J.S., 135, 375 Ein-Dor, T., 380 Fode, K., 281–4, 387 DeNault, L.K., 258, 375 Einstein, A., 27 Fodor, J.A., 181–2, Denes-Raj, V., 190, 375 Eisenberger, N., 276–7, 376 205, 358, 378 Dennett, D., 81, 375 Eisner, M., 43, 377, 388 Ford, H., 38, 378 Depp, J., 47, 99–100, Ekman, P., 203, 377 Forney, L.J., 383 294, 314, 316 Eldakar, O.T., 280 Fox, K., 114, 378 Depuydt, S., 212, 375 Eldredge, N., 90–1, 377, 379 Fox, M.W., 133, 378 Dethlefsen, L., 143, 376 Elkan, P., 377 Fox, R., 19 Devane, D., 388 Ellis, B.J., 51, 62, 200, 377 Fraley, R.C., 155, 378 DeWall, N., 277, 376 Elvis, 198 Frank, M.C., 176, 201, 378 Diamond, J., 3, 6, 19, 66, 82, Epstein, S., 190, 339, Franks, N.R., 10 102-105, 136, 141–2, 198, 352, 375, 377 Fraser, D., 217, 375, 378 298, 328, 330, 376, 387 Ericsson, K.A., 197, 377 Frederick, D.A., 380 Dill, J., 245, 376 Ermini, L., 3, 377 Freeney, B.C., 155, 374 Dion, K., 185, 376 Ersmark, E., 373 Freud, S., 29, 363 Disney, W., 158, 168 Euler, H.A., 120, 161, 377, 388 Frey, R., 374, 392 Dittus, P.J., 381 Evans, D.C., 373 Friedrich, J.M., 56, 378 Dixson, A.F., 389 Everett, D.L., 200–1, Fritsch, G., 374 Djokic, T., 91, 391 204, 377–8 Funder, D., 75, 186, 380 Dobigeon, N., 381 Dobson, V., 372 F G Dodd, J.M., 379 Fan, P., 279, 377 Gabriel, S., 375 Dodsworth, R.O., 380 Faucher, E.H., 373, 380 Gadagkar, R., 256, 378 Dollard, J., 244, 376 Fedorenko, E., 378 Gaddafi, M., 267 Dominguez-Bello, Fein, S., 193, 377, 387 Gagnon, J.H., 384 M.G., 143, 376 Feinberg, D.R., 391 Galanter, E., 112, 378 Doob, L.W., 376 Felicia (rhino), 219 Galen, L.W., 273, 378 Dory, 39, 336 Fennessy, J., 87, 377 Galileo, 25–6 Dotsch, R., 390 Ferrari, M., 377 Gall, J.A., 391 Dovon, 113 Fessler, D.M., 112, 377 Galván, B., 389

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 402 NAME INDEX

Gandhi, M., 273 Gottman, J., 187–8, 379 Harrison, M., 372 Ganesh, S., 385 Gould, S.J., 50, 80–1, Hart, E.J., 385 Gangestad, S.W., 46, 75, 84, 90–1, 124, 279, 311, Hasegawa, M., 373 120, 159, 378, 390 318, 377, 379 Haselton, M.G., 75, 108–9, Garcia, J., 377 Graff, M., 384 120, 186, 188, 373, Gardner, B.T., 196, 378 Graham, L.M., 193, 370, 381 376, 378, 380, 383 Gardner, R.A., 196, 378 Graham, S., 236–7, 381 Hatfield, E., 99, 349, 374 Garfunkel, A., 266 Grammer, K., 109, 387 Haviland, J., 388 Garver-Apgar, C.E., 378 Greenberg, J., 312, 314, Hayden, B.Y., 372 Garwicz, M., 387 316, 318, 320, 374, 379, Hayes, J., 317, 380, 389 Gause, G.F., 211, 213, 378 381, 383, 386–7, 389 Heider, F., 23, 359, 380 Gejman, P.V., 63, 378 Greenberg, R., 377 Heine, S., 375 Georgiev, A.V., 207, Grivell, R.M., 143, 379 Hennelly, R.A., 200 218–20, 224, 378 Groening, M., 309 Herberstein, M.E., 371 Geppetto, 307 Groote, I., 381 Herdt, G., 303, 380 German, T.C., 35 Groth, G., 120 Hertwig, R., 384 Gewirtz, J., 377 Guéguen, N., 110, 270–1, Hess, E.H., 378 374, 379–80, 389 Gibson, E., 378 Hessels, J., 387 Gülmezoglu, A.M., 372 Gibson, K., 167, 378 Heston, C., 235 Gunturkun, O., 387 Gibson, L.J., 221,378 Hickling, S., 385 Gurche, J., 51 Gick, M.L., 179–80, 378 Hicks, B., 207 Guthrie, M., 377 Giedd, J.N., 139, 383 Hicks, D.L., 233, 380 Gwynne, D.T., 225, 380 Gigerenzer, G., 189–90, Hicks, J.H., 233, 380 353, 378 H Hidalgo, G., 376 Gilbert, D.T., 8, 168, Haeckel, E., 124–5, 360, 380 Higgins, E.T., 292, 172, 378–9 Haidt, J., 380 344, 376, 380 Gildersleeve, K., 108, 380 Hake, D.F., 371 Higgs, P.G., 57, 380 Gill, R.J., 124, 226, 379 Haley, A., 390 Hill, K., 186, 211, 380, 391 Gilovich, T., 176, 194, Hinde, C.A., 166, 382 372, 375, 378–9 Hall, M., 131 Hall, S., 373 Hirschberger, G., 338, Gittings, T., 213, 377 380, 384 Gladwell, M., 230, 379 Hamel, A., 214, 380 Hames, R., 304–50, 307, 389 Hitler, A., 287, 365 Glaser, T., 7, 379 Hockett, C.F., 197–202, Glavin, D.P., 378 Hamilton, W., 24, 78–80, 156, 167, 239, 255–7, 348, 351, 362–3, 381 Glenn, J., 26, 379 280, 348, 350, 354, Hodgson, D., 381 Glickman, S.E., 390 356, 361, 364, 380 Hofer, M.K., 373 Gneezy, U., 307 Hamlin, J.K., 276, 370 Hofstede, G., 157, Godleski, S.A., 385 Hammond, R.L., 379 295–6, 362, 381 Goetz, A.T., 102, 388 Hansson, L.-A., 147, 391 Hollister-Smith, J.A., 370 Goldilocks, 249 Harambe (gorilla), 231 Holt, H., 19, 378, 382–3 Goldstein, D.G., 338, 381 Hardin, C.D., 211, 292, Holwell, G.I., 371 Goliath, 71, 75, 299 344, 380, 383 Holyoak, K.J., 179, 193, Gómez, A., 355, 390 Hare, B., 198, 204, 380 362, 374, 378 Good Samaritan, 71, 268, 277 Hare, D., 220 Homans, G.C., 261, 381 Goodall, J., 43 Harford, T., 77, 380 Hone, L.S., 388 Gordon, P., 200, 201, 379 Harlow, H., 153–5, 169, Hoover, H., 74 Gordon, V.V., 381 265, 368, 380 Horner, V., 274, 381 Gorges, W., 383 Harmon-Jones, E., 389 Houpt, T.R., 388 Gorrell, J.C., 78–9, 379 Harper, M., 142, 380 Houston, D.C., 16, 381 Gottesman, I.I., 390 Harrap, S.B., 377 Howell, E., 53, 381

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 NAME INDEX 403

Huang, Y., 210, 381 Jones, E.E., 41, 388 Kolbert, E., 6, 382 Hubel, D.H., 134, 392 Jones, J.M., 338, 381 Kölliker, M., 169, 371, Huber, D.H., 137, 147, 381 Jones, J.T., 386–7 382, 387 Hui, F., 383 Jones, S., 77 Koole, S.L., 313–14, 382 Hulk, The Incredible, 316 Jordan, M., 178, 311 Kooyman, R.M., 383 Hulse, S.H., 373 Jordan, B.D., 384 Kosloff, S., 379 Humphrey, L.T., 211, 381 Joshua, 249 Kramer, M.S., 129, 382 Humphries, M.M., 379 Jost, J., 191, 381 Krebs, D.L., 257, 375, 382 Hurtado, A.M., 380 Joyce, J., 178 Krems, J.A., 119, 382 Hutchinson, R.R., 371 Judson, O., 13, 97, 120, 381 Krueger, F., 384 Huttegger, S.M., 384 Jung, C., 144, 145 Kukkonen, T., 29, 382 Juvonen, J., 236–7, 381 Kumar, P., 215, 377, 382 I Kunstler, G.G., 212, 383 Inoue-Murayamad, M., 391 K Kurzban, R., 204, 307, Irving, E.L., 383 Kaati, G., 67, 381 281, 383, 387 Isaacowitz, D.M., 373 Kahneman, D., 174–8, István, U., 215, 381 187, 189–90, L Isvaran, K., 304, 374 381–2, 384, 391 LaBarba, R.C., 126, 383 Kalinka, A.T., 125, 382 Laforsch, C., 147, 391 J Kamper, K.E., 385 Lama, D., 274 Jablonski, N.G., 103, 381 Kaplan, J., 81, 386 Lamarck, J.B., 67, 357 Jaccard, J., 302, 381 Katayama, K., 384 Lanchester, F., 241–2, 370 Jacob, C., 271, 379 Kawakami, K., 391 Landau, M.J., 316, 379, 383 Jacobson, L., 284, 387 Kazmi, H., 384 Larrick, R.P., 242, Jagger, M., 29 Keller, L., 379 246, 383, 387 James, L., 311 Keller, R., 126, 382 Larsen, R.J., 120, 373 James, N., 332, 381 Kellermann, A.L., 229, 382 Laumann, E.O., 384 Jamieson, D.W., 41, 387 Kelley, H.H., 261, 390 Leadbeater, E., 10, 383 Janke, A., 387 Kendler, K.S., 71, 382 Leary, M., 265–6, 276, Jarnum, S.A., 388 Kenrick, D.T., 120, 281, 307, 371, 383 Jason, 71, 342 245, 380, 382 Leat, S., 91 Jefferson, T., 74, 251 Kent, C., see Superman Lee, S.J., 383 Jelbert, K., 215, 381 Kercheval, S., 251 Legoherel, P., 271, 379 Jessop, T.H., 389 Ketelaar, T., 51, 271, 382 Lenroot, R.K., 139, 383 Jesus, 71, 209, 319 Kilner, R.M., 166, 382 Leonard, K.L., 307 Jiménez, J., 390 Kimmel, C.A., 126, 382 Leovy, J., 113 John, 21, 243 King, J.E., 144–5, 391 Levenson, S., 149 Johns, M., 383 King, K.B., 265, 382 Levin, S., 387 Johnson, E.J., 338, 381 King, M.L., Jr., 273 Levine, E., 392 Johnson, J.L., 255 Kipling, R., 47, 382 Levine, J.M., 376, 392 Johnson, M., 298–9 Kirkpatrick, L.A., 318, 373, 382 Lewis, D.M., 84, 383, Johnson, S.J., 376 Kistler, L., 373 Lewis, M., 388 Johnson, S.P., 389 Kitagawa, H., 387 Leyk, D., 223, 383 Johnstone, R.A., 83, 381 Kitaoka, A., 182, 382 Li, C., 3, 384 Joireman, J., 341, 381 Kitayama, S., 182, 296, 384 Li, D., 221, 391 Jolie, A., 294 Klayman, J., 173, 382 Li, J., 139, 385 Jonas, E., 316, 381 Klein, S.B., 185, 382 Li, N.P., 109, 376 Jonathan, 219 Klimczuk, A.C.E., 207, 378 Liberty, 17, 328 Jones, B.C., 391 Koch, K., 123 Lichtman, C.M., 391 Jones, D., 387 Kolata, G., 384 Lieberman, D., 114, 120, 383

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 404 NAME INDEX

Lieberman, M.D., Martin, D.P., 383 Miller, D.L., 257, 382 276–7, 376, 383 Mashek, D.J., 374 Miller, G., 110, 384 Lincoln, 74, 156, 236, Mason, J., 370 Miller, J.A., 374, 390 377, 392 Masten, C.L., 376 Miller, K.F., 375 Lincoln, A., 273 Mathur, U., 385 Miller, N.E., 376 Lindzey, G., 370, 378, 382 Matsumoto, D., 203, 384 Miller, S.L., 111, 384 Little Red Riding Hood, 249 Matsuzawa, T., 391 Miller, Stanley L., Lo, K.S., 384 Matthew, 303 55–7, 91, 354 Lobel, M., 126, 383 Maughan, B., 372 Miller, W.R., 57, 384 Locke, J., 8 Maur, B., 389 Millman, L., 387 Lohr, B.A., 370 Mayberry, R.I., 135, 384 Miodovnik, M., 380 Longo, L.C., 376 Mayweather, F., Jr., 178, 224 Mironova, E., 382 López-Rodríguez, L., 390 McAdam, A.G., 379 Mitteroecker, P., 143, 384 Lorenz, K., 132–4, 147, 383 McCain, J., 265 Miyatake, T., 17–18, 48, 384 Lowery, B., 292–3, 383 McCartney, K., 71, 388 Moll, J., 278, 384 Luce, C.L., 383 McCloskey, R., 133, 383 Moller, A.-B., 372 Lucy (extinct hominid), McCollough, J.K., 390 Monk, C.S., 391 88–9, 354 McDonald, R.A., 240–1, Monroe, M., 93, 248 Lydon-Rochelle, M., 142, 383 381, 383 Monty (goldfish), 310 Lykken, D., 234, 239, 383 McElhinny, T.L., 390 Moore, C., 385 McFall-Ngai, M., 376 Moore, J., 378 M McFarlane, D.A., 258, 375 Morales, J., 381 Maas, R.L., 379 McGregor, C., 178 Morales, V., 390 MacDonald, G., 376 McGuire, M., 181 Morgan, B., 389 MacFarlane, S.W., 245, 382 McKelvie, S.J., 42, 383 Morgan, C.L., 26–7, 361, 389 Mackie, D.M., 285, 287, 389 McKinnon, A.J., 374 Mortezaie, M., 380 Mackintosh, N.J., 10, 383 McKnight, A.J., 140, 383 Mortlock,A., 374 MacLeod, D.I., 147, 381 McQuinn, B., 392 Mowrer, O.H., 376 Maestripieri, D., 207, 378 Medina-Gomez, C., 384 Muhammad, 209 Magris, M., 376 Mehta, P.H., 372 Mullin, M., 341 Maho, Y., 169 Meineri, S., 374, 380 Mullins, C., 372, 376 Maibach, E., 341, 383 Mellers, B., 178, 384 Mullis, K.B., 39 Makhijani, M.G., 376 Mendel, G., 24, 59–63, Murdock, G.P., 152, 384 Mallol, C., 389 65–6, 71, 392 Murray, D.R., 307, 377 Mancini, L., 375 Mende-Siedlecki, P., 390 Myaskovsky, L., 386 Mandler, G., 378 Meng, J., 3, 384 Myers, D., 48, 285, 385 Maner, J.K., 111, 270, 383–4 Mercy, J.A., 229, 382 Myers, T., 383 Mann, C., 337 Merton, R.K., 283, 384 Mann, J., 10, 383 Messian, N., 373 N Mann, J.C., 4 Mesterton-Gibbons, Naeem, V., 388 Manoli, D.S., 377 M., 241, 370 Nairne, J.S., 184, 385 Maob, W.L., 372 Meyerowitz, E.M., 6, 384 Nakashima, A., 384 Mariampolski, H., 44, 384 Meyers, E., 385 Natanson, L.J., 215, 385 Markus, H.R., 157, 296, 384 Michael, R.T., 100, 384 Navarrete, C.D., 112, Marlowe, F., 152, 384 Michael, H.W., 2 318, 377, 382–3 Marouli, E., 62, 384 Mikulincer, M., 316, 384 Naveh-Benjamin, M., 200, 385 Marsh, A., 268–70, 280, 384 Milgram, S., 287–91, 293, Neel, R., 382 Marsh, P., 42, 374 307, 358, 373, 384 Nelson, C.A., 391 Martens, A., 373 Mill, J.S., 30-31, 33, 35, Nelson, G., 371 Martin, A., 374, 383 44, 350–1, 368 Nelson, L.A., 372

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 NAME INDEX 405

Nelson, L.J., 373 Pandit, S.S., 382 Prado, A., 373 Nelson, W.A., 372 Pangloss, 386 Pratto, F., 106, 228, 387, 389 Nemeroff, C., 387 Pappas, S., 221, 385 Proffitt, D.R., 389 Nesse, R.M., 373 Pardini, M., 384 Psouni, E., 128–9, 387 Neter, E., 175, 386 Parekh, N., 389 Pudritz, R.E., 57, 380 Neuberg, S.L., 106, Parmigiani, S., 387 Punnett, 60, 363 382–3, 385 Patel, S., 56, 373, 385 Purdie-Vaughns, V.J., 376 New, J.J., 35 Patterson, E.M., 10, 383 Pusey, A.E., 159–60, 387 Newman, M.E.J., 54, 385 Paul, R., 334, 387 Pyszczynski, T., 311, 320, Newport, F., 146 Pavlicev, M., 384 379, 381, 383, 387, 389 Newton, I., 174 Pavlov, I., 329 Nichols, S.R., 390 Payne, R.B., 116, 385 Q Quinn P.C., 75, 185, 389 Nielsen, M., 248, 273, Peanuts, 154 Quixote, D., 309 306–7, 385 Peck, R.C., 140, 383 Nigel, 190 Pelham, B.W., 45, 142, R Nisbett, R.E., 230, 242, 145–6, 164, 168, 186, Rahn, H., 166, 389 301, 374, 385 190, 273, 297, 299, Nosek, B.A, 381 318–20, 338–9, 341, Raine, N.E., 383 Nyaradi, A., 139, 385 371, 374–5, 378, 385–6 Ramsey, C.B., 32, 387 Nye, B., 1, 385 Pelletier, F., 220, 386 Rangel, A., 390 Nyiri, Z., 297, 386 Percivale, C., 385 Rao, A., 381 Perkins, D., 383 Raup, D.M., 54, 387 O Pettigrew, T.F., 106, 386 Ravel, J., 383 O’Doherty, J.P., 390 Pham, M.N., 120, 388 Rawlins, J.N.P., 196, 375 O’Gorman, R., 392 Phelps, M., 191 Reagan, R., 331–2 O’Hanlon, J.C., 390 Phillips, D.P., 248, 386, 391 Reb, J., 168, 387 O’Leary, M.A., 3, 385 Piaget, J., 123, 386 Reda, R., 389 O’Neal, S., 299 Pietsch, T., 216, 384, 386 Refinetti, R., 45, 387 O’Neill, T., 331 Pigliucci, M., 81, 386 Reifman, A., 246, 387 Oakey, H., 379 Pillsworth, E.G., 120, 380, 383 Reilly, A.J., 379 Oddy, W.H., 385 Pinker, S., 43, 45, 53, 75, 97, Reis, H., 265, 382 Odom, J.D., 191, 385 129, 183, 197, 200, 202, Relman, D.A., 376 Ogilvie, D.M., 374 205, 228, 233, 248–51, Remiker, M.W., 372 Okabe, M., 217, 389 302, 334–5, 348, 386, 388 Rensberger, B., 24, 26, 387 Okada, M., 388 Pinkerton, S., 102, 370 Reuss, F., 377 Oliveira-Souza, R., 384 Pinocchio, 307 Rholes, W.S., 371 Olivola, C.Y., 74, 385, 390 Pipitone, R.N., 109, 386 Rhonda, 72, 264 Olson, C.D., 373 Pitt, B., 99 Ribeaud, D., 388 Orlando, L., 377 Plato, 189, 386 Richardson, T., 10, 378 Orr, J.W., 384 Platt, R.W., 382 Richerson, R.J., 307 Ostrov, J.M., 230, 385 Plous, S., 174, 360 Ridder, D., 383 Ostrovsky, Y., 137, 385 Polderman, T.J., 64, 72, 386 Rietveld, C.A., 74, 387 Oswald, A.J., 391 Pollet, T.V., 390 Rikowski, A., 109, 387 Poole, J.H., 370 Riopelle, A.J., 10, 375 P Popper, K., 27, 47, Ritson, D.J., 385 Paaijmans, K.P., 372 352, 357, 386 Rivers, M.L., 378 Packer, C., 159–61, 385, 387 Porteus, J., 320, 379 Robinson, P., 384 Padilla-Walker, L.M., 373 Poulain, M., 276, 387 Robinson, P.H., 273, 330, 387 Palmer, C.T., 216, 390 Pound, N., 388 Rodrigues, H.M., 390 Pandeirada, J.N.S., 385 Powell, B., 380 Roese, N.J., 41, 387

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 406 NAME INDEX

Romanes, G., 26, 387 Schopf, T.J., 91, 377 Singh, D., 84, 104, 369, 389 Ronay, R., 85, 91, 387 Schroder, K.E., 41, 388 Sinha, P., 385 Ropert-Coudert, Y., 169 Schröder-Adams, C., 375 Siri, 176 Rosenblatt, A., 379 Schwartz, G.T., 223, 388 Sistiaga, A., 25, 389 Rosengren, K.S., 375 Schwarz, A., 387 Skaggs, B., 113 Rosenthal, R., 281–4, 387 Schwarz, N., 374 Skinner, B.F., 23, 30, 389 Ross, L.D., 371, 375 Schwarzenegger, A., 235 Skomal, G.B., 215, 385 Rousey, R., 224 Scrimshaw, S.C., 383 Skwarecki, B., 211, 389 Royle, P.T., 150, 169, Scrooge, 316, 381 Slater, A., 75, 185, 305, 389 371, 382, 387 Sears, R.R., 376 Sledge, M., 337, 389 Rozin, P., 203–4, 387–8 Segre, P., 376 Smallwood, K., 16, 389 Rubin, H.B., 371 Seinfeld, J., 289 Smiseth, P.T., 169, Rumpelstiltskin, 249 Seitter, K., 383 371, 382, 387 Russell, E.M., 383 Sela, Y., 119–20, 388 Smith, D., 262 Rüther, T., 383 Selye, H., 217, 388 Smith, D.M., 373, 391 Rutter, M., 372 Semmelroth, J., 120, 373 Smith, E.R., 285, 287, 389 Rybczynski, N., 375 Service, R.F., 388 Smith, F.G., 391 Seuss, Doctor, 105 Smith, M., 39 S Shackelford, T., 102, 120, Smollan, D., 371 Sadalla, G.K., 120 373, 377, 388 Sadri-Vakili, G., 391 Snow White, 159 Shah, C., 7, 388 Sober, E., 279, 392 Sailer, S., 97, 388 Shakespeare, W., 29 Socrates, 172, 386 Saint Teresa, 209 Sharkey, A., 392 Solomon, H., 270, 389 Salamzade, R., 373 Sharp, S.P., 225 Solomon, L.Z., 389 Samec, R., 373 Shaver, R.P., 155, 371, 378 Samuel, 75 Solomon, S., 320, 374, Shennan, A., 388 379, 383, 387, 389 Sandall, J., 142, 388 Shepher, J., 112, 388 Sanders, A.R., 378 Solomon (King), 147, Sherif, M., 241, 243–4, 224, 303, 383 Sapir, E., 199–200, 250, 285–7, 292–3, Soltani, H., 388 364, 371, 388 348–9, 363, 388 Sorokin, Y., 380 Sapolsky, R.M., 251 Sherman, P.W., 9, Saraux, C., 169 127, 378, 389 Sorrentino, R.M., 380 Sarkissian, C., 377 Sherwood, P., 389 Sosa, S., 181 Sato, N., 270, 388 Shickman, G.M., 389 Sotherland, P.R., 166, 389 Satoh, T.P., 384 Shimizu, H., 217, 389 Spector, D., 340, 389 Scaglione, A.R., 241, 388 Shimizu, M., 386 Spence, M.J., 130, 375 Scaglione, J., 241, 388 Shkreli, M., 233 Spigel, I.M., 217, 378 Scar, 160 Shroeder, K., 42 SquarePants, SpongeBob, 63 Scarr, S., 71, 388 Shubin, N., 6, 19, 33, Stacy, 164, 264, 299 Schacter, D.L., 178, 388 57, 124–5, 389 Starkweather, K.E., Schaller, M., 106, 214, 307, Shuster, G., 9, 389 304–5, 307, 389 375, 377, 380, 385, 388 Sidanius, J., 228, 297, Stearns, S., 162–3, Schamer, L.A., 42, 383 387, 389 165, 212, 389 Scheyd, G., 390 Silk, J.B., 152, 389 Stebbing, M., 377 Schick, A., 75, 388 Silke, A., 243, 389 Steckel, R.H., 75, 388 Schimel, J., 380–1 Silvera, D.H., 336, 379 Stefan, J., 270, 380, 389 Schmidt, H.D., 391 Simon, H.A., 177, 349, 374 Stefanucci, J.K., 186, 389 Schmidt-Nielsen, K., 15, 388 Simon, L., 46, 313, 320, 389 Steppuhn, A., 382 Schmidt-Nielsen, K.B., 15, 388 Simpson, B., 336 Stevens, S.S., 187, 389 Schmitt, D.P., 41, 98–9, Simpson, J., 371, 380 Stirling, I., 373 118, 373, 388 Sinclair, S., 383 Stockard, C., 132, 389

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 NAME INDEX 407

Stott, I., 381 Trautmann, S.T., 372 Voracek, M., 224, 391 Stoycos, S., 384 Tredennick, H., 386 Vrba, E.S., 80, 81, 379 Stulp, G., 84, 390 Triandis, H.C., 157, 307, 390 Suchak, M., 381 Tricomi, E., 277, 390 W Sugita, A., 384 Trivers, R., 94–5, 167, 188, Wakefield, J.C., 373 Sugiyama, L., 184, 205, 390 256, 318, 320, 390–1 Waldron, M., 390 Sullivan, D., 374, 386 Trost, M.R., 120 Walker, D.B., 112, 303, 380, 391 Sumarta, T.T., 386 Trump, D., 224, 323 Walster, E., 376 Sunstein, C.R., 345, 390 Tudor, M., 371 Walton, D.S., 379 Superman, 316 Tumulty, J., 149, 390 Wandell, B.A., 147, 381 Sutherland, J.D., 56–7, 385 Tuniz, C., 375 Wang, L., 221, 391 Svare, B., 387 Turkheimer, E., 63, 390 Wang, Y., 384 Svenson, G.J., 225, 390 Tversky, A., 174–5, 177–8, Wapner, R.J., 380 Svetlova, M., 272, 390 187, 379, 382, 391 Warneken, F., 271–2, 391 Swann, W.B., Jr., 173, Twain, M., 149, 309 266, 355, 390, 392 Tybur, J.M., 384 Washington, G., 74 Swanson, E.M., 225, 390 Tyler, T., 273, 391 Wason, P., 172–3, 184–6, 193, 369–71, Symons, D., 94, 100, 390 U 374, 377, 391 Webb, J., 266 T Uleman, J.S., 23, 378, 392 Webb, S.J., 138, 391 Takeda, Y., 384 Underdog, 317 Webster, G.D., 376 Tan, L., 388 Underwood, Ben, Webster, J.M., 147, 381 Tarrant, H., 386 137, 348, 351 Wegener, A., 362 Tate, K., 388 Underwood, G., 200, 374 Wegner, D.M., 29, 391 Tennen, H., 375 Urey, H., 55–6, 91, 358 Weisfeld, G.E., 112, 391 Tennyson, A.L., 209, 219 Weismantel, M., 303, 391 Thaler, R., 342, 345, 390 V Weiss, A., 144–5, 147, 391 Thales, 21–3, 25–6, 368 Vallone, R., 379 Weiss, L., 132, 147, 391 Theobald, D.L., 58, 390 Van Baaren, R.B., 270, 391 Welch, E.M., 229 Thibaut, J., 261, 390 van Bochoven, A., 386 Weldele, M.L., 390 Thomas, Doubting, 21 van den Berg, A.E., Welling, L.L., 45, 93, 387, 391 Thomas, M.B., 372 313–14, 382 Werholtz, R., 333 Thompson, S.R., 385 van den Bergh, B., 372 Westen, D., 120, 373 Thorndike, E.L., 10, 390 van Gompel, M.J., 388 Westermarck, 377 Thornhill, R., 108, 216, van Knippenberg, A., 391 297, 307, 377–8, 390 Van Kranendonk, M.J., White, D.R., 152, 384 Thorup-Kristensen, 57, 91, 391 White, S.L., 391 K., 212, 390 van Son, V., 372 Whitehead, J.W., 333, 334 Tigger, 186 van Vugt, M., 383, 392 Whitehouse, H., 267, 392 Timmerman, T., 301, 383, 390 Vanable, P.A., 388 Whorf, B.L., 199–200, Toby, 186 Vandello, J.A., 301, 391 364, 371, 388, 392 Todorov, A., 74, 385, 390 Vanilovich, I., 382 Wicklund, R.A., 42, 376 Tollrian, R., 147, 391 VanMeter, J., 384 Wieland, F., 390 Tomancak, P., 125, 382 Vassoler, F.M., 67, 391 Wiesel, T.N., 134, 392 Tomasello, M., 201, Vinokur, A.D., 373 Wile E. Coyote, 179 271–2, 390–1 Vogt, J., 149 Wilke, A., 194–5, 372, 392 Tooby, J., 19, 183–4, 186, Vohs, K.D., 371 Wilkinson, A., 374 193, 205, 240, 261, 329, Vom Saal, F., 387 Wilkinson, G.S., 258, 260, 373 374, 377, 382, 390 von Baer, K.E., 124–5, 391 Willer, R., 261, 392 Tosti, G., 212, 390 von Hippel, W., 85, 91, Willerslev, E., 377 Traficonte, D.M., 207, 378 318, 320, 387, 391 William of Occam, 26

Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 Copyrighted material – 9781352002942 408 NAME INDEX

Williams, K.D., 276–7, 376 Woite, R.S., 370 Yon-Say, B., 119 Williams, S., 23 Wood, W., 295, 392 Yule, G.U., 65, 392 Williams, T., 178 Woods, V., 198, 204, 380 Williams, V., 23 Woolf, P.J., 381 Z Willingham, B., 203, 384 Wright, L.W., 280, 370, 372 Zaas, A.K., 381 Wilmot, J., 149 Wroe, S., 375 Zahn, R., 384 Wilson, D.S., 279–80, 392 Wunderlich, M., 383 Zajonc, R.B., 46, 203, 392 Wilson, E.O., 8, 48, 66, 69, Wundt, W., 328 Zawitz, M.W., 234, 392 98, 123–5, 132, 226, Zentall, T.R., 248, 373 244, 256, 302, 392 Y Zhang, M., 372, 391 Wilson, M., 43, 56, Yadav, N.K., 383 Zhou, Z., 373 119, 156–7, 159, 161, Yamamoto, I., 381, Zihlman, A.L., 128, 372 169–70, 240, 249, 375 Yamamoto, M., 129, 372 Zimbardo, P.G., 243, 392 Wilson, M.L., 370 Ye Xian (Cinderella), 158 Zwan, P., 387 Winegard, B.M., 101, 392 Ye, J., 142, 372

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