A Century of Biological Research

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ILLINOIS NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY

Bulletin Printed by Authority of the State of Illinois

HARLOW B. MILLS GEORGE W. BENNETT GEORGE C. DECKER THOMAS G. SCOTT HERBERT H. ROSS JAMES S. AVARS J. CEDRIC CARTER RUTH R. WARRICK

BESSIE B. EAST

STATE OF ILLINOIS* Willum G. Stratton, Governor DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION • Vbra M. Binm, Director NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION • Harlow B. Mills, Chief

ILLINOIS NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY Bulletin

Volume 27, Article 2 Printed by Authority of December, 1958 the State of Illinois

A Century of Biological Research

HARLOW B. MILLS GEORGE W. BENNETT GEORGE C. DECKER THOMAS G. SCOTT HERBERT H. ROSS JAMES S. AYARS

J. CEDRIC CARTER RUTH R. WARRICK BESSIE B. EAST

STATE OF ILLINOIS* William G. Stratton, Governor

DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION • Vera M. Binks, Director NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION • Harlow B. Mills, Chief Urbana Illinois STATE OF ILLINOIS DEPARTMENT OF REGISTRATION AND EDUCATION William G. Strathin, Cot'/rnor \'era M. Bisks, Director BOARD OF NATURAL RESOURCES AND CONSERVATION Vera M. Binks, Chairmtin; A. E. Emerson, Ph.D., Biology; L. H. Tiffany, Ph.D., Forestry; Walter H. Newhouse, Ph.D., GeoloRy; Roger Adams, Ph.D., D.Sc, Chemistry: Robert H. Anderson, B.S.C.E., Engineering; W. L. EvERiTT, E.E., Ph.D., Representing the President of the University oj Illinois; Delyte W. Morris, Ph.D., President oj Southern Illinois University

NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY DIVISION, Urbona, Illinois .SCIENTIFIC AND TIXHNICAL STAFF Harlow B. Mills, Ph.D., Chiej

Bissii: H. East, M.S., .Vvji.Vani to Ih,- Chi,-!

Section of Economic Entomology Section of Aquatic Biology—continued George- C. Decker, Ph.D., Principal Scientist and Head .Mai'Rici: ,\. U'liii MRi, M..^., Assistant Aquatic J. H. Bigger, M.S.. Entomologist Biologist* L. L. ITnglish, I'll D., Entumologisl Arnold W. Fkii/., B.S., Field Assistant* Willis N. Bruce, Ph.D., Associate Entomologist Damp J. .\'1(;;ini\. Field Assistant* Norman Gannon, Ph.D., Associate Entomologist W. H. LuCK.MANN. Ph.D., Associate Entomologist Section of Applied Botany and Plant Pathology John D. Briccs, Ph.D., Associate Entomologist I. Cedric Carter, Ph.D.. Plant Pathologist and Head Ronald H. Meyer, M.S., Assistant Entomologist J. L. FoRSBERG, Ph.D., Plant Pathologist John D. Paschke. Ph.D., Assistant Entomologist G. H. Boewe. M.S.. Associate Botanist Robert Snetsinger, M.S., Field Assistant Robert A. Evers. Ph.D., Associate Botanist Carol Morgan. B.S.. Laboratory Assistant E. B. Hi.MELiCK, M.S., Assistant Plant Pathologist Eugene M. Bravi, M.S., Research Assistant Robert Dan Neely, Ph.D., Assistant Plant Pathologist Richard B. Dysart, B.S., Technical Assistant Walter Hartstirn, Ph.D., Assistant Plant Pathologist Reginald Roberts, A.B., Technical Assistant Donald F. Schoeneweiss, Ph.D., Assistant Plant James W. Sanford, B.S., Technical Assistant Pathologist Earl Stadelbacher, B.S., Technical Assistant Rovenia F. Fit?.-Gerali), B..A.. Technical Assistant Sue E. Watkixs, Technical Assistant H. B. Petty-, Ph.D., Extension Specialist in Entomology* Section of Wildlife Research Steve.nson Moore, III, Ph.D., Extension Specialist in Thomas G. Scott. Ph.D.. Came Specialist and Head Entomology* Ralph F.. Yeatter. Ph.D., Game Specialist John W. Matteson, M.S., Research Associate* Carl O. Mohr. Ph.D., Game Specialist Zen AS B. Noon, Jr., M.S., Research Assistant* I'. C Bellrosk, B.S., Game Specialist L'LARtNtt F.. White. B.S.. Research Assistant* H. C. Hanson, Ph.D., Associate Game Specialist John Arthur Lowe, M.S., Research Assistant* \\ . R. Hanson, Ph.D., Associate Game Specialist J. David Hoffman, B.S., Research Assistant* Richard R. Graber, Pli.D.. Associate Wildlije Specialist Assistant* Carlos A. W'hite, B.S.. Research Fr'.nces D. RoBBiNs, B..A.. Technical Assistant Roy E. McLaughlin, B.S., Research Assistant* Virginia A. Langdon. Technical Assistant Kouskolekas, M.S., Research Assistant* Costas Howard Crum, Jr., Field Assistant Louise Zingrone, B.S.. Research Assistant* Rexford D. Lord, D.Sc Project Leader* Mary' E. Mann, R.N., Research Assistant* Frederick Greeley, Ph.D.. Project Leader* Glen C. Sanderson, M.A., Project Leader* Section of Faunistic Surveys and Insect Identification Paul A. Vohs, Jr., M.S., Project Leader* H. H. Ross, Ph.D., Systematic Entomologist and Head Ronald F. Labisky, M.S., Project Leader* Milton W. Sanderson, Ph.D., Taxonomist Iack A. Ellis, M.S., Assistant Project Leader* Lewis J. Stannard, Jr., Ph.D., Associate Taxonomist Thomas R. B. Barr, M.V.Sc, M.R.C.V.S.. Research Philip W. Smith, Ph.D.. Associate Taxonomist Assistant* Leonora K. Gloyd, M.S.. Assistant Taxonomist Bobbie Joe Verts. M.S.. Field Mammalogist* H. B. Cunningham. M.S.. Assistant Taxonomist Erwtn W. Pearson, M.S.. Field Mammalogist* Edward L. Mockford, M.S., Technical Assistant Kenneth L. Johnson. A.B., Field Assistant* Thei.ma H. Overstreet, Technical Assistant Keith P. Dauphin, Assistant Laboratory Attendant*

Section of Aquatic Biology Section of Publications and Public Relations George W. Bennett, Ph.D., Aquatic Biologist and Head Iames S. Avars, B.S., Technical Editor and Head William C. Starrett. Ph.D., Aquatic Biologist Bi.ANciii 1' Yuvsi.. B.A.. Assistant Technical Editor R. W. Larimore, Ph.D., Aquatic Biologist Diana R. Braverman, B.A., Assistant Technical Editor David H. Buck, Ph.D., Associate Aquatic Biologist William F.. Clark, Assistant Technical Photographer Robert C. Hiltibran. Ph.D., Associate Biochemist Mar(.uerite Veri.ey, Technical Assistant Donald F. Hansen, Ph.D., Assistant Aquatic Biologist William F. Childers. M.S., Assistant Aquatic Biologist Technical Library John C. Cralley. B.S., Field Assistant Ri IH R. Warrick. B.S.. B.S.L.S.. Technical Librarian Richard E. Bass, Field Assistant Nell Miles, M.S.. B.S.L.S.. Assistant Technical Robert D. Crompton, Field Assistant Librarian

CONSULTANTS: Herpetology, Hobart M. Smith, Ph.D., Professor of Zoology, University of Illinois; Parasitology, Norman D. Levine, Ph.D., Professor of Veterinary Parasitology and of Veterinary Research, University of Hlinois; Wildlife Research, Willard D. Klimstra. Ph.D., Assistant Professor of Zoology and Director of Co-operative Wildlife Research, Southern Hlinois University.

'Employed on co-operative projects with one of several agencies: University of Illinois, Illinois Agricultural Extension Service, Illinois Department of Conservation. United States Army Surgeon General's Office. United States Department of Agriculture, United States Fish and Wildlife Service, United States Public Health Service, and others.

(8.^0.'{2— r.M— 0-.')8) FOREWORD

THE record of one hundred years of women will meet the increasing demands the scientific progress of the Illinois for assistance in the problems of the pro- State Natural History Survey inspires us to duction of the necessities of life, that they reflect on its origin and brilliant achieve- will continue their research on the devel- ments. We pay the highest tribute to those opment and protection of our natural re- early educators and scientists who had vision sources. In the future we may be depend- beyond the exigencies of the moment. ent for our very existence on scientists And we express the highest commenda- such as these. We know they will meet the tion to the present Chief, Dr. Harlow B. challenge. Mills, and all of his staf¥ for their contri- Illinois Is justly proud of the century of butions to the well-being and pleasure of progress of one of its own agencies. our citizens. The important results of their Congratulations! research extend well beyond the borders of Vera Binks, Director Illinois. M. In contemplating the future, we are con- Department of Registration fident that this group of dedicated men and and Education The original building of the Illinois State Normal University, Normal, Illinois, spring, 1880. In this building the Illinois Natural History Society was founded and its museum was housed. Here the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History had its headquarters from its founding in 1877 until late in 1884, and here the fourth State Entomologist was located for approximately 2 years. CON TENTS

¥kom 1858 TO 1958 85 Recent Activities 149 Natural History Society 86 Plant Disease Survey 149 State Laboratory of Natural History. 87 Botanical Collections 152 State Entomologist 88 Shade and Forest Benjamin Dann Walsh 91 Tree Pathology 154 AV^illiam Le Baron 91 Floricultural Pathology 158 Cyrus Thomas 93 Identification and E.xtension 159 Stephen Alfred P'orbes 94 Past and Present 160 Reorganization 97 Unsolved Problems 160 Natural History Survey 98 Future Possibilities 161 The Future 101 Aquatic Biology 163 Economic Entomology 104 Beginning of Aquatic Ecology 163 Early History 104 First Field Laboratory 165 Practical Problems and Progress 106 Fishes and Plankton 166 Fruit Insects 106 The Fishes of Illinois 167 Truck Crop Pests Ill Illinois River Plankton 167 Cereal and Forage Crop Pests 113 Bottom Fauna 168 Pests of Forest and Shade Trees New Lines of Research 169 and Ornamental Plants 118 Early Management Attempts 170 Insects Attacking Man Modern Management 170 and Animals 119 The Last Twenty Years 172 Biological Control 120 Direction of Future Studies 177

Value of Insect Control 123 Wildlife Research 1 79 Emphasis for the Future 124 Development 179 ^"aunistic Surveys 127 Organization 181 Early Background 127 Research Contributions 183 Changing Habitats 128 Birds 183 Periods of Faunistic Activities 128 Mammals 195 Initial Period, 1858-1869 129 Wildlife Management 198 Expansion Period, 1871-1922 130 The Future 199 Specialization Period, Publications and Public Rel.ations.202 1923 to Present 132 Early Publications 203 Research Collections 134 Publications Series 205 V^ertebrates 134 Editorial Personnel 207 Invertebrates Other Than Insects. .134 Public Relations 208 Insects 134 Editorial Policy 208 Faunistic Reports 135 Library 210 Vertebrates 135 The Library at Normal 210 Invertebrates Other Than Insects. .137 The Library at Urbana 210 Insects 137 Library Collections 211 Retrospect and Prospect 144 Library Personnel 213 \ppLiED Botany Financial Support 213 AND Plant P.athology 145 Former Technical E.mployees 215 Early Activities 146 Literature Cited 219 h -

M C : ;

From 1858 to 1958

HARLOW B . MILLS

THE mid-point of the nineteenth cen- hand-to-hand conflict for seats and in some cases for standing room. tury in the United States was marked by ferment, by excitement, by great This boy who had the courage to chal- ideas. River traffic was at a peak ; rail- lenge Judge Douglas was Stephen Alfred roads had been built and were being ex- Forbes, later to be the person most re- tended. New areas were becoming more sponsible for the development of the easily accessible to settlers. The point Illinois State Natural History Survey, of departure to the exciting and mysteri- the centennial of which this number of ous Far West was on the Mississippi the Bulletin commemorates. River, and two things happened just Not only was this point in history one before 1850 which focused attention of swift movement and of critical impor- on that vast and largely unexplored area tance in the politics and development of

— the movement of the Mormons from the country ; it also brought science into Nauvoo, Illinois, on the banks of the clearer focus. Many scientific societies Mississippi, to the Great Salt Lake, and were organized. Darwin's Origin of Spe- the discovery of gold at Sutter's Mill in cies appeared in 1859. Scientists were California. just beginning to play with the idea that

The United States tried its muscles in their field was not a mental toy, that it the Mexican War in its first inter- could be put to practical use; and some national conflict since its last test with scientists were announcing that they were England, and it ended Mexican domi- interested in the practical application and nance in California with the assistance popularization of their knowledge, much of the Bear Flag Revolution. to the distress of most of their colleagues. Politically the young country was go- As an illustration, there is a rather long ing through the series of events which apology which Walsh (1868Z':9) felt con- ultimately led to the Civil War. On strained to include in his First Annual August 27, 1858, the most important of Report of the Acting State Entomologist. the Lincoln-Douglas debates, according Apparently this comment was written for to the estimate of some historians, took the eyes of Walsh's scientific confreres place at Freeport, Illinois. This debate in part it says is said to have won for Judge Douglas In a Memoir intended for publication in the Senatorship in his contest with Lin- the Proceedings of some grave Scientific So- it of course, highly indecorous coln, but at the same time it lost the ciety, would, be to break the dreary monotony of scientific Presidency for the Judge in a later con- hair-splitting by a single remark, which had test with the same adversary. the slightest tendency towards exciting that At the debate, there was a boy of four- convulsive movement of the midriff, which teen who wormed his way to the front the vulgar herd of mankind call "laughter."

. . . Four hundred years ago Martin Luther of the crowd and gained some renown said, that "he could see no reason why the by issue at vocally taking with Douglas Devil should run away with all the good one point in this historically climactic tunes." I can see no reason, in the year 1867, discussion. The youngster was consider- why the pestilent yellow-covered literature should monopolize all the wit ably chagrined by reproof from those of the day and humor. If there is one thing which I around him, but perhaps he was caught have at heart more than another, it is to by the character of that meeting, for it is popularize Science— to bring her down from reported by George W. Smith (1927: the awkward high stilts on which she is ordinarily paraded before the world to show 410) that — how sweet and attractive she is when the There was much confusion—some real dis- frozen crust, in which she is usually en- order. ... It appears from the reports that veloped, is thawed away bv the warm breath orators, reception committees, invited guests, of Nature— ... If I merely succeed in en- and newspaper reporters ail engaged in a ticing away a single young woman from her [85] 86 Illinois Natural History Survey Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 mawkish novelettes and romances into the ture; A. H. \Vorthen, head of the first flowerv paths of Entomology, or if I can only Illinois State Geological Survey; Cyrus induce a single young man, instead of haunt- Thomas, Benjamin D. Walsh, M. S. ing saloons and lounging away his time at Everett, street-corners, to devote his leisure to study- Bebb, Dr. Oliver James Shaw, ing the wonderful works of the Creator, as Dr. Henry M. Bannister, Dr. J. W. in these tiny miracles of perfec- exemplified \>lie. Professor J. B. Turner, Dr. Ed- United States tion which the people of the mund Andrews, Dr. Frederick Brendel, call "bugs," I shall think that 1 have not and Newton Bateman. The above list in- written altogether in vain. dicates a great breadth of interest and no The j^rowth of the population of Illi- lack of intelligence on the part of the nois resulted in the bringinj^ toj^ether, original members of the Society. within the state's boundaries, of people The first officers of the Society included with common interests in natural history. a General Agent, among whose duties This field of knowledge had not gone un- were the collection and exchange of speci- noticed in this general geographical area, mens (Batemen 1858^^:258). C. D. Wil- but the investigators here were individuals ber was named to this office. The Society's and worked pretty much alone. Just original constitution (Bateman 1858/': across the Wabash River to the east, 258) and the revised constitution of Thomas Say had earlier done research 1859 (Francis 1859/^:662-3) provided on insects and other animal groups. that all specimens should be deposited in Across the Ohio River to the south, John the Museum of the State Normal Uni- James Audubon had studied birds. versity. The constitution as revised on June 20, NATURAL HISTORY 1859 (Francis 1859^:662-3), "dropped SOCIETY the General Agent, gave most of his duties to a newly created Superintendent, Because by mid-century people inter- and added a Curator, whose duties were ested in natural history had become more to receive and arrange specimens. Cyrus numerous in the state, Cyrus Thomas of Thomas, who was elected Curator, lived Carbondale was able to propose to the in Jackson County, many miles from the December, 1857, meeting of the State Museum, and the elected Superintendent, Teachers' Association in Decatur that a Wilber, who taught geology at the State Natural History Society of Illinois be Normal University, according to Mar- formed (Bateman 1858fl). The next year, shall (1956) acted as unofficial curator. on June 30, 1858, the Society was organ- At the 1860 meeting, R. H. Holder of

ized at Bloomington in the office of the Bloomington was named both Curator < Illinois State Normal University (Bate- and Treasurer (Wilber 1861^:538). 1 man 1858^:258-9). It was given official The state charter of 1861 gave the sanction and notice when it was chartered Society authority to establish its own by an act of the state legislature ap- Museum at the State Normal University proved February 22, 1861 (Illinois Gen- (Illinois General Assembly 1861:551), eral Assembly 1861:551-2). and officers of the Society set December Immediately after its organization the 25, 1861, as the date on which the Mu- new Society began the development of a seum was to be "dedicated, with appro- museum and the collection of scientific priate exercises, as a free offering to literature. THE CITIZENS AND SCHOOLS of Illinois" Among its active members mentioned (Wilber 1861^:675). by Forbes (1907r: 893-4) were C. D. Forbes (1907^:893) listed Sewall, Wilber, who later became a consulting Powell, Vasey, and himself as curators serving mining engineer; Dr. J. A. Sewall, who of the Society's Museum, Vasey later became President of the University only nominally as Powell's deputy. Powell of Colorado at Boulder; Major J. W. was named Curator by the State Board of Powell, who was to gain renown as an Education on March 26, 1867. His ap- explorer in the West; Dr. George W. pointment was ratified and consented to Vasey, for many years botanist with the on the same day by the Directors of the United States Department of Agricul- Natural History Society (Bateman 1867: December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 87

8). Forbes was appointed to the same and the Illinois Museum of Natural His- office on June 26, 1872, the day Powell's tory at Normal was "converted into a resignation was offered and accepted State Laboratory of Natural History" (Bateman 1872:6). (Illinois General Assembly 1877:14-6). Because the Natural History Society was composed principally of people who STATE LABORATORY were prosecuting natural history investi- I OF NATURAL HISTORY

! gations as sidelines to other activities, and because it was not a strong cohesive agent, The act that established the State it finally reached the point where it could Laboratory of Natural History relieved no longer sustain itself. Forbes (1907r: Forbes of the necessity of developing mu- 898) said of the times, "It should be seum exhibits and allowed him to turn I I remembered, in this connection, that this more of his attention to research. Shortly

I was a time when college men, as a rule, after the establishment of the Laboratory, worked like dray-horses and were paid Forbes' title was changed from Curator ." like oxen, . . to Director (Etter 1877:25). The Society turned to the state for Forbes had not been occupying his time aid, and by an act approved February 28, completely in the preparation of museum 1867, $2,500, to be paid annually to the material while he was Curator of the Illi- State Board of Education, was appropri- nois Museum of Natural History. He had ated by the General Assembly for the taught classes in zoology at Illinois State salary of a curator and "for the necessary Normal University and he had started a expenses of improving and enhancing the series of bulletins reporting on research value" of the Museum (Illinois General and investigation. The first number of the Assembly 1867:21). Major Powell was series is dated December, 1876, and carries the first curator to receive state aid. The the title. Bulletin of the Illinois Museum state appropriations, according to Forbes of Natural History. From the appearance (1907r:895), "were largely drawn upon of No. 2 of the first volume, in June, to outfit and maintain the Powell expedi- 1878, until the beginning of Volume 13, tions to the far west." As a condition in 1918, the title was the Bulletin of the upon receiving further state aid, as pro- State Laboratory of Natural History, and vided by legislative act approved April from that time to the present it has been 14, 1871, the Society had to turn its Mu- the Bulletin of the Illinois State Natural seum over to the state (Illinois General History Survey or Illinois Natural His- Assembly 1872:152). On June 22, 1871, tory Survey Bulletin. The volumes have the Society agreed to the transfer and been numbered serially from December, when, on June 28, 1871, the Board of 1876, to the present time.

Education accepted the transfer, the Mu- The work of the Laboratory and its seum officially became state property young Director attracted the attention of (Bateman 1871:9; Forbes 1877:324-5)'. the new Illinois Industrial University at On December 15, 1875, the State Urbana. Not only had Forbes been pub- Board of Education passed the following lishing actively, but in 1882 the duties of State Entomologist resolution (Etter 1876:17) : had fallen on his capable shoulders. Shortly afterward the Uni- Resolved, That we regard the Museum as a State institution, devoted to the prosecution of versity made an offer of employment to a natural history survey of the State, to the the Director of the Laboratory and State encouragement and aid of original research, Entomologist. Forbes faced the choice of and to the diffusion of scientific knowledge declining the offer, of abandoning the and habits of thought among the people. Laboratory, which had been established at Forbes, who in 1872 had been appointed the Illinois State Normal University by by the State Board of Education as Cura- legislative act, or of moving the Labora- tor of the Museum, remained in that tory with him. capacity until July 1, 1877, when by legis- Apparently at his suggestion, the mat- lative act approved May 25, 1877, a State ter was taken up with the State Board of Historical Library and Natural History Education by the Trustees of the Illinois Museum were established at Springfield, Industrial University, and an agreement :

88 Illinois Natural History Survey Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 was made that the hivv be changed to The office of the State Entomologist has found a home, it is to be hoped permanent, allow for the nio\ e. In a report addressed where it naturally belongs. The governing . to the Rejient and dated December 12, boar

j 1

I thought adequate to prevent such a con- State Laboratory of Natural History and tingency. authorized hiin to receive laboratory property transferred by the State of Later in the same meeting, Trustee Board Alexander McLean offered the following Education (Burrill 1887a: 50). It is inter- the the resolutions (Burrill 1887«:18): esting to note size of Laborator>' staff at that time. On September 8, 1885, Resolved, That the Trustees of the Illinois the Trustees approved the following ap- Industrial University have heard with great satisfaction the suggestion that the State Lab- pointments (Burrill 1887^:55-6): oratory of Natural History may be united with Entomological Assistants the University under their charge. Thomas F. Hunt $40 a month Resolved, That in case such a union shall Clarence M. Weed $40 a month be accomplished they will, to the extent of the means intrusted to them, aid in carrying Botanical Assistant forward the valuable work of the laboratory, Charles F. Hart $45 a month by assigning to it suitable apartments in the Amanuensis building of the University, and by providing Miss Mary Snyder $45 a month such conveniences as the nature of the work J. botanical survey may require, to the end that it may enjoy Services relating to a commodious and perpetual home within, Prof. T. J. Burrill $300 for the vear institu- and the generous cooperation of, an F. S. Earle $83 1/3 a month tion founded and maintained for the promo- Such other miscellaneous assistants as tion of scientific research and the dissemination of practical knowledge. might be required and within the funds available Forbes officially took over his duties at The State Laboratory of Natural His- Urbana on Januarv 1, 1885 (Forbes tory continued under that name until 1886^:lx). 1917. In the following March the Regent, Dr. SeliiTi H. Peabodv, had the following STATE ENTOMOLOGIST comment (Burrill 1887a:19-20) :

The unsuccessful effort of three years ago* The rapid settlement of Illinois during presence and to secure for the University the the middle of the nineteenth century aid of Prof. S. A. Forbes for the organization brought in a great number of agricul- of the instruction of Zoology was renewed the last year, and has been crowned with better turists. The country was new, and fortune. Since the opening of the new year breaking down of the original vegetation the Zoological laboratory has become an ac- for the establishment of fields in which tive agency in this department of physical crops were grown brought about great science, and its success is well assured. A new interest has been aroused in this science. losses from insects. These losses, while Ue 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 89 seen and experienced, were not well un- millions of riollars poorer bv reason of noxious derstood. Official entomolog;y was born insects; nor the additional statement that a very large proportion of this loss during this period. The agriculturists felt might have been averted by the labors of a the need of assistance and cried out to the competent Entomologist with a little means government for it. at his disposal. At the end of the Civil War, the Presi- In 1866 the Horticultural Society, dent of the young Illinois State Horticul- meeting at Champaign, passed the fol- tural Society, John P. Reynolds, spoke lowing resolution (Deyo 1867:58): \igorously on the subject at the December Resolved, That we most urgently pray the 19, 1865, meeting of the Society at Nor- honorable legislature of our great state to mal. In his retiring address, Reynolds appoint a State Entomologist, that Agricul- (1866:8) said: turists and Horticulturists may not quite despair of ever overcoming the giant insec- first, of And, the appointment a State tiforous [j/t] difficulties in the way of suc- Entomologist. The time has been in this cess in their professions. As one eminently when it required some moral courage State qualified, and the highest in his profession for any one to advocate the appointment and in the whole west, we most hopefully mention (ompfTisaiiou from the treasury of an officer the name of Benjamin D. Walsh, of Rock to look after the bugs, but I venture the Island. opinion that there is no subject in which you, as amateur or professional horticulturists, The Horticultural Society was not have a direct, immediate or more larger pe- alone in this movement. At a meeting of cuniary interest, than in Entomology— . . . the executive committee of the Illinois No one who has given the subject any attention will question the truth of the statement State Agricultural Society on January 3, that the people of Illinois are to-day many 1866, G. W. Minier offered the following

University Hall on the University of Illinois campus. This building, completed in 1874 and razed in 1938, was headquarters for the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and the Office of State Entomologist for a few years after they were moved from Normal to Urbana. 90 Illinois Natlrai. History Survey Hui.i.i;tin Vol. 27, Art. 2

specific and forthrij^ht resolution ( Re\n- three persons to hold the position main- olds 1868:18): tained their offices in their homes or in offices devoted to other purposes. The job Rfsolved. That whenever a sum of tifteen was a difficult one, and Forbes (1915: hundred dollars ($1,500) shall have been obtained, by legislative action or otherwise, 7-8) once rather facetiously wrote: for an annual salary, this Board will then appoint a competent scientific man as State He [Walsh] performed as well as he could Entomologist. his various duties of private, captain, colonel, this Resolved, That Mr. B. I). Walsh be and he adjutant, and major-general of new is hereby appointed State Entomologist, sub- force— and in two years he was dead. He ject to the preceding resolution. had two successors enlisted for the war on precisely the same terms, the first of whom, Dr. Wm. Le Baron, of Cieneva, HIinois, main- The lej^islature listened to these pleas tained for five years the une(|ual contest, and in 1867 passed a law which author- when he also died ; and the second, Dr. Cyru^ ized the Governor, with the consent of the Thomas, of Carbondale, abandoned the field Senate, to appoint a state entomologist. in despair after seven years of diligent service, going then to Washington for work in The work of this officer was considerably another department of science, where he lived handicapped. While he was voted a salary, to the good old age of eighty-five. I haxc he was j^iven no work fund, and the first sometimes wondered if his long survival was

Benjamin Dann Walsh, State Entomologist, 1867-1869. December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 91 not largely due to his fortunate escape from 1851, when he moved to Rock Island and an untenable situation. entered the lumber business. Forbes set out to disprove this conten- He was not a politician, but in 1858, tion, and carried the duties, however with when he suspected that the city was being more help than his predecessors had, from cheated by the city council, he placed his 1882 to 1917, a span of 35 years. name in contention for alderman. His Let us now look at the four men who purpose was to get at the city's books. carried the title and responsibility of Illi- This action did not endear him to some nois State Entomologist. elements of the city, and his life was threatened. Undaunted, he went ahead Benjamin Dann Walsh with a successful campaign, exposed the Although the resolutions passed by the frauds, and resigned. State Horticultural Society and the State Although he had made a small collec- Agricultural Society in 1866 mentioned tion of insects in England, he publicly had specifically Benjamin D. Walsh as a shown no deep interest in entomology potential State Entomologist, Walsh did until January, 1860, when he lectured for not obtain this title without some compli- 2 hours to the State Horticultural Society. cations. An act providing for this officer Thereafter he contributed regularly to the was passed by the legislature and was Prairie Farmer and other agricultural approved on March 9, 1867 (Illinois journals. Further, in the proceedings of General Assembly 1867:35-6). No ap- scholarly societies, he published several pointment was made at that time. How- excellent scientific papers on insects. He ever, a special session was called on June collaborated with E. T. Cresson, A. R.

1 1 of the same year, and at that time the Grote, and J. W. McAllister in the pub- name of Walsh was presented for the Sen- lication of a monthly called the Practical ate's approval. The session was called for Entomologist, which lasted for only 2 specific purposes, of which the approval of years, until September, 1867. In Septem- an appointee as State Entomologist was ber of the following year, Walsh and C. not a part. Therefore, the Senate decided V. Riley started the American Entomolo- that constitutionally it could not act on gist. this matter. On November 12, 1869, as Walsh was Walsh acted as State Entomologist, walking down a railroad track, busily without legal status, and with an assign- engrossed in reading a letter, a train ap- ment of $500 by the Horticultural So- proached. When he saw the train, he was ciety, until the legislature passed an act too late to clear himself completely, and "for the relief of the state entomologist," his left foot was badly injured. The foot March 25, 1869 (Illinois General Assem- was amputated, and to console his wife he bly 1869:53-4). This act legalized what said, "Why, don't you see what an ad- Walsh had been doing for nearly 2 years. vantage a cork foot will be to me when I

It is interesting to note that Walsh's first am hunting bugs in the woods: I can annual report was made to the Horticul- make an excellent pin-cushion of it, and if tural Society and not to the Governor, perchance I lose the cork from one of my and was signed by Walsh (1868^:3) as bottles, I shall simply have to cut another Acting State Entomologist. one out of my foot" (Riley 1869-70:65). Walsh was a most interesting person. He published an article exonerating the He was born in Frome, Worcestershire, engineer from all blame in the accident. England, September 21, 1808 (Weiss He appeared to be recovering well from 1936:234). He was well educated, and, the accident when suddenly he began to about 1830, received a Master of Arts decline, apparently from some internal degree from Trinity College, Cambridge, injurv. He passed away on the 18th of where he was a classmate of Charles Dar- November, 1869. win. He was married in England, and in William Le Baron 1838 he came to America. His wife had relatives in Henry County, Illinois, and In 1870 Governor John M. Palmer he purchased a 300-acre farm in that part requested William Le Baron to take over of the state. He operated the farm until the position left vacant by the unfortunate 92 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 death of Walsh. This request was quite named Dr. Le Baron for the place, taking him entirely by surprise. unexpected, for entomolojiy was onh an acti\c side interest of this competent Le Baron was a native of North An- physician. dover, Massachusetts, where he was born half-said in history ThinjiS which are October 17, 1814. He came from a line pique the ima^^ination. We find that Dr. of New England professional people ; his in a biographical Godinji (1885:123), father was a medical doctor and his sketch of Le Baron, had the following to maternal grandfather was Dr. Thomas say: Kittredge, a well known and highly respected surgeon of his day. In 1870 two caiuliiiates appeared for the Le Baron's calling was decided at an office of Illinois State Entomologist made vacant liy the untimely death of the lamented early point in his life. After studying W'alsh^Dr. Henry Shinier of Mt. Carroll medicine under an uncle, Dr. Joseph Kitt- and Mr. Kmery of the Pruirir 1 aimer, both redge, he practiced for several years in his of whom were well qualified for the position. home town. Later he completed his medi- For reasons that cannot be given at this time, Gov. Palmer refused to appoint either, but cal studies and was graduated from the

William Le Baron, State Entomologist, 1870-1875. December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 93

Harvard Medical College. In 1844 he way. He died on October 14, 1876. The moved to Geneva, Illinois, where he con- excellence of his four reports is a measure tinued a successful career as a physician. of the hijih ability that Le Baron possessed. As a child he was }i;reatly interested in nature, moving from ornitholoj^y to botany Gyrus Thomas to entomoloii;y. In 1850, after 6 years in The third State Entomologist did not Illinois, he published his first article, a attend college (Coding 1889:106). The

Cyrus Thomas, State Entomologist, 1875-1882. treatise on the chinch bug, in the Prairie competence Cyrus Thomas attained was larmer. This study was so exhaustive the result of his own personal labors. He that Asa Fitch, the New York State En- was a versatile and practical person. He tomologist, republished it in his Second was born in Tennessee, July 27, 1825, Report. In 1865 Le Baron was made the and his mother had hoped that he would entomological editor of Prairie Farmer. become a physician. In 1849 he moved to In the position of State Entomologist Jackson County, Illinois, where he stud- he labored diligently until his health gave ied law and taught school. In 1851 he 94 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

was admitted to the bar and was elected Thomas was interested in many things, county clerk. About 1864 he dropped and in July, 1882, he resigned his various law and entered the ministry. Illinois positions and accepted employ- For some time, Thomas had considered ment in the Smithsonian Institution's Bu- entering the field of science and, as evi- reau of Ethnology, leaving a brilliant and dence of his practicalness, in 1856 he de- uncompleted career in entomology. He liberately began the study of entomology was to gain further laurels in archeology as being a field which was inexpensive and and to become an authority on the Mayan in which there was an abundance of ma- language. terial close at hand upon which he could About some things he was adamant. He work. He became an authority on the published a review of Darwin's works Orthoptera. He wrote many articles on from an orthodox view, which so im- entomology, some of which he contributed pressed the officials of Gettysburg College to farm journals. that they hastened to award him an honor- From 1869 to 1874 he was associated ary Ph.D. degree. with the federally sponsored Hayden Geo- Thomas lived to be 85 years old, pass- logical Survey, paying special attention to ing away on June 27, 1910. the entomology and agricultural resources He bears a peculiar relationship to the of the West. During this period he pub- Natural History Survey, for he is credited lished many reports of entomological with having first proposed an Illinois Nat- significance. ural History Society in 1857, and he was In 1874 Thomas was elected to the a State Entomologist. Professorship of Natural Sciences at Thomas was a man of multiple apti- Southern Illinois Normal University, tudes, as the above sketch indicates. He whereupon he severed his relationship with moved his intellect in many fields: school the federal survey. The next year, 1875, teacher, lawyer, county official, minister, he was appointed by Governor Richard entomologist, explorer, college professor, and archeologist. J. Oglesby to take the place of Dr. Le Baron as State Entomologist. Six re- Stephen Alfred Forbes ports were published by Thomas and his collaborators. No one has molded the character of the On March 3, 1877, the United States Natural History Survey so much as Dr. Entomological Commission was authorized Forbes, a man of irrepressible intellect by Congress. Thomas found time, along and insatiable curiosity, and the fourth with his regular work, to become a mem- and last Illinois State Entomologist. ber of this Commission. Other members Forbes was born of pioneer parentage of the Commission were C. V. Riley and on May 29, 1844, in Stephenson County, A. S. Packard, Jr. Thomas was not col- Illinois. He was one of a large family. laborating with amateurs when he joined His father died when he was 10, and a these two men on the Commission. Both brother assumed the responsibility for an were giants in the profession—names that invalid mother, Stephen, and a younger still command respect. Riley was State sister. Stephen attended district school un- Entomologist for Missouri, as well as a til he was 14, and his brother carried on member of the Commission, and the real his education for 2 more years. For a originator of entomological research in short time in 1860 he attended Beloit the federal government. Packard was a Academy. He had an innate interest in scholarly gentleman, a member of the language, and on his own he learned to National Academy of Sciences and other read French, Spanish, and Italian. learned groups, and an author of note in When the Civil War broke out in his field. 1861, Forbes was 17. He joined Company Thomas was a man of real capability, B, 7th Illinois Cavalry, in September of holding, as he did simultaneously, a pro- that year. He rapidly advanced from or- fessorship at Southern Illinois Normal derly to sergeant to lieutenant to captain, University, the State Entomologist's re- reaching the last rank when he was 20. sponsibility, and membership on the his- In 1862 he was captured while carrying toric federal Entomological Commission. dispatches near Corinth, Mississippi, and December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 95

Stephen Alfred Forbes in the 1880's, while State Entomologist and Director of the State Laboratory of Natural History at Normal.

was in Confederate prisons for 4 months. natural history. His first publications ap- During this period of enforced idleness peared in 1870, and these led to his ap- he studied Greek from books he managed pointment in 1872 as Curator of the to buy at Mobile. He participated in 22 Museum established by the State Natural military engagements, and, other than History Society at Normal. He held this suffering from scurvy and malaria while position until 1877, when he was appoint- in prison, he emerged from the war ed to head the State Laboratory of Na- unscathed. tural History, the child of the Museum. At the end of hostilities he entered After the resignation of Thomas as Rush Medical College in Chicago. Be- State Entomologist in 1882, Governor cause of lack of funds and certain psy- Shelby M. Cullom appointed Forbes to chological difficulties revolving around that position. In 1884 Indiana University surgery without anesthesia, he never fin- awarded Forbes the Ph.D. degree "by ished the course. After leaving Rush, he thesis and examination." He did not have taught school and, on the side, studied a bachelor's degree. In 1885 he moved to 96 Illinois Natural History Survi-y Hui.i.etin \'ol. 27. Art.

the University of Illinois, where he was he directed the first forest surveys of Illi- ' Professor of Zoology and Entomology, nois. These represent only a few of his Director of the State Laboratory of Nat- innumerable interests. ural History, and State Entomologist. He was a member of many learned so- He was Professor of Zoology for 25 cieties and the recipient of many honors.

Stephen Alfred Forbes in about 1915, shortly before being named Chief of the Illinois Natural History Survey at Urbana.

years. Professor of Entomology for 13 Beyond this, he was active in his church, years, and Dean of the College of Science helped organize the first golf club at the for 16 years. University, was a member of a hiking He was especially interested in the in- club, and late in life delighted in driving teractions of organisms and has been an automobile. On his eightieth birthday called "the father of ecology." His inter- he was arrested for speeding, an incident ests covered all of biology. He investigat- which gave him some pleasure. ed or directed investigations of the food When the State Laboratory of Natural of fishes and birds, the fishes of the state, History and the State Entomologist's Of- and the biology of the Illinois River, and fice were united in 1917 to form the Nat- December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 97 ural History Survey, Forbes became the the State Laboratory Bulletin by Uni- first Chief of the new organization. He versity staff members. held this position until his death, March The State Entomologist's responsibili- 13, 1930, when almost 86 years of age. ties changed as time went on, and the The four sketches above cannot do jus- agency became responsible for the admin- tice to the entomological pioneers who istration of some laws, as well as for are their subjects, but they will give research (Forbes 1909:64—5). With the some indication of the high quality of the discovery of the San Jose scale in Illinois men. All were competent individuals with in 1896, there was concern over the pos-

fee

The Natural History Building on the ITniversity of Illinois campus. About 1894 headquarters and laboratories of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History and of the State Ento- mologist were moved into this building. From July 1, 1917, until the middle of 1940 it housed the main offices and most of the laboratories of the Illinois Natural History Survey.

high standards, even though they came sible spread of other pests into the state. from widely different backgrounds and In 1899 legislation was passed giving the possessed widely different trainings. State Entomologist large powers in in- (Among the sources of biographical spection, certification, and quarantine. material on Forbes are Anon. 1930, E. B. Other duties were added in 1907. Forbes 1930, Ward 1930, Howard 1932, According to Forbes (1909:55, 66), in Van Cleave 1930, 1947, and Marshall 1909 the staffs of the two agencies con- 1956.) sisted of the following: State Laboratory of Natural History Reorganization 1 Director

Forbes administered the State Labora- 1 Entomologist tory of Natural History and the State 2 Zoological Assistants Entomologist's Office as a unit, inter- 1 Artist changing personnel and materials. Fur- 1 Secretary ther, he made these agencies available to Special assistants from time to time the University of Illinois in many ways, State Entomologist's Office and considerable publishing was done in 1 State Entomologist 98 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 1

10 Assistants {iist were brouj^ht to}j[ether in 1*^17 under the 1 Draftsman a new name, Natural History Sur-

1 Chief Inspector vey. This Survey was placed in the De- 4 Temporary Inspectors partment of Registration and Education

1 Foreman along with the two other scientific sur- 12 Laborers veys, Geological and Water. The admin- Forbes' interest was priniarih in re- istration of (luarantine laws and the like search and not in aciniinisterin^ hiws. was transferred to the State Department During! the reorganization of state jjov- of Agriculture. ernment under Governor Frank O. Low- den's administration, the chance came to NATURAL HISTORY SURVEY make chanj^es which would brinjj; Forbes' interests into clearer focus. I he State We have followed the meanderings of Laboratory of Natural Histor\ and the organization from the Illinois Natural research activities of the State Kntomolo- Histor\ Society of 1858 through the So-

Theodore Henry Prison, Acting Chief, 1930-1931, Chief, 1931-1945, Illinois Natural His- tory Survey. ;

December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 99

ciety's Museum to the Illinois State Lab- Governor and they have traditionally held oratory of Natural History. We have long appointments. The biological scien- also discussed the development of the tists who have given or are giving of their State Entomologist's Office from 1867 time in this important state activity were and have seen this office united with the or are William Trelease, John M. Coul- State Laboratory in their research duties ter, Henry Cowles, Ezra J. Kraus, Carl to form the State Natural History Sur- G. Hartman, Lewis H. Tiffany, and Al- vey in 1917. fred E. Emerson. A new type of administrative responsi- The present Board consists of Director bility was set up in the Civil Administra- Vera M. Binks, Dean William L. Everitt tive Code of 1917, which has remained (the representative of President David D. essentially unchanged to the present time. Henry of the University of Illinois), The Code (Illinois General Assembly President Delyte W. Morris of Southern 1917:34) stated that: Illinois University, Dr. Walter H. New- Unless otherwise provided by law, the func- house, Dr. Roger Adams, Mr. Robert H. tions and duties formerly exercised by the Anderson, Dr. Lewis H. Tiffany, and State entomologist, the State laboratory of Dr. Alfred E. Emerson. natural history, the State water survey and The Board meets quarterly, the State geological survey and vested by this receives Act in the department of registration and reports from the Chiefs, counsels with education, shall continue to be exercised at them on their research programs, appoints Illinois in and the University of buildings their scientists, and examines and approves places provided by the trustees thereof. their budgets.

Within the Department of Registra- To return now to 1917: When the re- tion and Education was established a organization took place, Forbes, who was Board of Natural Resources and Conser- Director of the State Laboratory of Nat- ural History vation ; this Board is the responsible agent and State Entomologist, for the activities of the Natural History, was retained as Chief of the Natural His- Geological, and Water Surveys. The tory Survey. He remained as Chief until charge (Illinois General Assembly his death in 1930, and was extremely 1917:34) under which this group has alert mentally until 9 days before his worked through the years has been to death. Not long after the turn 1. Consider and decide all matters pertain- of the century. ing to natural history, geology, water and Dr. J. W. Folsom of the University of water resources, forestry, and allied research, Illinois Department of Entomology was investigational and scientific work walking down a street in Urbana when 2. Select and appoint, without reference to he discovered a the State civil service law, members of the youngster who was en- scientific staff, prosecuting such research, in- grossed in observing a colony of ants. vestigational and scientific work; Folsom engaged the boy in conversation 3. Co-operate with the University of Illi- and was impressed with his interest and nois in the use of scientific staff and equipment; knowledge. Thus began a close and per- 4. Co-operate with the various depart- sonal relationship between Dr. Folsom ments in research, inv'estigational and scien- and young Theodore Henry Frison. tific work useful in the prosecution of the Frison was born in Champaign, Illi- work in any department. nois, on January 17, 1895, and was edu- The Board consists of the Director of cated in the schools of that city. Through the Department of Registration and Edu- Dr. Folsom he became acquainted with

cation, who is chairman, the President of Dr. Forbes, and these two scientists al- the University of Illinois or his repre- lowed the boy to attend University sentative, the President of Southern Illi- courses prior to high school graduation nois University or his representative, all (Campbell 1946). Frison was in the army of whom are ex officio members, and, in for a short time in 1918, after which he addition, experts in the fields of geology, returned to the University, which award- biology, chemistry, forestry, and engineer- ed him all of his degrees. After short pro- ing who must have had a minimum of 10 fessional appointments in Wisconsin and years of experience in their professions. New Jersey, and upon receiving his Ph.D. Expert members are appointed by the degree, he joined the staff of the Natural 100 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art.

History Survey as Systematic Entomolo- concluded that it would be essential that gist. This was in 1923. Upon Forbes' the\- attempt to obtain funds for a sepa- I death in 1930, Prison was made Acting rate building. In this attempt they were Chief, and on July 1. 1931, he was ap- successful. The University assigned an pointed Chief. area for the building, and in 1940 the Prison was an indefatigable worker, two Surveys began the move into a new becoming a specialist in bumble bees, Natural Resources Building, built for

Leo Roy Tehon, Acting Chief, Illinois Natural History Survey, 1945-1947. aphids, and stoneflies. His tenure as Chief their occupancy. The building, and subse- was marked by growth in staff and facili- quent wings which were completed in ties. In the 1930's the growth of his or- 1950. were given to the University and ganization was such that it was difficult added to that organization's inventory. to find space for the personnel in the For the first time, the Natural History rooms which the University could devote Survey had a home which it could really to use of the Natural History Survey. call its own. Dr. Prison and Dr. M. M. Leighton, Prison had wide interests, and immedi- Chief of the Illinois Geological Survey, ately upon becoming Chief he began the conferred on the problems of space and development of wildlife research. This December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 101

field, as a separate discipline, was new. ture there are new crops and new meth- He was instrumental in organizing the ods of raising them. New plant diseases Midwest Wildlife Conference, the initial appear. New insect pests invade the state. meeting of which was held in Urbana in New demands are made for recreation. 1935. Also he was a charter member of New advances in pure scientific knowl- the Wildlife Society. edge must be made. All of these demands The stafF of the Natural History Sur- and approaches require the attention of vey increased from 16 in 1930 to 38 at the research specialist. All are inextri- the beginning of World War II. cably bound up in the future. A scientist In intellect and aggressive enthusiasm, who looks only to the past is professionally Prison was a worthy successor of Forbes. dead. He made many contributions to knowl- Perhaps the greatest challenge of the edge. He was a member of many learned future lies in the indisputable fact that societies and was given positions of re- human populations in the world — and sponsibility in them. Beyond that, he was that includes Illinois — are increasing. a golf and tennis player, a fine violinist, The demands which these people make on and had a great interest in art, history, their environment are increasing more and current affairs. rapidly than are the people themselves! It was a loss to the Natural History For most of our food and living room we Survey, and to science, when he passed are dependent on that surface which away December 9, 1945, after 15 profit- marks the boundary between the earth able years as Chief. and the atmosphere, on that surface upon On December 10, 1945, Dr. Leo R. which the sun's rays strike. We are de- Tehon was appointed Acting Chief, a pendent on it for our food and for our position which he held until February 28, relaxation. More people mean greater 1947. Tehon was a meticulous scholar. food demand and greater need for remov- He was not only a fine plant pathologist ing ourselves periodically from the intri- and mycologist, but also a good linguist cacies of a complex civilization. More peo- and musician (Carter 1955, Avars 1956). ple mean a reduction in space for both On March 1, 1947, Dr. Harlow B. of these necessities. This is the dilemma Mills, the present incumbent, took over of the future. As the years roll by and the duties of Chief. the population statistics pile up, our dependence for existence on our living re- THE FUTURE sources constantly becomes greater, and our dependence on the research scientist Throughout its century of existence, in fields of interest to the Natural His- this organization has attempted to meet tory Survey becomes a complete necessity. the needs of the economy of Illinois with Now, in 1958, we are concerned about an eye to the state's future requirements. the great strides made by the physical The Board has appointed scientists with sciences. These advances have great po- broad views and excellent training, men tential for good and tremendous potential who were not satisfied with the present for human destruction. International but who had a strong interest in the scientific competition has raised its head. future. A half century ago Forbes If the deleterious side of this physical (1907r:892) wrote, "I shall be governed science development is kept in check, we by the reflection that we are to-day look- can be sure that the need for sustaining ing forward and not back— that we are humanity, both physically and spiritually, preparing for the future and not studying will be colossal in the years ahead. ." of the past— . . The same fresh view We hear in 1958 "crash programs" should govern us at the end of 100 years. to develop in the shortest possible time The problems in nature are ever chang- certain phases of physical science applica- ing, or, rather, our needs from and ap- tion. When the collective human popula- proach to nature are ever changing. There tion of the United States has to tighten are new demands and new approaches. its collective belt just one small notch, New research techniques require re-eval- we will hear of a "crash program" the uation of what has been done. In agricul- like of which has not as yet even been :

102 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

Harlow Burgess Mills, Chief, Illinois Natural History Survey, 1947 to date. conceived. And when that time comes, rated in 1861 by an Act of the legislature; and the Natural History Survey will be called Whereas, In 1877 the name of the soon for even greater activity. ciety was changed to the State Laboratory of In closing this discussion, it would be Natural History, and in 1885 the laboratory well to call attention to a House Joint was moved to Urbana where it was placed Trustees Resolution introduced in the Seventieth under the direction of the Board of of the University of Illinois; and General Assembly of the State of Illinois Whereas, The State Laboratory of Nat- by Representatives Ora Dillavou, Charles ural History and the research activities of Clabaugh, and Leo Pfeffer (Illinois the State Entomologist's ofHce were united in House of Representatives 1957). The 1917 to form the State Natural History Sur- vey Division of the of Registra- Resolution reads as follows Department

tion and Education ; and Whereas, On June 30, 1858, a group of Whereas, The Natural History Survey far-sighted citizens of this State met at has rendered outstanding service in the field Bloomington and organized the Illinois State of natural history, especially in regard to Natural History Society which was incorpo- the control of noxious insects, the control of ;

December, 1958 Mills: From 1858 to 1958 103

diseases attacking floricultural and ornamen- and, above all, has contributed immeasurably tal plants, the development of forestry in to the welfare of all the people of this State; Illinois, the management of fishes in ponds and and streams, the foods and movement of Whereas, The 100th anniversary of the waterfowl in this State, the problems of up- Natural History Survey will be celebrated in land game species, and the periodic report 1958; therefore, be it of species which are especially endangered, Resolved, By the House of Representatives such as the prairie chicken and wood duck of the Seventieth General Assembly of the and State of Illinois, the Senate conciirrine/ herein, Whereas, The following world recog- that this Oeneral Assembly, on behalf of all nized scientists and scholars have been as- the people of this State, extend heartiest con- sociated with the wonderful work of the gratulations and sincere appreciation to the Natural History Survey: Stephen A. Forbes, staff, members and employees of the State Robert E. Richardson, David S. Jordan, Natural History Survey Division, on the oc- Frank C. Baker, Charles A. Kofoid, Robert casion of their 100th anniversary, for the Ridgway, Benjamin D. Walsh, Wesley P. outstanding contributions they have made to- Flint, Victor E. Shelford, Theodore H. ward the growth and development of this

Frison, and Leo R. Tehon ; and State; that we extend to them a wish for Whereas, Since 1858 the Natural His- continued success and progress in the future, tory Survey has received wide recognition and that a suitable copy of this preamble for its contributions to society, has gained the and resolution be forwarded to the chief of respect of scientists throughout the world, has the Stat? Natural Historv Survey Division, brought considerable prestige to this State, Mr. Harlow B. Mills. Economic Entomology

G P: O R G E C . DECKER

"\X7'HKN settlers moved into the lUi- eral Assembly created the office of State nois country, established homesites, Entomologist. and be^an to till the virgin soil, they found that hundreds of species of insects EARLY HISTORY nati\e to the area readily transferred their affections from wild plants to culti- Pleasant surprises await the curious vated crops, at times in hordes sufficient who attempt to assay the extent and use- to destro\' the crops completely. It was fulness of man's knowledge of insects, inevitable that the Illinois settlers, like their habits, and control measures in the the eastern colonists, had brouf2;ht certain 1850's and 1860's. It is gratifying to note pests along with them. The hitch-hiking that local, self-trained entomologists such pests included the codling moth in apjile as Walsh, Le Baron, Thomas, Shimer, barrels, the hessian fly in straw used as and Riley had collected and identified packing material, bedbugs in bedding, and hundreds of species and that they possessed lice on the bodies of the settlers. As if a remarkable knowledge of the life cycle these were not enough, other migrants, and ecology of perhaps three-fourths of such as the Colorado potato beetle, the the economic species ordinarily included in imported cabbage butterfly, the cotton any current list of noxious insects in the leafworm, the San Jose scale, the Nor- Midwest. Le Baron (1871:5-6) sum- way rat, and the fleas thereon, invaded marized the situation as he saw it at that the area. They were followed in later time: years by such notorious insect pests as the The history of many of our noxious insects, oriental fruit moth, the European corn and especially the most notorious of them, has borer, the sweet clover weevil, the Mexi- been pretty thoroughly traced, not only hy the can bean beetle, and the Japanese bee- entomologists expressly employed by several of the States for this purpose, but also by many tle. other active gleaners in this field. Still, any early Illinois settlers The were a hardy, one who enters upon the study of this extensive self-sufficient, and determined lot, gener- subject, soon finds work enough upon his ally not rich but for the most part thrifty hands. It cannot be said that the history of any insect is perfectly and absolutely known, and and aggressive. They took pride in the it is a notorious fact that some of the insects fact that they skilled were in the agricul- which have been longest known and studied, tural arts of their day. At the same time, such as the Plum Curculio and the Apple they admitted that the problem of coping Worm, are the very ones which are causing the most damage to the horticulturist at the with the many insect pests that damaged present day; and if we take into account the their crops, annoyed their livestock, and in- multitude of insects which are preying upon vaded their homes was beyond their com- our shade and ornamental trees and shrubs, prehension. They sought the aid of neigh- which, in the estimation of many, are scarcely bors, school teachers, doctors, and local inferior in value to the fruit bearing trees, we may safely conclude that the prospect is very amateur naturalists, who in turn sought remote when the work of the practical ento- the counsel and advice of Fitch, Harris, mologist will cease or materially diminish. and other entomologists located in the And the force of this view is greatly enhanced far-ofif New England and Atlantic coastal by the [occurrence], every year, to a greater or less extent, of new species of noxious in- states. When these sources of informa- sects, or rather of insects which, having ex- tion proved inadequate, the settlers ap- isted here or elsewhere in moderate numbers, pealed to the state legislature to appro- from time immemorial, have suddenly sprung priate funds and to appoint a state ento- into destructive profusion in consequence of an abundant the ab- mologist to study what appeared to be supply of congenial food, or sence of their natural enemies, or other condi- the most perplexing of all their problems. tions favorable to life, some of which are On February 27, 1867, the Illinois Gen- known, and some of which are obscure or in- [104] ,

December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 105 scrutable. The Colorado Potato-beetle, the and Thomas (1859rt), each one later ap- Saw-fly, the Asparagus-beetle, and the Currant pointed to the office of State Entomolo- Bruclius granarius; to which we might adrl gist, were presenting papers on Illinois the Pear-caterpillar {Callimorpha Lrcnntri) birds and other topics in the field of nat- and the Lesser Apple-leaf folder ( Tnrtrix malk'orana,) treated of in the following re- ural history. port, were all unknown here as noxious in- In the light of these pleasant surprises, sects until within the last few years. It is true one is amazed to realize that the com- that some noxious insects, on the other hand, have greatly diminished, and some, which have bined knowledge of all the experts w\is been the sorest scourges of the orchardist, such almost nil when it came to questions of for example, as the notorious Bark-louse of the practical control measures that could be apple tree, seem to be in the process of ex- employed to eliminate these pests or even tinction. to reduce materially the annual losses

Walsh and the others acquired much attributable to them. It is possible that of their knowledge through their own ob- the paucity of practical information can servations and experience, but obviously best be understood if we recall that for

they were familiar with most of the world many years it was believed well-nigh sac- literature on the subject. Furthermore, rilegious for a scientist to consider the it seems reasonably certain that then, as practical application of his accumulated now, much unpublished knowledge on the knowledge; as the distinguished Professor subject was transmitted from individual Louis Agassiz (1863:24) once said, "the to individual through correspondence and man of science who follows his studies conversation, some of it even as tradition. into their practical application is false to We know that pioneer naturalists ob- his calling." tained considerable information from the Local and national repudiation of this Indians. For example, the English ex- philosophy contributed to the industrial plorer, Jonathan Carver (1778:493-4) and agrarian crusades that resulted in wrote of his travels among the American creation of state entomologists' offices Indians in 1766: and land grant colleges. Touching upon the new philosophy of science and educa- I must not omit that the LOCUST [grasshopper] is a septennial insect, as they are only tion in addressing the founders of the seen, a small number of stragglers excepted, Illinois Natural History Societv at their every seven years, when they infest these parts first meeting in 1858, Turner (1859: and the interior colonies in large swarms, and 647) said: do a great deal of mischief.

In respect, also, to those grosser forms of One may be more than a little sur- vegetable and animal life, it seems to me that prised to discover that several local ama- our research should in future aim more di- teur naturalists— doctors, lawyers, college rectly at practical utility than in the past. with mere descrip- professors, orchardists, and agricultural- We are quite too content tion of forms and names, sometimes, without ists, never referred to as or considered to pushing our inquiries into the causes, relations be entomologists many of the —knew and uses, and evils of things. . . . common insects by name and possessed a We need not simply to christen all these knowledge of their biology and habits things—not simply to name the beasts, but also to rule over them, as did our great father adequate to permit these men to engage Adam; and, also, all other forms of matter. in lengthy and intelligent discussions on And we cannot do this till we know minutely the subject at meetings of agricultural their history, habits and relations to other and horticultural societies. For example, things and beings. The grand end to be aimed at, in reference Dr. E. G. Mygatt (1855), a physician, to most forms of fungi and parasites of all wrote an essay, "Bark Louse of the Apple sorts, is their prevention or destruction. But Tree," for the first Transactions of the a vast amount of minute antecedent knowledge "thus far Illinois State Agricultural Society, 1853- is needed before we can hope to say, and no farther," even to one single race or 54, and B. Turner (1859), a professor J. tribe, much more to the vast myriad of races paper, of Latin and Greek, presented a and tribes. "Microscopic Insects," at the first meeting of the Illinois Natural History Soci- Benjamin Walsh, the first State Ento- full ety in 1858. It is interesting to note that mologist of Illinois, was in accord at this time two men, Le Baron (1855) with the views of Turner. In addressing ;

106 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

a incetinii at Cobden, Illinois, in No- making the necessary adjustments tol \cmber, 1867, he said: many of the important changes in their] environment. Most of the important eco- I do not regret to say that I belong to the logical in modern school of science, and think it no deg- changes an area or community! radation, so far as my specialty is concerned, are accompanied by changes in the insect] to bring science to the aid of practical men in fauna; some species drop out and others] the related departments of human industry. move in. .And I need not tell you, for you know, that insects pick your pockets, and that to fight them Every agricultural practice adopted or]

successfullv it is necessary to know their habits discarded by man induces a significant en- and how to distinguish friends from foes vironmental change or modification which! (Walsh 1868rt:143). will favorably or unfavorably affect in- Cyrus Thomas subscribed to the new sects and, for that matter, all other living] philosophy several years before he became organisms in the area involved. Changes] State Entomologist. in crop rotations, fertilization practices, pruning, or drainage will prove favorable] And the study of natural history is a useful for some species and unfavorable for oth- study, having many direct practical advan- ers. tages. Agriculture is the pedestal on which the stately fortunes of bankers and merchant kings At the time the Office of State Ento-j are reared, and as the pedestal contracts or mologist was established in Illinois, fruit] falls the lofty column expands, so rises or and vegetable crops could not be econom- (Thomas 1859^:667). ically produced and marketed in the state] Therefore, we say, that natural history should be studied for the practical use made without reasonably effective insect con- of the knowledge obtained. And, if it be a trol. Since the high per acre value of such! study so desirable and so useful, the question crops seemed to warrant expenditures fori arises. Should not the study be c/enerally intro- insect control, Illinois producers of these duced into our schools and coUcgesf crops demanded and received a large] I answer, most emphatically, yes! There is no other branch of physics, nor any branch of share of the Entomologist's time. As the! metaphysics so important and so necessary to nature and magnitude of insect losses inj studied in the school room as natural his- be other agricultural and nonagriculturalj tory. And I am glad to see that quite a num- areas became more apparent and better] ber of institutions have ventured to cross the Rubicon; yet others are halting at the brink, understood, pressures from a multitude of] fearful of the result (Thomas 1859fl:668). other sources necessitated a realignment] and much greater diversification of ento-J Thus, the first and third State Ento- mological research. mologists publicly expressed their views. Space will not permit enumeration and] They took office dedicated to the task of full discussion of all the insect problems] assisting the residents of the state of Illi- that have arisen to plague Illinois farm- nois to find practical solutions for their ers in the past century and it will not] numerous and complex entomological allow a detailed review of the thousands] problems. Their successors followed the of printed pages that have been used to] same course. record the findings of research conducted! during this period. Therefore, in the] PRACTICAL PROBLEMS AND brief resume that follows we confine ourj PROGRESS attention to a few specific examples.

Change is eternal in the insect world Fruit Insects thus, it appears that the need for continued study of insects will never end. This In 1868 an editor of The American\ situation may be confusing to laymen, but Entomologist, probably Walsh, sum- situation as fol- entomologists and others who have closely marized the fruit insect studied nature realize that insects are lows :

dynamic creatures subject to constant It is notorious among fruit growers, that the] change in characteristics. Because of Curculio has now almost entirely vetoed the! years this! their great mutability, insects have sur- cultivation of the plum; and of late pernicious little Snout-beetle has extended its| vived in an ever-changing world for mil- ravages to the peach, and even to the apple lions of years and are still capable of and pear, to say nothing of those rarer and] ;

December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 107

choicer fruits, the nectarine and the apricot. by a Mr. Harkness at a horticultural strawberry and the grape vine are in- The meeting in 1853: fested by a host of insects, some of them known for many years back to science, others de- Some twelve years since, a neighbor of his en- scribed and illustrated for the first time by the closed a wild plum thicket, as a yard for editors of this paper in various publications swine; trees bore full crops every year; never while there are still others the natural history troubled by curculio, whilst other thickets of which has never yet been published to the about had fruit nearly all destroyed by them. world, and which will be figured and described Four years since the hogs were turned out, and bv the editors in the progress of this work. the ground appropriated to other uses; the What with the Bark-louse in the North, the first year after, the fruit was mostly destroyed Apple-root Plant-louse in the South and the by curculio (J. A. Kennicott 1855:314). .\pple-worm everywhere, the apple crop in North America is gradually becoming almost Gradually certain members of the cur- crop as uncertain and precarious as the plum culio tribe developed a liking for related (Walsh & Riley 1868rt:l). stone fruits and even apples. In his first To show that the testimony of an ento- and only report as State Entomologist, mologist was not biased and that the con- Walsh (1868/^:64) noted: ditions described above were more or less Although the Curculio now infests the culti- general, we may note a comment made by vated species of Plum {Pruntts domestica, Lin- the eminent journalist Horace Greele\' naeus,) to fully as great an extent as our com- (1870:301): mon wild species [Prunus amertcana,) yet it is oidy at a comparatively recent date that it If I were to estimate the average loss per an- attacked our cultivated Plums, and since that num of the farmers of this country from insects epoch it has been growing every year worse at $100,000,000, I should doubtless be far be- and worse, and making onslaughts upon other low the mark. The loss of fruit alone by the fruits, such as the Peach, the Cherry, and even devastations of insects, within a radius of the Apple. fifty miles from this city, must amount in value

to millions. . . . We must fight our paltry ad- For 20 to 30 years the use of Hull's versaries more efficiently, or allow them to curculio catcher or similar devices to jar drive us wholly from the field. curculios out of infested trees, so that the The first white settlers in Illinois ob- insects could be destroyed, and the use of served that the native fruits— plums, hogs and chickens confined to the or- grapes, haws, and berries—were subject chards to consume infested fruits as they to attack by a variety of insects. More fell were the two principal, and perhaps than three-fourths of the species recog- the only meritorious, control measures. nized as fruit pests today were recognized One should note, however, that farm, and mentioned in agricultural or horti- journals carried glowing advertisements cultural reports and farm journals prior for numerous concoctions, which were to 1870. The plum curculio, for exam- almost worthless or which did more harm ple, was to be found in every plum thicket than good. and, when improved varieties of plums The successful use of insecticides for were introduced, the curculio took to the control of the plum curculio on peach them like ducks to water. In discussing and other stone fruits did not materialize plum culture at a fruit growers' meeting until lead arsenate came into the picture in 1852, a Mr. Brewster reported that in the late 1890's, because the more solu- for 4 years the curculio had destroyed his ble arsenic compounds—white arsenic, plum crop. Then followed a general dis- Paris green, and London purple—then cussion of proposed control measures, available nroved too phytotoxic for use on such as jarring, banding, paving, and such delicate foliage as that of peach, using lime, soap suds, and chamber lye. plum, and cherry. With the aid of im- The following year a similar report pro- proved insecticide formulations, spray voked a repetition of the members' favor- schedules, and equipment developed ite control measures, but by then two gen- through years of continued research, Illi- tlemen had the answer: Just fence the nois orchardists were able to hold their plum orchard and turn in chickens own with the curculio until a crisis de- as (J. A. Kennicott 1855:296, 314-5). veloped during World War II. Then The idea of using chickens for control labor and other overhead costs increased of curculio paralleled a suggestion made and lead arsenate becaine less effective, :

108 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

many peach growers, after a few years in Jotham Bradbury, residing near Quincy, III., has an old apple orchard, which many years the red, pulled up their trees and aban- ago used invariably to produce nothing but doned production. hope that A DDT wormy and gnarly fruit. A few years ago he would control plum curculio faded quick- plowed up this orchard and seeded it to clover, ly, but BHC became available just in by way of hog pasture. As soon as the clover had got a sufficient start, he turned in time to save the peach-growing industry. a gang of hogs, and has allowed them the range of his short-lived as an insecticide BHC was orchard ever since. Two years after the land for plum curculio control ; it was replaced was plowed the apple trees produced a good by more eftective and less objectionable crop of fair, smooth fruit, and have continued materials such as chlordane, dieldrin, and to bear well ever since (Walsh & Riley 1868/^:4-5). parathion. However, it was BHC that saved the day for a number of orchardists. In the same article, further extolling Orchards that could have been bought for the value of hogs, we read a song, and a poor one at that, in the fall But the plum curculio and its allies are not of 1946 and spring of 1947 were not for the only insects that we can successfully attack sale in 1948. through the instrumentality of the hog; neither After a century of research by the Nat- is stone fruit the only crop that can be protected in this the ural History Survey and its parent or- manner. For last fifteen years or so, pip fruit, namely, apples, pears, ganizations, we find the plum curculio is, and quinces, have been annually more or less for the moment at least, very well under deteriorated by the apple worm or larva of the control. Surveys conducted in 32 com- codling moth boring into their cores, and filling mercial peach orchards for the past 5 years their flesh with its loathsome excrement (Walsh & Riley 1868/;:3). showed that at harvest time less than 1 per cent of the fruit was infested or dam- In addressing the Southern Illinois aged by this weevil. Fruit Growers Association in 1867, Pres- Other insects of the peach that have ident Parker Earle (1868:137) said: required research attention include the The curculio and the tree borers have been oriental fruit moth, a group of sucking dibcuised at length in our former meetings, but insects responsible for an injury known the codling moth—which threatens us even as catfacing, the peach tree borers, and at greater damage than the curculio—has re- least three species of scale insects. For- ceived little attention. There is some hope that great promptness and energy may save us from tunately these, too, are successfully con- the terrible devastation which this moth has available measures. trolled by currently wrought in all the older States, and in the Even so, peach growers insist that the older fruit-growing neighborhoods of Illinois. entomologist will have to find more eco- Its damage to the apple crop of the country each passing year should be reckoned at mil- nomical control measures, or the high cost lions of dollars. From all sections we have the of producing peaches will put the growers same sad story of "the apples dropping prema- out of business. turely"—"the apples mostly wormy"—"the ap- The codling moth (mentioned by ple crop used up," by the codling worm. In many districts of the East where apples Walsh as the "Apple-worm"), unques- were once abundant they now entirely fail, tionably the No. 1 apple insect in Illinois, because of the worms, and they not only apparently arrived in eastern United threaten the destruction of the apple crop of States from Europe about 1800 and made the country, the whole country, but pears seem equally exposed. In sections of the West its first appearance in Illinois about 1850. many nine-tenths of the pears are reported spoiled In 1869, while checking his theory that by the codling moth. this insect had been a hitch-hiker in apple barrels, Walsh reportedly found about The comments of Earle and other early 200 cocoons in a single barrel. The cod- horticultural leaders clearly establish the ling moth wasted no time in becoming codling moth as the outstanding pest of adapted to its new environment. In the apples in Illinois in the third quarter of early transactions of the horticultural and the nineteenth century. From 1850 to agricultural societies and in pioneer farm 1870 the pasturing of hogs in the or- journals, there are numerous references to chards and the use of straw or cloth bands the ravages of this insect. For example, in around the tree trunks to trap larvae for the first issue of The American Entomol- later destruction were about the only con- ogist in September, 1868, we read: trol measures of established merit. Even :

December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 109

these measures were only partially effec- He presented data showing that, in tive, and a large percentage of the apples 1885, 68 per cent of the unsprayed apples harvested showed insect damage. In fact, were wormy, whereas only 21 per cent of the situation was so bad that the fruit the sprayed apples were wormy, and, in judges at county fairs protested the ad- 1886, 40 per cent of the unsprayed apples mission of fruit damaged by codling moth, were wormy and 12 per cent of the sprayed and eventually a rule was passed that the fruit. When lead arsenate became avail- unmistakable evidence of codling moth able about 1895, entomologists began ex-

damage or the presence of San Jose scale perimenting with it, and for the next 30 disqualified a fruit for competition. In- to 40 years practically all codling moth secticides did not come into the picture research centered around attempts to until after the value of Paris green had improve formulations and spray sched- been established for the control of the ules involving the use of this chemical. Colorado potato beetle and a number of Between 1915 and 1918, in seven sep- other pests. arate studies, Illinois entomologists found In his third report as State Entomolo- that in unsprayed blocks fruit ranged gist, Le Baron (1873:172) recommended from 9 to 84 per cent wormy and aver- only cultural practices for control of the aged 45 per cent wormy, whereas in the codling moth blocks sprayed with improved lead arse- PRACTICAL TREATMENT. nate formulations the fruit ranged from 1 to 20 per cent wormy and averaged 4.4 This may be reduced to the four following per cent heads: wormy. 1st. Destroying the insects in their winter With what appeared to be a satisfac- quarters. tory control measure working reasonably 2d. Picicing the wormy apples from the well year after year, entomologists and trees. fruit growers alike became more or less 3d. Gathering the wormy apples from the ground, or letting swine and sheep have the complacent, only to be shocked by a dou- range of the orchard. ble-barrelled attack. The codling moth 4th. Entrapping the worms in bands and began to show evidences of resistance to other contrivances. arsenical sprays, and, as dosage rates and To which may be added the help to be derived from their natural enemies. numbers of applications were increased, the United States Food and Drug Ad- In his previous report, Baron Le ministration began to bear down on lead had the use of (1872:116) mentioned and arsenic tolerances. The next three Paris green to control on cankerworms decades might be characterized as a pe- apple, and this may in part have led to riod of mad scramble for cover. Attempts the subsequent work by Forbes and oth- were made to find ( 1 ) ways to remove ers for control of codling on apple. moth spray residues, (2) suitable substitute find but few references to trials We materials, (3) ways to synergize insecti- with Paris green in the on crops 1867 and cidal action without increasing residues, following decade. In 1880, however, with and (4) better sanitation and other non- repeated warnings that suitable precau- chemical procedures. Research did well tions must be observed, large-scale testing to hold its own, during this critical pe- of Paris green and its companion, London riod, until DDT came into the picture at purple, got After under way. 2 years the close of World War II. The success (1885-1886) of experimentation, Forbes of DDT in controlling the codling moth (1889:15) concluded: was spectacular, and within 2 A^ears the The experiments above described seem to growers' clamor for more work on codling me to prove that at least seventy per cent of moth control faded. the loss commonly suffered by the fruit grower A review of research data and the re- from the ravages of the codling moth or apple harvest surveys made the past 3 worm may be prevented at a nominal expense, sults of or, practically, in the long run, at no expense years show that now 33 to 94 per cent of at all, by thoroughly applying Paris green in a the fruit in unsprayed apple orchards is spray with water, once or twice in early wormy, approximately the same percent- spring, as soon as the fruit is fairly set, and ages as in the 1860's, 1880's, and the sec- not so late as the time when the growing apple turns downward on the stem. ond decade of the present century. In 1

no Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 i contrast, we find that in sprayed orchards a dozen important scale insects alone

0.03 to 7.6 per cent, or an average of 2.2 One scale insect of great importance is per cent, of the fruit is \vorm\ . Thus, we the San Jose scale, which was introduced find that, in spite of adversities and re- into California from China about 1880 verses, continued research has developed and into Illinois about 1895. For a time control measures that have enabled apple this scale threatened to wipe out the Illi- growers to reduce the percentage of nois commercial fruit industry. Parasites,

Spraying equipment designed and used about 1897 by the State Entomologist and his assistants for experiments on control of San Jose scale. "The principal apparatus used is a large and complicated machine sprayer consisting of a one-horse power gasoline engine, a three-cylinder force pump, and a large double galvanized-iron tank with a powerful gasoline heater beneath for making the solution of whale-oil soap" (Forbes 1900:14). The sprayer was mounted on a two-horse baggage wagon. worm-damaged apples from possibly 60 to predators, and diseases have played an im- 100 per cent in 1867 to 21 per cent in portant role in holding this insect at bay, 1885, 4.4 per cent in 1915, and 2.2 per but for over 50 years orchardists have cent in 1957. found it necessary to apply a dormant

If it appears that entomologists have spray or some other special treatment to devoted too much attention to this one bring this insect under control. As late insect, let us recall that codling moth re- as 1950, Illinois apple growers seemed to search has been the traditional guinea pig agree that if the use of sprays was to be for the study of many insect control pro- forbidden San Jose scale would eliminate cedures, and that the measures developed commercial orchards within 5 years. This for the control of the codling moth for insect, perhaps more than any other, has the most part have given satisfactory con- been responsible for the development of a trol of a considerable number of other strong plant inspection and quarantine pests of apples. system in Illinois, and, for that matter, A list of the insects attacking fruit in other states as well. Here we have an crops in Illinois would no doubt include insect that can barely survive on wild or 100 or more species. There are at least neglected trees but that thrives on young, :

December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 11 vigorously growing orchard trees—an ex- his own insect control problems. The in- cellent example of how man creates, or at troduction of a crop highly attractive to a least aggravates, his own insect problems. native insect invites this insect to trans- The more man prunes and fertilizes, the fer its affections to the newly introduced more certain he is to develop a serious San crop. The potato beetle transferred its Jose scale problem. affections from its native host to the introduced potato. It seems quite probable Truck Crop Pests that the potato beetle's many natural enemies did not travel eastward but con- An article, probably by Walsh, pub- tinued searching for it in its old haunts. lished in 1869 makes it clear that at an With an abundance of lush, nutritious early date a host of insects were recog- potato vines and a temporary release from nized as important pests of a wide vari- its natural control agencies, the Colorado ety of vegetable crops potato beetle, in the vernacular of today, There is scarcely a vegetable raised in our "went to town" until a new system of gardens that is not preyed upon by one or checks balances more grubs, caterpillars, or maggots, so that, and could be established. when we eat it, we have positively no security The eastward movement of the potato that we are not mingling animal with vegeta- beetle was first noted in eastern Colorado ble food. Two distinct kinds of maggots, pro- in 1859. It did not appear in Illinois un- ducing two distinct species of two-winged Fly, til 1864. populations this burrow in the bulb of the onion. Scabby po- Damaging of tatoes are inhabited by a more elongated beetle were reported in several Illinois maggot, producing a very different kind of counties in 1865. Some of the tales of two-winged Fly, and also by several minute wholesale potato destruction related in species of Mites. Turnips, beets, carrots and the local press the Prairie parsnips are each attacked by peculiar larvae. and Farmer And as to the multifarious varieties of the were downright pathetic: cabbage, not only are they often grievously "Let every man and woman in the country or infested the Plant-louse a species by Cabbage — in town, who has a potato patch, try experi- introduced into which has been from Europe ments for the destruction of these pests and this country but also by an imported cater- — report progress. Something must be done to pillar producing a small moth, and by several stop the destruction of the vines by these in- indigenous caterpillars producing much larger satiate creatures or we may as well quit trying of which caterpillars, when full- moths, some to raise potatoes" (Cedar Valley, Iowa, Times, grown, are over one inch long (Walsh & Rilev quoted by Riley 1866:432). 1869:114). I know of several cases near Rock Island, Illi- nois, where the owners of potato-patches, after Why the article failed to include the persevering in a course of hand-picking for corn earworm, the squash vine borer, the fully a month, finally gave up in despair, be- cucumber beetles, and the melon louse is cause as fast as they killed off their own bugs, hard to say, for they were numbered a fresh supply from their neighbors' potato- among the best known pests at the time. patches kept flying in upon them (Walsh 1866:14). One is amazed that the Colorado potato All accounts seem to agree that neither lime, beetle was not mentioned, because this nor ashes, nor any available external applica- species was the most spectacular insect tion is of the least use in checking the depre- pest of vegetable crops in Illinois in the dations of this insect. The Prairie Farmer says that "Mr. Jones found, after many experi- latter half of the 1860's. Presumably, ments, that neither hot lime, lime-water, brine, prior potato beetle to 1850 the Colorado tobacco-water, wine (?) nor sulphur had any was unknown except as an interesting effect on them ; that turpentine, benzine and species found only in the foothills of the kerosene would kill them when copiously applied, hut also killed the potatoes" and that Rocky Mountains, where it fed on a wild "coal-oil mixed with water is ineffectual." potato somewhat resembling the common . . . Although there is some contradictory evi- horse nettle. When the pioneers planted dence, yet the general result of all the testi- Irish potato and egg plant in Nebraska mony is, that neither domestic fowls, nor ducks, at all events to any and Colorado, the beetle found these nor turkeys will eat them, very extensive amount (Walsh 1866:14). closely related plants to its liking, increased its numbers many fold, and took Hand picking, or the manual collection off for the East, flying from one settler's and destruction of the beetles, their lar- potato patch to another's. Here again we vae, and their eggs, was about the only have an example of how man may create really effective control measure. During 112 Ilunois Natural History Survky HullI'Tin Vol. 27, Art. 2

the next several decades, it was said of The value of predators and parasites many a farm boy who had risen to a was not overlooked, and at times dilifer- prominent position, "He made his first ent kinds of poultry, particularly turkeys, dime collecting potato bugs on his grand- were noted as effective control agents. father's farm"—not his father's farm, for Hellebore, London purple, and calcium there, in accord with the tradition of the arsenate were later added to the list of

Spraying equipment developed in recent years by entomologists of the Illinois Natural History Survey for the control of the corn earworm and the European corn borer on sweet corn and field corn. day, he performed the task without com- insecticides recommended for control of pensation as a member of the family. the Colorado potato beetle. As the potato Many potato growers experimented leafhopper, aphids, blight, and other pests with Paris green applied in several ways, attracted increased attention, a variety of and by 1870 dusting plants with a mix- insecticide and fungicide combinations ture of Paris green and flour or lime was came into common use. Research pro- quite generally accepted as the most ef- duced minor improvements in formula- fective remedy available. However, there tions and methods of application that en- were many growers who were fearful of hanced the effectiveness or economy of the poisonous properties of the arsenical control measures, but there was no sub- compounds and they continued to place stantial or basic change in control pro- their trust in hand picking. Some grow- cedures or practices until the advent of ers went so far as to design rather elab- DDT in 1946. While potato growers orate mechanical devices which they and entomologists alike had been inclined mounted on skids and dragged up and to feel that the control measures in use down the rows to beat the beetles from in the early 1940's left little to be de- the plants and collect them in pans, trays, sired, they apparently overlooked or gross- or boxes, where the beetles could be de- ly underestimated the damage inflicted by stroyed. the insects, for within 2 years after I :

December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 113

DDT came into general use the per-acre experienced the fine performance and potato yields practically doubled. economy of DDT in the early 1950's, are Numerous early reports indicate that unwilling to settle for anything less effi- the pioneer cabbage grower had to con- cient. The currently recommended spray tend with about the same insects that schedule, which calls for using endrin un- plague the cabbage grower of today, but til cabbage heads begin to form and fin- the pioneer had no arsenal of effective in- ishing with occasional applications of secticides. Lime, lye, and ash mixtures phosdrin or parathion, is a highly effec- advocated by some growers were of little tive treatment, but the growers remem- use except in those cases where the plants ber equally satisfactory results with the were so heavily coated with one of the less complicated use of DDT. mixtures that physical contact between Sweet corn growers in Illinois, like the insect and the plant was practically the cabbage growers, must cope with impossible. The scalding water drench an insect problem that requires both a proposed by some persons was at times of thorough knowledge of the seasonal ac- value, but was very apt to damage the tivities of the pest and a rather meticulous plants. The arsenicals were used spar- control treatment. The corn earworm is ingly and on small plants only ; they could a native American pest that has long con- not be safely employed on more mature tested man's right to the sweet corn pro- cabbages. Thus, for many years the duced in Illinois. Unlike the cabbage sound, unblemished head of cabbage was worm, this insect has continued to defy a rarity, and there was always danger of man's best efforts to control it. Several consuming protein with the slaw. In fact, reasonably effective control measures have it is very doubtful if any kraut made in been developed, but none has been fully those days could have passed present day accepted by Illinois sweet corn growers. Food and Drug Administration inspec- The corn earworm control measure cur- tions for insect fragments. There are rently recommended involves precise but those who contend that the prevalence of not unreasonable methods of application scurvy in the armies of the North and the and accurate timing of treatments. Some South during the Civil War was in no Illinois sweet corn growers have been un- small measure due to the fact that farm- able or unwilling to apply the requisite ers could not produce adequate quantities control measures. When infestations of of cabbage and related cole crops. the corn earworm are light, mediocre con- Although some nicotine and pyrethrin trol practices prove adequate, but, when products had been known for many years, infestations are heavy, more meticulous they did not come into practical use until practices are essential. In parts of Flor- about 1910. Derris, cube, and other ro- ida and Texas, where sweet corn growers tenone preparations made their appear- cannot afford to gamble on having light ance in the 1920's. When properly ap- infestations, many growers produce 97 to plied, these insecticides were quite effec- 99 per cent clean ears of corn by care- tive, but they possessed very limited re- fully following the control measures rec- sidual properties and were relatively ex- ommended by entomologists. pensive. Their acceptance by cabbage Pests growers was not enthusiastic, and ento- Cereal and Forage Crop mologists were under constant pressure Insect depredations were by no means to improve formulations by the use of confined to the fruit and vegetable crops synergists or stabilizing agents. Then produced by the early settlers in Illinois. came DDT and the organic phosphate in- Wheat, corn, and even the native prairie secticides, and it looked for a time as if grasses were subject to attacks that at the cabbage growers' insect problems were times amounted to almost total crop de- effectively solved. But the insects once struction. In an article in the first issue again demonstrated their mutability, and of The American Entomologist, a writer, soon cabbage worms were resistant to presumably Walsh, observed DDT. Today the entomologist is worse Few persons are aware of the enormous off than he was in the early 1940's, be- amount of wealth annually abstracted from the cause the cabbage growers, having once pockets of the cultivators of the soil by those : :

14 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

insignificant little creatures, which in popular of houses which happened to lie in their path parlance are called "bugs," but which the sci- (Walsh 1861:352). entific world chooses to denominate "insects." From the Prairie Farmer of July Scarcely a year elapses in which the wheat 4, crop of several States of the Union is not more 1861, Walsh (1861:351) quoted ' the or less completely ruined by the Chinch-bug, words of "an accurate observer" who the Hessian Fly, the Wheat Midge, or the described an infestation of armyworms: Joint Worm. . . . The White Grub attacks "As to their number, they have been seen indiscriminately the timothy in the meadows, the corn in the plowed field, the young fruit moving from one field to another, three trees in the nursery, and the strawberry beds TIERS DEEP. A ditch has been filled with in the garden; always lurking insidiously thein to the depth of three inches in under ground, and only making its pres- HALF AN HOUR." ence known to the impoverished agriculturist by the losses which it has already inflicted Walsh was fortunate in being able to upon him. ... at periodic intervals the acquire, through contacts with a number marches over their fields like a Army-worm of pioneer settlers, valuable notes on his- destroying pestilence; while in Kansas, Ne- toric arm^'worm outbreaks of the past. braska, and Minnesota, and the more westerly parts of Missouri and Iowa, the Hateful Some of these notes seem worthy of repe- Grasshopper, in particular seasons, swoops tition as an example of the fund of un- down with the western breeze in devouring published entomological history and swarms from the Rocky Mountains, and, like knowledge that has passed from one gen- its close ally, the Locust of Scripture and of Modern Europe, devours every green thing eration to another from off the face of the earth (Walsh & Riley As we might expect from the laws govern- 1868a:l). ing the development of insect life, the armyworms make their appearance in noticeable Certainly Walsh was in a position to numbers in different years in different parts in know the armyworm problem, because of the State. I have no doubt that they exist in 1861, 6 3'ears before the creation of the small numbers in every part of the State from

State Entomologist's Office, the Rock year to year ; for although they have never appeared till 1861 in the neighborhood of Rock Island and Chicago and the Illinois Cen- Island, in such numbers as to attract attention, tral railroads granted him, as a member yet I myself captured a single specimen of of the Illinois Natural History Society, the army-worm moth in Rock Island county, in passes that permitted him to spend sev- each of three years, '58, '59 and '60. At Okaw they are recorded to have appeared in 1850; eral weeks studying a major armyworm in the south part of Vermilion county, in 1835; outbreak that developed in central and and Mr. Joseph Bragshaw, of Perry county, southern Illinois. That fall, in typical says that they visited that county in '25, '26, Walsh style, he wrote '34, '39, '41 and '42. Colonel Dougherty, of Jonesboro, in Union county, one of the oldest

. . . I always hate to give nothing for and most respected citizens of Southern Illi- something, and having been obliged by the nois, informed me that about 1818 or '20 they railroad companies, I endeavored, to the extent were far more numerous there than in 1861, of my poor abilities, to return the obligation, and that in 1861 there would not be a single by seeking a remedy for a little pest, that has cock of hay put up in his neighborhood save this year destroyed one-fourth part of the tame one meadow which was part clover and part hay grown within the limits of the State timothy, and which I can myself testify was 1861:350). (Walsh badly "patchy," there not being more than an eighth part of it which would turn out a good This was the introduction to an ex- swarth of clover, the timothy being "nil" tremely interesting and informative 15- throughout. In 1838 again, according to the page report on the ecology of the army- Colonel, there were but few of them. In 1842 in worm and its natural enemies which he they were about as 1861 ; and in 1856 they occurred only in small numbers (Walsh 1861: appended to an essay prepared for de- 353). livery at the annual meeting of the Illi- It certainly is an encouraging sign of the nois Agricultural Society. Walsh re- progress of entomological discovery in this ported : State, that a noxious insect of primary importance should have been, for the first time, they [armyworms] leave the meadows When traced through all its transformations in the in which they originate, they travel on — some- year 1861 by no less than four citizens of Illi- times as far as half a mile until they meet — nois to my certain knowledge— I refer to Mr. with wheat, r\'e, oats, corn, sorghum, or Hun- Cyrus Thomas of Murphysboro, Mr. Emery of garian grass (Walsh 1861:351). the Prairie Farmer, Col. Dougherty of Jones- Many instances are on record of the great boro, and last and least myself (Walsh 1861: difficulty with which they have been kept out 356). December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 115

While many of the observations made The chinch bug, another infamous pest, bj' Walsh and the other gentlemen men- has been well known to Illinois farmers tioned were sound and are still valid, one since 1820. This species, like the army- observation was in error and resulted in worm and many others, is not a serious a recommendation which, although it had pest every j^ear, but tends to be sporadic, the desired effect, was based upon a false perhaps somewhat cyclic, in its appear- premise. Walsh (1861:349) advised, ance. Weather, of course, is a factor that "Burn your tame grass ?tieadows over influences the chinch bug population. annually, in the dead of the year, and get One is indeed surprised to learn that your neighbors to do the same, and you the farmers of 1860 were just about as u'ill never more he troubled with the much aware of this pest as are the farm- army worm." Walsh thought that the ers of 1958. In 1861 Thomas (1865: armyworm passes the winter in the egg 466-7) observed: stage, but such is not the case, and there- Although we cannot predict with certainty fore burning, as he recommended, did not one season the action of insect enemies for the destroy the eggs. We now know that next, yet we often can from the character of when the moths appear in the early spring the season itself, know that certain species are likely to be upon us in increased numbers. they fly at night ; in the daytime, they This was the case the present season in re- hide in grass, rank preferably a dense mat gard to the appearance of the "Army-worm." of old, dead grass in a vigorous meadow. The cold, cloudy spring hanging so long before There, in April and May, they lay their opening into summer weather, caused the ex- clamation from several of our older citizens, eggs. Thus, while winter burning did "I wouldn't be surprised if we had the Army- not destroy eggs, it had a profound effect worm this season." Although this was rather on the number of worms developing in guessing, yet there evidently pervaded the burned-over fields and often, if not usu- minds of the elder settlers a semi-conscious feeling of dread in regard to this insect, which ally, prevented serious infestations from most assuredly originated from the similarity developing. in this spring to the previous seasons when it The recommendation for burning per- had appeared. And when the long dry weather sisted for several years, and by 1880 it was we sometimes have in June and July has supplemented by a recommendation for parched the vegetation, we may expect the grass-hoppers to multiply rapidly, and by their the use of dusty trench barriers to trap attacks on the plants already struggling for worms on the march. Spraying strips life, to soon effect a far greater injury than with Paris green was proposed by some, the same attack made on vigorous plants but was generally considered both dan- would have done. gerous and impractical. Later, Thomas (1880:242) observed, use of poison bait (a mixture of The "The high temperature of 1854, '71 and bran and Paris green) for the control of '74, together with the diminished rainfall, armyworms, cutworms, and grasshoppers furnish the key to the cause of the great came into use about 1885, and with minor development of the Chinch-bug during modifications remained the principal and these years." most practical control measure available One could cite hundreds of quotations, until the the chlori- advent of modern from the Prairie Farmer and other early nated insecticides. Since hydrocarbon farm papers, concerning damage by the growers have been generally suc- 1951, chinch bug and other field crop pests that cessful in controlling armj^worms by would put the potato beetle reports to spraying with such materials as toxaphene, shame. But let the words of Walsh and dieldrin, and endrin. Furthermore, with of Thomas suffice. Walsh wrote as fol- the insect outlook and warning service lows : bulletins available weekly during crop It is only two years since the entire wheat seasons from the Natural History Survey, crop of the State was so damaged by the chinch Illinois able to control farmers are now bug that a great deal of it was not cut at all, armyworms effectively when the worms and a great deal that was cut barely paid for are one-fourth to one-half grown. Ap- the harvesting. Scarcely a year elapses but what more or less damage is done to it by this plied control measures save the small insect, and by the Hessian fly and the wheat grain and the meadow grasses as well as midge. A large breadth of winter wheat, protect adjacent crops from migrations. which is commonly supposed to be "winter- 116 Illinois Natural History Survky Hullltin Vol.27, Art. 2 —

December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 117

killed," is in reality killed by the Hessian fly; was not without precedent; over 50 years there be, and probably are, many and may earlier the use of tar-covered boards set other insects which depredate upon this crop, on edge and placed end to end had been but whose habits have not yet fallen under the notice of entomologists (Walsh 1861:335). proposed. The later control measures, Taking the average of years, we may safely like the early ones, were scheduled to be assume that a fifth part of the wheat crop used around harvest time. About 1945, or, which is the same thing, a quantity equal the paper fence barrier was practically re- to one-fourth of what we actually do harvest placed by the dinitro dust barrier, and in — is destroyed by insects. Even at the low price, therefore, of 75 cents per bushel, we have another 10 years this was replaced by diel- over four and a half million dollars' ivort/i drin, sprayed on strips of ground along of wheat annually destroyed by "little vermin the margins of small grain fields where which it is not worth our while to notice." these fields adjoined fields of corn or later But this is not all. Other crops are damaged by other insects, though not generally to so maturing grain. The more aggressive fol- ruinous an extent; so that we cannot put the lowers of research progress were spray- whole annual damage done by insects to the ing entire fields of heavily infested wheat State of Illinois at less than twenty million as DOLLARS (Walsh 1861:336). soon as chinch bug eggs began to hatch so as to protect the wheat crop itself And Thomas (1865:457) wrote: "So from serious damage and to eliminate the much has already been written in the pa- necessity of establishing a barrier of any pers of this State concerning the Chinch- type 2 or 3 weeks later. bug {Macropus leucopterus, Fitch,) that In the past century, progress has been I shall pass it by in this paper without made in controlling many other insect further notice." pests that attack cereal and forage crops. Shelford & Flint (1943) made a thor- Among the most important of these pests ough study of the history of the chinch are the grasshoppers, the cutworms, the bug in Illinois. The figure on page 116 white grubs, and the hessian fly. Instead is presented to illustrate the type of his- of attempting to summarize in detail, we toric records that have been made and note here some of the general trends in preserved by the Natural History Sur- this area of insect control. vey. The data on which the figure is Before extensive agricultural develop- based cover the century beginning in ment of the state, a large part of Illinois 1840. Records for subsequent years have, consisted of broad expanses of prairie of course, been kept. Similar data have grass, much of which was replaced by been collected for several other important timothy and other tame grass or cereal pests. crops planted by farmers. Insects prefer- In the 1860's and '70's, many measures ring these crops became notorious pests, were proposed for control of the chinch but as the acreage of grasses was reduced bug: abandon wheat and barley or corn; as a result of increased legume produc- burn fencerows and all wild grass areas tion, certain insects began to decline in to destroy hibernating bugs; plant border importance. These included the white crops to retard migrations; fertilize crops grubs, the billbugs, the armyworms, the to get dense stands unattractive to the in- sod webworms, and the corn root aphid. sects; and construct barrier lines of lime, The burrowing webworm and the cut- salt, and carbolic acid solutions. The worm Luperina stipata have all but dis-

measure most widely used was the dusty appeared ; not a single specimen of either furrow. Each year saw some new version has been received by us for identification of the furrow proposed, such as pouring in the last 20 years. As the rail fence was tar oil, road oil, or creosote into the fur- replaced by the wire fence, and roadsides row to form a barrier; covering the fur- and ditch banks were graded or otherwise row with straw and setting it afire to de- cleaned up, the amount of giant ragweed

stroy the bugs ; digging post-hole traps in and elderberry available to insects was the furrow and later spraying the trapped greatly reduced, so that the common stalk bugs with kerosene and burning them. borer became less important and the old There was no great change until the spindleworm was practically extermin- paper fence barrier, proposed in 1934, ated. Likewise, as the pot holes and low was widely adopted, but even this barrier spots were drained, wireworm damage in 118 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 those areas declined steadily. Conversely, Hand grubbing, with a wire or knife, was in certain dry, sandy areas which were considered an effective means of control- hrought under irrigation vvireworm dam- ling several species of borers. Several ajje increased. types of soapy washes were proposed for As lejjume production increased, the in- the control of aphids and scale insects, but sect pests of lej2;umes tended to increase. perhaps the most positive, wisest, and Notable examples are the clover leaf wee- most ingenious of all recommendations vil, clover root borer, pea aphid, bean leaf was that proposed by Dr. Mygatt (1855: beetle, sweet clover weevil, ^reen clover- 516) in his essay on the bark louse: worm, and spotted alfalfa aphid. "Whether you choose a seedling or graft, Two attempts to initiate and promote by all means transplant a clean tree, the commercial production of sunflowers if you have to occupy hours and even days in Illinois were doomed to failure largely in examining and clearing your trees because of the overwhelming insect prob- from every scale." lems encountered when many species from As insecticides and means of applying the native sunflowers swarmed onto the them were being developed for use on cultivated varieties. In contrast, we find various agricultural crops, it was nat- that in extreme southern Illinois cotton ural that most of them would be tested production survives in a rather unfavor- to determine their potential usefulness in able climate, and under other adverse controlling insects attacking trees. The conditions, largely because important cot- value of Paris green in controlling the ton insects are absent and planters are cankerworms was established at a very spared the cost of extensive insect control early date. By 1910 lead arsenate, first measures. developed in 1891 for use against the gypsy moth, was being recommended for Pests of Forest Trees and Shade a variety of leaf-eating insects, and by Plants and Ornamental 1925 high-powered sprayers, dusters, and Effective control measures are now even airplanes had been developed and available for most of the insect pests of were quite generally available for use in trees and ornamental plants; yet man treating both shade and forest trees. Nev- seems to have little success in combating ertheless, progress was slow ; apparently these insects. It is not that these insects the weather and tree protection have are new or relatively unknown, for the something in common— everybody talks majority of these pests were recognized about them, but nobody does anything and well known prior to 1850. The bark about them. lice (scale insects), round-headed borers, The average citizen who professes an

flat-headed borers, bark beetles, bagworm, interest in and a love for trees is some- walnut caterpillars, cankerworms, and times like the kibitzer who, at an active the 17-year locusts are frequently men- poker table, talks a good game, but, for tioned in the Illinois entomological writ- reasons best known to himself, fails to put ings of a century or more ago. Chemical his money on the line. In the past 2 years control measures were not available at in many Illinois communities, beautiful that time, but some of the proposed meas- landscape plantings, such as juniper, val- ures were partially effective and more or ued at hundreds of dollars were rendered less practical. Mechanical barriers and unsightly and in many cases were killed sticky bands were used to control the can- outright by the bagworm ; a dollar's worth kerworms, sometimes successfully and of malathion, or the old faithful, lead sometimes not. It now appears that im- arsenate, and 30 minutes' time could have proper timing and failure to recognize prevented any damage. In some commu- the difference between the spring and the nities there has been a wholesale loss of fall cankerworms accounted for most of elm, oak, and birch trees of inestimable the variation in control. Hand picking value and irreplaceable in less than 3 dec- was often mentioned and, according to re- ades; little evidence was available that ports, if done diligently it was effective control measures were even considered. in controlling the bagworm, the walnut This seeming indifference in some com- caterpillars, and the tent caterpillars. munities is partially offset by the genuine December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 119

interest of a number of ardent tree lovers cludes "the Buffalo-fly of Illinois and the and conservationists in other communities. West, which I have observed killing poul-

Some of these tree lovers, however, try in great numbers, and which is known clamor for more research without mak- to torment horses and other animals to ing full use of the control measures al- death, when verv numerous" (Barnard ready available. Scientists have spent 1880:191). many years in developing fairly efficient While these reports may sound far- and practical control measures for 90 per fetched and exaggerated, the latter is sup- cent of the insect pests affecting shade ported bv a more recent experience. In trees and ornamental plants, yet we find 10 days of April, 1945, black flies killed that these measures either are ignored or 125 head of horses and mules and untold are employed in less than 1 per cent of numbers of poultry in Franklin and Wil- the cases in which they might be useful. liamson counties, Illinois. It seems doubtful whether administrators Possible relationships between these will feel justified in diverting any con- insects and several of the most dreaded siderable portion of their funds to similar diseases known to occur in the state were projects until there is evidence that the unknown in 1858 and for the most part control measures already recommended were unsuspected. For example, no one are being put to better use. A recently thought of connecting the common house published circular (English 1958) will fly with the spread of cholera that took bring interested people up to date on con- the lives of one-tenth of the population trol of insects attacking ornamentals and of several western Illinois communities in shade plants. the 1830's or with the outbreaks of ty- phoid fever and dysentery that were so Insects Attacking Man and Animals common during and immediately after Entomology has made its most pro- the Civil War. found and spectacular advances of the past It seems ironic that B. D. Walsh, the years in those 100 combating insects that first State Entomologist, was driven from are pests to man and animals. There seem his farm near Cambridge by a malaria to be two good reasons why this is so. In epidemic and that he never suspected the the first place, we have learned consider- mosquitoes that increased with the dam- ably more of the habits and relative im- ming of the river as being responsible for portance of these pests than was known in the epidemic. All we know of this inci- 1858, and, in the second place, as the dent is contained in two sentences of medical implications of these pests became Walsh's obituarv bv C. V. Rilev (1869- apparent, state and federal public health 70:67). agencies, men in many branches of science, Finally, a colony of Swedes settled in his and the general public gave wholehearted neighborhood, and, by damming up the water support to large research and action pro- at Bishop Hill, produced so much miasma in grams. the vicinity, that very much sickness prevailed Early Illinois entomologists had col- there. His own health in time became im- paired, and at the suggestion of M. B. Os- lected and identified many species of born, of Rock Island, he removed to that city ticks, mites, mosquitoes, and flies, and it in 1851, and entered into the lumber business. did not require the services of a scientist to advise farmers that large numbers of Indeed, there is every reason to believe these species were sources of annoyance that neither Walsh nor any of his con- to their livestock, their families, and them- temporaries even suspected the relation- selves. A couple of very casual comments ship between mosquitoes and malaria. In adequately attest to the ferociousness of his zeal to protect all beneficial insects these pests: "There are prairies in Cen- and to maintain the balance of nature, tral Illinois, as I am credibly informed by Walsh was inclined to regard house flies, numerous witnesses, across which it is im- horse flies, and mosquitoes as possibly possible to ride or drive a horse in the more beneficial than destructive. In 1865 heat of a summer's day on account of he was quoted as saying: the Tabanus" (Walsh quoted in Cresson The scheme of the Creation is perfect and Na- et al. 1865:18). The genus Simulium in- ture is never at fault. It is only when Nature's 120 Illinois Natural History Survi-y Uulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

system is but half undcrstooil, that we heed- well as space sprays for use in and around lessly complain of its imperfections. We blame buildings. the house-flies for annoying us, and fail to see Unfortunately, many of the formula- that in the larva state they have cleared away impurities around our dwellings, which might tions used prior to the late 1930's were otherwise have bred cholera and typhus fever. only partially effective in controlling mosquito, and We execrate the blood-thirsty flies, and in many cases the injury the\ forget that in the larva state she has purified inflicted on cows exceeded the benefits de- the water, which would otherwise, by its ma- larial effluvia, have generated agues and rived. It was difficult, if not impossible, fevers. In all probability, when we rail at the to establish clearly the fact that flies did Tahanus that torment our horses in the summer, affect milk production and that good fly we are railing at insects which, in the larva control would pay dividends in the form state, have added millions of dollars to the national wealth, by preying upon those most of higher milk production. In the last [insidious] and unmanageable of all the insect- 10 3'ears, with the new insecticides such foes of the farmer—subterraneous, root-feeding as DDT, methoxychlor, and several ef- larvae (Walsh quoted in Cresson et al. 1865: fective organo-phosphates, and with some 18). repellents far more effective and much An editor of The Practical Entornolo- more persistent than anything available gist, in commenting on Walsh's paper, prior to 1940, it has been possible to dem- cautioned his readers: onstrate that good control of flies,

whether they be tabanids, stable flies, or Before you undertake to kill off the larvae of the Horse-flies and the Mosquitoes, you had horn flies, will result in an increase of best make yourself quite sure that they are milk production of as much as 10 to 25 really your enemies, and not, as Mr. Walsh per cent. The exact gains depend upon maintains, some of your very best friends the intensity of the fly population, the (Cresson ct al. 1865:18). species involved, and the duration of the Flies and mosquitoes passed practically attack. Significant findings in this field unmentioned until about 1880 when, be- have been reported in a number of scien- insects' nui- cause of the annoyance and tific articles (Bruce & Decker 1951, 1957, sance characteristics, a few workers began 1958; Bruce 1952, 1953). to investigate suppressive measures. Win- dow screens and the use of smoke came BIOLOGICAL CONTROL into the picture first, followed by oil several fly sprays, crude repellents, and Man discovered at a very early date insecti- traps. If we exclude the modern that not all insects are bad, that some are of the cides developed since 1940, most definitely his allies, some are indifferent control measures that are recommended or neutral, and some are in the category of flies and mos- today for the control of Dr. Jekyll-Mr. Hyde—half good and quitoes had been developed by 1900. By half bad. Walsh, Le Baron, Thomas, and sani- the combined use of drainage, good other early entomologists in their writ- tation practices, screening, and the known ings repeatedly referred to the necessity insecticides such as lime, borax, oils, ar- of distinguishing between man's foes and public health senicals, and pyrethrins, friends in the insect world, and empha- agencies made remarkable progress in re- sized, as did their successors, the import- ducing the incidence of insect-borne dis- ance and potentialities of parasites and the eases, but it was not until DDT and predators in the natural control of insects. more recent synthetic organic insecticides In December, 1854, William Le Baron, became available that it was possible to who 16 years later became the second numbers to the reduce fly and mosquito State Entomologist of Illinois, wrote: near vanishing point and to eradicate al- Birds benefit the agriculturist by destroying most all insect-borne diseases of man. countless myriads of noxious insects, whilst Shortly before the outbreak of World they injure him by consuming a part of those War I, the country embarked on an all- products which he would fain reserve for his out "Swat-the-Fly" campaign that car- own exclusive benefit. But it is the universal testimony of those who have investigated the ried over into the dairy industry. This matter, that the evil compared with the good interest in the devel- campaign stimulated which they accomplish is extremely trivial. opment of sprat's for use on livestock, as Probably every reader of ornithology will call December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 121

to mind, in this connection, the computation of restore the natural equilibrium which has been Mr. Wilson the ornithologist, the result of disarranged by their artificial processes, they which was, that the single species of Red- pay the penalty in the damage inflicted on winged Blackbird, which is usually considered them by plant-feeding insects. They must as- one of the greatest pests of the farmer, con- sist nature, whenever, for necessary purposes, sumes in one season, in the United States, six- they have thwarted and controlled her, if they teen thousand and two hundred million of wish to appease her wrath. noxious insects (Le Baron 1855:559-60). If these views be correct, it would seem to follow, as a necessary consequence, that one In an essay on insects, prepared in 1861 of the most efi^ectual means of controlling at the invitation of the Illinois Agricul- noxious insects is to be found in the artificial propagation of such cannibal species as are tural Society, Cyrus Thomas (1865:462, naturally designed to prey on them. 464) made several pertinent comments on insect control measures, the balance of Although, so far as I am aware, cannibal nature, and the biological control of in- insects have never yet been bred for utilitarian purposes, yet it is by no means an uncommon sects : practice to collect such as are found at large When we have obtained a complete knowl- in the woods and fields, and apply them to sub- edge of the laws of nature, and shall have at- due some particular insect that is annoying us. tained to perfection in agricultural pursuits, then most assuredly our reliance for a check The foregoing quotations portray not upon these insect enemies will be upon the only the profound interest in biological parasites a kind Providence has provided for control that these early entomologists pos- our benefit. And the reason for so doing will sessed but also the breadth and depth of be that then we will work in accordance with the laws of nature which are adapted to our the general knowledge of the day. best method of living and acting. Then if this Forbes, who followed Thomas as State theory be true, the nearer we can approach Entomologist, was likewise interested in such a condition, individually or collectively, parasites and predators. The fact is im- the better it will be for us. pressive that, in studying the biology and Let the birds go unmolested, or even go so far ecology of insect pests, these men invaria- as to entice them to abide near you. Learn to bly made extensive notes on the parasites insect enemies from insect friends, distinguish and predators encountered. While others and when you find the hiding places of the had notes of entomopha- latter, as far as possible, protect them from before him made injury. When you find a swarm of "Lady- gous fungi and other evidences of disease, bugs" huddling around the root of a tree in Forbes was the first to examine the possi- the winter, throw a few dry leaves over them bilities of control of insects by their dis- that the birds may not see them. When you eases. In fact, he is regarded by many as see the eggs of the Syrphus fly lying singly

among those of the Aphis, do not molest it, for the father of insect pathology in the the young larvae will surely destroy that nest. United States. His work on the chinch And when the bright banded flies hover like bug fungus and the work by Dr. F. H. bees around you, during the hot days of sum- classics mer, while resting beneath the shade, brush Snow of Kansas are outstanding them lightly away, and remember they are of early research in this field. your friends. And when you see the eggs of Forbes did not limit his interest and the Lace-winged fly (Hcmcrohiiis) mounted on research in insect pathology to chinch bug their long stalks on the leaves of your plants, diseases. noted, and in many cases let them alone, the voracious larvae they pro- He duce will soon destroy the most numerous studied in great detail, the diseases found colony of plant lice. in numerous lepidopterous larvae, aphids, white grubs, grasshoppers, and several Benjamin Walsh (1861:339-40, 341) other insects. In the late 1880's he was likewise had something to say about the strongly advocating more thorough stud- balance of nature and the value of para- ies on the possible advantageous uses of sites and predators: contagious insect diseases, and his Eighth it the that when- Now is universally case, Report (Nineteenth Illinois Report), ever man, by his artificial arrangements, vio- published in 1895, contained a monograph lates great natural laws, unless by some artificial means he can restore the overturned bal- of nearly 150 pages on chinch bug dis- ance, he pays the penalty affixed to his offense. eases. In general, the success of attempts overload his stomach, but, The voluptuary may to propagate insect diseases and to dis- unless he has recourse to his dinner pill, he seminate them as a means of controlling pays the penalty of an indigestion. So with the farmer and the horticulturist. Until they can noxious insects in Illinois has not been as 4

122 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

spectacular as sponsors and interested ob- Conservation Department introduced a servers had hoped. These projects have virus disease obtained from Canada to been jjreatly underestimated by the pub- combat a serious outbreak of a pine saw- lic; control of insects by their diseases has fly, Xeodiprion sertifer, that in 1952 was a value that should not be ignored. raging out of control in the Henderson If nothinji more, these studies demon- State Forest. The virus took hold in a strate the important role that insect dis- spectacular fashion, and sawflies died by eases play in the natural control of many the thousands. Whether the virus can be important pest species. They also shed given full credit or not remains to be de- lijjht on the epizootiolojiy of these dis- termined. In any case, the sawfly has not eases, which may prove to have even fur- been reported as doing serious damage in ther value. Unfortunately, in practically that area since 1953. all cases these projects were initiated on The value of parasites imported from the premise that an epidemic would be abroad to help control accidentally intro- initiated that could and would completely duced species has also been underesti- eliminate the pest species in a matter of mated. Here, as in an eiifort to control days or weeks. When extermination of an insect pest by disease, the public seems the offendinjj; pest was not immediately to expect the immediate annihilation of forthcoming, public sentiment turned the pest species or it regards the effort as from hope to disgust and ridicule, and re- a complete failure. To demonstrate that searchers were forced to abandon their a species need not be annihilated to be studies for lack of financial support. It is prevented from causing appreciable dam- doubtful whether there is a single case in age, let us look at the record. The hes- which an honest appraisal of the long- sian fly and the wheat midge were both range or even the immediate value of dis- introduced in colonial days as immigrants ease inoculation or dissemination, or a from Europe. Fortunately, several of combination of both, has been made. In their European parasites came along with recent 3'ears we have belatedly come to them in the same lots of straw, but, as realize that insect pathogens have not usually happens, each pest reproduced been adequately explored nor their poten- and spread faster than its parasites. In tial value determined. We and others are due time the parasites overtook their hosts, renewing our efforts in this basic field of and, for over a century, they have been research. important factors in preventing these The performance of a protozoan dis- pests from eliminating wheat production ease of the European corn borer, a disease from the list of agricultural enterprises which, like the parasites of the hessian fly, in Illinois. apparently accompanied the host when it When the oriental fruit moth appeared migrated to North America, seems worthy in Illinois in 1927, the Illinois Natural of mention. In Illinois the disease was History Survey, in co-operation with the first observed in the north central part of United States Department of Agriculture, the state in 1945, 6 or 7 years after the obtained, for release in Illinois, oriental borer made its first appearance in Kanka- fruit moth parasites (principally Macro- kee County. The disease was artificially centrus ancylivorus) reared in New Jer- introduced into all sections of the state by sey. These were colonized at several colonizing disease-infected borers in many points in the infested southern Illinois widely scattered counties. It is now prev- counties. At first the results of the ex- alent in all parts of the state and has for periment did not appear promising, but several years been an important, if not consistent recoveries were made in 1934, the most important, factor in holding and eight surveys made since then have corn borer populations to relatively low shown that parasitism by this species levels, where they can be successfully con- ranged from 17.3 to 53.2 per cent and trolled by other means at a greatly re- averaged 36.5 per cent. While the para- duced cost. site has not eliminated its host, it has held In a co-operative effort, the Illinois the population to a level where peaches Natural History Survey, United States can be adequately protected with a mini- Department of Agriculture, and Illinois mum use of insecticides. The average December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 123

percentage of the fruit infested since the or as they are now in abandoned or un- establishment of the parasite is less than sprayed orchards. The Colorado potato one-tenth what it was before colonization beetle, which came close to eliminating of the parasite was initiated. Irish potato production just about 100 Shortly after the European corn borer Table 1. — Number of acres treated with made its appearance in the Midwest, at- insecticides and estimated profit from treat- tempts to introduce several of its parasites ment for a few important insect pests of into the infested area (1926-1930) were cereal and forage crops in Illinois, 1953-1957. relatively, if not wholly, unsuccessful. Number OF Number of Estimated Later attempts, in which the Illinois Nat- Year Pest Species Acres Profit From ural History Survey and the United Considered* Treated Treatment States Department of Agriculture co-operated (1944—1950), were more success- 1953 ful, and a Tachinid fly, Lydella stahulans (/risesceris, became firmly established in all sections of the state. Surveys made annually for the past 10 years have shown that, for the state as a whole, 15 to 40 per cent of the overwintering corn borers are parasitized and destroyed by this fly. In many instances parasitism in some of the northern Illinois counties has run as high as 80 to 85 per cent. While this parasitic fly has not eliminated the corn borer, it plays a very important role in holding this pest in check. VALUE OF INSECT CONTROL

Man's progress in applied entomology is partly obscured by the ever-changing circumstances and conditions of insect control. Quantitative data on the exact magnitude of insect damage are generally unavailable, and only the more or less catastrophic insect outbreaks are adequately recorded in the literature. There are few specific points of reference with which we can compare the present with the past. Our memories are often faulty. We recall that Grandfather had a home orchard and how much we enjoyed the fruit; only after prolonged meditation do we also recall that only 1 apple in 10 was fit for storage in the fall, and that even in preparing a pie from the stored apples Grandmother had to cut out numerous areas damaged by codling moth. Despite the paucity of precise quantitative data, entomologists have developed practical control measures for a long list of once serious pests. Orchardists are now able to produce fruit crops 90 to 99 per cent free of insect damage instead of crops only 10 to 50 per cent free of insect damage, as they were 100 years ago — ;

124 Illinois Natural History Survhy Hulletin Vol. 27. Art. 2 i commerce or even from beinji sold on the ment. When men of wisdom, interested local market. in the nation's future, combine forces in

Though it is not possible to establish building a sound agricultural program, monetary values for each of the accom- insect control will rank high in the list of plishments just mentioned, the almost technological musts. $8,000,000 average annual profit, table 1, resulting from the use of insecticides EMPHASIS FOR THE FUTURE on cereal and forage crops in Illinois illus- trates the benefits of entomological re- Throughout the past century in Illi- search. nois, the extent and variety of insect con- There are those who will say that ag- trol problems, which were often of an riculture cannot afford the cost of insect emergency nature, dictated that entomol- control or that the farmer dare not add ogy be strictly applied and be aimed at such charges to his overhead cost. Such immediate, practical goals. Perhaps the assertions are economically unsound. The pressure for immediate, practical results overhead charges associated with the reached its peak in the mid-1940's, when planting, cultivating, and harvesting of a number of new and apparently highly each acre of crops are fixed. If a farmer effective insecticides became available for can increase yields sufficiently to provide study and use. Everyone wanted to know a cash return of two, four, eight, or more at once what these insecticides were good times the cost of insecticide treatment, for, how they should be used, and what the extra harvest is produced much more hazards might be involved in their use. cheaply than the rest of the crop and Now this pressure is subsiding; the Illi-

thereby increases net profits and effects a nois farmer is in possession of reasonably reduction of operating costs. practical control measures for most of Insect control—or the lack thereof^ his important insect pests. Economic en- may have an indirect bearing on economic tomology in Illinois is now in a position and sociological considerations in addi- to seek information on the basic problems tion to those related to crop savings or of insect control. crop losses. By increasing per-acre yields, This statement does not mean that all maximum utilization of insect control the insect problems of Illinois are solved measures might enable upwards of a mil- we should not be surprised that new prob- lion acres of Illinois farm land to be re- lems will arise as new insect species are tired from cultivation and put to new introduced and as species already here uses. Some reactionaries will argue that modify their habits or adjust their re- increased yields would mean overproduc- sponses and behavior to an ever-changing tion and lower prices; this argument has environment. However, we have appar- been applied to almost every new techno- ently reached a turning point that will re- logical development. quire a revision of our responsibilities and For years we have been attaining pro- will materially alter our objectives and duction goals by mining the soil—by procedures. wringing from it the fertility that must With reasonably effective control meth- be replaced if future generations are to ods available for most pests, and with the have their share. Economically and mor- majority of our basic crops in surplus ally, we are obligated to produce maxi- production, emphasis on the temporary mum yields as efficiently as possible on a solution of immediate problems and on minimum number of acres. The surplus increased production must logically be land should be removed from annual cul- shifted to the development of more basic tivation and its fertility maintained or studies ultimately leading to new meth- improved with soil building practices em- ods of insect control. A review of the his- ployed until such time as an expanding tory of chinch bug, armyworm, codling population requires further production. moth, and potato beetle control makes it

Even if Illinois could afford to squander apparent that progress came in steps its land resources and its manpower, the spaced 10 or 20 or more years apart. In support of research for effective insect entomology, as in other branches of sci- control would still be a foresighted invest- ence, real progress is made through the December, 1958 Decker: Economic Entomology 125

development of some new fact, some bio- and will continue, no doubt, as long as the human race endures. It is due to the fact that logical or chemical law or principle re- both men and certain insect species constantly ferred to as a "break-through," discov- want the same things at the same time. Its ered by scientists pursuing basic research. intensity is owing to the vital importance to Practically all entomologists agree that both of the things they struggle for, and its long continuance is due to the fact that the Nature is more efficient than man in con- contestants are so equally matched. We com- trolling insects; there is an urgent need monly think of ourselves as the lords and con- for a return to the basic study of insect querors of nature, but insects had thoroughly biology and ecology and for expanded mastered the world and taken full possession of it work in the promising field of biological long before man began the attempt. They had, consequently, all the advantage of a pos- control. With a more thorough knowl- session of the field when the contest began, edge of the environmental factors that and they have disputed every step of our in- favor insect reproduction and survival vasion of their original domain so persistently and of those factors detrimental to these and so successfully that we can even yet scarcely flatter ourselves that we have gained processes, man might conceivably control any very important advantage over them. some pests by diminishing the favorable factors, enhancing the unfavorable fac- There seems to be little question that tors, or pursuing both courses. This type insects will continue to demand tribute of

of basic research is expensive, and prog- enormous proportions which will have to ress comes slowly, but successful projects be paid in terms of damage, pain, and based on the accumulated results of such suffering caused by the insects, or in ex- research pay handsome dividends. penditures for insect control. Man may, While more intensive studies in insect through judicious expenditures for re- genetics, ecology, and biology may play search and practical insect control meas- increasingly important roles in the devel- ures, reduce or minimize the tribute to be opment of new insect control procedures, paid, but he can never eliminate it entire-

man will for many years find it necessary ly. In this connection, it should again be to rely on chemical weapons— insecticides noted that entomology is not static. In- — to fight many of his insect pests. As sects, as highly versatile living organisms, more and more toxic insecticides are de- are constantly changing to meet each veloped, it becomes increasingly important change in the environment, whether it be that they be thoroughly tested for safety biological, physical, or chemical. If we before they are placed in general use. The are to hold our own in this continuing evaluation of insecticide residues, their battle, research must be carried on un- degradation products, and possible ad- diminished, and, if we are to make prog- verse effects on man and other animals, ress, research must be expanded. is currently time consuming and expen- At the moment, entomology and re- sive. We must undertake considerable lated biological sciences appear to be los- basic research to discover and to develop ing ground. State and federal appropria- basic principles or natural laws that will tions have not kept pace with rising costs. simplify insecticide evaluation and reduce Basic research is currently financed the cost of pursuing such routine studies. largely by grants from the principal en- Come what may, man must never be- dowed foundations. If it were not for come complacent with his temporary suc- funds made available by chemical and cesses nor assume that the insects have other large industrial companies, applied given up or will give up their struggle for research in entomology would have been supremacy. We must be ever mindful of greatly handicapped and curtailed in the the theses of L. O. Howard (1933) that last decade. insects are better equipped to occupy the Today, faced with the fact that another nation the first to launch a earth than are humans ; insects have been was on earth for 40,000,000 years, while the man-made earth satellite, America is sub- human race is only 400,000 years old. As jecting her own research facilities and Forbes (1915:2) soberly asserted: educational system to critical review. At the moment, the physical sciences are in The struggle between man and insects began long before the dawn of civilization, has con- the limelight and apparently stand to tinued without cessation to the present time, profit from increased emphasis. That the 126 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 natural sciences can safely be relegated to own. If the biological sciences, including a secondary or back-seat position is open entomology, are neglected in a revitalized to question. Almost 100 years ago, B. educational program, America may find D. Walsh, deploring American neglect herself again out-distanced by other coun- of the natural sciences, observed: "They tries—by men who are trained in a sci- manage these things better in Europe. In ence-oriented system that is balanced to Russia and other continental states, En- include all areas of scientific endeavor. If tomology in its rudiments is made a por- one step forward in the physical sciences tion of common school education" (Anon. causes us to slide two steps backward in 1860:12). the biological sciences, all our efforts spent

There is every reason to believe that to initiate a sound program for the ad- current entomological research in other vancement of science—all science—will countries is in no wav inferior to our have proved useless. Faunistic Surveys

HERBERT H. ROSS

T N their beginnings and early develop- and 1820's. Many other persons collected -* ment, investigations of the fauna of material for these men or sent speci- the Midwest differed in several respects mens for identification to taxonomists in from similar endeavors in other parts of the eastern United States or Europe. the world. The Midwest was explored The early faunistic workers of the and collected intensively considerably 1840's and the 1850's in Illinois included later than the eastern American seaboard, such men as Cyrus Thomas, John A. and so that the advances in the knowledge of Robert Kennicott, J. B. Turner, and the North American fauna made in the Benjamin D. Walsh, all of them self- eastern United States were available as taught naturalists. These and other en- an aid to moderately rapid advances when thusiasts made accurate observations on faunal studies were begun in the Mid- the fauna, built up collections of various west. In the eastern United States and animal groups, and kept in touch with also in Europe, systematic investigations their confreres in the eastern states. The were begun in response to man's in- Illinois entomologists published articles, herent curiosity concerning the kinds of some of them in the Prairie Farmer, and life in his surroundings and were de- absorbed the ideas of such great early veloped to a considerable state of ad- entomologists as T. W. Harris of Mas- vancement chiefly under this stimulus. sachusetts and Asa Fitch of New York. In the Midwest, the first serious syste- In Illinois the State Agricultural So- matic efforts were undoubtedly begun in ciety, formed in 1853, was an important answer to pure curiosity, but almost im- agent in bringing together Illinois zo- mediately after their inception, especially ologists, entomologists, and botanists into in Illinois, these studies were picked up an organized natural history society. The and swept along by the tremendous de- progressive officers of the Agricultural mand for identification caused by the Society were conscious from the first of agricultural and scientific developments the destructive nature of insects and were of the latter half of the nineteenth sufficiently versed in biological concepts to century. realize that applied biology requires a full

knowledge of all forms of natural life. EARLY BACKGROUND To encourage acquisition of this knowledge, the Agricultural Society ofifered The sudden formation of natural his- prizes at its state fairs for collections in tory societies in the Midwest during the natural history fields. In 1854 Wm. J. 1850's — at Louisville in 1851, Grand Shaw of Tazewell County won first prize Rapids in 1854, Milwaukee in 1855, and for the "Best suite of the animal king- Chicago in 1856—gives an impression in dom, including insects and animals in- retrospect that before that decade there jurious to the farmer" (J. A. Kennicott were no naturalists in the area. This was 1855:122). In 1855 Robert Kennicott far from the case, for a few enthusiastic won two prizes, one for the "Greatest naturalists were active in various lo- and best collection of named insects," the calities through the Midwestern region other for a zoological collection; in 1856 even before these dates. he won seven firsts— for a collection in Among the Midwestern naturalists each of the following classes: shells, named were the famous zoologists Thomas Say, insects, zoology, botany, stuffed birds, rep- C. A. Le Sueur, and G. Troost, living tiles, and fishes (J. A. Kennicott 1857:90, and working on the banks of the Wabash 142). River at New Harmony, Indiana, in the In the State Agricultural Society's first 1820's and 1830's, and C. S. Rafinesque Transactions, three lists of animals for at Louisville, Kentucky, in the 1810's Illinois were published, one on southern [127] I

128 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

Illinois birds by Henry Pratten (1855), did not immediately influence faunistic one on the Mollusca of southern Illinois work in North America but they did so by H. A. Ulffers (1855), and another later to a greater and greater degree. In (solicited by the Society's secretary) on North America prior to the 1850's, the the animals of Cook County by Robert great bulk of the invertebrate material, Kennicott (1855). It is interesting that including insects, had been sent to Euro- in this last article Kennicott recorded pean specialists for description. Follow- "buffalo" and elk for Cook County and ing the pioneer examples of Frederick noted that the "wild pigeon" (passenger Melsheimer and Thomas Say with in- pigeon) was "very abundant" and the sects and mollusks, American zoologists magpie "not uncommon in winter." were beginning to describe more and For a few years after the first corpo- more species of the native American rate form of the Illinois Natural History fauna. In the invertebrate groups they Survey had come into being as the Illi- had virtually a virgin field, for in 1858 nois Natural History Society, the Agri- great numbers of species were still un- cultural Society published the proceed- known, and workable synopses were avail- ings of the infant organization. able for only a small proportion of the In Illinois the faunistic worker of 1858 native American fauna. had few of the work aids which we enjoy today. The only Midwestern institu- CHANGING HABITATS tional reference collection was that at Northwestern University, built up by Originally Illinois was chiefly a com-i Robert Kennicott and considered out- bination of forested hilly country and flat standing in its day, although small and mesic prairies of a marshy nature. Inter- limited in group representation compared spersed with these main types were sand with collections now available. areas, bogs, river and stream habitats, Most zoologists accumulated their own and other local areas of diverse kinds. private collections, identifying their speci- The rapid rise in the population of Illi- mens with the aid of the few books avail- nois in the mid-nineteenth century initi- able and through consultation with other ated in the native vegetation drastic naturalists. Few libraries existed in the changes which have progressed steadily area. The reference shelves of the best to the present time; these changes have zoologists contained comprehensive treat- had a marked effect on the distribution ments covering the eastern North Ameri- and composition of the animal life of can fauna for most of the vertebrates and the state. the Mollusca. For the insects Say's vol- By 1858, towns or farms or logged- umes were available, but for many orders over areas had broken up large tracts of his treatment was fragmentary. For most forest. Plowing had made great inroads insect groups and many other inverte- into the prairies. Large area drainage op- brates, extremely helpful world synopses erations in the marsh country had started had just been written by European au- about 1850, had gained great momentum thors, and some of them contained sepa- by 1880, and by 1900 had turned the rate keys for the North American spe- great bulk of the marshland into farms. cies. Aside from these basic references, The resultant changing ecology is a back- there existed a number of journals carry- ground feature important to keep in mind ing short papers, some of them published when viewing the faunistic developments by the scientific societies of the Atlantic outlined in this chapter. seaboard states, where such societies had been organized a century before their PERIODS OF FAUNISTIC Midwestern counterparts. ACTIVITIES This period, the I850's, was a stirring one scientifically. Europe had just wit- The faunistic activities of the Illinois nessed the successive development of com- Natural History Survey and its prede- parative anatomy and physiology, the cell cessors may be divided into three fairly theory, embryology, histology, and the distinct periods, the initial, chiefly vol- theory of evolution. These basic concepts untary, period of roughly 1858-1869, the ;

December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 129 expansion period of roughly 1871-1922, death in 1869, Although a skeleton net- and the specialized faunistic survey pe- work of railroads crisscrossed the state, riod of roughly 1923 to date. most of the collecting was local, because it had to be done as a hobby appended Initial Period, 1858-1869 to the naturalist's business or other oc-

cupation ; hence, the papers were based The Illinois Natural History Society, chiefly on material from a few localities. when formed in 1858, had as its primary Collections exhibited at the state fairs objectives the exploration of the biota of give another informative light on faunis- Illinois and the establishment of a scien- tic activities of that time. At the 1859 tific library. Encouragement of animal fair three entries were exhibited, one a studies was patently aimed at systematics red deer, another a collection of stuffed yet even in the inaugural presidential ad- birds, and the third a collection of in- dress by J. B. Turner there is more than sects. In 1860 seven entries (Reynolds an overtone of putting systematics to 1861:190-1) and in 1861 eight entries work. In the words of Turner (1859: (Reynolds 1865:137) were exhibited in 647), zoology. There were no more exhibits in

A true philosophy, as it seems to me, would zoology until 1864; in that year the let us rest content till had truly never we and winners were chiefly the Illinois Natural fully learned not the bare name and form, History Society and Illinois Wesleyan but the final cause and use, the good and evil, the full relation of each thing, object and University at Bloomington (Reynolds being, to all other beings, and especially to 1865:310). Apparently these two groups man— to all his interests, enterprises, arts, enjoyed some rivalry at that time in the uses and developments, physical, mental and development of natural history. moral. An idea of the high merit of these ex-

At the anniversary meeting in 1860 at hibits can be gained from the 1861 Bloomington, certain objectives of the Awarding Committee's remarks (Reyn- Society were expressed differently but in olds 1865:149) on the insect exhibits: equally broad terms (Anon. 1860:3) : In Entomology, a collection exhibited by T. G. Floyd, of entitled the It is the aim of the Society ... to establish Macomb, exhibitor to the a Museum of Natural History, at the State "commendation" of the Society. In this Normal University, comprising every species department. Dr. Charles A. Helmuth, of Chi- of plants, birds, shells, fishes, insects, quad- cago, made a fine exhibition. His collection rupeds, minerals and fossils, found in Illinois, of Beetles is very valuable and attracted together with such collections from various much attention. He has over 1100 species col- parts of the world as will assist our youth lected in Illinois, besides many fine species in gaining a knowledge of the general studies from other States and foreign countries. We of nature. think him entitled to "very high commendation," especially for specimens exhibited belonging to the order of Coleoptera. But by far The Natural History Society did in the best collection exhibited was presented bv fact found a museum at Normal, Illinois, B. D. Walsh, Esq., of Rock Island. It is hardly which served as a rallying point for zo- possible to speak in too high terms of this ologists of the area. The Society's papers extensive collection of the insects of Illinois. So far as Illinois insects are concerned, it and proceedings continued to be published outnumbers in the order of Coleoptera, the by the Agricultural Society, which fur- collection of Dr. Helmuth, and is very full ther continued its active encouragement in all the other orders. It could only have been of faunistic work by awarding prizes for collected and arranged by an exercise of industry, [perseverance] and skill, and by an exhibited collections at the state fair. application of scientific knowledge, reflecting At about this time several Illinois nat- great honor upon the collector and entitling uralists began publishing accounts of the him to high rank among the Naturalists of the Committee zoology of the state. C. D. Wilber State and of the country. The do not hesitate to pronounce his the "best (1861Z>) described a fossil mastodon, collection illustrating the Entomology of Illi- Thomas (1861^, \86\b) wrote lists of nois," and unanimously award to him the mammals and of some insects, R. H. premium of the Society. Holder (\S6\a, \86lb) wrote about birds, and Walsh (1861-1868) published a re- In spite of the achievements in faunis- markably fine series of papers before his tic activities shown by both publications .

130 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 and exhibits, the Natural History So- published faunistic papers on a wide range ciety itself faltered because it could not of Illinois groups, including Crustacea, make ends meet on private subscriptions fish, birds, reptiles, and insects. alone and by the end of the 1860's was The period 1858-1878 witnessed the a mere shell of an organization. first concerted awakening of American naturalists to the taxonomic opportunities Period, 1871-1922 Expansion in the invertebrates, especially in the in- The establishment of the State En- sects. Specialists in many states published tomologist's Office in 1867 and the in- comprehensive treatises on orders or fam- corporation of the Illinois Natural His- ilies of insects of North America. For tory Society into the State Board of Ed- these animals, this was truly the age of ucation in 1871 brought together as offi- North American discovery. cial state organizations two agencies in- In 1877 the Museum of the Natural vestigating natural science and marked History Society, by that time known as the beginning of continuing state support the Illinois Museum of Natural History, for faunistic programs. was separated into two institutions: the The appointment of Walsh as first Natural History Museum, designed as State Entomologist had little effect on a public exhibition museum, in Spring- this movement because Walsh confined field, and the State Laboratory of Nat- his official writings almost entirely to ural History, at Normal (Illinois Gen- nontaxonomic subjects. His successor, eral Assembly 1877:14-6). The duties William Le Baron, introduced serious of the State Laboratory, presumably as taxonomic contributions into the reports set forth by Stephen A. Forbes, its Di- of the State Entomologist in 1871. rector, stressed ecological approaches to In his first report as State Entomolo- the animal life of the state and in this gist, Le Baron described a new species policy reflected thoughts expressed by of moth attacking apple, in his second Turner 20 years before. The primary in- described four more new species of in- tent of the systematic program described sects of economic importance, and in his was "to monograph those groups which third gave an outline of and key to the have not been thoroughly studied else- orders of Illinois insects (Le Baron 1871 : where" (Forbes 1882^:9) 20-3; 1872:117-24, 138-9, 140, 157-8; In 1882 Forbes became State Entomol- 1873:25). Here he called particular ogist, as well as Director of the State attention to the great need for identifica- Laboratory. Following the establish- tion aids in the pursuit of economic en- ment of both of these offices at Urbana tomolog}^ Le Baron's was the first of in 1885, the faunistic program received much faunistic work which continued as great impetus. Reading between the lines an integral part of the development of of the original reports of the Director, economic entomology in Illinois. At al- it seems safe to surmise that by this time most the same time (1871), the educa- the ecological studies already attempted tors and scientists of the state, alarmed at had highlighted the pressing need for the the continued decline of their Natural accurate identification of the animal spe- History Society, induced the legislature cies encountered in these studies. In the to take over and assign the Society's mu- revised list of duties of the State Labora- seum and library to the State Board of tory we find the directive, "he [the Di- Education in exchange for state appropria- rector] shall present for publication, tions (Illinois General Assembly 1872: from time to time, a series of systematic 151-2) for the Society's continued growth. reports covering the entire field of the Thus, the need for state aid in the de- zoology ... of Illinois" (Illinois Gen- velopment of faunistics arose from two eral Assembly 1885:23). In its Bulletin. different directions. the Laboratory had previously published Both Le Baron and Thomas as State many papers by nonstafif members, but Entomologists published many fine taxo- from this time on a larger and larger pro- nomic insect studies in their reports. Un- portion of these papers was the product der the auspices of the Illinois Museum of of staff members of the State Laboratory Natural History, naturalists in the state or of the State Entomologist's Office. :

December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 131

The main faunistic activities of these roads traversed the state and these were staff members concerned aquatic organisms the only means of rapid travel. Collecting and insects associated with the develop- was done intensively around a few head- ment of ecology and economic entomol- quarters, especially Urbana, Carbondale, ogy. Forbes repeatedly mentions that the and Havana. On the Illinois River and most important tools of the biologist are other waterways, boats were available

Field party of the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History at one of several collecting stations near Havana, 1894. This station was on the east shore of Thompson's Lake, which has since been drained. In the picture are, left to right, Frank Smith and Henry E. Summers, zoologists, Charles A. Hart, entomologist, and Miles Newberry, fisherman and boatman.

a reference collection for the identifica- for travel up and down the rivers. Local tion of specimens and a scientific library. travel was done by horse-drawn vehicles. All staff members collected specimens as As late as 1900 Forbes (1901:3, 5-6) part of their duties, and every effort was wrote of the Laboratory

made to obtain material from different Its field operations have been conducted mainly parts of the state and from areas of in- from the Illinois Biological Station [at Ha- terest in adjacent states. By 1894 the vana and Meredosia] as a center, . . . collections were of sufficient magnitude Besides this local work on the fishes of the to be placed under the charge of a cura- State, two extensive wagon trips have been tor, C. A. Hart. In 1903 Hart became provided for, one made in the fall of 1899, Systematic Entomologist and Curator of and the other in progress at this date [Sep-

tember, 1900]. . . . the insect collections, and R. E. Richard- A considerable number of collections have son was brought in to take charge of the also been made by high school principals and fish collections. In 1915 J. R. Malloch science teachers and sent to the Laboratory was appointed to assist Hart with the in aid of this survey. insects. Hart and his assistants traveled to Collecting conditions from 1870 to various points by train and in each town well into the 1900's were greatly dif- set up headquarters in a local hotel or ferent from those of today. A few rail- rooming house, hired a buggy, and made 132 Illinois Naturai. History Survly BuLi.iiTiN Vol. 27, Art. 2 day trips into the surroundin^i territory. scientific centers which were growing^

In this way, over the years a remarkably rapidly. World War I drew away much fine collection of insects was built up of the younger help. Richardson concen- from almost every part of the state. The trated on ecology. Hart, the work horse! establishment of the Held laboratory at of the entomological collections, died in Havana formed a basis for many seasons 1918, and in 1919 C. P. Alexander was of intensive insect collectinjj; in the rich appointed Systematic Entomologist. Al- waters of that area and on the extremely exander and Malloch worked chiefly on interesting; sand areas which line the east stream surveys. The studies of Alexander bank of the Illinois River through sev- resulted in a report on the Vermilion eral counties. River (Alexander 1925). After the At the present time such restrictions resignations of Malloch, in 1921, and Al- on movement might seem a terrible handi- exander, in 1922, there were no faunistic cap, but one must remember that in those taxonomists left on the Natural History days the land was not so intensively culti- Survey staff. No comprehensive faunistic vated as it is at present. Within a very projects had been in operation for several short distance of almost any town, tracts years, and these resignations left the of virgin forest, prairie, marsh, or other Survey without even curators. undisturbed habitats could be reached Specialization Period, with little effort. Many of the old virgin 1923 to Present landscapes which were the type localities of Illinois species are now either flooded The appointment of Theodore H. Pri- by artificial lakes, under cultivation, or son as Systematic Entomologist in 1923 covered by urban developments. Most of marked the beginning of a resurgence in the marshes, which were once common- the faunistic activities of the Natural place, have been drained. Because of the History Survey. Until several years later abundance and accessibility of varied this move was felt primarily in the in- habitats, the early collections were both sects, but eventually it spread to the other large and diversified. The very nature of animal groups. Prison's first endeavors the substation headquarters method en- were to collate the insect collections, but couraged the collection of all species of his chief thoughts were aimed at meth- insects in a given locality, rather than ods for revitalizing the old charge to specialization on any one group. Human publish a series of systematic reports labor was relatively cheap; hence, pre- covering the entire field of the zoology parators and collectors could be hired of Illinois (Illinois General Assembly and trained at a nominal cost. 1885:23). Porbes was as anxious as As a result, the State Laboratory in- Prison to see this program begin. By this sect collections (which constituted also time several factors had changed the the insect collections servicing the State faunistic outlook considerably from that Entomologist's Office) became the finest of the beginning of the century. Good which had ever been assembled for any roads reached almost every hamlet in the one state, and early in the twentieth state, and the automobile had supplanted century the collections of fishes and cer- the train and buggy as a ready means of tain other groups were equally fine. This travel. The ease of reaching all points of faunistic program reached a peak about the state made up in large measure for 1910 and continued into the next decade. the increasing destruction of large tracts In 1917, when the State Entomol- of native habitats and the necessity of ogist's Office and the State Laboratory seeking primeval collecting spots in re- were combined to form the present Illi- mote and widely separated localities. nois State Natural History Survey, the Taxonomically the picture had changed reorganization did not effect any changes to an equal extent, at least for insects. in the internal structure of the faunistic In 1900 it was generally considered that staff. Immediately afterward, however, except in groups like aphids and ecto- the faunistic program began to dwindle. parasites, species could be readily identi- Many of the well-trained personnel ac- fied by external characters through use cepted positions in universities and other of, at most, a hand lens. Variation had December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 133

been little recognized as a factor in and economic importance with those having a difficult)' of identification. A reference principally ecological importance. series of a few specimens was considered Within the bounds of a primarily thoroughly adequate for each species. Al- systematic treatment, it was hoped that though the value of series of specimens basic information could be obtained on was becoming recognized at the beginning the place of the species in nature. Collect- of the twentieth century, the true neces- ing programs therefore stressed discover- sity for larger population samples was ing the microhabitats, hosts, seasonal ap- not fully recognized in insect groups un- pearance, or other ecological attributes

til about the 1920's. By this time, in of the different species. group after group of insects and indeed An aim of great importance which de- of other invertebrates, many of the older veloped for these reports concerned their species units were each being divided into usability from the viewpoint of the be- several species separated only by micro- ginning student. Many keys made by scopic characters, which were often specialists contained language too tech- minute in character and difficult to see. nical to be readily understood by non- So detailed was the knowledge required specialists. Prison was acutely aware of to identify many of these groups that it this fact and insisted that all keys in the was no longer possible for one person to faunistic bulletins be couched in language cover reliably the tremendous number of as simple as possible and that, wherever groups which Hart had done so success- helpful to an understanding of characters fully according to the standards of his or specialized terms, illustrations should day. accompany the keys. Influenced by these changes, a faunistic Prison's plan for faunistic reports was program was evolved centering around in- not put into operation until 1928, when tensive studies of individual groups. The F. C. Hottes was employed during the program called for each staffs member to summer as a special appointee to work on study some special group, collect material the aphids of Illinois. The appointment of throughout the state at different seasons Hottes was the first of several of its kind. and in different habitats, identify the ma- In 1931, when Prison became Chief, terial, and write up a report of the group Herbert H. Ross became Systematic En- for Illinois. It was hoped that the serv- tomologist. In 1935 the insect systematic ices of specialists at other institutions program became the Insect Survey Sec- could be obtained during the summer tion of the Natural History Survey. months to work with Natural History The identification of economic insects, Survey personnel on Illinois reports. In always a duty of the Systematic Entomol- the original plan, the thought was that ogist, became an important feature of these reports could be restricted quite the Section. The Section was called on closely to Illinois material and to Illinois also for the identification of certain other species. This plan did in fact prove invertebrates important in agriculture or satisfactory for the aphids and Orthop- public health, especially mites, ticks, tera, which were relatively well known aquatic Crustacea, and earthworms. In for the country as a whole. When, how- these activities, changing taxonomic con- ever, projects were started for groups cepts and the introduction of economic which were poorly known for the conti- insects and mites new to the state con-

nent, it was found essential to extend the tinually increased the difficulties of ac- scope of the reports to cover roughly the curate identification and the need for ob- mid-central states, as Forbes had implied taining additional specialists for the staff. as a general policy as early as 1900. In 1947 the faunistic program was It was recognized early in this pro- expanded to cover all animal groups, with gram that many insect groups of little the idea of extending to groups other importance economically were neverthe- than the insects the faunal survey aims less of great importance ecologically. An which had been developed for insects. attempt was therefore made to develop The Insect Survey Section was renamed a program which would alternate the the Section of Faunistic Surveys and In- treatment of groups having principally sect Identification, and it became the :

134 Illinois Natural History Survey Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 custodian of all the Survey's taxonomic reptiles, especially variational series from collections of animal groups. Illinois and surrounding states; on start- Over the years several artists have ing reference collections of birds and contributed greatly to the utility and ap- mammals; and, more recently, on as- pearance of the Survey's faunistic publi- sembling fish collections designed to be cations—Lydia M. Hart, H. K. Knab, a basis for a re-study of Illinois fishes. C O. Alohr, Kathryn M. Sommerman, Invertebrates Other Than Insects and Elizabeth Maxwell. Miss Hart and

Dr. Mohr, especially, have graced Nat- In early records of the Survey, there is ural History Survey publications with a no indication of the extent of invertebrate multitude of remarkably fine total views collections other than that given by inci- of insects. dental mention in a few small published papers. The largest of these collections

RESEARCH COLLECTIONS comprised the molluscs ; the aquatic species were obtained chiefly from river sur- The great value of research and refer- veys and the extensive series of land spe- ence collections to programs in natural cies from the collecting of Frank C. history was stressed in the founding ar- Baker and Thural Dale Foster. Early ticles of the Illinois Natural History So- collections of other groups were made, at ciety and has been evident ever since in least of phalangids, crustaceans, and cer- all phases of applied ecology. The tain protozoans, but only scattered vials Natural History Survey has therefore or slides of these materials are extant at stressed the assembling and maintenance the present. Since 1930, special Illinois of adequate research collections of animal collecting has been initiated for a few groups as a corollary to its faunistic groups, and in the pseudoscorpions and activities. ticks excellent Illinois series have been The general aims in augmenting the assembled. collections have varied over the years, but in recent decades have approached Insects closely the policy expressed at the 1860 From the late 1870's to the present, anniversary meeting of the Natural His- the insect collections grew steadily. The tory Society and have emphasized first first official collection was Walsh's pri- the species found in Illinois and then vate collection purchased by the State for species or additional material from other Le Baron in 1870. Le Baron picked out regions which contribute to analyzing or duplicates for a reference collection in his interpreting the Illinois fauna. office and then sent the main Walsh col- Taxonomists in other institutions have lection to the Chicago Academy of aided the Illinois Natural History Survey Sciences for safekeeping. There it was greatly by identifying Survev material in destroyed in the Chicago fire of 1871. their respective specialties. This aid has Ironically, some of the material Le Baron not only resulted in keeping the Survey selected from the Walsh collection may collection up-to-date but has afforded have persisted and be represented in the needed reference material in many genera present Natural History Survey collec- or families. tion. Since the extant Le Baron specimens

lack locality data, however, it is impos- Vertebrates sible to determine their original source. During the early periods of Survey A collection of aphids made by Thomas history, Forbes and his assistants built up was preserved, also. and maintained a large collection of Illi- The insect collection which Forbes be- nois fishes, but kept only a small reference gan in the State Laboratory was quite collection of other groups. Much of the small while he was at Normal. As soon fish collection is intact at present, but as he became established in Urbana in the older material of other vertebrate 1885, he started to place great emphasis groups has become dissipated. In recent on building it up. About 5 years later decades emphasis has been placed on build- Forbes (1890:3) gave the following ac- ing up collections of amphibians and count of the collection ;

D ecemDer, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 135

The entomological collection has been great- for reference and protection. In 1927 ly enlarged, especially in Diptera, and a large these represented about 1,000 species; the number of determinations in all orders have number now stands at been made. The named collection is now con- about 2,500 spe- tained in 160 double boxes, and numbers cies. At present the total insect collection about 5,000 species, each being represented, contains roughly 2,000,000 specimens, in- as a rule, by four selected specimens. The cluding over 50,000 slide mounts, repre- pinned and determined duplicate insects on senting about species hand — largely in process of distribution to 40,000 and housed public schools— amount to 42,600 specimens. in 2,700 insect drawers and 100,000 The alcoholic insects, including large numbers vials. of larvae, are contained in about 10,200 bottles and vials. FAUNISTIC REPORTS Although we have no later estimates of the size of this insect collection, it is The preparation and publication of re- obvious from material now in the collec- ports on the animals of Illinois, a respon- tion that by 1910 Hart was keeping much sibility repeated several times in mandates larger series of each species. to the Natural History Survey and its In addition to material gathered by the predecessors, was begun with the first staff, in the Natural History Survey col- publications of the Illinois Natural His- lection are several collections of note that tory Society and has been continued to the have been given to or acquired by the present. Many of the first reports were Survey. Notable items include the W. mere lists, often local in nature, and have A. Nason collection (insects of Algon- needed revision or complete retreatment. quin, Illinois), the C. W. Stromberg In addition to the chiefly systematic collection (insects of northwestern Illi- accounts outlined below, ecological and nois), the Andreas Bolter collection (all economic studies over the years have con- orders of insects), the Emil Beer Lepidop- tained a wealth of records and descrip- tera collection, the Charles Robertson tions of a large number of species. This is true especially of surveys of the collection (insects on flowers), the L. J. sand Milne caddisfly collection, the C. L. areas, prairie and forest areas, and exten- Metcalf flower fly collection, the W. P. sive bottom fauna and shore studies of the Hayes weevil collection, the A. D. Mac- large rivers. Gillivray sawfly collection, the P. N. Vertebrates Musgrave water beetle collection, and the K. F. Auden beetle collection. Amateur Faunistic reports have been published entomologists, such as Murray O. Glenn on all the vertebrate groups occurring in of Henry and Alex K. Wyatt of Chicago, Illinois. Certain of the older reports are have made numerous valuable additions now out-of-date because of our greatly to the collection. increased knowledge of the fauna. Because of special taxonomic interests Fishes.—The work on Illinois fishes on the part of staff members, the collec- may truly be considered the first sustained tion is unusually comprehensive in certain faunistic project carried on by personnel groups of insects. To this category be- of the Natural History Survey or its par- long the stoneflies, mayflies, and caddis- ent organizations. The project was begun flies; the aphids, mirids, and leafhoppers with Forbes' first connection with the the leaf beetles, rove beetles, and June Illinois Natural History Society and con- beetles; the sawflies and bees; the thrips tinued as a cohesive svstematic studv until and psocids; the springtails; and a few 1909. groups of the true flies. In many orders At the time of birth of the Illinois Nat- the collection contains a great deal of ma- ural History Society, approximately three- terial of the immature stages, which have quarters of the Illinois fishes had been de- been emphasized in our reports. The scribed and named by such distinguished large collections of rove beetles, sawflies, early ichthyologists as Rafinesque, Le and ectoparasitic groups are associated Sueur, Girard, Agassiz, Mitchell, and with plans for future projects. Kirtland. Half a dozen of these species Since 1925 primary types at the Nat- were first discovered in Illinois waters. ural History Survey have been segregated During the next three or four decades, 1.^6 Illinois Natural History Survlv Hulli-tin Vol. 27, Art. 2

when Illinois waters were beinji studied tory SocietN. In 1881 Robert Ridgway intensively by Forbes and his colleagues, published a revised catalog and, a few most of the remaininji Illinois fishes were years later, two large reports, the two described by such famous zoologists as volumes of The Ornithologx of Illinois Jordan. Cope, Gilbert, Nelson, and (Ridgway 1881, 1889, 1895). The first Forbes himself. volume was destroyed by fire in the state A regional list treating the fishes of the printer's office and had to be completely Chicago area was prepared by Robert reprinted before it was issued. These two Kennicott (1855), and comprehensive volumes were among the pioneers in the catalogs of the fishes of the entire state use of structural characters in keying the appeared in the first volume of the Bulle- birds of an area. Ridgway, a native of tin (Nelson 1876; Jordan 1878). Sev- Illinois, was not an employee of the state- eral years later Forbes (1884) prepared but wrote these volumes because of his a third catalog of Illinois fishes, and early intense interest in Illinois birds. in the present century Thomas Large In later years Forbes, A. O. Gross, and (1903) published a fourth list. Frank Smith made many observations on Some time in the 1870's Forbes seems Illinois birds, but these studies were pri- to have developed the idea of producing a marily of an ecological nature. w^ell-illustrated and detailed account of Amphibians and Reptiles.—Survey the Illinois fishes which would be useful studies concerned with these animals did for all the Mississippi River states. Year not start until the 1880's. In the first vol- after >'ear, wagon parties were sent to ex- ume of the Bulletin, N. S. Davis, Jr., & plore and collect in different streams of F. L. Rice (1883) published a catalog of the state until finally records were avail- amphibians and reptiles found east of the able for virtually every river and rill in Mississippi River. H. Garman (1890) Illinois. Along the Illinois River large also studied these groups. No synoptic collections were made year after year. collections were kept of the early ma- Some extensive collecting parties visited terial. In the 1930's Francis Lueth and localities in neighboring states. The Willard Stanley accumulated records and amount of human endeavor that went assembled several hundred specimens. In into this project is monumental and rep- the early 1940's the Natural History Sur- resents the steadfast patience and toil of vey focused attention on these groups 30 years. The final report, The Fishes through the co-operation of H. K. Gloyd of Illinois and its Atlas, by Forbes & Rich- of the Chicago Academy of Sciences, C. ardson (1908), summarized all this in- H. Pope of the Chicago Natural History formation and featured a remarkable set Museum, and H. M. Smith of the Uni- of color plates prepared by Lydia Hart. versity of Illinois. In 1947 P. W. Smith Since the appearance of the Forbes & initiated an intensive Study of these ani- Richardson report, two other contribu- mals, making collections in all parts of tions have been made by the Natural His- the state and plotting the variation and tory Survey to Illinois fish taxonomy. D. distribution of each species. In 1957 this H. Thompson & F. D. Hunt (1930) project culminated in a comprehensive published a report on the fishes of Cham- report on the amphibians and reptiles of paign County, and D. J. O'Donnell Illinois; the report is now awaiting pub- (1935) published an annotated list of lication. Illinois fishes. Mammals.—The Natural History Birds.— Before 1858 there was an Survey and its parent agencies have pub- abundance of illustrative and synoptic lished only a small number of reports on references to North American birds by Illinois mammals. The first, by Cyrus Wilson, Nuttall, Audubon, and others, Thomas (1861/'), was published by the and there were local lists of Illinois birds Natural History Society. Early in the by Robert Kennicott (1855) and H. present century, F. E. Wood (1910rt) Pratten (1855). Later, R. H. Holder published on the mammals of Champaign (1861fl) published a list of Illinois birds County. In the 1930's C. O. Mohr be- and a short taxidermy manual in the came interested in the mammal fauna of Transactions of the Illinois Natural His- Illinois and gathered a great deal of in- ;

December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 137 formation on distribution and habits. was done primarily by T. D. Foster. After Mohr left the Natural History Sur- Foster used a motorcycle on collecting vey in 1947, the work on mammals was trips and shared with S. C. Chandler the taken up by D. F. Hoffmeister of the Uni- distinction of being one of the few mem- versity of Illinois, and the resultinj^; field- bers of the Survey's motorcycle brigade. book appeared shortly after Mohr had For 2 years he conducted a whirlwind rejoined the Survey stafi (Hoiifmeister & search over the entire state for land snails Mohr 1957). and brought together a remarkable number of records. The material was iden- Invertebrates Other Than Insects tified by Baker, who prepared a report Most of the invertebrate studies made that appeared as a fieldbook of the Illinois during the early history of the Survey land snails (Baker 1939). The book was concerned chiefly aquatic orj2;anisms which beautifully illustrated by C. O. Mohr. were important in limnological inves- Berlese collecting, instituted about 1933 tigations. The first paper by Forbes primarily for exploring the insects in dufi, (1876) in the Bulletin was a list of the netted not only insects but large numbers Illinois Crustacea; this was followed by of terrestrial invertebrates, mainly arach- a paper on Crustacea by L. M. Under- noids. About 1940 C. C. Hoff of the wood (1886). A. Hempel (1896, 1899) University of New Mexico became inter- described a few rotifers and protozoans ested in co-operating in a study of pseudo- from the Illinois River, and C. A. Kofoid scorpions of Illinois. He found that many (1898, 1899) described a few plankton species collected in these Berlese samples organisms of Illinois. R. W. Sharpe were new and represented a Midwestern (1897), F. W. Schacht (1897, 1898), faunal element which had remained un- and Ernest Forbes (1897) made addi- seen because other pseudoscorpion spe- tional contributions to a knowledge of the cialists lived in either the East or the Crustacea. C. M. Weed (1890) did con- West. Hold's report on the Illinois fauna siderable work on the phalangids of Illi- was published bv the Natural History nois and published a partial catalog of Survey (Hof¥ 1949). the group. Insects Several other invertebrate studies published in the Bulletin were almost en- Considering not only the economic im- tirely the work of nonstaff members, some portance of insects but also the exceed- of whom worked actively in co-operation ingly large number of species expected in with the Survey. J. P. Moore (1901) the state (approximately 20,000), it is treated the Illinois leeches; Frank Smith not surprising that the Natural History (1895-1928) published many papers on Survey's most extensive faunistic contri- earthworms; H. J. Van Cleave (1919) butions have been made in this group. studied Illinois River Acanthocephala Many of the studies have resulted in de- Henry E. Ewing (1909) studied the scriptions of new species, life history orobatid mites; and F. C. Baker (1906) notes, and distribution records contained published a catalog of the Illinois Mol- in short papers; many others have resulted lusca. in comprehensive accounts of various Ecological work on the rivers amassed groups found in Illinois. collections of the various plankton groups, Orthoptera.—Thomas was early a but only those portions noted above were keen student of the Orthoptera and in the ever analyzed taxonomically. Much of first of the Transactions of the Natural the material was discarded after being History Society published a list of this or- recorded, and much was lost by desicca- der for Illinois (Thomas 1859/^). His in- tion. Except for the collections of Mol- terest continued and he published a second, lusca, by 1947 only a small amount of enlarged list in the first volume of the the early invertebrate collections re- Bulletin (Thomas 1876). In the earlv mained. 1900's, Hart and A. G. Vestal made About 1930 a survey of the land snails large and extremely interesting collections of Illinois was organized under the lead- of this order in the Illinois sand areas, in ership of F. C. Baker. The field work which an appreciable number of western 138 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 species occur. In 1932 Morgan Hebard further taxonomic investigation of the of the Academy of Natural Sciences of aphids about 1908. In the Bulletin, Davis I Philadelphia offered to prepare an account (1913) published a commentary on the of the Dermaptera and Orthoptera of Cyrus Thomas collection and in addition Illinois. For this project staff members 20 papers on aphid taxonomy in various made additional collections in areas of the entomological journals. Most of this state not previously covered for the group. work he did while an assistant in the The report appeared 2 vears later (Heb- State Entomologist's Office. ard 1934). In 1928 Prison and F. C. Hottes, the Aphids.—This group was one of the latter now at Grand Junction, Colorado, Hrst emphasized in studies by the Natural took up a study of Illinois aphids. This History Survey's parent organizations. was the first study to be based on a com- Thomas, one of the leading early investi- bination of intensive collecting for one gators in the taxonomy of this group, pub- group and opportunities for rapid travel lished a synopsis of one of the tribes and to all parts of the state. Field investi- described many new forms from Illinois gations were made during the summers of (Thomas 1878). About the same time 1928-1930. Each year collecting parties Nettie Aliddleton (1878) described an- started in the southern part of Illinois and other species, and several years later C. worked north and then reversed the pat- M. Weed (1891) published the results tern so that each locality was collected at of his studies on the life histories of a different seasons. A complete set of slide number of species. Little more was done mounting equipment was taken into the with this group until J. J. Davis started field, and temporary headquarters were

An Illinois Natural History Survey entomologist making field notes relating to insects he has collected. The association of insects with their host plants is an important phase of the work of Survey entomologists. December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 139 set up in hotels at various towns. Each ing among faunistic works. Not only did party consisted of three persons. Usually it give equal emphasis to the adults and all three collected during the first half- larvae, a most unusual feature for the day spent in each locality ; after that one time, but it benefited from two remark- person stayed in the headquarters hotel able faculties of Malloch's. One was and mounted aphids while the other two Malloch's ability to spot new characters continued collecting. Lists of potential (dipterists agree that Malloch was a hosts, with especially interesting ones in- genius at this not only in the midges but dicated, were used as a tick sheet in each in every group in which he worked). locality. About a hundred species, 36 of The other was his ability to prepare un- them new to science, were added to the usually clear keys, which made his publi- state list. The report on this project was cations quite out of the ordinary in their published in the Bulletin (Hottes & Pri- usefulness to other workers. son 1931). The breadth of Malloch's interest in Odonata.—Nymphs of this order were Diptera was expressed when he published frequently encountered in limnological in the Bulletin a classification of the work, and H. Garman and Hart reared order based primarily on larval and pupal many of them during the 1880's and characters (Malloch 1917). This study 1890's. This work set the stage for the was one of the first in which recognition first report on Illinois dragonflies, an ar- was given to the value of characters of ticle by J. G. Needham & Hart (1903). the immature stages in determining the Later Philip Garman did much work on relationships of families within a large in- the group and wrote an excellent account sect order. Certainly it is a classic and of the damselfiy suborder Zygoptera in contains cogent ideas of fly classification Illinois (P. Garman 1917). which even at this date have not been Pentatomoidea.—This group includes fully incorporated into accepted classi- the stink bugs, a group of sucking insects fications of the order. for which Hart had a special interest. He The next intensive Natural History assembled a remarkably fine collection of Survey work on Diptera was a study com- the Illinois species and had virtually com- menced by H. H. Ross about 1938 on the pleted an account of the state fauna at the Illinois mosquitoes. Because of restric- time of his death. The manuscript was tions on travel and lack of availability of completed by J. R. Malloch and was pub- personnel during World War II, field lished in the Bulletin (Hart 1919). This work and rearing progressed at a rela- report was especially useful because it in- tively slow rate. The report on these included not only keys to the Illinois spe- sects was published in the Bulletin (Ross cies but also keys to the Nearctic genera. 1947). Diptera.—The first serious work on Plecoptera.—Although the Plecop- the flies done for the Natural History tera or stoneflies are an abundant com- Survey or a parent organization was by ponent of many aquatic communities, no J. R. Malloch. Although interested in state-wide taxonomic work on the Illinois Diptera in general, Malloch specialized species was done until Frison became in- in the Chironomidae or midges, of great terested in them in 1927. Previously importance in the economy of Illinois Walsh (1863, 1864«) had observed and waters. He reared a large number of recorded many of the species occurring in these insects and was one of the first the vicinity of Rock Island. Frison and workers to delve into the minute char- another entomologist, R. D. Glasgow, acters of the male genitalia and the larval loved to hike and picnic, especially in the mouthparts as an aid in species discrimina- hilly country along the Salt Fork River tion and identification. His rearings were south of Oakwood, Illinois. On fall ex- done chiefly in the vicinity of Havana cursions to this locality they noticed that, and Urbana, with a great deal of help in some of the very small streams, the from Hart, who also collected adult ma- smallest of the stonefly nymphs kept in- terial from various parts of Illinois and creasing in size as winter approached. surrounding states. The report by Mal- This observation excited Prison's curios- loch (1915) on the midges was outstand- ity and from it arose an abiding interest 140 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

in and love of stoneflies which continued 1942«) and as shorter papers In various throufjh the rest of his life. Frison fol- entomological journals. lowed the development of these little Megaloptera.—These, the alderflles stoneHies, which proved to he the small and dobsonflies, were collected during the jjroup called winter stoneflies. He discov- aquatic work on stoneflies and caddls- ered that little was known concerning;; flles; some specimens were received from the fauna of the Midwest and hegan a fishermen who had encountered them study of the group for Illinois. The first along streams and had sent them In for report on stoneflies treated a few small identification. Attempts to identify these families comprising the winter stoneflies Megaloptera by means of then current (Frison 1929). literature proved unsatisfactory. In the Ihe collecting and rearing of species alderfly genus Sialis, characters noticed of the other families in the order were in the male genitalia seemed to provide begun. Rearing these insects proved to an excellent means for positive determina- he difficult because the laboratory water tion of the species and an analysis of these available at Urbana did not sustain the characters led to a re-evaluation of the stoneflies. Copper cages on a raft placed species In the genus, many of which in a stream were eventually devised to proved to be new. About half a dozen overcome this difl'iculty, but the losses of species were found in the material from these expensive cages by vandalism finally Illinois and surrounding states. As part proved so great that the practice was dis- of an effort to learn something of the en- continued. A considerable number of tire distribution pattern of the Illinois species were reared from emerging species, the study was extended to cover nymphs caught at the water's edge. By the fauna of the whole continent. The one means or another, all the Illinois spe- report on this study was published in the cies were finally reared. Six years after Natural Historv Survey Bulletin (Ross publication of the winter stonefly report, 1937). a report covering all the Illinois Plecop- Miridae.—As the aphid project was tera appeared (Frison 1935). coming to a close, H. H. Knight of Iowa Frison found sets of nymphal charac- State College agreed to work summers ters which appeared to have great prom- with the Illinois Natural History Survey ise for indicating natural groupings of and prepare a report on the Miridae or the species and genera, Indications such plant bugs of Illinois. Knight was on the as Malloch had previously found when Survey payroll for three summers. Pre- exploring characters of the larvae and viously Hart had assembled and identified pupae of Diptera. The studies of stone- an excellent collection of this group for fly nymphs set the stage for what might the state, but since Hart's time Knight be called the modern classification of the had shown that characters of the genitalia order and stimulated emphasis on the indicated a much larger fauna than ear- study of immature stages in subsequent lier workers had suspected on the basis of Survey projects on several other orders the external characters they used. of Insects. The mirid field trip pattern followed These insects proved so fascinating that that of the aphids, with the trips around Frison's studies did not long stop at the the state scattered through the different boundaries of Illinois. Through material seasons. Again host collecting was em- obtained on vacation trips and at other phasized, and field headquarters were set opportunities, the stonefly collection was up locally in hotels. The general plan enlarged to cover all of North America. was to collect until about 3 o'clock in the With large series available from diverse afternoon, and then pin up the day's areas of the continent, it became apparent catch. With the Miridae, this was that many of the old species were in real- thought desirable because of the fragile ity species complexes, and as a result nature of certain diagnostic characters, many of the Illinois populations had to especially pubescence, which might be be described as new. The results of these brushed off if the specimens were relaxed latter developments in the stoneflies were and pinned later. Many thousands of published in the Bulletin (Frison 1937, specimens were collected each year, and December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 141 again a large number of species, including cued as the vials were beginning to float about 20 new ones, were added to the out of the window in the shoulder-deep state list. Members of the staff served as water. "guinea pigs" to try out the keys, to point At first, Burks had difficulty obtain- out spots difficult for the uninitiated, and ing good series of imagoes, although the to suggest improvements. Mohr did his subimagoes could be collected in quan- usual excellent job in providing many tity at lights. Burks found that he could total views of various species. The report catch great quantities of these sub- resulting from this project was published imagoes in paper bags, turn them loose in the Bulletin (Knight 1941). in his hotel room, and have them emerge Ephemeroptera.—The mayflies were in fine shape, so that any desired number early recognized as being one of the most of imagoes could be secured. important components of the fresh-water When Burks left the Natural History biota of Illinois, but, except for early Survey in 1949, he had completed the local studies by Walsh (1863, 1864^), lit- mayfly report, which was published in tle was done concerning their systematics the Bulletin (Burks 1953). in this state until about 1925. At that Gicadellidae.—About 70 years ago, time collections were sent to J. W. Mc- C. W. Woodworth (1887) published Dunnough at Ottawa, Canada, who iden- a short treatment of this family, com- tified a considerable amount of material. prising the leafhoppers, and later Hart Collecting and rearing of species in the and Malloch made extensive collections order were only sporadic until about of these insects, some of which were 1937, when B. D. Burks, assigned to the identified and recorded by W. L. Mc- project, began an intensive field program. Atee of the United States Biological

Certain genera of the mayflies proved Survey ( McAtee 1924, 1926). Malloch difficult to rear because the subimagoes himself (1921) wrote a short paper on seldom survived in cages, and in some the group. species the nymphs did not molt to the In 1934 D. M. DeLong of Ohio subimaginal stage in still water. For these State University agreed to tackle the genera Burks worked out a neat con- job of working up a more extensive trivance. He placed fully mature nymphs treatment of the leafhoppers of Illinois. (which emerge at night) in a pan of A few years prior to 1934, DeLong had water containing a large stone, placed the begun an investigation of the male pan on the floor of a car at nightfall, and genitalia in the leafhoppers and found had the car driven over a gravel road. The that, as in a number of other groups, wave action produced in the pan by the many of the species previously identified rough ride broke the surface film enough on the basis of external characters were so that the nymphs could emerge. As the in reality clusters of species which could driver guided the car along the road, be separated primarily on the basis of Burks sat in the back seat and periodically genitalic structures. Both in North examined the pan with a flashlight; he America and elsewhere the discovery of

captured each subimago as it emerged, these characters had set off a tremendous

put it in a vial for emergence to imago, burst of activity by leafhopper workers

and associated the cast skin with it. to explore these structures. It was in The extremely short period of adult the midst of this burst of effort that the emergence of many species frequently Illinois project was launched. DeLong necessitated camping out along a stream and other staff members spent almost all and keeping an around-the-clock vigil for of the next three summers crisscrossing emergence. During one summer a rear- Illinois and collecting leafhoppers in ing station was established at a fish the various habitats of the state. During hatchery along Nippersink Creek, in the rainy weeks and also during the winter extreme northeastern part of the state, back in Columbus, Ohio, DeLong iden-

which is especially rich in mayfly species. tified these collections and continued his A flash flood inundated the rearing revisional studies. Various members of rooms and nearly swept away the sum- the staff made special collections as in- mer's material. The material was res- dicated bv new taxonomic discoveries. ,

142 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

By 1945 it was apparent that a re- Much of the caddisfly collecting was port embracing all the leafhoppers un- done as an adjunct to stonefly, mayfl\ der one cover was impractical, and De- mirid, and leafhopper collecting, but spe- Long prepared the manuscript for about cial trips were made to springs and cer- half of the fauna, which included all tain rivers, such as the Kankakee, which the subfamilies except the Cicadellinae. supported unusual species. As the taxo- This report was published in the Bulletin nomic analysis of the material progressed, (DeLong 1948). it became evident that the Illinois fauna At this time, R. H. Beamer of the differed in remarkable fashion from

University of Kansas had drawn atten- that of the only other state for which it tion to the tremendous number of Mid- was well known. New York. As a result, western species contained in the genus it was necessary to practically revise the Erythronettra. the largest genus of the entire North American fauna before the untreated subfamily Cicadellinae. Mrs. Illinois groups could be satisfactorily

D. J. KnuU had identified a large part segregated to species. This was true espe- of the Natural History Survey material cially in the family Hydropsychidae and in this genus. Most of the several hun- the so-called microcaddisflies, the Hydrop- dred species were known only from hi- tilidae. As with the other aquatic groups, bernation collections, and it was felt an effort was made to rear the species and that, before proceeding with the manu- associate larvae and pupae. Some of this script on this subfamily, the host rela- work was done with rearing cages, but tionships and other ecological informa- the greater part was accomplished by as- tion should be ascertained for these sociating mature pupae with their corre- species. As a result the project was re- sponding larval parts in the cocoon or aligned and a new host-collecting pro- case. The report of the Illinois fauna of gram for the entire subfamily was dele- this order, including keys to the adults gated to the faunistic staff of the Survey. and immature stages, was published by The large number of host associations al- the Natural History Survey (Ross 1944). ready established have proved of interest After this report appeared, some ac- in contributing ideas concerning evolu- tivity relating to the Trichoptera was tionary problems in insects having moder- continued, primarily centered around at- ately rigid host associations. tempts to reconstruct the origin of groups Trichoptera.—A study of the caddis- and the dispersal patterns which led to flies was prompted by the importance of the formation of the present Illinois this group in the economy of Illinois fresh- fauna. As genera and families from other water habitats. The project was planned parts of the world were studied, it was originally as a joint one with Dean Cor- possible to get a better understanding of nelius Betten of Cornell University, who the classification and evolution of the or- had in manuscript at the time the first der. It is reminiscent of Malloch's and comprehensive and useful New World Prison's work in the Diptera and Ple-

faunistic study of the group ; his study coptera that the immature stages were dealt with the fauna of New York. Bet- found to hold the principal key to deduc- ten in America and A. B. Martinov in ing the evolution of the group. These Russia had pioneered in the technique of studies made possible the publication of clearing the male genitalia of Trichoptera the book Evolution and Classification of in KOH in order to get a more exact- the Mountain Caddisflies (Ross 1956). knowledge of these diagnostic structures. Goleoptera. — The beetles have fre- Betten spent 6 weeks on the Illinois Nat- quently been the subject of intensive study ural History Survey staff in the summer by the Natural History Survey staff. of 1931, his time being spent partly on Early in the history of the organization, collecting trips around the state and extensive rearing was done, and volumes partly in identifying the caddisfly ma- of important information on this work terial in the Survey collection. In 1932 are scattered through the State Entomolo- press of other duties caused Dean Betten gist's reports. The first extensive Illinois to retire from the project, which was then publication on the order was by Le Baron assigned to Ross. (1874) who, in his fourth report as December, 1958 Ross: Faunistic Surveys 143

State Entomologist, published an outline ago; J. D. Hood (1908) published a of the Coleoptera of Illinois, with keys to paper describing a group of species from genera and notes on many species. Illinois. Late in the 1930's, when Berlese The next serious study of the order sampling was started in the Survey, inter- concerned the genus Phyllophaga, the est in this group was again aroused be- June beetles. The larvae of these beetles cause of the large number of specimens were extremely serious pests, and before and variety of species which appeared in 1890 Forbes and his assistants set about the collections from moss and leaf mold. making systematic collections of the genus In 1947 L. J. Stannard planned a com- throughout the state. Forbes (1891) pub- prehensive faunistic study of the order for lished a survey of the Illinois June beetles; Illinois. Many difficulties were encoun- the publication included keys to the spe- tered, including the inaccessibility of cies written by Hart. R. D. Glasgow critical types, difficulties in finding satis- (1916) reviewed this material and pub- factory mounting media, and difficulties lished a synopsis of the synonymy and the in interpreting existing keys and descrip- description of a new species. Shortly tions. The genera were especially poorly after, J. J. Davis made a detailed study defined and inconsistently used, and be- of the ecology of Phyllophac/a and also fore satisfactory names could be estab- became interested in their taxonomy. The lished for the Illinois species it was neces- study resulted in one fine paper on the sary to embark on major studies in the natural enemies of June beetles and in general classification of the group. The another describing new forms. These two results of one of these studies, investigat- papers appeared in the Bulletin (Davis ing the generic categories in the suborder 1919, 1920). Glasgow continued his in- Tubulifera, were published by the Uni- terest in the genus, but subsequently pub- versity of Illinois (Stannard 1957). As lished only one or two small papers on a consequence of all these factors the Illi- the subject. nois study of this group has come close In 1944 another beetle project was in- to a treatment of the thrips for half the augurated, this one on the leaf-feeding continent. Intensive collecting in all con- beetles, or Chrysomelidae, with M. W. ceivable situations and at different sea- Sanderson as the investigator. The be- sons has brought to light large numbers ginning of the leaf beetle investigation of new state records. A report on these was based on a need for supplying cor- insects for Illinois is in an advanced state rect names for various species of economic of preparation. importance to Illinois crops. Early at- Lepidoptera.—As mentioned earlier, tempts at identification disclosed that in his first report Le Baron (1871) de- much of the older literature on the fam- scribed a new species of moth. Since that ily was unreliable, and diagnosis of spe- time a great deal has been written, espe- cies often was uncertain. Not only were cially in the State Entomologist's reports, there deficiencies in the literature; few on the moths of Illinois. Most of this attempts had been made in North Ameri- material, however, is in the form of small ca to relate larval and adult morphology contributions on the descriptions of spe- for generic or species diagnosis. The proj- cies, their larvae, or their habits. How- ect for Illinois was organized along the ever, Thomas (1881), with the assistance lines of earlier faunistic studies. Collec- of Nettie Middleton and John Marten, tions were made throughout the state, published a synopsis of lepidopterous with special emphasis on securing host- larvae for Illinois. This report included a adult-larval associations. At present a similar synopsis by D. W. Coquillett report embracing two-thirds of the sub- (1881). Later, Forbes and his assistants families and including about a half of the prepared keys to certain economic spe-

Illinois species is nearing completion, and cies, and W.' P. Flint & Malloch (1920) a large proportion of the field work for published in the Natural History Survey other subfamilies is in an advanced stage. Bulletin a paper on the European corn Thysanoptera. — Survey activity re- borer and related species. lating to this order of little insects, the In 1955 R. B. Selander began a fau- thrips, had its beginning about 50 years nistic project designed to cover many of :

144 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 the families of small moths or micro- ports on the various animal groups, and lepidoptera, which were poorly known in identifying economic species. At times the Illinois. The Blastobasidae were chosen program has emphasized one function as the first family for study because the more than another, but over the years j^enitalic structures of the Nearctic spe- steady progress has been made in all three cies had never been investij^ated. Selander, departments. now with the University of Illinois, as- Today the taxonomic methods by sembled lar

It is a tribute to the founding fathers RETROSPECT AND of the Illinois Natural History Society PROSPECT that certain of their general principles were and still are remarkably good guides In following the objectives set forth in for a faunistic program. The importance the original organization of the Illinois of combining systematics and ecology and Natural History Survey, the faunistic of having a broad geographic scope for program performs three principal func- reference collections becomes more ap- tions pertaining to the animals of Illinois parent as new discoveries help unravel the —assembling and maintaining research complex faunal relationships of Illinois and reference collections, preparing re- species. Applied Botany and Plant Pathology

J. CEDRIC CARTER

TXT" HEN the Illinois Natural History edible fruits, common tea, and medicine, * ' Society was organized in 1858 to those known to be poisonous, and those promote the advancement of science in the known to be troublesome weeds. The year state, botany was a major field of interest before the Illinois Natural History So- of several of its founders. ciety was founded, I. A. Lapham (1857«) The earliest reported botanical research published a catalog of the plants of Illi- in Illinois was the study of flora in south- nois; his catalog included lists con- ern Illinois by Andre Michaux (Sargent tributed by Mead and Engelmann. In pre- 1889), a distinguished botanist of France. paring the catalog, Lapham examined the In 1795 Michaux traveled from the Ohio extensive collections of plants made by River up the Wabash Piver to Vincennes, Robert Kennicott, Emile Claussen, and Indiana. He crossed Illinois to Kaskaskia, others. August 23-30, to Prairie du Rocher, Sep- Mead's list, as mentioned above, com- tember 5—6, and returned to Kaskaskia, prised plants principally in the vicinity of September 8-9. On October 2, he started Augusta in Hancock County. Engel- toward the Ohio River and arrived at mann's list comprised plants in southern Fort Massac on October 8. Later he re- Illinois, especially in the vicinity across turned to Kaskaskia, Fort Chartres, and the Mississippi River from St. Louis, Mis- Prairie du Rocher and started on his re- souri. Dr. Mead, Lapham (1 857^:494) turn from southern Illinois on December wrote, "has probably devoted more time 14. and labor to the examination of Illinois Following Michaux and during the plants than any other botanist, and his first half of the nineteenth century, many collections now form part of most of the physicians and amateur botanists studied principal herbaria of the world." and reported on the flora of Illinois. Dr. Lapham emphasized that catalogs of Lewis C. Beck (1826«, 1826Z', 1828), plants were useful to farmers, physicians, in publishing his contributions to the bot- horticulturists, botanists, cabinet makers, any of both Illinois and Missouri, listed wheelwrights, and other workers in wood 65 plants in the prairies near St. Louis because these catalogs listed plants of in- and 14 in barrens. Also, he reported on terest to each group ; his catalog listed his studies of plants along the Illinois 1,104 species representing 111 orders of River bluffs near St. Louis. A catalog of plants. From a geographical point of plants collected in Illinois by Charles A. view, Lapham divided Illinois into three Geyer was published with critical remarks districts: (1) the heavily timbered tracts, by Dr. George Engelmann (1843) of St. mainly in the southern portion of the Louis, Missouri. Dr. C. W. Short (1845) state, and the "groves" or detached bodies of Louisville, Kentucky, reported on his of timber surrounded by prairies, in the observations and collections of the flora middle and northern portions of the state; of prairies of Illinois as a result of his (2) the open prairie tracts of 1 to 20 extensive travels in several sections of the miles in diameter and destitute of trees; state. Dr. S. B. Mead (1846) prepared (3) the tracts of "barrens," intermediate a catalog of plants growing in Illinois, between the prairie tracts and the tim- most of them growing near Augusta in bered tracts. The barrens appeared to be

Hancock County ; this work was pub- in transition from open prairies to densely lished in the Prairie Farmer. Dr. Mead timbered tracts. They were sparsely cov- mentioned the habitats of the plants he ered with several species of oak trees and included in his catalog. Also, he listed the with dense undergrowth of shrubs and uses of the plants, including those used annuals. by dyers and coopers, those used for Treatises on plant material, published hedges, chair bottoms, hay, ornamentals. in the Illinois State Agricultural Society

[145] 146 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art.

Transactions for 1856-1857, indicated the ment of science, botany was mentionedj rapidly increasing interest in applied along with entomology and geology. Ii botanv. These treatises, presented by O. succeeding years special interests de- Ordwav (1857) of Lawn Ridge, H. L. veloped in the field of botany, as indicated] Brush (1857) of Ottawa, Samuel Ed- by the published works of Brendel, Bebb,j wards (1857) of La Moille, J. P. Eames Vasey, Thomas, Edwards, G. W. Minier,} (1857), Dr. Frederick Brendel (1857) Henry W. Bannister, and H. H. Bab- of Peoria, and L A. Lapham (1857/*) of cock from 1859 to 1887, most or all of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, dealt with sev- whom were members of the Natural His- eral phases of research, including culture tory Society. Brendel was a prolific] and cultivation. The types of plants worker and was the author of numerous] studied were evergreens, flowers, grasses, articles published over a period of nearly] grain fruits, and vines. 30 vears (Brendel 185%, 1859/^, 1859f,| At La Moille, Edwards started plant- 1859^/, 1860, 1861, 1870, 1876, 1887; ing evergreens in 1845 and, by 1857, had These articles included information on] planted more than 125,000 plants ob- the flora of Peoria and other areas of the! tained from forests of Minnesota, Wis- state. Brendel was interested in shrubs! consin, Michigan, Indiana, Ohio, New and forest trees, especially the oaks. Also,] York, and upper Canada and also some he wrote on rare plants in the state and] obtained from eastern and European on a peculiar growth of the water lily.] nurseries—in all, more than 25 species It is significant that an article by him,| of evergreen plants. He was most favor- "The Tree in Winter," was one of the ably impressed with the growth of Nor- first articles published in the Bulletin ofj way and black spruces, Austrian, Scotch, the Illinois State Museum of Natural] and white pines, and balsam fir. Siberian History. and American arbor vitaes and red cedar, Bebb (1859) published a list of 44| he found, were excellent for screening. species of plants occurring in the northern]

Other species he mentioned that suc- counties of the state ; his list was an addi-J ceeded well in this climate and soil were tion to the catalog by Lapham (1857fl),

Irish, Swedish, and savin junipers, red Vasey 's interest in different phases of| spruce, and a variety of pine from Ten- botany is indicated by his papers (Vasej nessee. Hemlock was subject to winter 1859,' 1861, 1870«, 1870Z'). Among these injury; Douglas spruce, cedar of Leba- papers were studies on flora, including non, deodar cedar, silver fir, English and mosses of the state and maritime plants Irish yews, Himalayan and Araucarian of the Great Lakes and interior regions^ pines, and Chinese arbor vitae did not also, descriptions of two plants new tc survive the winters. In 1857 Dr. Cyrus Illinois. Thomas, with the help of S. Burtley, When Thomas (1861r) proposed started studying the flora of the Murphys- plan for a natural history survey of Illi-| boro region of southern Illinois (Thomas nois, he suggested that this survey include 1857). a systematic cataloging of the flora andj fauna of the state and that the data be EARLY ACTIVITIES published so that the same work would! not need to be repeated by others. Ban-J Among the persons interested in botany nister (1868) described prairie and forest who were active in organizing the Illinois plants of Cook County, and Babcockl Natural History Societv were M. S. (1872) described the flora of the Chicago Bebb, Dr. Frederick Brendel, E. Hall, area. John Wolf and Elihu Hall prepared! Robert Kennicott, Dr. S. B. Mead, Dr. a list of mosses, liverworts, and lichens| Cyrus Thomas, and Dr. George Vasey. of the state. This list, which was pub- Much of the information obtained by lished in the Bulletin of the Illinois State! them on the flora of Illinois was pub- Laboratory of Natural History, contained! lished in the Illinois Natural History 115 genera and 386 species (Wolf &j Society Transactions. When the original Hall 1878). Wolf was on the staff of the purpose in organizing the Natural His- State Laboratory of Natural History in| tory Society was set forth as the advance- 1880. D ecemDcr, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 147

By 1865 concern was voiced that trees ployed as botanists on the stal¥ of the of the state were beinjj; used so rapidly State Laboratory of Natural History were for lumber that cultivation and planting Rachel M. Fell, Arthur B. Seymour, of trees should be promoted. Minier Benjamin M. Duggar, and Arthur G. (1865, 1868) published two articles on Vestal. the cultivation of forest trees. In his sec- A well-illustrated, 142-page article on ond article Minier (1868:279) stated: edible and poisonous mushrooms in Illi- "Tree planting in Illinois is no longer for nois, prepared by Walter B. McDougall ornament merely. It has become a neces- (1917), was published in the Bulletin of sity. ... If, then, the coming genera- the Illinois State Laboratory of Natural tions are to be supplied with timber, the History. This article contains many present must plant it for them." Edwards plates illustrating the mushrooms de- (1868) recommended planting trees but scribed and is exceedingly useful in dif- pointed out that black locust trees that ferentiating between poisonous and edible had been planted 25 years earlier had mushrooms. been seriously damaged by borers. Studies on plankton were carried on by Specific interest in some specialized C. A. Kofoid from 1895 to 1900 and by groups of plant life in Illinois became Samuel Eddy from 1925 to 1929. Ko- evident shortly after 1870, as indicated foid's extensive work on the plankton of by the works of Thomas J. Burrill on the Illinois River was published in the plant diseases caused by fungi and bac- Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratorv teria. Burrill, on the stafif of the Illinois of Natural History (Kofoid 1903, 1908)". Industrial University, the University of Eddy's work dealt with plankton of Lake Illinois, and the Illinois State Laboratory Michigan, the Sangamon River, and some of Natural History, was a close associate sinkhole ponds in southern Illinois; this of Stephen A. Forbes for 27 years. He work was reported in the Bulletin of the reported on fungus diseases in the 1870's, Illinois Natural Historv Survev (Eddy especially on fungi which cause diseases 1927, 1931, 1932). of vegetable and fruit crops (Burrill Interest in the ecology of vegetation 1874, 1876, 1877). Later he reported and plant associations of sand prairies in that the widespread blight of pear trees Illinois is indicated by the papers of C. A. was caused by a bacterium (Burrill Hart and H. A. Gleason (Hart & Glea- 1881). This, the first report that bacteria son 1907; Gleason 1910), F. C. Gates cause plant diseases, opened up a new (1912), and Vestal (1913) published in field of research. Burrill continued to the Bulletin. Information was obtained publish articles on fungi and bacteria not only on the general plant associations that cause plant diseases and in 1885 he but also on the physical environment, the published a 115-page article, in the Bul- blow-out formations, the blow-sand com- letin of the Illinois State Laboratory of plex, the blackjack oak associations, and Natural Historv, on the parasitic fungi some adaptations of the plants to the en- of Illinois (Burrill 1885). vironment. Following 1885 botanical research ex- Although Minier (1865, 1868) and panded in scope to include all types of Edwards (1868) were concerned about native and naturalized plants in the the rapid destruction of trees in the state. The work of Burrill while on the 1860's, it was not until 1911 that a policv stafif of the Illinois State Laboratory of on forest management was recommended Natural History from 1885 to 1892 in- by R. C. Hall and O. D. Ingall. In an dicates the expanding development of article on forest conditions in Illinois, botanical interest in forest trees and dis- published in the Bulletin (Hall & Ingall eases of crop plants. Burrill prepared 1911), they recommended (1) adoption papers not only on fungal and bacterial of an adequate state fire-protection sys- diseases of crop plants but also on forest, tem, (2) inauguration of an education roadside, and street trees, biology of silage, campaign for scientific and practical forest and extermination of the Canada thistle management, and (3) further investiga- (Burrill 1886, 1887Z., 1887r, 1888, tion of the forest problems involved and 1889rt, 1889^^, 1890). Among others em- development and extension of wood lots 148 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

in the state. Also, they proposed a forest expansion of the forest resources of the law for the state. Later, Forbes and Rob- state. A forestry program was carried on ert B. Miller (Forbes 191%, 1919^*; and expanded by the extension foresters Forbes & Miller 1920) pointed out that who succeeded Telford and who were the forests of Illinois were being rapidly employed jointly by the Natural History destroyed and that only very few of the Survey and the Department of Forestry remaining forests were being properly of the University of Illinois. They were handled. Miller (1923) made the first L. E. Sawyer, J. E. Davis, and L. B. extensive report on a survey of the forests Culver. Since 1954 the Natural History of Illinois; the report was published in Survey has not participated in this for- the Bulletin of the Illinois Natural His- estry program. tory Survey. The survey covered land By 1900 special emphasis was being

classification ; history and types of forests directed toward control of plant diseases and important trees in the forests; uses in Illinois. This trend was emphasized of forest trees in milling and logging op- by some of Burrill's papers, such as that erations, wood-using industries and veneer on spraying for the control of bitter rot industries; production of charcoal, ties, (Burrill 1903). As interest in this field

and mine timbers ; and adverse effects of continued to increase, it became evident fires, erosion, and grazing on forested that a systematic study of plants and areas. plant diseases in Illinois should be inau- The second extensive report on a forest gurated. In 1921 a botanical section was survey of Illinois was made by Herman established within the framework of the H. Chapman and Miller and published Natural History Survey by the appoint- in the Bulletin (Chapman & Miller ment of Leo R. Tehon as the first 1924). In this report the economic value botanist. of the forests and the forests as a crop Under the direction of Tehon as bot- were emphasized. The uses made of forest anist in charge of the Section of Botany trees were discussed, and a policy of from 1921 to 1935 and as botanist and proper management of the forests to pre- head of the Section of Applied Botany vent the continued decimation of timber and Plant Pathology from 1935 until his was outlined. untimely death in 1954, botanical re- C. J. Telford (1923), a Natural His- search expanded to include work not only tory Survey forester, reported on height in the field of general botany but espe- and growth studies on certain bottomland cially in the fields of mycology, plant tree species in southern Illinois. He found pathology, and taxonomy. The number of that naturally stocked plantings of syca- technically trained scientists on the staff more, Cottonwood, pin oak, and maple was increased from 1 in 1921 to 10 in produced better growth than did plant- 1954. ings of most other species in the bottom- Tehon's broad background and train- lands. ing and his mastery of the various fields Telford (1926) reported on the third of research carried on in the botanical forest survey of Illinois. In this report, section are indicated, in part, by his many which included descriptions of the forests and varied publications. Tehon described in the state and data on growth of in- many new genera and species of fungi, dividual trees and yields of different types most of them in a series of six articles of trees, he reviewed the proposed forest under the title "Notes on the Parasitic policies given in the two previous forest Fungi of Illinois" (Tehon 1924, 1933, surveys of the state and urgently recom- 1937^; Tehon & Daniels 1925, 1927; mended setting up an educational pro- Tehon & Stout 1929). Also he wrote gram to promote the development of "A Monographic Rearrangement of farm wood lots, the protection of the Lophoderniiu7n^ and "New Species and then present forests, and the reforestation Taxonomic Changes in the Hvpoderma- of much of the waste land, estimated to taceae" (Tehon 1935, 1939^)". He de- total 1,577,663 acres. scribed diseases affecting economic crops, These reports on forests of Illinois including those of fruits, vegetables, grain stimulated interest in the preservation and and forage crops, and diseases of ornamen- : .

December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 149

tal plants, especiallv trees (Tehon 1925, time. The information obtained included 193%, 1939f, 1943; Tehon & Stout the crops attacked by each disease, the 1928; Tehon & Jacks 1933; Tehon & stage of growth of the crop when at- Boewe 1939; Tehon & Harris 1941). He tacked, the damage caused, the first date was especially interested in developing of appearance of disease, the amount of methods and principles for interpreting damage to the crop, the control measures the phenology of crop pests (Tehon 1928) used, and the prevalence and destructive- Tehon's botanical interests are indi- ness of each disease. cated by such publications as The Native As the work of the Section of Botany and Naturalized Trees of Illinois (with continued to expand, greater emphasis Robert B. Miller), Rout the Weeds, was placed on the application of research Pleasure M^ith Plants, Fieldbook of Na- information for the control of plant dis- tive Illinois Shrubs, The Drug Plants of eases, and in 1935 the name of the section Illinois, and (with collaborators) Illinois was changed to Section of Applied Bot- Plants Poisonous to Livestock (Miller & any and Plant Pathology. At this time Tehon 1929; Tehon 1937«, 1939«, 1942, the activities of the section were divided 1951«; Tehon, Morrill, & Graham 1946). into four main groups, namely, (1) He was a linguist and translated Gio- Plant Disease Survey, (2) Botanical Sur- vanni Targioni Tozzetti's Alimurgia, vey, (3) Shade and Forest Tree Pathol- part V, 1767, an Italian article of 156 ogy, and (4) Floricultural Pathology. pages on diseases of wheat and other The first full-time staff member to con- cereals; the translation was published in duct research on floricultural pathology English as Phvtopathological Classics No. was not appointed until 1939. 9 (Tehon 1952./). Plant Disease Survey REGENT ACTIVITIES The plant disease survey, started by Tehon in 1921, included a survey of the The early work in the Section of Bot- diseases of all crop plants of Illinois, any consisted not only of a survey of the with special emphasis on field crops and plant diseases in the state but the de- fruit crops. Among the persons who have velopment and co-ordination of research assisted in the plant disease survey since in botany, with special emphasis on plant its beginning are Charles O. Peake, diseases and the establishment of a her- Charles L. Porter, O. A. Plunkett, Harry barium, which included a plant disease W. Anderson, Paul A. Young, Gilbert L. collection and a native plant collection. Stout, and G. H. Boewe. Constantine J. In an annual report Forbes (1923:386) Alexopoulos and Leo Campbell collected described the work of the botanical sec- numerous plants around peach orchards tion as follows in southern Illinois counties as part of a study of possible hosts of the peach yel- Beginning in July, 1921, active work has been done throughout the State on the fungus lows virus. parasites of the crop plants, many of which Field Crop Diseases. — After the are highly destructive and difficult to control. establishment of the Section of Botany in It was the principal first object of this in- of flag smut of quiry to make accessible existing knowledge July 1921, wheat was of the plant diseases of the State and of their the first major disease studied. This dis- distribution in Illinois and their destructive- ease, discovered in Illinois in 1919, was ness, and to ascertain whether known meth- causing serious losses of wheat in the ods of protection against them are generally East St. Louis area. limits of the used, this to be followed by measures intended The to make crop growers acquainted with the disease in the state were determined, and most important preventable diseases and the effective control measures, including a losses due to them and with established quarantine, were enforced. By following means for their prevention and control. rigid quarantine regulations, which re- To aid in the work of the Section of quired burning all straw and treating all Botany the co-operation of 135 unpaid grain sold for seed, and by introducing field observers was obtained to watch for varieties of wheat resistant to the disease, plant diseases and to report any unusual it was possible to eliminate flag smut. outbreaks of diseases occurring at anv The effectiveness of this control program 150 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

prevented the disease from spreading over Illinois wheat have been 5,500,000 to J the whole soft " wheat area. 7,150,000 bushels. The greatest loss in Other activities of the Section during a single vear, 7,150,000 bushels, valued the 1920's included warning cotton grow- at $15,158,000, occurred in 1950. In ers in southern Illinois of the diseases to 1953, a year of minimum loss, the esti- be encountered, discovering and destroy- mated reduction in vield was only 368,- ing the only known instance of alfalfa 800 bushels, valued at $586,400. infestation by the stem nematode, and The estimated annual losses resulting collecting data on the prevalence and de- from diseases of corn usually are greater structiveness of stinking smut of wheat. than the losses resulting from diseases of By 1923 it had been determined that wheat. In the past decade the lowest esti- 165 diseases affecting 44 different crops mated reduction in corn yield, 54,250,000 were present in the state. In that year bushels, valued at $82,450,000, occurred the estimated reduction in yield of Illinois in 1952 and the highest estimated reduc- wheat caused by five diseases (leaf rust, tion in vield, 168,100,000 bushels, valued stem rust, stinking smut, loose smut, and at $198,358,000, occurred in 1949. The scab) was 7,712,800 bushels, valued at average annual estimated reduction in $11,837,000. yield of corn in Illinois during the past In most years of the past decade the decade was 90,626,100 bushels, valued at estimated annual losses from diseases of $112,139,072.

Homemade mixer used about 25 years ago by plant pathologists of the Illinois Natural History Survey to demonstrate effectiveness of chemical treatments in control of seed-borne diseases of small grams. December, 1958 Carter: Aim'LIEd IJotany and Plant Pathology 151

The plant disease survey not only in- tained by examination of plants in 42 dicates the annual losses caused by plant wheat fields that totaled 1,033 acres and diseases but reveals diseases new in the that were located in 38 widely scattered state and the sudden and widespread counties of the state. damage caused by any disease that has Another phase of the plant disease sur- caused only minor damage in preceding vey is that of forecasting the anticipated years. Downy mildew of alfalfa appeared occurrence and seriousness of plant dis- generally in the state and was abundant eases. This forecasting has been notably in the extreme north in 1924. This disease effective for Stewart's disease of corn. had not been seen in Illinois previous to The bacterium that causes Stewart's dis- that year. A new leaf spot of cowpea was ease overwinters chiefly in the body of the discovered in Clinton County in 1927. In adult corn flea beetle ( CJuietocneina pnli- an article by Stout (1930), 16 new fungi caria) . The mortality rate of the flea bee- found on corn in Illinois were described. tle is affected by weather conditions dur- Downy mildew of soybean, first reported ing hibernation. in Illinois in 1929, caused considerable Although forecasting the early season damage in 1935, when it was found in or wilt stage of Stewart's disease had pre- 12 counties. Brown stem rot of soybean, viously been worked out bv others, fore- first recognized in the state in 1944, sud- casting the late season or the leaf blight denly became widespread and destructive stage was worked out by G. H. Boewe. in 1948. This outbreak of the disease fol- Making use of data accumulated in the lowed a fortnight of low temperatures, 5-year period 1944-1948, Boewe found which ended on August 10. Septoria leaf that a winter temperature index rather spot of broom corn was discovered in Illi- accurately forecast the late season develop- nois in 1949 and was very destructive in ment of Stewart's disease. The index for several fields west of Galton in Douglas any growing season was based on the sum County. of the mean temperatures of the previous Diseases recorded for the first time in winter months of December, January, Illinois in recent years include ergot on and February. While early season epi- timothy, bacterial blister spot on apple, demics do not develop unless the index is charcoal rot on pepper, and downy mil- 90 or above, light to moderate late sea- dew on wheat in 1952; basal glume rot son epidemics develop when the indexes on barley, anthracnose on sweet clover, are between 80 and 85, and moderate to and rosette on cherry in 1954; Ascochyta heavy late season epidemics when the in- leaf spot on rhubarb and bacterial leaf spot dexes are above 85. No disease or only a on mulberry in 1955; powdery mildew on trace of disease develops when the in- apple, ergot on oats, Helminthosporium dexes are below 80. Forecasting of the leaf spot on red top, and Gloeosporium severity of disease each year has been leaf spot on currant in 1956; and Phy- quite accurate. tophthora root rot on alfalfa, Phytoph- The appearance and spread of new dis- thora stem rot on lily, Cercospora leaf eases on crops in Illinois often are re- spot on Deutzia, Abelia, ornamental corded first as a result of the annual sur- gooseberry, and wafer ash, downy mil- vey' made for plant diseases. Aid to farm- dew on cucumber, squash, and water- ers in combating these diseases is made melon, rust on apricot, anthracnose on through warnings and through publica- iris, powdery mildew on pecan and frag- tions such as Diseases of Small Grain rant sumac, Badhamia slime mold on Crops in Illinois (Boewe 1939). timothy, Herptobasidium scorch on bush Fruit Diseases.—Of the many dis- honeysuckle, and Phyllachora tar spot on eases that affected fruit trees in the state lespedeza in 1957. each year during the early years of the In the plant disease survey, not only plant disease survey, the most common are the various kinds of crops examined and destructive were scab, shothole,

but many plants in many fields of the brown rot, and leaf curl of peach ; fire- same crop are examined each summer. blight, frogeye, and blotch of apple; fire- For instance, in 1949, data on prevalence blight, leaf blight, and leaf spot of pear; and severity of wheat diseases were ob- and shothole and leaf spot of cherry. ; ;

152 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

In early August of 1927 Professor berry ; and Septoria leaf spot of black-

M. J. Dorsey of the University of Illinois berry and raspberry. Although many of found, in a large orchard near Centralia, these diseases are not destructive each the first authentic case of peach yellows year, they cause serious losses in some in Illinois. By 1929 the disease had years. spread to 37 trees scattered in 11 orchards Vegetable Diseases.—Although located in Jefferson, Marion, Pike, and vegetable crops are affected by many dis- Pulaski counties. In recent years peach eases, only a few of the diseases cause yellows has not been observed in Illinois. serious losses annually. The most com- Diseases which are destructive to the mon and destructive diseases in Illinois peach crop and which have appeared an- are bacterial blight, halo blight, and

nually in recent years are scab, brown rot, mosaic of bean ; yellows of cabbage shothole, and peach leaf curl. Ascochyta leaf spot, Fusarium wilt, and During the early years of the plant dis- powdery mildew of pea; Fusarium wilt, ease survey, nailhead canker was a serious mosaic, and bacterial leaf spot of pepper; disease of apple trees. However, this dis- early blight, Fusarium wilt, black leg, ease disappeared from the orchards of the and scab of potato ; and early blight, state when growers eliminated those va- Fusarium wilt, and Verticillium wilt of rieties susceptible to the disease. The tomato. major destructive diseases of apples which Botanical Collections J have continued to appear annually are scab, fireblight, frogeye, and blotch. Mil- The first of the present botanical col- dew has increased in destructiveness in lections of the Natural History Survey recent years because the sulfur fungicides was started in a small way in 1921. At which controlled the disease in the early that time the collection of plant disease years have been replaced by new types of fungi of the Natural History Survey was fungicides ; these new materials more ef- separated from the collection of the Uni- fectively control the other diseases of versity of Illinois. The vascular plants apples. Cedar apple rust, which was prev- collected with State Laboratory funds alent and destructive for many years, is and with Natural History Survey funds controlled satisfactorily at present by some previous to 1921 were left in the her- of the recently developed fungicides, fer- barium of the University of Illinois. bam plus sulfur on the deciduous hosts, Plant Disease Collection.—The Elgetol and acti-dione on the evergreen earliest reported specimens in the plant hosts. disease collection of the Natural History Many pear orchards in the state have Survey are several hundred specimens col- been severely damaged or destroyed by lected', 1918-1921, by H. W. Anderson fireblight. At present there is hope that of the University of Illinois. Collection, this disease can be effectively controlled identification, and preservation of such by some of the new antibiotic sprays. specimens were expanded rapidly during Other diseases destructive annually to the four summers of 1921 through 1924, pear trees are leaf blight and leaf spot. when special emphasis was placed on ob- The disease most destructive to cherry taining information on the plant disease trees in the state is shothole. Yellowing, situation of the state. To conduct this necrosis, and premature leaf drop, caused plant disease survey, one to four men by this disease, gradually reduce the vigor were employed full-time each summer to of affected trees and, eventually, the qual- collect specimens of diseased plants in ity and quantity of cherries produced. each county of the state. This activity Diseases that may appear annually on resulted in adding over 18,000 plant dis- other fruit crops are bacterial spot and ease specimens to the collection. Among

black knot of plum ; black rot, downy these specimens were five plant diseases mildew, and powdery mildew of grape new to the state and 18 species of plant crown gall and rust of blackberry ; an- parasites new to science.

gular leaf spot of currant ; leaf spot, leaf In 1924 this collection contained type scorch, and yellows of strawberry; an- specimens which represented three genera thracnose of raspberry, currant, and goose- and 73 species of plant-inhabiting fungi December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 153 first known for their occurrence in Illi- Much of the collecting was done by nois. Although some specimens have been Boewe in conjunction with his work on added to the plant disease survey collec- the plant disease survey. In October of tion by all botany staff members since 1946 R. A. Evers joined the staff and 1924, most of the specimens have been was assigned the botanical survey work. added by Boewe, the plant pathologist His work is devoted almost exclusively now responsible for the plant disease sur- to a study of the flora and vegetation of vey. Specimens of special interest sent to the state. Since 1946 he has collected the laboratory for diagnosis of disease are plant specimens annually in each of the added to the collection. 102 counties of the state. Gilbert L. Stout was the first plant Previous to 1947 the number of speci- pathologist to devote full time to plant mens in the vascular plant collection was disease survey work. He was succeeded increased by gifts of specimens from R. A. by Boewe in 1930. In this work diseased Dobbs of Geneseo, R. A. Evers then of plant material is carefully examined to Quincy, and G. D. Fuller of the Illinois determine the specific disease involved. State Museum. Also, the herbarium of Many specimens are collected not only as Charles Robertson of Carlinville was ac- characteristic examples of the disease but quired. Since 1947, plant specimens, as for further study in the laboratory to gifts or exchanges, have been received determine the organism causing the dis- from Franklin Buser (graduate student), ease. Specimens of diseases new to the James Long of Amboy, Dr. V. H. Chase United States, Illinois, or a county of the of Peoria, Dr. Sidney Glassman of the state are preserved in the plant disease University of Illinois staff at Navy Pier, collection. Chicago, Dr. John Voigt of Southern As of April, 1958, the plant disease Illinois University, Dr. John Thieret of collection contained 32,624 specimens. Al- the Chicago Museum of Natural History, though this collection contains mostly and others. fungi that cause plant diseases, it also Thirteen species of plants have been contains specimens affected by disease- added to the known flora of Illinois by causing bacteria, viruses, and noninfectious Natural History Survey staff members agents. Information on new diseases has since 1947. They are Daucus pusillus, been published in Mycologia, Phytopa- Medicago arahica, Setaria faberii, Spec- thology, and the Plant Disease Reporter. ularia hiflora, Rudbeckia missouriensis, Vascular Plant Collection.—The Heliotropium tenellum, Eriochloa villosa, collection of vascular plants in Illinois by Dicliptera brachiata, Cyperus lancas- Natural History Survey staff members triensis, Haplopappus ciliatus, Verhascum was begun in 1927 with the establish- virgatum, Helianthus angustifolius, and ment of a project on the accumulation of Jussiaea leptocarpa. plants of the state. By 1931 three addi- Publications resulting from the collec- tional projects had been added: mainte- tion of vascular plants of Illinois include nance of a herbarium containing repre- a 339-page bulletin on native and nat- sentative plants of Illinois, maintenance uralized trees of the state (Miller & of a bibliography of Illinois plant records, Tehon 1929), two fieldbooks, one on and maintenance of a card record of the wild flowers (Anon. 1936) and one on occurrence of plants in Illinois. native shrubs (Tehon 1942), and articles The first systematic collection of Illi- on genera and species of Illinois plants, nois vascular plants for the Natural His- including several new to the state (Evers tory Survey was made by James Schopf, 1949, 1950, 1951, 1956; Evers & Thieret who collected 1,676 specimens during the 1957). summer of 1931. In September of 1931 Identification and preservation of vas- Dr. Herman S. Pepoon joined the Survey cular plants in the Natural History Sur- staff. Pepoon, with the assistance of E. G. vey herbarium were under way to a Barrett, collected 1,300 specimens. After limited extent by 1927. In succeeding Pepoon left the Survey in 1933 the ac- years students have been employed to cumulation of Illinois plants was added mount specimens for the herbarium. In to the duties of the plant pathologists. 1936 Richard A. Schneider was em- 154 Illinois Natural History Survhy liuLLiiTiN Vol. 27, Art. 2

ployed to iclciuif> the accumulated col- earlier by the State Laboratory of Nat- lection of plant specimens. Although col- ural Historv. identification, and preservation of lection, Shade and Forest Tree Pathology vascular plant specimens were curtailed I during World War II, the herbarium The earliest reported conspicuous dying of trees Illinois contained 13,749 specimens in May of in was among the elms ,^ 1943 and 17,339 specimens in October in Normal-Bloomington and Champaign a of 1946. The abundant collection of plant in the period 1883-1886 (Forbes 1912rt). I ' material in succeeding years has in- The next reported conspicuous dying creased the number of vascular plant among elms occurred from 1907 through specimens in the herbarium to 70,600, 1911, when manv trees succumbed in and approximately 8,000 additional speci- southern Illinois. During this period con- mens are on hand to be added to the spicuous losses of elms were reported in herbarium. Under present conditions Cairo, Carbondale, Centralia, Clayton, three student assistants are employed to Du Quoin, Edwardsville, Fairfield, Ga- prepare the plant material for placing in latia, McLeansboro, Mount Vernon, the herbarium. A card index is main- Quincy, Robinson, Sumner, and Van- tained of all plant specimens. dalia. These 14 towns are located in 13 The bibliography of Illinois plants, counties of western and southern Illinois. started previous to 1931, is not up-to-date Although the cause of the dying of elms because of lack of funds and lack of as- during these two periods was not de- sistants to examine the literature. termined, it was suggested that some dis- In co-operation with L. E. Yeager, R. ease might be involved. Dying of feeder E. Yeatter, A. S. Hawkins, and D. H. roots, wilting of foliage, and dying of Thompson, fellow staff members doing terminal twigs was followed by death of wildlife or fisheries research, botanists the trees. Many of the affected elms in made a census of waterfowl food plants southern and western Illinois were heavily of the Chautauqua Drainage District, car- infested with the elm borer, Saperda tri- ried on a survey of Illinois plants useful dentata, and the red elm bark weevil, to wildlife as food or cover, and con- Magdalis arTtiicollis, called by Forbes the ducted experiments on propagation of reddish elm snout-beetle. plants useful to wildlife as food or cover. Elm Diseases. — A few years after A collection of 848 samples of seeds was the establishment of the Section of Bot- developed for identification of seeds in- any in 1921, reports and inquiries were gested by waterfowl. received about a widespread wilting of Activities pertaining to the botany of elms growing in commercial nurseries Illinois include preparation of manu- and in decorative plantings, most of them scripts designed for publications, mainly in northern Illinois. Some special exam- of an educational or popular type. These inations made of these trees by Dr. publications are on such subjects as Christine Buisman of Holland, an expert noxious weeds, directions for the study on elm diseases, revealed that the malady and identification of plants, drug plants was not Dutch elm disease. Research on (Tehon 1937«, 1939^, 1951r/), plants poi- the cause and control of this wilting was sonous to livestock (Tehon, Morrill, & started in 1930. Until May, 1934, the Graham 1946), and vegetation of hill work was carried on by graduate students prairies in the state (Evers 1955). — H. A. Harris, Leo Campbell, J. A. The publication on the vegetation of Trumbower, and A. S. Peirce. In May hill prairies is a report on an extensive of 1934 J. C. Carter joined the staff as ecological study of 61 prairies on the a full-time plant pathologist to study dis- brow slopes of bluffs of the Mississippi eases of trees. Although intensive study River from East Dubuque to southern of the elm wilt problem was continued Illinois, the Illinois River from the big for several years, other elm diseases and bend near Hennepin to Grafton, and the diseases of other species of trees were Rock and Sangamon rivers. This type of studied as they became evident. From 1934 publication by the Natural History Sur- to 1950 research on tree diseases was vey is a continuation of those published carried on by Carter. With the expan- ;

December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 155

sion of the tree disease research program Pulaski, with an elm population of ap- in 1950, additional plant pathologists proximately 600 trees in 1940, had all were added to the staff. The recent re- but 19 elms killed by the disease by Sep- search program has been carried on by four tember of 1948. plant pathologists, Richard J. Campana, During the late 1930's and early Walter Hartstirn, Eugene B. Himelick, 1940's, in investigations of the wilting and Dan Neely. and dying of elms, several fungi capable In the studies on the cause and control of producing cankers were studied. Can- of the wilting of elms, it was found that ker diseases usually were confined to a several fungi were involved. Although few trees in a planting of elms but were the first report on this work (Harris found in plantings in widely scattered 1932) indicated that several fungi were locations in the state. The cankers caused capable of causing the wilting, later bv species of Cytosporina, Phoma, and studies showed that most wilting was Coniothyrium were prevalent only on caused by the Dothiorella wilt fungus American elm. The canker caused by and it was most serious in plantings of Tubercularia ulmi affected the Asiatic trees that were weakened by overcrowd- species of elm, Ulmiis pumila and U. ing and by repeated annual defoliations p(trvifolia. from heavy infestations of the spring A serious and widespread wilting of cankerworm. Spraying with copper and elms in Hinsdale was brought to the at- sulfur fungicides was not effective in tention of the Natural History Survey by noticeably reducing or preventing wilting. Village Forester W. E. Rose in 1939. This spraying included dormant and foliar Intensive research on these elms resulted applications, in some years as many as one in the discovery of a bacterial disease dormant and seven foliar sprays. Al- called wetwood (Carter 1945). Wet- though research failed to find a control wood is a chronic disease that affects most for this type of wilting of elms, it showed elms but usually does not result in the that applications of either sulfur or cop- death of affected trees. Ulmiis pumila is per fungicide in June and early July gave especially susceptible to wetwood. Re- excellent control of the black leaf spot search on this disease is described in a disease (Trumbower 1934). Control of 42-page article under the title "Wetwood this disease in commercial nursery plant- of Elms" (Carter 1945). The National ings of elms increased the annual growth Arborist Association awarded a citation sprayed trees made as much growth in to the author in "recognition of his ex- 4 years as unsprayed trees made in 5 cellent work" reported in the article. years (Carter 1939). This work the Association "considered A conspicuous and widespread dying of the outstanding research during 1945 on elms which became evident in Danville shade tree preservation." and Peoria in the late 1930's appeared in Dutch elm disease is the most destruc- other areas in succeeding years. It now is tive disease of elms in Illinois. Although widespread and destructive throughout this disease was first discovered in the the southern two-thirds of the state. United States at Cleveland and Cincin- North of Peoria, Bloomington, Cham- nati, Ohio, in 1930, it was not until 1950 paign, Urbana, and Danville, it occurs that the first diseased elm was found in in only a few isolated places. The north- Illinois. Only one tree affected with

ernmost isolated infection is in Rockford. Dutch elm disease was found in 1950, 11 This disease, called phloem necrosis and were found in 1951, 24 in 1952, and over described as a virus disease in 1942 500 in 1953. The numbers of counties in (Swingle 1942), has killed thousands of which the disease has been found each

elms in Illinois and is one of the tw^o year were 1 in 1950, 4 in 1951, 9 in 1952, major diseases that continues to kill thou- 15 in 1953. 55 in 1954, 74 in 1955, 86 sands of elms annually. In Champaign in 1956, 94 in 1957, and 99 in 1958. The and Urbana phloem necrosis killed 2,460 rapid destruction of elms by the disease

trees in a period of 14 years; this number is illustrated by the numbers of trees af- represents over 16 per cent of the total fected each year in Champaign and Ur- elm population in the two cities. Mount bana. Onlv one affected tree was found in 156 Ii-i.iNois Natlrai. History Survi-v Hui.i.htin Vol. 27. Art. 2

Plant pathologists of the Illinois Natural History Survey culturing sample of American elm suspected of being affected by the Dutch elm disease. Modern laboratory equipment enables the plant pathologists to substantiate field diagnoses.

Urbana in 1951. The numbers of affected fungi were associated with the develop- trees in succeeding years in Champaign ment of canker and dieback diseases of and Urbana were 11 in 1952, 164 in oak in the field, only one fungus, Dothio- 1953, 694 in 1954, 1,805 in 1955, 1,836 rella quercina, caused canker and die- in 1956, and 2,116 in 1957. These 6,627 back under controlled experimental con- diseased elms represent over 44 per cent ditions. The other organisms appeared to of the elm population of Champaign and produce canker and dieback only on trees Urbana when the disease was first found previously weakened by adverse growing there. conditions. The Natural History Survey has had Oak wilt, the most destructive and one full-time plant pathologist conducting widespread disease of oak trees in the research on elm diseases, including Dutch United States, was not found in Illinois elm disease, since July, 1951 : Ralph W. until 1942, when a few affected trees Ames in 1951 and 1952 and Richard J. were discovered in IngersoU Park at Campana in 1952 and later. Rockford in Winnebago County. In fol- Oak Diseases.— Numerous inquiries lowing years the disease was found in about diseases of oak during the 1930's other counties; by 1958 it was killing led to a special investigation which culmi- trees in 70 of the 102 counties of the state. nated in the publishing of a preliminary Extensive research on the disease was report (Carter 1941). Although a dozen started in 1950 with a grant of money De 1958 Carter: Appmkd Botany and Plant Pathology :57 from the Forest Preserve District of in these papers include laboratory studies Cook County, Illinois. A jjraduate stu- on the morphology and physiology of the dent at the University of Illinois, E. A. fungus (Zuckerman & Curl 1953) and Curl, was employed on a half-time basis. isolation of the fungus from species of oak A second grant of money w^as received on which it had not been previously re- in ported (Carter Wysong green- from the Forest Preserve District 1951. & 1951) ; Also in 1951, funds were obtained from house studies on host range (Hoffman the National Oak Wilt Research Com- 1953) and experimental transmission of mittee of Memphis, Tennessee, composed the fungus by insects, mites, and squirrels of 10 hardwood industries, and from state (Himelick, Curl, & Zuckerman 1954; appropriations for research the dis- Himelick & Curl 1955, green- on 1958) ; eases of trees. These funds made it pos- house studies on infection by and spread sible to add three plant pathologists in of C ^-labeled fungus in inoculated oaks 1951 to conduct full-time research on the (Zuckerman & Hoffman 1953; Hoffman oak wilt disease. The men employed were & Zuckerman 1954) ; and field studies on Bert M. Zuckerman, George J. Stessel, distribution and spread of oak wilt in and Paul F. Hoffman. Additional funds Illinois (Carter 1952), availability of oak were obtained from the National Oak wilt inoculum in the state (Curl 1953, Wilt Research Committee in 1952, 1953, 1955r/, 1955/v; Himelick, Schein, & Curl and 1954. Funds appropriated by the 1953), characteristic growth of the fungus state have continued to be a part of the under natural conditions (Curl, Stessel, Natural History Survey's regular budget. & Zuckerman 1952), discovery of the

These funds have made it possible to em- perfect stage of the fungus in nature ploy additional plant pathologists to do (Curl, Stessel, & Zuckerman 1953; research on oak wilt and other tree dis- Stessel & Zuckerman 1953), and effect of eases. In 1953 four men full-time and the fungus on oak fence posts (Walters, two men half-time were conducting re- Zuckerman, & Meek 1955). search on oak wilt. At present, with only Other Diseases of Trees.—Al- state funds to support the research on oak though oak wilt, elm phloem necrosis, wilt, three full-time regular staff mem- and Dutch elm disease are the most de- bers are continuing research on this dis- structive tree diseases in the state, other ease. The men who have helped to carry diseases of trees and of shrubs have been on this program include E. A. Curl sufficiently destructive to require the at- (1950-1954), Bert M. Zuckerman, tention of plant pathologists of the Nat- George J. Stessel (1951-1952), Paul F. ural History Survey. A wilt disease that Hoffman, Eugene B. Himelick (1952- affects many species of trees in Illinois 1954), Richard D. Schein (1952-1953), is Verticillium wilt. It is known to affect Norman C. Schenck (1952-1953), Irving 27 species of plants, including 7 varieties R. Schneider, Harry Krueger (1954- of woody ornamentals representing 19 1955), Arthur W. Engelhard, James D. genera. Of the 27 species of woody hosts Bilbruck (1955-1958), John M. Ferris, of this disease, 12 were first reported in R. Dan Neely, and Walter Hartstirn. Illinois: black locust, catalpa, Chinese, Persons whose names are followed by English, and slippery elms, goldenrain dates were employed on research funds tree, linden, magnolia, multiflora rose, granted to the Natural History Survey tupelo, wayfaring tree, and yellow-wood. by the Forest Preserve District of Cook Maple, elm, and catalpa are frequently County, Illinois, or by the National Oak affected by this disease. Wilt Research Committee. The dates in- (^anker diseases found in Illinois affect dicate the periods of employment. Hime- different species of trees, including crab lick was employed on research funds apple, hawthorn, juniper, maple, moun- granted by the National Oak Wilt Re- tain ash, pine, poplar, redbud, spruce, search Committee (1952-1954) before sycamore, and willow. Rust diseases are he was employed by the Survey. widespread and destructive in some years. As a result of this extensive research They include cedar apple rust, cedar- program on oak wilt, many papers were hawthorn rust, cedar-quince rust, pine published. The phases of research covered needle rust, and poplar leaf rust. 158 Ii.i-iNois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

Foliaj2;e diseases which cause especial problems in floricultural crops, a pro- damaj^e durinj^ cool, moist springs affect gram of research was initiated, and Don many species of trees. The most destruc- B. Creager was appointed to the staff in tive foliage diseases are anthracnose of September of 1939. This program, car- ash, maple, oak, and sycamore ; blotch of ried on by Creager for 5 years and con- buckeye and horsechestnut ; and leaf spot tinued by J. L. Forsberg, included work of elm, hawthorn, maple, oak, and walnut. on diseases of greenhouse crops and field- Some trees decline and die each year and garden-grown floricultural plants. because of unfavorable growing condi- Much attention was given to bulbous tions that include physiological disorders, ornamental plants, which were being adverse weather conditions, and mechani- propagated extensively in Illinois for cal injuries. These conditions, as well as shipment to other states. disease organisms, have received the at- The early work was concerned with tention of Natural History Survey plant (1) obtaining as much information as pathologists. possible about diseases important to Illi- Research on the control of foliage dis- nois growers, (2) conducting research on eases includes testing of numerous fungi- diseases for which vital information on cides each year. In some years as many cause and control was lacking, and (3) as 18 species of trees have been treated rendering every possible aid to growers with fungicides and as many as 12 differ- in the recognition and control of diseases ent fungicides have been tested on one or in their crops. As the work progressed more species. An example of an effective more attention was given to developing control measure resulting from these tests disease control measures that would be is the use of organic mercury fungicides more effective than those that were being to control anthracnose of sycamore. used. Chemotherapy.—One phase of Nat- Crops which have received attention ural History Survey research on the con- during the course of this work are ama- trol of tree diseases relates to the effec- ryllis, aster, azalea, begonia, calla, carna- tiveness of various chemicals in prevent- tion, chrysanthemum, gardenia, geranium, ing fungi from infecting trees or from gerbera, gladiolus, hollyhock, hydrangea, causing disease symptoms after they have iris, ivy, lily, orchid, peony, peperomia, infected the trees. The early studies were periwinkle, petunia, poinsettia, rose, Afri- confined mainly to oak wilt ; the present can violet, snapdragon, stevia, stock, studies include diseases of several species sweet pea, tuberose, tulip, violet, and of trees and especially oak wilt, Dutch zinnia. Of these crops, gladiolus, rose, elm disease, and Verticillium wilt of elm, and carnation are grown in greatest maple, and other trees. Of the hundreds quantity, and, since all three crops are of chemical compounds tested, a few subject to a number of destructive dis- systemic fungicides and antibiotic ma- eases, more work has been done on them terials appear to be effective in preventing than on the other crops. disease development. To obtain more in- Because of the serious losses due to formation on what happens when these diseases of gladiolus in the large com- materials are introduced into trees, plant mercial gladiolus growing area in Kan- pathologists are studying the physiology kakee County, much research work has of trees as well as the physiology of the been directed toward developing effective fungi. The staff members who have car- control measures for these diseases. Prior ried on this program are Paul F. Hoff- to 1940, gladiolus corms generally were man, Eugene B. Himelick, Irving R. not treated for disease control, but in re- Schneider, John M. Ferris, and Walter cent years nearly all commercial gladiolus Hartstirn. planting stocks in all parts of the United States have been treated with a fungicide Floricultural Pathology before being planted. This practice has Little research by the Natural History developed largely as a result of the suc- Survey was done in floricultural pathol- cess of experimental treatments by Illi- ogy before 1939. In response to numerous nois Natural History Survey pathologists. requests for help in dealing with disease If these or other equally effective treat- December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 159 ments had not been worked out, the Dutch elm disease. To handle the labora- gladiolus industry in Illinois would have tory diagnoses requires the full-time help succumbed. during the summer months of four ad- Among other noteworthy accomplish- ditional persons: one mycologist, two lab- ments achieved by Natural History Sur- oratory technicians, and one stenographer. vey pathologists in the field of floricul- It is anticipated that the demand oc- tural pathology are the following: control casioned by Dutch elm disease for service of peony measles with an Elgetol ground from Natural History Survey personnel spray (Creager 1941f, 1943«) ; control will continue indefinitely. of black mold of rose grafts by chemical To supply the demand from hundreds

treatments (Creager 1941Z') ; control of of communities and individuals through- calla rots by chemical treatments out the state for information on identifi-

(Creager 1943Z') ; establishment of viruses cation, control, and other aspects of as the causes of peperomia ringspot Dutch elm disease has occupied a major (Creager 1941fl'), carnation mosaic and portion of the time of one plant pathol- streak (Creager 1943c, 1944, Forsberg ogist. Educational material on Dutch elm and coleus mosaic (Creager disease has been prepared for distribution 1947), ;

1945) ; clarification of the Fusarium dis- this has included mimeographed leaflets on ease complex in gladiolus (Forsberg control and other phases of the disease, a

1955rt) ; discovery of the vascular phase series of news releases, kodachrome trans- of the Curvularia disease of gladiolus parencies, black and white photographs,

(Forsberg 1957) ; discovery of scab on specimens, exhibits, maps, tables, and violets in Illinois (Forsberg & Boewe graphs. Technical advice and information

1945) ; control of Thielavia root rot of were furnished the Illinois State Cham- sweet peas (Creager 1942) ; control of ber of Commerce for two state-wide con- bacterial scab of gladiolus by use of soil ferences on Dutch elm disease, one in insecticides (Forsberg 1955^*). 1955 and one in 1956. These conferences The value of an insecticide in the con- provided specific and detailed information trol of bacterial scab of gladiolus became on the nature and control of the disease. apparent in 1953 when gladiolus corms Outstanding authorities on Dutch elm were treated with a seed protectant which disease in the United States were on the contained an insecticide in addition to a programs. Additional activities have in- fungicide. This treatment resulted in the cluded aid in field identification of the production of corms free of bacterial disease, aid in local surveys, training and scab and free of injury caused by white instruction in collecting specimens, set- grubs. Results of this treatment supported ting up laboratories for final diagnosis observations that white grubs are instru- of the disease, and making laboratory mental in spreading bacterial scab. Suc- diagnosis of each of several thousand ceeding tests showed that 25 per cent al- specimens received each year. drin granules applied to the soil at the Each year, activities of an educational rate of 4 or 8 grams per 10 feet of row or extension nature by staff members of prevented white grub injury and bac- the Section of Applied Botany and Plant terial scab. Pathology include talks on plants and vegetation of Illinois, and on diseases of Identification and Extension trees, shrubs, and floricultural crops. Ex- During each growing season the Sec- aminations are made of numerous plant- tion of Applied Botany and Plant Pathol- ings of ornamental and economic crops ogy receives for examination and diagnosis in various parts of the state. Numerous several thousand samples of trees, shrubs, pasture lands are examined in co-opera- and other plants suspected by Illinois tion with members of the University of residents of being diseased. Diagnosis Illinois College of Veterinary Medicine results and treatment recommendations for plants poisonous to livestock. Many are sent as soon as possible to the persons plants examined in the field or received sending the samples. throu'^h the mail are identified for farm- Most of the samples received are from ers, homeowners, and other interested elms suspected of being affected with persons. —

160 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

PAST AND PRESENT great distances by automobile, train, air- plane, or helicopter. They study the tax- Early botanical research in Illinois was onomy of plants, as the early botanists concerned mainly with field surveys of did, and in addition the pathology, physi- plants native to the state and with the •>logy, mycology, and biochemistry of distribution of these plants in the state. plants, including fungi, and especiallv Although botanical research in the state the fungi that cause diseases of plants. is still concerned with native plants, it is concerned also with the cause and control UNSOLVED PROBLEMS of diseases affecting ornamental plants trees, shrubs, and floricultural crops The partially solved problems receiv- and losses caused by diseases of economic ing major attention of the Section of Ap- crops, including cereal, fruit, forage, pas- plied Botany and Plant Pathology at ture, and vegetable crops. the present include the control of glad- Much of the early work with plants iolus corm rots, oak wilt, elm phloem ne- was done by amateur botanists who had crosis, and Dutch elm disease. Although very little formal training in botany. these diseases have been investigated for Some of these men were physicians who several years, continued research is needed were interested in plants that had medic- to develop more effective treatments for inal values. These early botanists were their control. Other unsolved problems individuals, engaged in various profes- include the abnormal growth, wilt, de- sions or businesses, who were keenly inter- cline, or death of trees, floricultural ested in nature, especially in the plant life crops, and shrubs used for ornamental, around them. They usually studied plants shade, or forest purposes. Some specific in local areas, as their modes of travel unsolved problems are a virus disease were by foot, by horseback, or by car- complex of gladiolus, a general decline of riage. Their equipment and reference ash, elm, and oak in localized areas of works were meager. Their efforts were the state ; a rapid decline and death of directed mainly toward the collection and red pine in localized plantings in north- identification of plants. ern Illinois; wilt, occasionally followed Many of these early botanists were by death, of ash, catalpa, fragrant sumac, members of the Natural History Society. Japanese quince, and hard maple ; a Some of them became professional bot- needle blighting of white pine; diseases anists and were employed by the State of hackberry, Norway spruce, and white Laboratory of Natural History. pine, with symptoms suggesting virus dis-

Inheritors of some of the traditions of eases ; and wetwood of elm. these early botanists are the present mem- Although a research program on the bers of the Section of Applied Botany and control of diseases of fruit, grain, and Plant Pathology of the Natural History vegetable crops is conducted by the Agri- Survey. Unlike the early botanists, these cultural Experiment Station at the Uni- men have received specialized botanical versity of Illinois, some of the unsolved training in leading colleges and universi- or partially solved problems are men- ties of the United States. Their fields of tioned here. Because of the continued ap- specialization include botany, taxonomy, pearance of new physiologic races of rust plant pathology, plant physiology, mycol- on small grains, it is essential to develop ogy, and biochemistry. new varieties of grains resistant to these They are provided with specialized races. Also needed are varieties of small equipment including high-powered com- grains resistant to scab and loose smut. pound and phase microscopes, high-speed Another disease of small grains that needs centrifuges, pH meters, fluorescent lamps, further study is the virus disease known spectrophotometer, and Geiger counter, as yellow dwarf. and with excellent library facilities in- Corn is affected by stalkrots caused by

cluding numerous books on specialized several fungi ; varieties of corn are needed subjects in botany and related fields. that are resistant to the stalkrot caused by They are able to study plants in all parts each fungus. Other problems include of the state, as they can rapidly travel more effective control for bacterial spot December, 1958 Carter: Applied Botany and Plant Pathology 161

of pepper and for diseases caused by soil- some of the problems of succession in this borne microorganisms including bacteria, type of prairie and to learn how such fungi, and nematodes. prairie recovers from heavy grazing. Ad- If the future can be measured in terms ditional study should be made of the vege- of experience in the past, new diseases tation of the sand areas of the state. An and other types of new plant disorders ecological study of the forests in Illinois will appear each year to require addi- should be made. The ultimate aim of tional attention of the research personnel these studies is to produce a manual of of the Section of Applied Botany and the plant geography of Illinois. Plant Pathology. Not only should the various vegetations of Illinois be described; remnants of FUTURE POSSIBILITIES them should be preserved. This is true especially of the prairie types. As we do Future possibilities in the botanical not know what lies in the future for land survey include further collections of na- use in the locations of the present hill tive and naturalized vascular plants to prairies, now one of the least disturbed increase the knowledge of the habitats prairie types in Illinois, several of these and the range of these species in the state. beautiful grasslands should be set aside As plants migrate, slowly under natural as natural areas by the state or federal conditions but swiftly with the help of government and should be so adminis- man, it is necessary to be on the alert for tered that picnic parties, hunters, or oth- new additions to the state flora and to ers cannot disturb them but that inter- give warning if any introductions are of ested persons may view and study them. an obnoxious character. The final aim Although only very small remnants of the of a floristic study is to produce a manual flatland and bottomland types of prairie of the flora of Illinois which will give remain, several such remnants should be not only good descriptions of the species set aside and allowed to expand so that but also a discussion of the variations of future generations may have a general the species within the state and a discus- idea of the nature of these types of prairie sion of their distribution in Illinois. which gave the name "the prairie state" Collections of the nonvascular plants to Illinois. Examples of sand prairies — algae, fungi, and bryophytes—should should be preserved. Some of these prai- be expanded. Although a small collec- ries which come under state control should tion of bryophytes—mosses and liver- be left as prairies instead of being worts— is housed in the herbarium, much converted into pine plantations. Aban- collecting remains to be done before the doned railroad trackways in sand prairie present bryophyte flora and its distribu- regions should be permitted to develop as tion in the state can be known. A nu- a type of the sand prairie. Other vegeta- cleus of a phycological collection has been tions also should be preserved. The bogs made and should be increased. Only a few in northeastern Illinois, in Lake County, of the nonpathogenic fungi are repre- are valuable from the botanist's point of sented in the Natural History Survey col- view. The few remaining, sizable tam- lections. Collections of slime molds, arack bogs could be easily set aside for the lichens, and fleshy fungi—mushrooms and study of bog plants and animals and of bracket fungi—should be started, as these succession in the bogs. plants are a part of the flora of Illinois Future research on plant diseases will and thus a part of the natural resources continue the advancement of present re- of the state. search, and new fields of research will Vegetational studies should be contin- open up. Some of the types of research ued. Although many of the original prai- that appear promising in the control of rie types of Illinois have been destroyed plant diseases include the use of chemo- and only remnants remain, these remnants therapeutants, antibiotics, and soil fungi- should be described so that future citizens cides. Further research is needed on in- of Illinois will have some botanical secticides and their indirect role in the knowledge of the prairie types. Hill prai- control of plant diseases. One instance rie studies should be continued to solve of this is illustrated in the control of bac- 162 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 terial scab of gladiolus by use of aldrin compounds introduced into woody plants. to prevent white grub injury to the corms. The addition of a plant physiologist to Chemical compounds obtained from min- our stafif would materially increase re- eral deposits in the state hold promise search in this field. for the control of some plant diseases In our study of several thousand speci- (Schenck & Carter 1954). Research on mens of diseased ornamental plants eachj these compounds through the co-operation year, many unknown fungi are obtained,] of the Geochemical and Coal sections of These fungi need to be identified and! the Illinois Geological Survey and the those that are found affecting new hosts' Wright Air Development Center of the or that have not been found previously in United States Air Force has been fruitful the state should be added to our myco- in the development of fluorine compounds logical collection. To adequately handle with fungicidal properties against certain this work, to make monographic studies disease-producing fungi. Research along of economically important fungi, and to these lines resulted in publication of six attack new mycological problems as they articles on the fungistatic capacities of appear, a mycologist with special interestj aromatic fluorine compounds in relation in economic fungi would greatly facilitate to cloth-rotting fungi (Tehon \95\h, our research. \952b, 1954; Tehon & Wolcvrz 1952«, As we contemplate the future possibili-j \952b; Finger, Reed, & Tehon 1955). ties for research by the Section of Ap-

Research on the physiology of plants plied Botany and Plant Pathology, it is] and on organisms that produce plant dis- evident that there are unlimited oppor- eases will aid materially in the develop- tunities not only to continue the research ment of more effective controls for these now in progress but to expand into new diseases. One objective of this research fields of research. This statement applies is to develop a more realistic approach to to the botanical survey, the study of vege- the control of diseases through obtaining tation, the study of diseases of ornamental] information on the movement of raw ma- plants, and the study of the various kinds] terials, elaborated foods, and chemical of fungi that occur in the state. Aquatic Biology

GEORGE W. BENNETT

in biology that THE research aquatic among themselves ; each organism was was so much a part of the endeavors producing more new individuals than the of the staff of the Illinois State Labora- environment could support, so that many tory of Natural History and later the of them served as food for other types of Illinois Natural History Survey was in- animals, and competition was very keen. itiated by Stephen A. Forbes. From the Forbes had observed the biological phe- very beginning of his active period in nomena associated with fluctuating water Illinois, Forbes showed great interest in levels—with floods following excessive fishes and he began collecting specimens precipitation and low waters following for species records, distributional records, droughts—and described them as follows: and food habits studies. He wrote ar- Whenever the waters of the river remain for ticles Illinois of on Crustacea and food a long time far beyond their banks, the breed- Illinois fishes for the first volume of the ing grounds of fishes and other animals are Bulletin of the Illinois State Laboratory immensely extended, and their food supplies increased to a corresponding degree (Forbes of Natural Historv (Forbes 1876, 1878«. 1925:538). 1880Z', 1880r, 1883^, 1883f). In the pe- As the waters retire, the lakes are again de- riod 1876-1888 he collected 1,221 f^sh of fined ; the teeming life which they contain is 87 species, 63 genera, and 25 families; restricted within daily narrower bounds, and these he used to study their diagnostic a fearful slaughter follows; the lower and characteristics, their distribution in the more defenceless animals are penned up more and more closely with their predaceous en- state, and their food habits. Forbes' inter- emies, and these thrive for a time to an est in aquatic biology was broad, and he extraordinary degree (Forbes 1925:539). himself worked on or arranged for others to work on crustaceans, leeches, proto- Forbes recognized that periods of bio- zoans, rotifers, and aquatic insects, as well logical expansion and contraction were as fishes native to Illinois. normal and, without the introduction of abnormal forces, would tend to hold BEGINNING OF AQUATIC "each species within the limits of a uni- ECOLOGY form average number, year after year." Every organism had its enemies that Many of the early publications of the seemed to be balanced against its repro- Illinois State Laboratory of Natural His- ductive potential and, although every tory dealt with the taxonomy and distri- species had to "fight its way inch by inch bution of aquatic animals new to science, from the egg to maturity," yet no species or additions to the known distribution of was exterminated. named animals. Forbes was familiar with Apparently the Illinois State Fish these subjects and also with the ecology Commissioners, assigned the duties of of aquatic organisms at least as early as protecting the fisheries resources of the 1887. In that year his "The Lake as a state during this period, either had not Microcosm" was first published in the read Forbes' "The Lake as a Microcosm" Bulletin of the Peoria Scientific Associa- or did not understand it, because their tion ; later it was republished in volume main activity for the 20 years following 15 of the Bulletin of the Illinois State 1890 was the rescuing of fishes from the Laboratory. In this short but epoch- land-locked, drying backwaters of the marking paper, Forbes (1925) described Illinois and Mississippi rivers and the a lake or pond as an environment in returning of these fishes to the open wa- which the animals and plants were ters. largely isolated from the surrounding ter- Perhaps the Commissioners should not restrial animals and plants but were very be condemned severely, because their be- much interrelated and interdependent liefs and activities were in no wav dif-

[ 163 ] :

164 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulli-tin Vol. 27, Art. 2 ferent from those of similar bodies in among the coexisting species and allowed other states throughout the country. The) for excellent survival of game fish. The were in tune with the times. In the re- report of the Fish Commissioners (Bart- port of the Commissioners to the Gov- lett 1893:4) for the 2-year period ending ernor of Illinois for the period October 1, September 30, 1892, contains the follow- 1890, to September 30, 1892 (Bartlett ing statement: 1893:3), is to be found the following In the Quincy Bay [of the Mississippi River], statement this season, the number of black bass has been The number of fish left to die in the shal- unprecedented, and a fair estimate of the low waters has been beyond computation, number taken with hook and line would and has seemed to be greater than ever place it in the hundreds of thousands. Most before, from the fact that the attention of of them were too small to use on the table, the people generally has been called to them yet were as voracious as larger ones and fell and the terrible waste ensuing. . . . an easy prey to the angler, whether he of the rod and reel or the small boy with a criticised because We have been severely willow switch and a tow line, all caught perish, but when so many fish are allowed to bass. One man, who called himself a sports- the Mississippi the fact is considered that man, boasted of having caught 800 of them a meandering frontage of 450 miles river has in one day with hook and line, all too small bottoms varying in width in this State, with to eat, but he carried them away and threw from a few hundred yards to several miles, them on the ash heap. From my oHice win- the Illinois and other rivers adding per- and dow I saw 225 taken by two little boys in more, it can readily be seen haps as much one day, all of them wasted. that, if the work were carried on to a successful completion, it would require hundreds The production of a dominant brood of men and thousands of dollars of expense; in other words, it would be simpl)' of bass (undoubtedly largemouth) such impracticable. as this might be expected to follow a pe- Fish rescue operations were done with riod of very low water in the late sum- seines dragged through shallow waters by mer and fall and a period of moderatel)' crews of men. The fish were separated high water during the bass spawning sea- from the mud and vegetation and carried son the following June. by boat to open water, or in tubs to tanks The theory of the benefits of fluctuat- on wagons when overland transportation ing water levels is further substantiated was necessary. The operations were car- by a published record of the catch of four ried on in summer and early fall when commercial fishing firms operating in the both the water and the air were very Illinois River near Havana between July warm. Today fisheries biologists are 1 and December 1 (5 months) in 1895 well aware of the fact that, even if the (Roe & Schmidt 1897). Their catch was fish had been released "alive" in open 358,843 pounds, mostly of carp and buf- water, their chance of survival was very falo, which made up 85.7 per cent of the low. Few fishes are able to survive even total. An unusual part of the catch was a short exposure to a lukewarm, mud- the proportion of "bass" (undoubtedly and-water suspension, such as is created largemouth), 7,852 pounds, and walleye when a seine is dragged through shallow and "pike" (northern), each 200 pounds. backwaters in August. This statement The last two species are seldom taken in applies particularly to the game and fine the Illinois River today. The catch of bass fishes. (7,852 pounds) was larger than the catch We now suspect that the phenomenon of crappies (7,405 pounds). Crappies arc of fluctuating water levels, which cre- easily caught in hoop and fyke nets or ated a fish rescue problem along the Illi- seines; bass do not enter hoop and fyke nois and Mississippi rivers for the Illinois nets readily and when surrounded with a State Fish Commissioners, may have been seine they show considerable aptitude for highly favorable to the well-being of the jumping over. Inasmuch as more pounds population of fishes, particularly large- of bass than of crappies were caught, prob- mouth bass, northern pike, walleyes, ably many more pounds of bass were crappies, and other pan fishes. A com- available. bination of natural predation (largely Today, with water levels of bottom- by fish-eating birds) and water level fluc- land lakes in the Havana region much tuations prevented excessive competition more stabilized, it would be an impossi- December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 165

ble task to catch 7,000 pounds of bass Forbes (1895rt:47) believed that the with commercial fishing gear. This im- natural sciences should be studied out of portant game species is very much less doors and that colleges and universities abundant now than it was when the river of his day were not doing well by their was free to spread over its wide flood students in botany and zoology when they plain. confined them to laboratory studies: Not many years ago, biological instruction FIRST FIELD LABORATORY in American colleges was mostly derived from books. Of late, it has been largely ob- Forbes was much interested in the Illi- tained from laboratories instead, but several years' experience of the output of the zoologi- nois River and in 1894 he established a cal college laboratory has convinced me that biological station on its shores (Forbes the mere book-worm is hardly narrower and 1895rt:39) "for the continuous investiga- more mechanical than the mere laboratory tion of the aquatic life of the Illinois river grub. Both have suffered, and almost equally, from a lack of opportunity to study nature and its dependent waters, near Havana." alive. One knows about as much as the other Forbes (1895^: 46-7) had great That of the real aspect of living nature and of the breadth of vision in biological research is ways in which living things limit and de- shown by his description of the objectives termine each others' activities and characters, of the laboratory: or in which all are determined by the in- organic environment. The general objects of our Station are to and resources for provide additional facilities It is possible that Forbes' feeling on the natural history survey of the State, now this point of training may have influenced being carried on, under legislative authoriza- the University of Illinois to require field tion, by the State Laboratory of Natural His- tory; to contribute largely to a thoroughgoing courses at a biological station before scientific knowledge of the whole system of granting a graduate degree in zoology. with life existing in the waters of this State, Havana was selected as the location for a view to economic as well as educational the Illinois Biological Station because of applications, and especially with reference to the improvement of fish culture and to the its several advantages: Forbes liked the prevention of a progressive pollution of our bluffs along the eastern shore of the Illi- streams and lakes ; to occupy a rich and nois River because at their bases they promising field of original biological investi- furnished a clean, hard sand beach suit- gation hitherto largely overlooked or neglect- to ideal for camping. ed, not only in America, but throughout the able work from and world ; and to increase the resources of the Moreover, along these bluffs was an zoological and botanical departments of the abundance of pure, cold spring water. University by providing means and facilities The laboratory consisted of "three for special lines of both graduate and under- well-placed rooms" in the town itself and graduate work and study for those taking major courses in these departments. a "cabin boat" on the Illinois River. The Station differs from most of the small The office and laboratory rooms were sup- number of similar stations thus far estab- plied with running water and electric light, lished in this country from the fact that its and liberally provided with the usual equip- main object is investigation instead of in- ment of a biological laboratory, consisting of struction, the latter being a secondary, and compound and dissecting microscopes (Rei- at present an incidental object only. It has chert and Zeiss), microtomes, biological re- for its field the entire system of life in the agents to the number of one hundred bottles, Illinois river and connected lakes and other water and [paraffin] baths, laboratory glass- adjacent waters, and it is my intention to ware, tanks for alcohol, a coal stove, a kero- extend the work as rapidly as possible to the sene stove, laboratory tables for five assist- Mississippi river system, thus making a ants, and a working library of about one beginning on a comprehensive and very hundred and twenty volumes (Forbes thoroughgoing work in the general field of 1895a:48). the aquatic life of the Mississippi Valley, in all its relations, scientific and economic. The cabin boat was stationed on Quiver The special subject which I have fixed Lake north of Havana, about 2.5 miles upon as the point of direction towards which all our studies shall tend is the effect on the from town. The boat contained a well- aquatic plant and animal life of a region furnished kitchen and sleeping quarters produced by the periodical overflow and for four men. Most of the rest of the gradual recession of the waters of great space was taken up by equipment, includ- rivers, phenomena of which the Illinois and apparatus, seines, collect- Mississippi rivers afford excellent and strong- ing limnological ly marked examples. ing nets, microscopes, and a small library. : :

16b Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

The original staff of the station, in with respect to features of the physical 1894, consisted of Frank Smith, who was environment. The validity of this method directly in charge and whose principal in- depended upon the numbers of collections terest was aquatic worms; Charles A. that were available for study. Where Hart, entomologist and curator of col- sufficiently large numbers of collections lections for the State Laboratory ; Adolph could be mustered, Forbes compared ob- Hempel, who worked on protozoans and served relationships with expected rela- rotifers; and Mrs. Dora Smith, who tionships and obtained a coefficient of as- served as microtechnician and was in sociation by dividing the former by the charge of the rooms in Havana. Miles latter. A hypothetical example is given Newberry, who lived in Havana, had below charge of the cabin boat and acted as a Given species A and species B inhabit- general field assistant. Others who were ing waters in the same general land area present at some time during the first year In 1,000 collections, species J occurred of operation were Ernest Forbes, for 6 159 times and species B 85 times. Thus, weeks of general collecting. Professor the probability that they would occur to- single collection Thomas J. Burrill, a Mr. Clinton, a Mr. gether in any was Yeakel, and a Miss Ayers, all of the Uni- 159/1,000 X 85/1,000 or 13,515 times versity of Illinois Botany Department, in a million or 13.5 times in 1,000, and who were collecting aquatic plants; a the probable number of these double oc- Professor Palmer, who was making chem- currences in the 1,000 collections was ical anah'ses of the water ; Assistant Pro- 13.5/1,000 X 1,000/1 or 13.5 times. fessor Henry E. Summers of the Univer- However, in the 1,000 collections, spe- sity Physiology Department, who photo- cies J and species B were found together graphed the region ; and the stafi artist. in 40 ; thus, the coefficient of association Miss Lydia M. Hart. Professor Forbes for species A and B was 40/13.5 or 2.96: exercised general supervision over the sta- they were found together about three tion work, planning and following its op- times as often as was to be expected. eration. This same type of reasoning was applied to show relationships between indi- FISHES AND PLANKTON vidual species and the physical environment: stream, lake, pond, marsh; size of Within a year or so aquatic investiga- water area and water movement; bottom tions were stepped up through increased of mud, sand, gravel, or rock. These co- use of the laboratory and cabin boat at efficients of association are found fre- Havana. At the beginning of this cen- quently in Forbes & Richardson's The tury Frank Smith (1901:567) stated in Fishes of Illinois. Unfortunately about Science that the ichthyological survey of half the collections referred to in this pub- Illinois had received much attention dur- lication were made without notes on wa- ing the previous 2 years and that a com- ter current and bottom materials, so that prehensive report was soon to be pub- this method of showing association could lished. He also stated that Dr. C. A. be applied only to stream, lake, pond, or Kofoid had been studying the plankton marsh, or to sectional distribution in the of the Illinois River for the previous 5 state. Thus, when Forbes & Richardson years. This short statement in Science (1908:195) stated that the frequency announced the progress being made on ratios for a fish were "3.19 for the smaller two of the important contemporary con- rivers, 2.06 for creeks, and .58 for the tributions to aquatic biology, namely largest streams," they meant that these Forbes & Richardson's The Fishes of fish exceeded expectancy in "smaller riv- Illinois (1908) and Kofoid's studies on ers" and "creeks" by about 3 and 2 times, I the plankton of the Illinois River. respectively, and were considerably below Shortly after, in an essay dealing with expectancy in "the largest streams." A "statistical ecology," Forbes (19070) pre- coefficient of association of 1 indicated sented a method for showing relation- correspondence with expectancy ; a co- ships between individual species of fishes efficient below 1 indicated a negative re- and preferences of certain kinds of fishes lationship. December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 167

This method of showing ecological re- Fishes," a section on "The Fisheries of lationships between species and ranges, Illinois," and one on the individual spe- species and local habitats, or between species of fishes found in the state. This last cies themselves, allowed the use of num- section made up by far the largest numbers to show the degree of the relation- ber of pages and included keys for the ship or lack of it. Its shortcoming was identification of fishes and a glossary of that it made no distinction between col- technical terms. For each species of fish lections containing one fish of a species were given the scientific name, common under consideration and those containing name or names, synonomy of scientific several hundreds or thousands. names (where such existed), and a detailed description of the fish. The de- THE FISHES OF ILLINOIS scription was followed by a statement of the fish's distribution within and without the state, a statement The first edition of The Fishes of Illi- on average and nois was published by the State of Illinois maximum lengths and weights, and infor- habitat in 1908; a second edition was published mation on preferences, food preferences, in 1920. Collections and observations for and other phases of biology. For this work had been started in 1876 by most species, information was given on Forbes and had been expanded through how the fish might be caught and its value the help of many assistants working at (if any) as food. Many species were rather irregular intervals until 1903. illustrated by black and white photo- Field work on fishes became nearly con- graphs or by colored plates painted by tinuous for a few years after establish- Mrs. Lydia M. (Hart) Green and Miss ment of the Illinois Biological Station at Charlotte M. Pinkerton. These colored Havana in 1894. Special recognition was plates were so fine that for nearly a half given to Wallace Craig, who collected century none published elsewhere was during the winter and spring seasons of their equal. 1898 and 1899, to H. A. Surface, who The second part, the atlas, contained collected during 1899, and to Thomas maps of the 10 stream systems of the Large, who made extensive wagon trips, state. These maps showed the glacial ge- the most important of them in 1899, to ology of Illinois, localities from which collect fishes from streams in many parts collections were made, and interior dis- of the state. Recognition was given also tribution of 98 of the most important to unnamed high school teachers who col- fishes. lected fishes under specific instructions. As a state publication on fresh-water Collections of fishes studied by Forbes fishes, The Fishes of Illinois remained and Richardson were taken from many unique for a period of more than 40 years. sources : catches made by collecting parties with seines of various size and mesh (including minnow seines and bag ILLINOIS RIVER PLANKTON seines), trammel nets, set nets (both fyke

and hoop) ; catches made by commercial Kofoid's studies of the plankton of the fishermen ; and selections from fishes on Illinois River appeared as five articles in display in fish markets. More than 200,- volumes 5, 6, and 8 of the Bulletin of the 000 specimens representing 150 species State Laboratory of Natural History. were collected from more than 450 loca- Altogether Kofoid published nearly 1,000 tions in the state. printed pages on the plankton of the Illi- The Fishes of Illinois was published in nois River. two parts, one of which was an atlas. From 1895 to 1900 Kofoid was su- The larger or first part contained a sec- perintendent of the biological station at tion on "The Topography and Hydrog- Havana. In 1900 he went to the Uni- raphy of Illinois" written by Professor versitv of California at Berkeley. At the Charles W. Rolfe, at that time head of time he left Illinois for California and a the Geology Department of the Univer- new position, he had published only three sity, a section entitled "On the General short papers on plankton, one dealing and Interior Distribution of Illinois with methods and apparatus, one with a 108 Illinois Natural History Survky Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 169

1908, organic waste from Chicago in- dissolved gases; methods of measuring the creased until the volume approached the dangers of pollution to fisheries; and ob- capacity of the river to oxidize it. Diver- servations on the oxygen requirements of sion w^as increased, and the fish yield fishes in the Illinois River. These publi-

dropped ; a peak diversion occurred in cations were the work of Victor E. Shel- 1927 with a flow of 10,245 cubic feet per ford (1917, 1918«, 1918A), Morris M. second (MulvihiU & Cornish 1930:57). Wells (1918), Edwin B. Powers The period of maximum pollution oc- (1918), and David H. Thompson curred between 1915 and 1920. From his (1925). They represent a new approach studies of bottom fauna during this time, to fisheries studies, e.g., the use of labora- Richardson calculated a reduction in the tory studies to explain and expand the total weight of bottom organisms in the knowledge of the relationships of fishes reach from Chillicothe to La Grange of and other aquatic organisms to their en- 34.5 million pounds, representing a po- vironments. tential loss of 7 million pounds of fish. In the early 1920's aquatic investiga- By 1921 the fish yield of the river had tions were continued on the Illinois River, hit an all-time low of 4 million pounds, where the Natural History Survey main- partly from pollution and partly from ex- tained a houseboat laboratory and attend- tensive bottomland lake drainage. After ing boats and equipment. At this time 1922 there was some reduction of the raw studies were begun on the lakes of north- sewage going into the Illinois River, and eastern Illinois, studies that included the from 1924 to 1930 the yield of commer- taking of quantitative plankton and bot- cial fish varied around 10 million pounds tom samples and collections of fishes and per year. higher aquatic plants. In 1923, an inves- Between 1913 and 1928, Richardson tigation was begun also on the Rock River (with some assistance from Forbes on two (Forbes 1928). of the early papers) published six articles Surveys on the Illinois River, made in in the Bulletin series. Because of the op- co-operation with the Illinois Water Sur- portune timing of his studies in relation vey in 1923 and 1924, showed that the to the pollution of the Illinois, Richard- normal life of the river had been de- son was able to set up a classification of stroyed by pollution as far down as Peoria seven degrees of pollution based on the Lake. presence of certain groups of aquatic or- By 1927 the staf¥ had published in the ganisms. These groups were often better Bulletin 20 articles, comprising 1,856 indicators of the degree of pollution than printed pages, on Illinois River biology. were oxygen analyses, because the animal These articles apparently had had a pro- associations were sensitive to small in- found effect on aquatic biologists in many creases in pollution, or to fluctuations in parts of the United States; other states pollution that might be missed unless were engaged in making their own lake oxygen analyses were made continuously. and stream surveys, for the most part not so comprehensive as those of the Illinois NEW LINES OF RESEARCH River, but adequate to give some information on physical and chemical conditions During the second decade of the twen- and rough measurements of the fish food tieth century, biologists became interested resources, plus inventories of the kinds in measuring the effects of physical and and relative abundance of fishes present. chemical changes in the aquatic environ- At this time (1927) the Natural His- ment upon fish, and in the responses of tory Survey had expanded its own stream the fish to these changes. From 1914 to survey program to include, besides the 1925, members of the staff working in Rock River, the Hennepin Canal, the aquatic biology published papers on the Sangamon and Kaskaskia rivers, and the suitability of bodies of water for fishes; streams of Champaign County (Forbes the poisoning of fishes by illuminating gas 1928). The Rock River investigation operated from 1923 to 1927 with wastes ; the reaction of fishes to carbon di- was Thompson in charge of field oxide and carbon monoxide ; a collecting David H. bottle for quantitative determination of collecting and R. E. Richardson in charge :

170 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 of the analysis of data at Urbana. Thomson had cards printed with the Thompson and three or four other men, title, "A Plea for the Fish." The cards working steadil\' each year throuj^h sprinji, stated summer, and fall, collected and shipped to When removing an undersized trout from Urbana about fishes of 90 species, 90,000 your hook, always moisten your hands before 2,400 fish stomachs, 15,000 river mussels grasping the fish; otherwise the dry hand belonging to 40 species, 820 collections of will remove the slime from the back of the small invertebrates, and 500 collections of trout, when it is only a question of time until fungus sets in and the fish will die. plankton and algae.

Samuel Eddy (1927, 1931, 1932) Thomson distributed these cards to the Michi- worked on plankton of Lake residents of all states and of many foreign and the River and on gan Sangamon countries. In 1912 he reported that at sinkhole plankton collections from some the September 21-24, 1908, meeting of in southern Illinois. ponds the American Fisheries Society in Wash- ington, D. C, the Society "recommended EARLY MANAGEMENT that the various state commissions educate ATTEMPTS the people by every means in their power to follow the directions given about wet- of the early activities in the man- Many ting the hands" (Thomson 1913:171). agement of aquatic resources of the He reported also that his program was United States were based on premises endorsed by 28 fish and game commis- which later research proved to be inac- sioners throughout the United States. His curate or erroneous. These included such idea was so widely disseminated that al- measures as stocking and the protection of most it everyone has heard of ; yet fish from human exploitation through re- there is no evidence that any attempt strictions in the form of fishing seasons, was made to test it through scientific length limits, creel limits. and Toward experimentation. the end of the last century, James Nevin In spite of continued emphasis on arti- (1898:18), speaking before the American ficial propagation, new techniques were Fisheries Society, made the following gradually discovered and put into use statement: by researchers in the fisheries field, and Personally I have been on the various these laid the foundation for modern spawning grounds of the whole chain of Great thought in management. Borodin (1924) Lakes from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Lake and Barney (1924) called attention to Superior during the spawning seasons; and 1 have many times watched the salmon trout, the value of using growth rings on scales white fish and wall-eyed pike spawn in their and otoliths for determining the age of natural way; and I am convinced that only fishes; Wiebe (1929) proposed the use a very small percentage of the eggs so de- of fertilizers to increase plankton produc- posited are fertilized.

tion ; Surber (1931) discussed the use of This Statement represented the attitude sodium arsenite in the control of aquatic of the hatchery supervisors and most ad- vegetation; Burr (1931) used electrical ministrative personnel connected with equipment to stun fish; Markus (1932) federal and state agencies dealing with investigated the relationship between fisheries resources. As the spawning water temperatures and food digestion in of fishes grounds most of the Great Lakes largemouth bass ; through tagging and re- remain relatively unexplored even today, covery, Thompson (1933a) studied mi- it is doubtful if Nevin was very familiar grations of stream fishes. These and with them. other findings laid the groundwork for Ideas having no scientific basis often modern attack on the problems of fish become widely accepted. For example, al- management. most everyone has heard that one should wet his hands before handling a fish if MODERN MANAGEMENT he wants it to remain alive after release. Apparentlv this idea originated with The modern concept and use of the G. H. Thomson, Superintendent of the term "fish management" first appeared Estes Park Fish Hatchery, Colorado. about 30 years ago. It was suggested December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 171

(if not named) by E. A. Birge in sources and was available before 1940. In writing about fish and their food. Birge Ohio, Langlois (1937) was convinced (1929:194) stated: that the closed season was worthless for Good fishing for sport calls for the con- increasing the numbers of bass. In Mich- tinued presence in a lake of a relatively few igan, Eschmeyer (1938) had poisoned large individuals of the desired species, the entire fish populations of several which are to be caught singly. They must small lakes in the fishing be larger than the average adult. They are which was poor not caught primarily for food but for sport and had discovered an "overabundance of and as a basis for stories. A dozen half- fish" instead of a scarcity. Also in Mich- pound bass are by no means an equivalent to igan, Carbine (1939) had investigated one three-pounder from this point of view. the spawning and hatching of nest-build- But these large individuals are few in number: they are old and have come to full size ing centrarchids in Deep Lake and had very slowly. It is easy to catch them and very discovered that many more young were hard to replace them in the of presence the produced than the lake could support. In vigorous competition for food that goes on Illinois, David H. Thompson had fol- in a lake. And as yet little thought and less study have been g'wen to the needs of this lowed dominant broods of crappies in specific form of conservation of fish resources. Lake Senachwine for 4 years (1933- (Italics mine.) 1936) and had come to the conclusion This statement implies a concept of that, while sizes and numbers of fish management for sport fishing. varied, the total weight of the popula- When Carl L. Hubbs described the tion remained fairly constant. Also in organization of the Institute for Fisheries Illinois, Thompson & Bennett (1939r) Research (Hubbs 1930), fisheries re- had demonstrated relationships between searchers in Michigan were working on a length of food chains and poundages of state-wide creel census, lake and stream fish supported by ponds. In Alabama, surveys, stream improvement, nursery Swingle & Smith (1939) had demon- waters, fish migration, predators of fish, strated the capacity of fish populations to fish diseases, and fish growth. expand or contract in relation to the At about the same time, fisheries re- capacity of the habitat to support them. search at the Illinois Natural History These researches on the dynamics of Survey (Wickliff 1933) included studies fish populations formed the bases for of fish migration through tagging of fish, modern fish management. Yet old ideas ages and growth rates of important fishes, were difficult to uproot. Clarence R. general quantitative determinations of Lucas (1939) of the U. S. Bureau of plankton and bottom organisms, a com- Fisheries published a paper titled "Game parison of fish population densities by Fish Management," in which he listed means of standardized fishing methods, what he termed the "operative" tech- and the determination of the fish popu- niques of fish management: (1) regula- lation of a lake by capture, fin marking, tion—closed seasons, bag limits; (2) fish and recapture of adult fish. culture—rearing of game fishes for stock- The point at which fish management ing; (3) distribution— transportation and emerged as a more or less discrete dis- liberation of hatchery-reared fish; (4) cipline is not easily established. If fish stream and lake improvement; and (5) management is assumed to be the art of predator control—-the removal of preda- producing sustained annual crops of wild tory fishes or of fishes that otherwise fish for recreational use (modified from interfere with the production of the game Leopold 1933), agreement as to the time fish crop. This paper reflected exactly management began is difficult to reach. the old conception of operation, but under Modern management could hardly a new name. have made a beginning until biologists Thompson's ideas on fish management had discovered enough basic information were summarized in his contribution to about fishes to be able to discredit the A Symposium on Hydrobiology. In a sec- unfounded but strongly held theories tion titled "The Fish Production of In- relative to the values of stocking, closed land Streams and Lakes" Thompson seasons, length limits, and creel limits. (1941) stated that production and yield This basic information came from many were synonymous— both represented the 172 Ii.i.iNois Natural History Survey Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 crop that was harvested. The total survival of their own young and the amount of fish in a lake or stream at any young of other species. j^iven time was the standing crop; when Thompson attempted to construct a the standing; crop reached "saturation" theoretical maximum cropping rate for it represented the carrying capacity of the any water area as a percentage of its lake or stream. Thompson believed that carrying capacity. He believed that the the food resources and the carrNinji; ca- cropping rate was related to latitude pacity of a body of water remained fairly (length of growing season). He estimat- « constant but that the number of fish ed annual cropping rates for Vilas Coun- could vary widely. He reasoned that, if ty and Madison, Wisconsin; Urbana and the weight of fish remained constant, then Cairo, Illinois; Memphis, Tennessee; the removal of some fish would furnish Jackson, Mississippi ; and New Orleans, more food per individual for those re- Louisiana. He assumed that in northern maining, and the growth rate would in- Wisconsin about 21 per cent of the carry- crease; if more fish were planted, less ing capacity could be replaced each year; food would be available per individual, in New Orleans the replacement could . and the growth rate would decrease. To be as much as 118 per cent ; other loca- further this thesis, he was able to demon- tions fell between these extremes. strate from his own laboratory experi- Thompson also presented the idea that , ments that at a water temperature of 70 fish predators were probably beneficial, al- degrees F. a 10-inch bass required as food though he gave no data to back this an amount of minnows equal to three- assumption. fourths of 1 per cent of its body weight per day in order to maintain a constant THE LAST TWENTY YEARS weight; and that, at an optimum feeding | rate, 2.5 pounds of minnows were re- With the death of Robert E. Richard- | " quired to produce 1 pound of bass. son in 1935, the aquatic biology staff of Complete censuses of nine Illinois lakes the Illinois Natural History Survey was subject to floods and indiscriminate stock- reduced to Thompson and one full-time ing showed that, although 46 different field assistant; however, several graduate species were present, only 10 species of students were working under Thomp- fish comprised more than 1 per cent each son's direction. At that time, Thompson of the total weight of all fish. The rough was interested in beginning some pond fish listed were redmouth buffalo, mon- management investigations. As a result grel buffalo, and carp ; forage fish were of a policy of expansion for the Section gizzard shad and golden shiner ; catfish of Aquatic Biology, I was employed on included only the black bullhead ; the pan January 1, 1938, to work with Thompson or fine fish were bluegill, white crappie, on ponds. To gather experience in a and black crappie ; and the only game new censusing technique that involved fish was the largemouth bass. These poisoning fish with rotenone, a technique species must be considered as showing developed by R. W. Eschmeyer in Mich- , superior adjustment to the pond habitat igan, Thompson and I made a trip to Ann | in Illinois. Arbor, where Eschmeyer was censusing Thompson had observed cycles in fish several small Michigan lakes. We helped that were the result of interspecific and in one of the censusing operations and intraspecific competition. The "fine" fish were served some of the poisoned fish at in Lake Senachwine (Illinois) amounted the home of Dr. Carl L. Hubbs, to about 50 to 55 pounds per acre, regard- Returning to Illinois, we (with the less of the number of fish or the area of help of Donald F. Hansen) began cen- the lake. In some years there were 10 susing ponds, one of the first of which times as many fish as in other years, and was Homewood Lake, a 2.8-acre pond the individual fish averaged one-tenth the on the property of the Homewood Fishing weight of the individual fish of other Club on the outskirts of Decatur, Illinois. years. Large broods of crappies were pro- From the standpoint of public relations, duced at intervals of about 4 years, and the operation was a huge success. The during interim seasons thev controlled the pond contained mostly carp, bufifalo, giz- December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 173

zard shad, and stunted bluegills; all day, supply. At that time he was operating local sportsmen slipped through the un- fyke nets at Lake Decatur and in other derbrush to spy on the "fish killers," but, waters in order to gather material for a seeing few, or no, dead useful hook-and- h'fe history study of the white crappie line fish, they stayed to help us collect (Hansen 1951). the outsized carp and buffalo. In the late 1930's and the early 1940's Through the able assistance of Sam A. federal agencies were engaged in con- Parr, at that time Investigator for the struction projects under various work Department of Conservation for Macon programs. The Natural History Survey County, we were able to census 22 arti- was to benefit from these programs ficial lakes and ponds in central and through the construction of a laboratory southern Illinois. One of these ponds located on the Chautauqua National was Fork Lake, owned by Paul S. Smith Wildlife Refuge, near Havana, and a (formerly Chief Inspector with the De- laboratory and artificial lake in Fox partment of Conservation), who gave us Ridge State Park, near Charleston. The carte blanche use of the pond. These Havana laboratory, completed in early censuses, and the studies of the fish popu- 1940, became the headquarters for water- lations that replaced those poisoned in fowl and fishery research on the Illinois these ponds, led to the publication of three and Mississippi rivers. The laboratory reports on lake management (Thompson and lake in Fox Ridge State Park were & Bennett 1939«, \939b, and Bennett, completed in 1941 and became a center for Thompson, & Parr 1940) and two articles studies on largemouth bass management. of the Bulletin, "Management of Small About the same time the U. S. Forest Artificial Lakes" (Bennett 1943) and Service constructed two lakes in the "The Bass-Bluegill Combination in a Shawnee National Forest in the southern Small Artificial Lake" (Bennett 1948). part of Illinois. These were Pounds Hol- Censuses of the ponds, most of which low Lake, near Gibsonia, and Lake Glen-

were poor fishing waters, brought out the dale, near Dixon Springs ; the latter has fact that overpopulation and stunting been used by the Natural History Sur- and/or large numbers of fish of undesir- vey as a study area since it was first

able species, rather than a lack of fish, stocked in 1940. Lake Glendale is located

were the causes of poor fishing. In fact, in a region of low soil fertility and is one of the poorest ponds for fishing was fairly typical of impoundments in forested found to contain 1,145 pounds of fish per lands. Hansen has found that the lake acre. At Fork Lake ("The Bass-Bluegill produces excessive populations of both Combination in a Small Artificial Lake"), bass and bluegills, and that fishing may we attempted to crop heavily the large- be improved at intervals by the removal mouth bass and bluegills in this 1.4-acre of part of the population of both of these pond; we used six fyke nets of 1 -inch- species. mesh, set with leads to completely block In 1942 Thompson and Hansen made off the pond into sections. When these a fish survey of the Illinois River from nets were fished for 10 days each month Channahon to the river mouth at Graf- from March to November of each year ton. About 34,000 fish were studied, for 3 years, we discovered that we could most of which were caught in hoop or not crop the bass because they refused to fyke nets. Many of the carp in the upper enter the nets, and the constant cropping part of the river (particularly at all sta- of bluegills contributed to the well-being tions above Henry) showed the knothead of both species. This discovery led to the abnormality which was an indication of belief that anglers had nothing to fear gross pollution. At Channahon 94.8 per from commercial fishing operations. cent of the catch was composed of In July of 1938 Hansen was given "rough" fish, most of them carp or gold- charge of the scale collections for study- fish. In contrast, at the Creve Coeur ing age and growth of fishes and the task station below Peoria, 88.4 per cent of the of investigating the fish populations of fish taken were "fine" fish (most of them water supply reservoirs where fishing was white crappies or black crappies) and an important secondary function to water only 6.0 per cent were "rough" fish. 174 Ilunois Natural History Survey Bui.i.etin Vol. 27, Art. 2

In December, 1943, conservation representa- ersville, Missouri, and Dubuque, Iowa" tives from the states of Illinois, Iowa, Mis- (Barnickol & Starrett 1951) and "Effi- souri, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, from the ciency and Selectivity of Cominercial Fish- United States Fish and Wildlife Service, and from other interested agencies met at Dubuque, ing Devices Used on the Mississippi Iowa, and formed the I'pper Mississippi River River" (Starrett & Barnickol 1955). The Committee (Smith 19+9). This Conservation first of these articles listed the fishes group was organized for the purpose of spon- caught in the Mississippi River, their soring studies of the fishery and wildlife resources of the Mississippi River from Ca- distribution, size range, growth rates, ruthersville, Missouri, to Hastings, Minnesota. and other information on their biologv. designed to serve as a basis The studies were A total of 26,037 fish weighing 28,294 for making scientifically sound recommenda- pounds were taken in 1944 and 1946. tions for the management of these resources (Barnickol & Starrett 1951:267). The second article presented a statistical study of the efficiency and selectivity of Field operations in the Missouri-Illi- various types of gear used in the Mis- nois section were begun in March, 1944, sissippi River survey. The study was with the Conservation Commission of made for the purpose of furnishing infor- Missouri, the Illinois Department of Con- mation to those assigned the task of man- servation, and the Illinois Natural His- aging the river's commercial fishery. It tory Survey participating, A crew con- included a consideration of seines, tram- sisting of four men, working from the mel nets, basket traps, wing nets, hoop Natural History Survey's laboratory boat nets, trap nets, and trot lines, the kinds Anax, operated test nets and other types of fish most commonly captured or of fishing gear at 19 stations between trapped, the sizes of fish taken with Caruthersville, Missouri, and Warsaw, various mesh sizes, and the comparative Illinois. Two years later, in 1946, field efficiency of several types of gear. operations were resumed in the Iowa-Illi- One of the interesting findings to come nois part of the river with the Iowa Con- out of the Mississippi River survey was servation Commission and the two Illi- the collection of post-larval paddlefish, nois agencies co-operating. The survey in Polyodon spathula (Wal.), by Thomp- 1944 was begun with Thompson in son and Barnickol. While minnow sein- charge of the laboratory boat and Paul G. ing off a sand bar in the Mississippi near Barnickol as the chief fisheries investi- Cape Girardeau, Missouri, on May 29, gator for Missouri. Thompson resigned 1944, the Thompson and Barnickol party from the Natural History Survey to go took four paddlefish ranging in length with the Forest Preserve District of Cook from 17 to 26 mm. Other than the col- County, and in May, 1945, Barnickol lection of seven paddlefish larvae (17-20 was employed to replace him. Barnickol mm.) taken by Thompson in 1933 was in charge of the crew that covered (Thompson 1933Z'), these are the only the upper part of the river from Burling- young paddlefish of less than 35 mm. in ton to Dubuque in 1946. In May, 1948, length known to have been collected. Barnickol was recalled to Missouri to be- These post-larval paddlefish and other come Head of Fisheries Research for the paddlefish material were studied by R. Conservation Commission. At that time Weldon Larimore (1949, 1950), who de- data from 2 years of field work on scribed the changes in the cranial nerves the Mississippi River were only partly of the paddlefish accompanying develop- analyzed. ment of the rostrum and gametogenesis

On July 1, 1948, William C. Starrett of Polyodon and its relationship to prac- began employment by the Natural His- tical regulation of the paddlefish fishery. tory Survey for the difficult task of work- In 1948 Larimore was made a per- ing over Mississippi River fishery data manent member of the Aquatic Biolog^^ collected by others. In this he had the staff. He had already nearly completed

co-operation of Barnickol ; their combined a study on the life history and ecology efforts resulted in publication of two of the warmouth, Chaenobryttus gulosus articles of the Natural History Survey (Cuvier), a fish that was being consid-

Bulletin : "Commercial and Sport Fishes ered as a possible companion species for of the Mississippi River Between Caruth- largemouth bass in ponds. This study of December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 175

the warmouth was later published as an bass showed well-developed homing in- article of the Natural History Survey stincts as did some other species (Lari- Bulletin (Larimore 1957). more 1952). Tests of the value of plant- During the summer of 1950 Larimore, ing 6— to 8—inch smallmouths in a with the help of Leonard Durham and stream already containing a population of others, began an intensive investigation smallmouth bass demonstrated that it of the fishes in Jordan Creek, a small was possible to build up numbers of these spring-fed, upland stream in Vermilion fish only temporarily. Minnows removed County. This project marked the be- from a stream with an electric seine were ginning of upland stream investigations replaced by other minnows through mi- as a continuous program of the Section gration and reproduction within a period of Aquatic Biology. Through the use of of a few months (Larimore 1955). Ap- the electric seine and other special equip- parently streams are quickly repopulated ment developed for stream work, it has even when fish are killed by drought con- been possible to make both intensive and ditions, heavy winter ice, or temporary extensive studies on the ecology of stream severe pollution. fishes in the central Illinois region (Lari- In studies of ponds and lakes, by 1945 more, Pickering, & Durham 1952). The evidence had accumulated to substantiate smallmouth bass, Micropterus doloniieiii the idea that a lack of fish predators was Lacepede, was found to be the most im- an important problem to be faced in the portant anglers' fish in these streams. management of these waters. Obviously, The fry of this bass were particularly fishing was no substitute for natural pre- vulnerable to floods on streams when the dation, and much of the task of the fish floods were accompanied by sudden manager was that of functioning as a changes in water temperatures. The adult predator of small fishes (Bennett 1947).

Fisheries technicians of the Illinois Natural History Survey using fish shocker for sampling the population of a stream. The shocker is a recent development that has been used successfully in both streams and lakes. ;

176 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

Studies on the effects of fish predators numbers of small bluegills in the lake were begun with the placing of six short- prior to the spawning period. This re- nosed gars in a 1-acre pond containing duction could come about through arti- bass and bluegills; in this pond, bluegills ficial culling of the fish population, or, as were constantly in a state of overpopula- was later discovered, through concentrat- tion. Because the short-nosed gars were ing the fish during the fall months pre- unable to reproduce in the pond, their ceding the bass spawning season by re- numbers were easily controlled. From leasing a large proportion of the water this experiment, Durham (1955) expand- from the lake and then allowing the lake ed the investigations of fish predation to to refill over winter. Studies of the ef- include about a dozen additional ponds fects of these water releases, or draw- containing populations of stunted fish. downs, were begun in 1951 (Bennett Using gars and cormorants as predators, 1954/') and they are still in progress. he was able to show improvement in Swingle & Smith (1942), working on growth and size of fish and an improve- fishes in Alabama ponds, built their man- ment in the survival rate of naturally agement practices around a program of produced bass. pond fertilization ; they recommended Ten years of recording catches of fish- fertilization for ponds in other parts of ermen at Ridge Lake (Bennett 1954«) the country. In order to test the useful- gave a yield figure of more than 11,000 ness of fertilization as a pond manage- largemouth bass following an original ment technique in Illinois, Donald F. stocking of 435 ; the fact that, in the last Hansen began a testing program in ponds 6 years of the 10, 155,000 bluegills had located on the University of Illinois Ex- been removed following an original stock- perimental Farm near Dixon Springs in ing of 129 of these fish indicated that the southern Illinois, where soils are as poor bluegills were not only more prolific but as any within the state. After 7 years of showed a higher survival rate than the fertilizing three ponds at various rates bass. The annual hook-and-line yield of with complete fertilizers and using three bass varied between 10.9 and 30 pounds other similar but unfertilized ponds for per acre, although the lake was not con- controls, Hansen concluded that the im- sidered a highly fertile one. During this provement in fishing did not justify the time the standing crop of bass varied be- cost of the fertilizer, if fish were cropped tween 30 and 50 pounds per acre. The by hook-and-line. The unfertilized or con- success of a bass spawn (and survival) trol ponds furnished better bass fishing was negatively correlated with the num- than the fertilized ponds. Bluegills could bers of yearling fish present in the lake, be caught at a more rapid rate in the particularly yearling bluegills. Young fertilized ponds, and the fish averaged bass surviving to post schooling fry stage larger in size. In terms of extra fish flesh had about 1 chance in 35 of living to produced by the fertilizer, the improved reach a size of 7 to 10 inches; natural fishing cost about $1.00 per pound of mortality remained relatively high until fish. the fish reached an average weight of Tests on various combinations of fishes

0.75 pound ; then it dropped to less than in ponds have been going on for many 5 per cent per year until fish reached years (Bennett 1952). The combinations ages of 7 to 8 years, when the natural used include largemouth bass—bluegill death rate again became high. With the largemouth bass-bluegill-warmouth—black system followed at Ridge Lake of culling bullhead ; largemouth bass-bluegill-war- the fish population at intervals of 2 years, mouth-channel catfish ; largemouth bass- the average length of bass at the end of golden shiner; largemouth bass— redear the first growing season was 7.5 inches, largemouth bass-warmouth ; largemouth at the end of the second growing season bass—short-nosed gar ; largemouth bass- 10.8 inches, and at the end of the third bluegill-short-nosed gar; smallmouth bass

13.0 inches. The single most important alone ; and largemouth bass alone. No finding at Ridge Lake was that a large combination appeared to be ideal, although new year class of bass could be produced several combinations proved to be as pro- at any spawning season by reducing the ductive of good fishing as the highly ad- December, 1958 Bennett: Aquatic Biology 177 vertised largemouth bass-bluegill combi- activities by people in the nearby indus- nation. trial towns of Pekin and Peoria were Redear sunfish, Lepomis rnicrolophus much greater than the value of the corn (Gunther), were not reported from Illi- the lake bottom would produce if the nois prior to 1945. In that year Dr. C lake were drained (Starrett & McNeil L. Schloemer, then located at Denton, 1952). In addition to studies in recrea- Texas, sent a small number of adult red- tional values, Starrett has made intensive ears to the Natural History Survey at studies of the fish and bottom fauna of Urbana. These fish were placed in sev- Chautauqua and similar lakes, and the eral ponds near Urbana, but none ap- physical, chemical, and biological factors parently survived the winter of 1945—16. which influence them. Through the as- In the spring of 1946 Dr. William E. sistance of biologists from the Illinois Ricker, then located at Bloomington, In- Department of Conservation he has col- diana, furnished 30 large adult redears lected annual commercial fishing sta- from central Indiana. These fish were tistics on all of the large Illinois rivers planted in several locations; 12 were and information on native lamprey displaced in a stripmine pond, near Danville, tribution. that contained largemouth bass. The In many of our operations during the redears in the stripmine pond multiplied past 20 years we have had the co-opera- very successfully and were the source for tion of the Illinois Department of Con- introductions into many lakes and ponds servation : in pond management studies, scattered through central and southern stream investigations, surveys of the Illinois. Redears are now present in tribu- fishes of large rivers, and statistical studies taries of the Illinois River (particularly on yields of commercial fishes. Some- the Sangamon) and in the Wabash drain- times this assistance has been in the form age along the eastern border of the state, of funds for construction works or for as well as in the Big Muddy system of physical equipment, sometimes for half- southern Illinois. As far as is known, all time or full-time assistants; occasionally of these fish originated from the 12 fish personnel of the Department have par- released in the pond near Danville. ticipated in operations requiring many In 1949 Starrett was placed in charge men for a short period of time. This co- of the Natural History Survey labora- operation has not been based on written tory at Havana, where he began a study agreement; rather, it has come about of Lake Chautauqua, a shallow flood through an understanding of mutual plain lake of some 3,000 acres belonging needs and interests by certain personnel to the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service of the Department, particularly Sam A. and used principally as a waterfowl Parr, formerly Investigator, Inspector, refuge. This lake was fairly typical of and Superintendent of Fisheries, now other areas in the Illinois valley that had Administrative Assistant to the Director been leveed to keep out the river, pumped of Conservation ; and William J. Harth, dry so that they could be used for farm- recently made Superintendent of Fish- ing, and later flooded. We wondered eries. We are grateful for this assistance about comparative over-all values of these and co-operation. areas for recreation (duck hunting and sport fishing), fish production (com- DIRECTION OF FUTURE mercial fishes), fur production (native STUDIES furbearers), and timber production (wood pulp), as contrasted with values In looking toward the future we find of these areas for corn production that that some lines of research are taking required government help in the con- shape now and others are still in the struction and maintenance of levees, planning stages. pumping costs and equipment, and sup- One program that was begun in the port of corn prices. In spite of the fact spring of 1958 centers on a study of that recreational values are often intangi- such basic concepts of fish management ble, it soon became evident that the value as carrying capacity and standing crop, of this area for fishing and recreational as well as the effects of cropping and 178 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 stocking on populations of fishes. This systems: waste products from commercial work is centered at the Fin 'n* Feather chemical processes and substances applied Club near Dundee. to aquatic areas for the control of noxious At the Eighteenth North American animals and plants. From these studies Wildlife Conference held in Washington, he may be able to suggest methods of re- U. C, in 1953, Max McGraw, Presi- ducing the toxicity of these chemicals to dent of the North American Wildlife fishes and other aquatic organisms. Foundation, suggested the development of Prior to 1934 Wilbur M. Luce (now a fisheries research unit at the Fin 'n' Professor of Zoology, University of Illi- Feather Club. It was agreed that the nois) and David H. Thompson developed McGraw Foundation (with the assist- a method for stripping and fertilizing ance of the Illinois Department of Con- sunfish eggs, which they used to produce servation) would develop a research unit hybrids between species of these centrar- of at least 15 1-acre ponds and provide chids. Luce raised many of these sunfish space for laboratory and offices in the to maturity, and Thompson recognized Fin 'n' Feather Lodge. When this would that two of the hybrids were similar to be accomplished, the laboratory and pond fish pictured by Forbes & Richardson unit would be assigned to the North (1908) as being valid species. Recently American Wildlife Foundation, which in we have revived the technique of artificial turn would assign the use of the facility insemination of sunfish eggs in order to to the Illinois Natural History Survey explore the possibility of developing hy- and the Illinois Department of Conserva- brids for use in fish management. In tion for fisheries research. Some progress 1957 William F. Childers produced had been made in physical plant con- viable fry from all possible combinations struction by 1956, and on February 1 of of crosses of bluegills, redears, green sun- that year David Homer Buck was em- fish, and warmouths. Some of these com- ployed by the Natural History Survey to binations appear to be superior to parent give immediate supervision to the project. types. Soon after, Maurice A. Whitacre, biolo- It is probable that within the next few gist with the Department of Conserva- decades great advances will be made in tion, was assigned to this program to the management of fish populations for work with Dr. Buck. At the beginning sport and commercial uses. Research of the 1958 season 11 ponds were ready basic to this management may lead to the for use. Eight other ponds are in various discovery of ecological factors which con- stages of construction, and as these are trol the expansion of populations of im- completed they will be stocked and added portant sport species, such factors as to the units in operation. have already been found for the large- A second program, already begun, has mouth and smallmouth basses. Adjust- to do with studies of the biochemistry ments of these factors may be, to some of fishes. A chemical laboratory was de- extent, applicable to most natural waters, veloped in conjunction with the aquarium but they probably will be more practical laboratories in the Natural Resources in artificial waters and in controllable Building at Urbana, and Robert C. Hilti- natural waters. It seems reasonable to as- bran was employed on May 1, 1957, to sume that progress will be made in en- begin biochemical investigations. Hilti- vironment control until waters can be bran was forced to pioneer in this field made to produce crops of selected plants because little research had been done on and animals much as terrestrial habitats fish biochemistry. He has begun by can be made to produce wheat, rice, studying the "normal" enzyme systems swine, and cattle. The development of of the bluegill, Lepornis macrochirus Ra- water management may not only give finesque. Once the "normal" enzyme sys- ways to control the kinds and numbers of tems are known, Hiltibran will measure fishes but also to control the individual the action of various chemicals on these steps in the food chains of fishes. :

Wildlife Research

THOMAS G. SCOTT

WT ILDLIFE was high on the scale Dr. Theodore H. Frison (1938:19), ^ ''^ of human values during the period who knew and understood Forbes as well of discovery and initial settlement in Illi- as anyone, quoted the above statement as nois. When the Illinois Natural History representative of the philosophy of 1912. Society was founded in 1858, most II- linoisans were self-reliant farmers who DEVELOPMENT measured values in terms of the length of fences constructed, the acreage of cleared Wildlife research, as it is recognized to- forest land, the acreage of land under day, first became evident in the annals of cultivation, and the extent of drainage the Natural History Survey in the late programs, roadways, and railroads. The 1870's when Forbes initiated his inves- Illinois Central Railroad line from Chi- tigation of the food of birds. O. B. Ga- cago to the junction of the Ohio and Mis- lusha (1881:238) provided insight into sissippi rivers had been completed only 2 the conception of this research when, years earlier. Representative of the period following Forbes' presentation of a paper are the reflections of Benjamin F. John- on the food of meadowlarks at the Janu- son, chairman of a committee for the ary, 1881, meeting of the Horticultural examination of farms and nurseries for Society of Northern Illinois, he observed the Illinois State Agricultural Society. In that when a few of us, six years ago, met in reporting on improvements in "northern the Normal University, as a committee of the Illinois" following inspections in 1859 by State Horticultural Society, to inaugurate the enterprise, I had serious fears that the work the committee, Johnson (1861:84) un- was too great for accomplishment. doubtedly impressed members of the So- ciety when he stated that These studies accompanied and prob- the progress of improvement in this portion ably assisted in the accomplishment of the of Illinois is little less than wonderful. Ten reorganization which converted the Illi- wild, years ago much of the country was open nois Museum of Natural History into a prairie; now there is scarcely a rood of un- State Laboratory of Natural History on inclosed land, except portions of the timber along the rivers and streams. July 1, 1877. The reorganization was accompanied by a new conception of pur- Today one cannot help but ponder why pose, relieving the members of the staff there weren't a few rebels hardy enough of the preparation of museum displays and to stand against the surge of progress and allowing them to concentrate on research. insist that Illinois, the settlers' "prairie Although I have been unable to uncover state," set aside a prairie park or primitive direct evidence of it, I feel certain that forest for future generations. the change was manipulated by Forbes The loss of primitive areas and much of and members of the Illinois State Horti- what went with them was accepted as cultural Society. Of legislative action ap- inevitable. Even Dr. Stephen A. Forbes proved May 29, 1879, to become effective {I9\2b :40), a giant among the naturalists July 1, 1879, Forbes (1880/:1) gener- of the time, pointed out that the reduc- ously reported tion and elimination of wildlife through settlement of Illinois by white man We were also directed to investigate the large and intricate subject of the food of birds, in has evidently been a perfectly natural and the interests of agriculture and horticulture, inevitable one— as much so as the flow of $200 per annum being voted for the expenses the tide in the wake of the revolving moon of this work. — and immensely advantageous, also, from every point of view except that of the in- Forbes' research on the food of birds adequate, incompetent and ill-adapted popu- was to become one of the outstanding con- lation which it [settlement] has reduced or suppressed. tributions to avian biology. This research [179] : :

180 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

provides us with further insijjht into the It is unfortunate that Forbes' responsi- motivations of the man who j^uided the bilities were such that he could not have projjram of the Natural History Survey devoted more time to wildlife research, and its parent orjjanizations for many for he seems to have possessed an under- years (1872-1930). I have come to be- standing of wildlife biology which was lieve that wildlife research made such an much in advance of his time. In a single auspicious start in the Survey program not early paper (Forbes 1880^), a number of only because of Forbes' professional quali- observations were made which, by their fications but also because of his intense earliness, seem prophetic of views which desire to contribute to knowledge relating are credited to relatively recent times. to human economv and welfare. W. L. Current beliefs on predation may be seen' McAtee (1917:2-^9) believed that F. E. in "the annihilation of all the established L. Beal and Forbes were "the founders 'enemies' of a species would, as a rule, of the scientific method of studying the have no effect to increase its final average economic value of birds." Birds in Their numbers" (Forbes 1880fl:ll). Relations to Man (Weed & Dearborn Forbes (1880«:8) recognized a need 1903) is inscribed "To Stephen Alfred for an understanding of animal popula-

Forbes . . . whose classic studies of the tions long before they received serious economic relations of birds will long re- study. Of this he wrote: main the model for later students." Our problem is, therefore, to determine how In an early report Forbes (1882«:1) these innumerable small oscillations, due to advised imperfect adjustment, are usually kept within bounds— to discover the forces and laws The work of the State Laboratory of Natural which tend to prevent either inordinate in- History ... is essentially that of a zoological crease or decrease of any species, and also and botanical survey of the State, conducted those by which widely oscillating species are with principal reference to economic questions, brought into subjection and reduced to a and to the interests of public education. condition of prosperous uniformity.

Although economic consideration con- It is apparent that this view implies stituted a principal responsibility, such a population management in the modern

responsibility is adequately met only when sense. Further implications of manage-

men are willing to meet it and are capable ment may be seen in the following

of meeting it. If the desire had not been statement by Forbes ( 1880a :4):

there, it seems likely that Forbes and his It is also plain that if man understands clear- associates would have been content to ly the disorders which arise in the system of Nature as result the occupy themselves with the systematics a of rapid progressive changes in his own condition and activities, and descriptive records of the native flora and understands also the processes of Nature and fauna, and wildlife research would which tend to lessen and remove these dis- have had to find its beginning at a much orders, he may, by his own intelligent inter- ference, often avoid or greatly mitigate the later date. I marvel at the courage of evils of his situation, as well as hasten their Forbes' convictions I consider the when remedy and removal. statement of Robert Ridgway (1901:1), a close associate of Forbes, on a prevailing Forbes (1880^:9) seems to have been attitude of the day well on the way toward an understanding of density dependent factors as used by two essentially different of There are kinds today's students of animal populations, as ornithology: systematic or scientific, and pop- well as modern views on predation, when ular. The former deals with the structure and classification of birds, their synonymies and he wrote: "The fact of survival is there- technical descriptions. The latter treats of fore usually sufficient evidence of a fairly their habits, songs, nesting, and other facts complete adjustment of the rate of re-

pertaining to their life-histories. . . . Popular production to the drains upon the ornithology is the more entertaining, with its savor of the wildwood, green fields, the river- species." That his understanding of the side and seashore, bird songs, and the many effect of density dependent factors on fascinating things connected with out-of-door animal populations was astonishingly Nature. But systematic ornithology, being a well advanced is evident in his (Forbes component part of biology—the science of lite that excessive — is the more instructive and therefore more 1882^:122) reasoning pop- important. ulations are, "in one way or another, self- :

December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 181 limiting." Earlier he (Forbes 1880^:5) the influence of Herbert L. Stoddard had written that "as a general rule, the (1931) and Aldo Leopold (1931, 1933). rate of reproduction is in inverse ratio By that time, progressive leaders in the to the grade of individual development field realized that restrictive regulations ." and activity ; . . The "grade of indi- and game farms were not meeting wild- vidual development and activity" refers to life management needs. Also, it had be- the degree of evolutionary progress from come apparent that game populations a primitive form. Forbes (1880«:11) could be managed wisely only when man- seems to have been grasping at the role of agement practices were based on a fund density independent factors in population of pertinent and precise knowledge. Fri- control when he observed that the "real son, who became Acting Chief of the Illi- and final limits of a species are the inor- nois Natural History Survey upon Forbes' ganic features of its environment,— soil, death on March 13, 1930, and then Chief climate, seasonal peculiarities, and the on July 1, 1931, was among these leaders. like." An enthusiastic hunter, Frison had a con-

What is today recognized as wildlife suming interest in game management. research continued to develop under Wildlife research was recognized in the Forbes' guidance in the form of bird organizational structure of the Natural censuses. The results of these censuses are History Survey for the first time when classics in American ornithology. They Frison (1938:31) established a Section constituted the first extensive, quantita- of Game Research and Management on tive investigations of bird numbers, or of July 1, 1934. Dr. Ralph E. Yeatter, one any wildlife population for that matter, of the nation's first game specialists, was and introduced a census technique. employed in this section.

Despite Forbes' modern views, there is Frison initiated formation of the now little evidence that he promoted wildlife well-established Midwest Wildlife Con- management to any great extent. The ference, and the first meeting was held thinking of Forbes ( 1912*5' :40) with re- in Urbana on December 5, 6, and 7, 1935. spect to game management, despite earlier, This meeting, known as the North Cen- more promising views, seems to have been tral States Fish and Game Conference, limited to the encouragement of restric- was the first regional conference of wild- tive laws, as evidenced by the following life technicians in the United States. "Our resident game birds would all have Frison (1938:27) described the confer- been gone long ago if it had not been for ence as the restraints of law put upon the ac- essentially a fish and game clinic at which tivities of the hunter ..." Forbes scientists from all the north-central states, administrators or (1912Z':46) made a plea for the Illinois without being dominated by the political type of conservationists, freely Academy of Science to support by resolu- discussed wildlife management practices in tion the "Anthony bill" (Migratory Bird an effort to winnow out the chaff from the Act of 1913), then under consideration in wheat, to coordinate such researches and to the House of Representatives. It should orientate scientific studies of wildlife resources in such a way that demonstrable be remembered that legal protection was sound management practices would result. virtually the only management concept of the times. By 1936 Frison (1938:31) had concluded that experimental wildlife areas ORGANIZATION were needed for the purpose of testing management theories under practical con- Game research in the modern sense be- ditions, a need which has still not been gan to receive recognition in the Natural adequately met. A Section of Wildlife History Survey's program in the early Experimental Areas was listed on the 1930's. Probably stimulation was re- stafif page of the Bulletin from March, ceived from the federal government's 1938, to September, 1945. On June 1, emphasis on conservation of natural re- 1938, a special program dealing with for- sources, an emphasis that accompanied the est problems in game management was un- search for work during that period of dertaken by Dr. Lee E. Yeager, who had national economic emergency, and from joined the staff in the Section of Forestry, 182 li.MNOis Natural History Survly Hui-lltin Vol. 27, Art. 2

Following passage of the Federal Aid in tion. The latter section had been discon- Wildlife Restoration Act in 1937, Frison tinued by June, 1948. undertook to arrange a co-operative wild- Dr. Thomas G. Scott was apix)intedj life research program with the Illinois the Head of the Section of Game Re- Department of Conservation and the search and Management on January 1,1 United States Bureau of Biological Sur- 1950. He was the first person to bear vey (now the U. S. Bureau of Sport this title. Soon after that date, arrange- Fisheries and Wildlife). The first co- ments were made for formal co-operationj operative project, "Illinois Fur Animal in wildlife research between the Natural* Resources Survey," with Louis G. Brown History Survey and Southern Illinois as leader, was approved on May 23, 1939 University, where Dr. Willard D, Klim- (Frison 1940:8-9). In 1940 a Coopera- stra was guiding the program in wildlife tive Wildlife Restoration Program, em- research and education. That part of the bracing interagency co-operation in Fed- Survey's organizational structure. Co- eral Aid, was listed on the staff page on operative Wildlife Research, which em- the section level. Of this program Frison braced the Federal Aid research, was (1940:8) recorded: "General program dropped, and the personnel and admin- planning and supervision of projects deal- istrative responsibilities of this program ing with wildlife research have been as- were transferred to the Section of Game signed to the Chief and various other Research and Management in March,! members of the scientific staff of the Illi- 1950. On September 1, 1954, the Section] nois Natural History Survey." In evi- of Forestry was abolished, and all of its dence of its success this co-operative ar- wildlife activities and personnel trans- rangement has survived through the years, ferred to the Section of Game Research and in 1956 the Conservation Advisory and Management. Thus, by 1954 all, Board (Mann 1956:6) included, in a wildlife research had been assigned to one] statement of policies, provisions for the section. The name of the section wasl development of an adequate game re- more appropriately designated the Section! search program "through cooperation of Wildlife Research on May 1, 1956. with and support of the Illinois Natural The area of research assigned to the sec-

History Survey Division." tion was similar to that of its predeces- Thus, by 1940 Frison had stimulated sors: the biology of warm-blooded verte- and obtained support for a wildlife re- brates except that associated with taxo- search program which involved the pri- nomy and classification. In 1956 the] mary activity of four sections within the extensive activities of the section were! Natural History Survey's organizational divided and were assigned to branches to] structure. This compartition of the work provide for more effective supervision.] was believed by those who knew Frison The new branches were Nongame Birds, to have grown out of his extreme interest Upland Game Birds, Migratory Game} in wildlife resources and his desire to Birds, Mammals, Co-operative Wildlife! give each facet of study his personal Research, and Environmental Research.) direction. As the first century of the Illinois Nat- There was little change in the wildlife ural History Survey ends, interest in] research program while Dr. Leo R. Te- wildlife resources of Illinois and other! hon served as Acting Chief, December 10, parts of the United States is greater than] 1945, through February 28, 1947, follow- ever before. The number of people en- ing Frison's death on December 9, 1945. gaged in the wildlife management pro- Dr. Harlow B. Mills, who became fession is at an all-time high and promises] Chief on March 1, 1947, proved to have to go higher. Frison's North Central! the same consuming interest in wildlife States Fish and Game Conference has' research which had marked Frison's lead- so grown in attendance and extent of in- ership. In August, 1947, the Cooperative terest that its facilities no longer seem] Wildlife Restoration Program was more to meet the needs seen at the outspt. As] properly designated Cooperative Wild- a consequence, there is a tendency for! life Research, and a Section of Migratory specialists to draw apart in comrpitteesj Waterfowl was added to the organiza- or "councils." Some of those who lookl December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 183 into the future to a greatly increased hu- than they at adapting himself to the new life of civilization. He is a perfect reflection of man population and a more intensive his most constant surroundings — with a land-use program seem to be returning bosom of prairie butter-cups, a back like the to f'orbes' "let's face the inevitable" phi- dead grass of autumn, and a song that harmo- losophy of 1912. They seem willing to nizes well with the whistling of prairie winds. stand by while part of our wildlife her- This colorful description reveals some- itage, the prairie chicken, for example, thing of Forbes' deep feeling for birds. goes down the drain. Foreign game birds Sentiment, however, is not evident in are being feverishly investigated and re- his systematic and painstakingly conserva- leased with the hope of finding species tive evaluations of the place of birds in which will supplement populations of na- an economic scheme of things. tive game birds being reduced by a chang- Forbes' research on the food of birds ing habitat. In anticipation of the time constituted a milestone in ornithological when shootable wild game populations history. "No part of the recent work of will no longer meet the demand, there are the Laboratory has excited a wider inter- the programs for pen-rearing game birds est than that relating to the food of to be released under the gun. The root- birds" (Forbes 1880/: 7). This work ing out of osage orange hedges throughout established Forbes among contemporary the state is symbolic of the cancerous-like ornithologists as the ranking authority growth in activities designed to bring in- on the insect food of birds. Dr. Elliott creasing amounts of land into agricul- Coues (1883:105) believed him to be tural, residential, or industrial use. Public "Our best authority upon the insect food realization of the vital importance of of birds ..." Drs. Clarence M. Weed habitat in the management of a wildlife and Ned Dearborn (1903:19-20) con- resource is showing growth ; however, the sidered Forbes' publications on the food area of desirable wildlife habitat, espe- of birds to be "classic papers" and "the cially that for upland species, is continu- basis for the modern development of ing to shrink. Thus, the most perplexing economic ornithology." problem of the wildlife manager in Illi- The findings of Forbes' studies of the nois today is that of developing and pro- food of birds appeared in a number of tecting suitable habitat. papers. The most substantial contributions, however, were brought together in RESEARCH CONTRIBUTIONS two papers (Forbes 1880^, 1883rt). The first dealt with the food of certain birds A review of outstanding contributions in the families Mimidae and Turdidae. made to wildlife biology and conserva- The second reported observations on the tion by employees of the Illinois Natural regulative action of birds feeding on an History Survey and its parent organiza- excessively high population of canker- tions will understanding in aid of work worms and vine leaf chafers. The latter these fields during the first 100 years. A paper, "The Regulative Action of Birds few publications by non-Survey personnel Upon Insect Oscillations," was approved are cited to to provide perspective or by Indiana University in fulfillment of recognize Survey publications by workers Forbes' thesis requirements for the Ph.D. who were not employed by the Survey. degree granted in 1884 (letter of May 2, Birds 1952, from E. Lingle Craig, Reference Librarian, Indiana University, to Mar- Contributions on the biology and con- guerite Simmons, Librarian, Illinois Nat- servation of birds may be conveniently ural History Survey). Of lesser im- grouped into three classes: those for non- portance were notes on the food of the game, those for upland game, and those meadowlark (Forbes 1881Z'), the English for migratory game bird'^. sparrow (Forbes 188h'), and the kinglets Nongame Birds.—Of the meadow- (Forbes 1883^). lark, Forbes ( 1 88 U: 234-5) wrote: The scope of these investigations may be seen in the following report (Forbes He is first cousin to the Indian, the prairie- wolf and the badger, but with a better l;nack 1882^:5-6): 184 Illinois Natural History Survey Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

pre>-ent one, with the final details The colleclitiii ilcsiRHfd to illii>(ratr the fooil ing the for of bird* has been more than doubled in the each species taken up separately and followed la*t two years, and now numbers over six all over the state and around the year. thousand stomachs, representing about two huntired species. Kight hundred and eighty of Forbes' experience with plankton sur-

these have now been exhaustively studied, . . . veys guided him in the development of the census technique devised specifically Unftjriiinatflv, the analyses were ap- for the bird surveys (Forbes & Gross parently discontinued at this point, for l'^21:l). Forbes believed that two men there were no more publications on the walking abreast could identify and count fcK)d of birds, and the annual reports of all of the birds flushed by them or cross- the State Laboratory of Natural History ing their track on a strip 150 feet wide indicate that nothinjj further on this sub- in relatively open country but 60 feet ject was done. wide in heavier cover, such as orchards, Forbes' evaluations of his findings on open vv(H)ds, and patches of close shrub- the food of birds indicated awareness of bery. This census technique was pictured the need for giving special consideration (Forbes & Gross 1921:1) as a to the high mobility of birds, food preferences, density effects, ability to diversify huge net a hundred and fifty feet wide, drawn in straight lines across every kind of diet, and the importance of seasons, geo- crop or other surface vegetation, by which graphic location, and specific ecological ail the birds found there should be caught

1 S.S'()<' : 1 ) circum>tances. Forbes ( 22-3 de- and held unt I they had been identified and scribed what appears to have been a new counted. method of evaluating proportions of food Results were obtained by application of in the stomachs and crops of birds, a this census technique during the suinmers technique which is used yet today. He of 1907 and 1909 (Forbes .Sc Gross (Forbes lSKlrt:107) also showed himself 1922:189, 199); the census indicated to be aware of the importance of sample an average of 852 birds per square mile size and made crude tests for significance for the state as a whole. The numbers of by comparing the results of analyses of birds per square mile showed a striking small samples with those of larger increase of 54 per cent from the 1907 fig- samples to determine whether there were ure to that of 1909. Orchards were found important departures in the pattern of to have the greatest numbers of birds per the diet. square mile, 3,943 yards and gardens Because Forbes believed that the num- ; were a close second with 3,418. The state- bers and kinds of birds in specific habitat wide number of birds per square mile in categories needed to be known before winter was estimated from data collected their economic importance could be evalu- in 1906 and 1907 to have been 520 ated, he encouraged studies based on sys- (Forbes & Gross 1923:398). tematic censuses, which were carried out Dr. Frank Smith (1930) prepared a in 1906, 1907, 1908, and 1909. These thorough and useful paper dealing with a studies are classics in American ornithol- chronology of the spring migration of 221 ogy and introduce a new censusing tech- species of birds through Urbana from nique for birds. 1 believe them to be the 1903 through 1922. The objective of the first extensive statistical analyses of bird study was to determine whether there was p«»pulations in this country. Although the a correlation between migration flights of results of these surveys are presented in spring migrants and certain kinds of six papers, two of them contain most of weather. Smith (1930:112) concluded: the data (Forbes & Gross 1922, 1923). A careful study of the Unfortunnteh. a final paper in which it weather maps during the time when records were being made re- was hoped to present all of the findings vealed that the greatest migratory activity for each species was never published. in spring occurred at times when the weather Plans for this paper are described (Forbes maps showed an area of low barometric & Gross 1923:.397) as follows: pressure approaching from the west, with the south winds and rising temperatures which It has been our general plan to work at first normally accompany such movements. with broad strokes of the full brush, refining upon our neutral background by degrees and The monograph by Dr. Alfred O. ending, as we hope to do in a paper follow- Gross (1921) on the dickcissel must be December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 185

hay- classified as one of the outstanding early habitat categories. He found that habitat; with- studies of its kind. I was especially im- fields constituted preferred pressed by his statistical evaluation of the in this classification, clover and alfalfa abundance of the bird in relationship to v\^ere preferred to other kinds of hayfields

expedition for the .Ulin?'* Ornithologists in winter equipment ready to set out on a collecting Alfred O. Gross, and with him State Laboratory of Natural History, about 1906. At the right is is Howard A. Ray. —

186 Illinois Natural History Survkv Hulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

available at the time. Perhaps it is also 1063, included protection also for the appropriate to mention the paper by W. crow, blue jay, cowbird, and grackle by E. Loucks (18'^4) on the prothonotary the time it had passed the General As- warbler. While the paper is unfortu- sembly, June 27, 1957, and was signed nately more subjective than objective, it into law by Governor William G. Strat- constitutes a colorful record of the find- ton, July 8, 1957 (Illinois General As- ings of a talented observer. sembly '1957:1937-8). The bill pro- The participation of the Natural His- vided for amending Section 21 of the tory Survey staff in the efifort to obtain Game Code to define all hawks and owls species but, as a consequence lethal protection for all hawks and owls in as protected Illinois merits attention. At the urj^inji; of an oversight, Section 36 of the Code of Dr. David H. Thompson, Director was not amended to include the Cooper's Ralph Bradford of the Illinois Depart- hawk, the sharp-shinned hawk, and the ment of Conservation soujjht and obtained great horned owl among the hawks and let::islation, efifective July 1, 1929, to pro- owls which were unlawful to have in pos- tect all hawks and owls except the great session at any time. horned owl, the goshawk, sharp-shinned The Prairie Chicken.— If the Illi- hawk, Cooper's hawk, duck hawk, and nois farmer of the 1860's had taken time pigeon hawk. from his backbreaking work to sit down Members of the Natural History Sur- and figure out the cause of the enormous prairie chickens which he vey stafif continued to advocate protection populations of of hawks and owls, and, effective July 1, alternately cursed and blessed, perhaps he 1941, protection was obtained for all but would have seen that he had just com- the great horned owl. This condition pre- pleted a gigantic habitat development vailed until July 1, 1947, when, for some project for upland game birds. He had unexplained reason, the Cooper's and extended the range of the chicken by clear- sharp-shinned hawks were removed from ing the timberland, and he had provided establishing the protected list. In 1956 and 1957 a thousands of food patches by new efifort, spearheaded by Elton Fawks, grainfields. representing the Illinois Audubon Soci- From these high populations, the prai- ety, was made to obtain protection for all rie chickens declined in numbers with the in the hawks and owls. I presented a paper at gradual increase grain farming and the annual meeting of the Natural Re- accompanying reduction of grassland. sources Council of Illinois on October 20, The hunting season on prairie chickens 1956; this paper has been credited with was closed in 1903 and was not opened having much to do with winning the sup- again until 1911. The relaxation of hunt- port of the Council and member clubs for ing regulations at this time undoubtedly the needed legislation (Fawks 1957:1). followed an increase in the population, associated with Indiana I read a second paper at the annual meet- probably "The ing of the Illinois Audubon Society in 'Comeback' of 1912" (Leopold 1931: Rockford on May 18, 1957, at the time 172). Contemporary data for Illinois the bill was before the legislature (Bay- had apparently not been called to Leo- (1912Z': less 1957:3), and I made an appeal for pold's attention because Forbes further support in the official publication 47-8), reported that Federation of Sportsmen's of the Illinois prairie-hens—thanks to our protective laws Clubs (Scott 1957). Dr. Richard R. are now to be seen in at least seventy-four Graber assisted this effort by analyzing counties, so abundantly in some that farmers are beginning to protest against their further data on hawk and owl numbers reported increase because of the amount of grain Illinois in the Christmas counts of the which they devour. Audubon Society for the past 50 years and by demonstrating that some species The records on which this statement is had declined in numbers and that there based remain in the files of the Illinois was no evidence of need for measures de- Natural History Survey. Re-examination signed to reduce hawk and owl popula- of them brings out the conservativeness tions. The bill proposed for the protec- of Forbes, for they indicate that the re- tion of hawks and owls. House Bill No. porting observers had found a few prairie — :

December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 187

chickens in all of Illinois' 102 counties collected in Jasper and Richland counties except 10 (Yeatter 1957:8). Despite an in the summers of 1936 and 1937. exaggerated confidence in protective regu- Because cestodes of a previously undescribed lations, Forbes {\9l2b-A8) recognized species of Raillietina occurred in 10 [ac- the basic environmental factor which was tually 9] of 14 young birds and in 4 cases limiting the prairie chicken population be- were so numerous or so large as to occlude cause he advised that: the lumen of the greater part of the small intestine, they should not be overlooked as The very country in which it was formerly a factor in prairie chicken mortality (Leigh most numerous—that is, the open prairie 1940:188-9). is now least favorable to it because of the agricultural operations, which disturb and Shelf ord & Yeatter (1955) interpreted destroy it during its breeding season. year-to-year population fluctuations of

When it again became evident that the male prairie chickens during a period of prairie chicken population was endan- 18 years on the study area near Hunt in gered, Director Bradford of the Depart- Jasper County, Illinois, in relation to ment of Conservation, at the urging of weather and climate. Field observations Dr. Thompson of the Natural History indicated that the period of the late stages Survey, obtained legislation, effective July of development of the reproductive cells

1, 1933, to prohibit the taking of the during April, the period of egg-hatching prairie chicken at any time. No open sea- in June, and the period when young prai- son on this bird has been permitted since rie chickens were 4 to 8 weeks old were that date. critical times in the reproductive cycle of It seems fitting that, with the upsurge prairie chickens. Many trials in which of interest in wildlife conservation in the various weather records were used showed 1930's, one of the first comprehensive that the population level tended to re- studies of a game species to be undertaken spond to only two weather combinations in Illinois was concerned with the prairie (1) rainfall and sunshine in April and chicken. The valuable monograph (Yeat- (2) rainfall and temperature in June. ter 1943) resulting from this study in- Reproduction was most successful in sea- cludes data on early distribution, range, sons when April rainfall averaged 2—5 life history, populations, mortality causes, inches and when 48-64 per cent of the food habits, and management. 1 believe possible hours of sunshine were experi- that this publication was the first to direct enced. As the amounts of rainfall and attention to the importance of grass-seed sunshine varied from these optimum lim- farming in the management of prairie its, reproductive success became progres- chickens. Yeatter (1943:409) advised sively lower. that areas harboring a few prairie chick- Thus, the prairie chicken in Illinois has ens passed from the enormous populations of Civil War times to small, scattered colo- might be converted into good chicken range nies, in only 24 counties in 1957 (Yeatter by leasing, and converting to refuges for a term of years, 25 per cent of the total land 1957). It seems evident that the prairie in the form of 20-acre, 40-acre or larger chicken will soon become something of tracts of the poorer farm soil throughout each the past in Illinois unless a positive pro- township. gram of management such as that being In a later publication Yeatter (1957:8) proposed at the present time saves them. revised his recommendation on grassland The Bobwhite Quail.—To the up- refuges to a minimum of 40 acres in each land bird hunter of Illinois, events which square mile of farm land. established the present boundaries of Illi- When unusually large numbers of nois proved inadvertently provident, for young prairie chickens were found dead they led to the inclusion of excellent quail on a study area in Jasper County in 1935 range over the southern one-third of the and 1936, an investigation of parasites as state as well as what was to become fairly a possible cause of these deaths was un- good pheasant range in the northern one- dertaken (Leigh 1940:186). Tapeworms third. were found in 10 of 14 partly grown birds Illinois has the distinction of being the and in not one of 14 adults which were locale of the first systematic and extensive :

Illinois Natural History Survey Kullhtin Vol. 27, Art. 2 census of quail populations. These cen- The species did not become the subject of suses were carried out during the period further study until the hunting season of 1906-1909 by a strip-census technique 1936, when 141 quail were collected in (Forbes & Gross 1921, 1922, 1923). The an investigation of helminth parasites by increase in the density of quail popula- Leigh (1940:186, 190), who concluded tions from north to south in Illinois was "that the quail of Illinois are not so heav- I just as clearly marked in the findings of il\ infested with the diversity of helminth Forbes and Gross as it is today. Cen- parasites as are the quail of the southeast- suses during the summers of 1907 and ern states." In the summer of 1938 a 1909 revealed quail populations of 21 brief investigation of quail productivity in birds on 7,966.5 acres or 1 bird per 379.4 Calhoun County was carried out by Bell- acres in northern Illinois, 53 birds on rose (1940:10), who pointed out the im-

5,823.9 acres or 1 bird per 109.9 acres in portance of undisturbed grassland and central Illinois, and 241 birds on 5,527.2 concluded that the possibilities for provid- acres or 1 bird per 22.9 acres in southern ing suitable nesting sites were greatest in Illinois (Forbes & Gross 1922:191, 197). apple orchards. A similar distribution of quail popula- In 1948 and 1949 the hatchability of tion densities was evident in the winter the eggs of the bobwhite was compared counts made during the period November with that of the eggs of pheasants after 23, 1906, through February 21, 1907, experimental exposure to temperatures of when 180 quail were counted on 1,422.4 62, 73, 78, 83, and 88 degrees F. for a acres or 1 bird per 7.9 acres in southern period of 7 days to simulate preincubation

Illinois and 54 on 4,956.0 acres or 1 bird exposure (Yeatter 1950:529). Yeatter per 91.8 acres in central and northern (1950:530) concluded that "No signifi- Illinois combined (Forbes & Gross 1923: cant reduction of hatchability of the bob- 398, 400). The data for the counts made white eggs by high temperatures was evi- during the summers of 1907 and 1909 in- dent." dicated an increase in quail populations Bobwhite quail were investigated from for the state as a whole; 91 quail were 1948 to 1954 on the Crab Orchard Na- counted on 7,693.6 acres, 1 bird per 84.5 tional Wildlife Refuge, in Williamson acres, in 1907 and 224 birds on 11,624.1 County, to determine what types of cover acres, 1 bird per 51.9 acres, in 1909 importantly influenced the abundance of

(Forbes & Gross 1922:191). quail (W. R. Hanson & R. J. Miller un- The densities of quail populations were published MS). Quail abundance was recorded by general habitat category. In significantly correlated with the amount a special study, August 19 to September of "edge" between cultivated fields and 15, 1908, in which orchards in the vicin- brushy pastures. Twenty-five linear miles ity of Centralia and Olney received spe- of multiflora rose hedges, planted on an cial attention, 774.5 acres of orchard and area of about 5.5 square miles, failed 594.5 acres in other habitat categories increase the numbers of quail. were censused ; 356 quail, 1 per 2.2 acres, A most important step was made in the were counted in the orchards and 32, 1 direction of a thoroughgoing investigation per 18.6 acres, outside the orchard area of the biology of the bobwhite quail in (Forbes & Gross 1921:5, 7). The im- Illinois by the signing, on October 3, portance of undisturbed grassland to the 1950, of a memorandum of understanding management of quail was suggested by providing for co-operation between the Forbes & Gross (1921 :3) in their consid- Natural History Survey and Southern eration of reasons for the high densities Illinois University. The observations and of quail in orchards when they concluded impressions (Scott & Klimstra 1954) ob- "Evidently it is not the trees that attract tained during a trip to quail management

it, but the cover afforded by an undis- areas in southeastern United States for turbed growth of grass and weeds be- the purpose of co-ordinating this co-oper- 4 tween the rows." ative program of research in Illinois with Following these early censuses, there work elsewhere are believed noteworthy was a pause in the attention given quail and cover the following subjects: hunting, by Natural History Survey researchers. management of habitat, and populations. December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 189

The co-operative research has involved account of the early history of pheasants nearly all phases of quail biology and an in Illinois and an analysis of the factors experimental habitat management pro- limiting the pheasant range. gram. Among the important contributions His report constitutes the first com- are two studies, one on the diet of quail prehensive account of pheasant research (E. J. Larimer unpublished MS) and the in Illinois. It is a valuable historical rec- other on quail populations on an unman- ord of early introductions of pheasants aged area. The second study has empha- and the development of hunting regula- sized once again the great importance of tions. Curves based on an annual aver- undisturbed grassland to quail productiv- age of over 300 dates of the hatching of ity and provided evidence of the amount eggs in nests were constructed and ana- and distribution of undisturbed grassland lyzed for effects of photoperiod, weather, required to insure high quail productivity. and farming operations. Observations The quail investigations have received made on the breeding behavior of marked outside financial assistance from Max birds released in Kendall County are be- McGraw, A. E. Staley, the North Ameri- lieved to be especially enlightening. Of can Wildlife Foundation, and the United particular note to students of populations Electric Coal Company; the coal com- and behavior was the observation that pany also has made available extensive adult hens tended to become associated landholdings for experiments with habitat in the harems earlier than did juvenile management. hens. One of the earliest attempts to The Ring-Necked Pheasant.—Al- eliminate bias from evaluation of the though the attempt to establish pheasants worth of artificial stocking is reported in Illinois had gotten under way in the upon in the paper. Robertson (1958: 1890's, this state's biological research- 129) concluded "that 35 to 50 per cent ers were apparently unimpressed with it of the cock pheasants in summer releases as a subject for investigation. In a dis- in Illinois were bagged in the succeeding cussion of the animal resources of the hunting season. The recovery rate for state, Forbes (1912/^:48) advised that he spring-released adult cocks, estimated by had not had time to appraise efforts to im- similar methods, was only 6.1 per cent." prove "the composition of our fauna by In Livingston County a release of 1,000 the introduction of exotic species." Little adult hens in September of 1948 resulted or no attention was given pheasants until in a survival of about 50 per cent to May, Leigh (1940:190) made his limited sur- 1949; released hens made up one-third of vey of the parasites of pheasants collected the hens on the area at the latter date. It during the hunting season in 1936. Dur- was found that about 33 per cent of the ing the summer of 1938 Bellrose (1940) broods seen the following summer were made nesting studies and population esti- accompanied by released adult hens. In mates of pheasants in the southern part of Kendall County the effect of a release of

Calhoun County, which is outside the 500 adult hens in August and 1,000 ju- recognized range of pheasants in Illinois. venile hens in November and December His observations (Bellrose 1940:9) ap- of 1949 was evident when it was seen that peared to indicate that this population 25 per cent of the broods in 1950 were had been maintained by repeated releases. accompanied by released hens. Intensive investigations of the ring- There has been much speculation as to necked pheasant did not get under way the reason pheasants have failed to be-

until April 1, 1946, when the Illinois De- come established in southern United partment of Conservation, the U. S. Fish States. During brood studies beginning and Wildlife Service (now the U. S. Bu- in 1937, Yeatter (1950:529) observed reau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife), that the hatchability of pheasant eggs fre- and the Illinois Natural History Survey quently declined in late spring in east- entered into a co-operative project with central Illinois, which is on the southern Federal Aid funds. Dr. William B. Rob- edge of the pheasant range. This observa- ertson (1958) described the results of tion suggested that high environmental this co-operative research from inception temperatures at the time of egg-laying con- to December 31, 1951, together with an stituted a critical limiting factor. In 1948 190 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 and 1949 Yeatter (1950:529) compared The refuge was soon surrounded by the effect of temperature on paired lots of commercial shooting clubs, and a problem pheasant and quail eggs during a 7-day which attracted national interest was preincubation period and stated "that the created. Leopold (1931:206) wrote: hatchability of pheasant eggs was reduced "The question of whether public refuges by heat exposures, the reduction increas- should be surrounded by public shooting ing with the higher temperatures." It grounds is frequently debated. Horse- i was concluded that this vulnerability of shoe Lake in Alexander County, Illinois, fl pheasant eggs to high air temperatures is a good place to study the question." constituted an important barrier to the Nevertheless, it was not until 1939, when southern distribution of pheasants, and it about 40,000 (the same number estimated was suggested that pheasants in the south- to have been killed in southern Illinois in ern Pacific Coast and Rocky Mountain 1957) geese were wintering at the refuge, regions might be more tolerant of higher that the annual kill and the need for temperatures. Recent experiments by knowledge on which to base intelligent \'eatter lend strong support for this sur- control became alarming enough to at- mise (Yeatter unpublished MS). tract researchers. At the present time, the Illinois De- In 1940 Arthur S. Hawkins initiated partment of Conservation, the Illinois the Illinois Natural History Survey's Natural History Survey, and the U. S. long-time research program on Canada Bureau of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife geese (Hanson & Smith 1950:70), and are co-operating in a comprehensive and in 1941 geese were banded in the area intensive investigation of the ring-necked for the first time by Hawkins and John pheasant. This research is being carried M. Anderson. The initial effort was on by Dr. William R. Hanson, Dr. Fred- necessarily directed toward the develop- erick Greeley, Jack A. Ellis, and Ronald ment of efficient trapping and handling F. Labisky and involves study of range- methods (Hanson 1949fl), and colored limiting factors, the biology of pheasants bands were tested on geese (Balham & within the established range, and experi- Elder 1953) for the first time. ments with the establishment of self- The massing of so large a portion of maintaining populations outside the ex- the Canada geese of the flyway at Horse- isting range. shoe Lake created a unique opportunity The Canada Goose.—Canada geese for population research. Practical meth- wintering on the islands and bars in the ods for aging geese were worked out for Mississippi River from Chester, Illinois, the first time (Elder 1946; Hanson southward to Cairo must have found the \949b, \953a), and these methods, which fight for survival during the early part were used for measuring the composition of the twentieth century severe indeed. of the population, formed the basis for The conservationists who, with the ob- all subsequent investigations. Elder's jective of providing for pole-and-line fish- (1946:94-8) analysis of the weight of ing, arranged for the purchase of Horse- Canada geese by sex and age constituted shoe Lake, an ancient oxbow of the Mis- the first analysis of its kind for geese. sissippi River in Alexander County, by Hanson {\949b) developed techniques the Illinois Department of Conservation for placing Canada geese in three age in 1927 were unaware of the part they categories (juvenile, yearling, and adult), would play in protecting this goose popu- thus making possible a considerable ad- lation and setting the stage for its future vancement in the understanding of popu- growth. About 1,900 Canada geese win- lation mechanics in these birds. tered at Horseshoe Lake, now famous as A definitive investigation of the biol- the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge, dur- ogy of the Canada goose constitutes the ing the first year. During the winter of long-range objective of the research on 1957-58, about 225,000 Canada geese this species. Early findings were reported wintered in southern Illinois; these geese in a 144-page article (Hanson & Smith constitute a resource which has been esti- 1950). In this article the four flyway mated to contribute about $1,500,000 an- populations of Canada geese breeding in nually to the economy of southern Illinois. the general area of Hudson Bay were December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 191

revealed for the first time. The breed- geese and swans were subsequently con- ing range, migration routes, wintering sidered by Hanson, Levine, & Ivens grounds, and populations were discussed (1957). Host specificity of some species for each flyway population. Later, the of coccidia was shown, and certain coc- South Atlantic Flyway population was cidia seemed restricted to one flyway popu- treated in greater detail (Hanson & Grif- lation. Thus, coccidia appeared to offer fith 1952). Observations on the relation promise as biological tracers for confirm- of hunting losses to the age structure of ing the distribution of flj'way populations the population wintering at the Horse- indicated earlier by band recoveries shoe Lake Game Refuge proved especially (Hanson & Smith 1950:74-9). useful. The heavy kills of immature Ducks.—The early settler found mul- geese in the first half of the 1940's not titudes of ducks in Illinois, not only only altered the age composition of the along major streams, but also on the fiock but reduced the average longevity of prairie sloughs. The vast numbers of these geese as shown by life survival ducks migrating through the bottomlands indices, the first constructed for a species of the Illinois River valley made this of waterfowl (Hanson & Smith 1950: valley a famous shooting ground as far 172-88). A recent 3-year study of the back' as the 1880's. Indeed, in 1886, a kills of Canada geese by the natives of group of businessmen from the Peoria the Hudson-James Bay region has estab- area founded the Duck Island Preserve, lished the location and size of these probably the first hunting club in the hunting losses with exactness (Hanson & state. Currie 1957). Prior to 1900 the Illinois River and The Canada geese on the Horseshoe its connecting waters were in a near Lake Game Refuge provide a unique op- pristine condition. Sloughs and lakes con- portunity for study of behavior. The tained an abundance of aquatic vegeta- adult males of the largest families usually tion (Kofoid 1903), which provided food dominate males leading smaller families, for ducks; other food was furnished by and the social rank of the adult female pecan nuts and pin oak acorns which be- is determined by that of her mate (Han- came available when high water flooded son 1953^). The conception "that the the low-lying, timbered bottoms. In small goose flock is usually a family and January of 1900 the Chicago Sanitary that larger flocks are frequently multiples and Ship Canal was opened, greatly in- of families rather than mere aggregations creasing earlier diversion of water from ." of individuals . . also became apparent Lake Michigan (Mulvihill «& Cornish in observations made at the Horseshoe 1930:53). This increased diversion re- Lake Game Refuge (Elder & Elder sulted in water levels which were high 1949:139). enough to destroy extensive tracts of bot- Diseases and parasites of Canada geese tomland timber, including most of the have been investigated in anticipation of pecans and pin oaks, in the Illinois River epizootics among geese crowding into valley. winter refuges. Blood protozoa (Levine During the early 1900's not only were & Hanson 1953) and microfilaria (Han- the tracts of mast-producing trees, so im- son, Levine, & Kantor 1956; Hanson portant as sources of food for mallards, 1956) have been survej^ed. The preva- lost to the ducks, but drainage destroyed lence of helminths in relation to age and many other important feeding grounds. the incidence of Leucocytozoon infection Between 1900 and 1922, almost 200,000 in immature geese are currently under of 400,000 acres in the flood plain of the study. Dr. Norman D. Levine (1953) Illinois River valley were leveed and made a valuable review of the literature drained ( Mulvihill" & Cornish 1930). on coccidia in the avian orders Galli- The number of ducks in the lower flood formes, Anseriformes, and Charadri- plain area and shooting success declined iformes. Coccidial infection was initially when the mast-producing trees were lost. investigated in the flock at the Horseshoe Then the practice of feeding waterfowl Lake Game Refuge by Levine (1952), was begun at some duck hunting clubs in and the coccidia of North American wild the early 1900's, was prohibited by state J 92 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

law from 1909 to 1911, became a wide- feet of baiting and live decoys on water- spread practice in the 1920's, and was fowl and "estimated that 6,000,000 prohibited bv federal rej^ulation in 1935 bushels of corn were fed by Illinois clubs (Bellrose 1944:333). during the 1933 season" (Bellrose 1944: Finally, in recognition of the import- 365). ance of waterfowl problems in Illinois, About 1938 initial attention was given the Natural History Survey employed to the wood duck, and in 1939 the first Arthur S. Hawkins and Frank C. Bell- successful nesting box of rough-cut lum- rose to initiate a waterfowl research pro- ber was developed for this waterfowl spe- gram in 1938. Up to that time, the study cies (Bellrose 1953^). By experimenta-

Wildlife technicians preparing to fluoroscope a mallard drake at the Illinois Natural His- tory Survey field laboratory near Havana. The fluoroscope has facilitated studies involving crippling by hunters and lead poisoning. i of waterfowl had received little attention tion, a nest box entrance with a 4-inch in Illinois. In 1922, at duck hunting horizontal measurement and a 3-inch clubs near the mouth of the Sangamon vertical one was evolved in 1942 for River, Dr. Frederick C. Lincoln (1924) the purpose of excluding raccoons which of the U. S. Bureau of Biological Survey were preying upon the hens and their eggs. (now the U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries In 1950, a cylindrical, galvanized metal and Wildlife) made the first large-scale house was developed to exclude fox squir- bandings of ducks in North America. rels, as well as raccoons, as predators on Francis M. Uhler of the same agency wood duck eggs. examined the food contents of duck giz- Because diversion of Lake Michigan zards collected at the Duck Island Pre- water, drainage, and sediment decreased serve in 1933 (Uhler unpublished re- the duck foods in the Illinois River val- port). Also, Uhler investigated the ef- ley, several of the early investigations December, 1958 Scott: Wildlifh: Research 193 dealt with duck food plants. A study of A 5-year investigation of duck popula- the ecology of aquatic and marsh plants tions and kill by hunters revealed that revealed the relationships of fluctuating "altering the length of the season is one water levels and turbidity to plant of the most expedient ways to regulate growth (Bellrose 1941). As a result of the duck kill" (Bellrose 1944:371). The this study, two techniques for production most desirable dates for waterfowl hunt- of duck foods were recommended: (1) ing seasons of various lengths in Illinois dewatering certain areas to encourage were determined (Bellrose 1944:371): moist-soil plants on exposed growth of For a 30-day season, November 1-30; for a mud flats and (2) stabilizing water levels 45-day season, October 22-December 5; for at depths of 2 to 3 feet to promote growth a 60-day season, October 10-December 8; for a 70-day season, October 1-December 9; of aquatic plants. for an 80-day sea':on, September 26-December of the relative value of various A study 14; for a lOO-day season, September 20- plants as duck foods (Bellrose & Ander- December 28. son 1943:432-3) showed that moist-soil study of flvway refuges in Illinois plants, such as rice cut-grass, millets, A led to the conclu- smartweeds, and nutgrasses, were much (Bellrose' 1954:169) sion that they were of value both to more valuable as duck foods than such and to hunters. Flyway aquatic and marsh plants as the pond- waterfowl refuges permitted waterfowl to rest along weeds, coontail, duck potato, and bur-reed. the flyway during the hunting season and This study is believed to be the first in placed more food within their reach, which the food habits of waterfowl were thereby conserving food resources on the related to food availability. Later, a wintering grounds. Waterfowl concen- study by Low & Bellrose (1944:21) re- trating on the refuges fed in fields and vealed that, among 28 waterfowl food marshes within their daily cruising range. plants, 6 of the 7 heaviest seed producers provided for holding were emergent or moist-soil plants. Thus, the refuges ducks which could Harry G. Anderson (unpublished MS) local concentrations of be shot when they flew out to feed. made a little known but substantial con- of the most impressive duck flights tribution to knowledge of the diet of One in a decade swept through Illinois on ducks in Illinois when he analyzed and (Bellrose 1957). It reported upon the contents of 4,977 giz- November 2, 1955 was determined that most of the birds in zards of ducks, representing 17 species, the flight left Canada on November 1 taken during the hunting seasons in 1938, moved so rapidly that some reached 1939, and 1940. and the Gulf of Mexico by the morning of In a sense, Illinois is at the bottleneck November 3. This mass migration of of the Mississippi Flyway, the fly way was evaluated by Bellrose with the largest population of ducks in waterfowl follows: North America. The resulting constric- (1957:24) as tion of duck populations streaming into Low pressure areas in Canada resulted in a Illinois has provided a remarkably fine southward flow of a mass of Continental resulting opportunity for study of flyway popula- Arctic air. The low temperatures from Continental Arctic air triggered the tions. comprehensive investigation of A flight from the Great Plains of Canada and sex and age among ducks, covering 1939 the United States. through 1954, has been completed (Bell- rose, Haw^kins, Low, & Scott unpublished Over 75,000 ducks, largely mallards, MS). From 1938 through 1958, periodic have been banded by Natural History censuses have been taken of waterfowl Survey investigators at four widely sepa- populations in the Illinois River valley rated localities in the state. Recoveries in during fall, winter, and spring. In 1946 from some of the bandings were used the census route was expanded to include calculating the annual mortality of the the Mississippi River valley between mallard, black duck, and blue-winged Rock Island and Alton. These censuses teal (Bellrose & Chase 1950). Of the have provided information on the effect three species, the mallard proved to have of weather, water levels, food, and the lowest mortality rate, and this refuges upon waterfowl populations. "amounted to 55 out of 100 birds the 194 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

first >ear, or year of banding, 20 the sec- in the event drastic measures should be- ond year, 11 the third year, and 6 the come necessary. fourth year" (Bellrose & Chase 1950: The means by which ducks find their 25). The bandinji data have also been way from their breeding to wintering { used to delineate the migration routes of grounds has been under investigation. ducks passing through Illinois. Juvenile blue-winged teals were captured As part of an effort to evaluate losses in migration in Illinois and held in cap- from crippling by hunters, several thou- tivity until all the other blue-winged sand ducks were trapped and fluoroscoped teals had migrated south of the United for shot pellets and broken bones. Among States (Bellrose 1958^). They were then apparently healthy mallards, 36.4 per banded and released. From recoveries cent of the adult drakes, 18.0 per cent of bands it was found that these juveniles, of the juvenile drakes, and 21,4 per though unfamiliar with the route, flew cent of the hens were carrying one or southward along lines of flight similar to more shot pellets imbedded in flesh or those of adults. Experiments with wild internal organs (Bellrose 1953/): 344). mallards demonstrated an ability to orient (Bellrose "Of the ducks . . . knocked down by by celestial means \95Sb). hunters, as reported from various sections The initial flight of mallards released in of the United States, 22.5 per cent were unfamiliar areas was northward on clear not retrieved" (Bellrose 1953/^:357). days or nights and in apparently random directions when skies were cloudy and A spectacular die-off of mallard ducks near sun and stars were obscured. Grafton in January, 1947, prompted a joint investigation by the Natural History Survey The Mourning Dove.—The mourn- and the United States Fish and Wildlife ing dove became the subject of an in- Service [now U. S. Bureau of Sport Fisheries tensive research effort in the autumn of and Wildlife]. A still greater die-off in the 1948 when it was seen that data were same area a year later attracted the attention of officials of the Western Cartridge Com- needed for an objective evaluation of pany of East Alton. As an outgrowth of claims that doves were being shot to ex- co-operative investigation of the situation, a tinction by hunters in Illinois. The kill lead poisoning in waterfowl was begun in of doves in 1946 and 1947 was estimated July, 1948, by the Illinois Natural History Survey, the Western Cartridge Company, from hunter reports to have been 200,000 which is a Division of the Olin Industries, in each year and about 300,000 in 1949 Inc. [now Olin Mathieson Chemical Corpora- (Hanson & Kossack 1950:31). It was tion], and the University of Illinois (Jordan later determined that the kill was fairly M & Bellrose 1951:3-4). evenly distributed over the state (Mar- m Although Lubaloy shot and several quardt & Scott 1952). lead alloys were tested as substitutes for A program of dove banding, particu- commercial lead shot, none showed prom- larly of nestlings, was undertaken to de- ise in alleviating lead poisoning in water- termine points of origin of populations. fowl (Jordan & Bellrose 1950:167-8). It Banding by amateur co-operators was en- tech- was estimated by Bellrose (1959) that couraged (Kossack 1955), and a ^ each year approximately 4 per cent of the nique employing elastic adhesive tape to mallards of the Mississippi Flyway die secure bands on small nestlings was de- from lead poisoning and that an addi- veloped (Kossack 1952). These aspects tional 1 per cent are afflicted with lead of the program were later adopted on a poisoning but are bagged by hunters. Al- country-wide scale by the U. S. Bureau though several other species of ducks in- of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. gested larger numbers of shot per bird A portable candler was constructed for than did the mallard, the mallard suffered aging dove eggs in the field (Hanson the highest rate of loss. Mortality from 1954). Photographic and descriptive lead poisoning proved to be greater among guides for aging incubated eggs and ducks of the Mississippi Flyway than nestlings were prepared (Hanson & Kos- among those of other flyways. The use sack 1957a). The predominance of uni- of iron shot as a substitute for lead shot sexual broods in mourning doves was was suggested as a possible means of con- found in early studies (Kossack & Han- tending with the lead poisoning problem son 1953). This subject is being treated De 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 195 in greater detail in a report, now in Fur-Bearing Mammals.—Forbes preparation, on sex ratios in doves. (1912^) included fur-bearing mammals The effort to appraise mortality among among the animal resources of Illinois, mourning doves included study of their but a program of consequence did not parasites and diseases (Kossack & Han- get under way until the 1930's, when son 1954; Levine 1954; Hanson, Levine, evaluations of fur resources were under- Kossack, Kantor, & Stannard 1957). The taken. paper by Hanson et al. describes the Neither technical nor popular interest was ectoparasites of doves and the arthropod great enough to focus further attention of fauna of their nests and summarizes the the state's research agencies on furbearers results of a 7-year study of the incidence until, in 1930, David H. Thompson, E. C. Driver, and D. I. Rasmussen of the Illinois of blood parasites in relation to ages of Natural History Survey staff borrowed trap- the doves and to regions of the state. pers' reports . . . from the Illinois State De- The relation of age and the stages of partment of Conservation, to which law wing molt to body weight, body fat, and provided that each licensed trapper report his catch monthly during the trapping season migration habits was studied (Hanson & (Mohr 1943fl:505). Kossack 1957/'). In contrast to interpre- tations of fat deposition in passerines, the Brown & Yeager (1943:437) stated analysis of data on fat deposition in that some of the figures derived by Driver mourning doves showed no consistent re- and Rasmussen were published in the lationship to migratory habits, but instead Blue Book of the State of Illinois (Frison proved to be related to the energy de- 1931, 1933). mands of the molt, regional farming prac- Following a limited survey of helminth tices, soil fertility, and food habits. Doves parasites in fur-bearing animals collected that had fed almost exclusively on corn during the hunting seasons of 1935—36 in good soil areas had formed relatively and 1936-37, Leigh (1940:191) stated heavy amounts of fat ; most of those taken that "A study of the literature oiifers lit- on poor, sandy soil where they fed largely tle information on pathogenicity of the on seeds of wild plants had formed little parasites found in the hosts studied." or no fat. This shortcoming in our knowledge con-

After 10 years of study there is still tinues to prevail. no evidence that dove populations in Illi- The desire to obtain a reasonably re- nois are controlled by hunting. Popula- liable evaluation of the fur resource in tion declines which have taken place are Illinois eventually resulted in two im- generally traceable to habitat destruction, pressive reports (Brown & Yeager 1943; disease, and adverse weather. Mohr 1943«). Brown & Yeager (1943) based their evaluation on an intensive Mammals oral survey covering the 1938-39 and To the wildlife historian the apparent 1939-40 trapping seasons, and Mohr lack of interest in mammals by early re- (1943rt) made an analysis of fur-taker researchers of the Natural History Survey ports beginning with the 1929-30 trap- and its predecessors constitutes something ping season and ending with that of of an enigma. Almost half a century 1939-40, excepting the 1931-32, 1932- slipped away before Forbes, upon receiv- 33, and 1933-34 seasons. The results ing a letter from C. A. Rowe of Jackson- obtained by the two methods were rela- ville in April of 1907 reporting the de- tively similar. The average value of the struction of seed corn by moles and en- annual fur catch was estimated to have closing the stomach contents of a mole been a little over $1,000,000, about 80 containing about 65 per cent corn, was per cent of which represented returns for stimulated to authorize research on a muskrats and minks. To aid in investiga- problem in economic mammalogy (West tion of fur-bearing animals, Yeager 1910:14). The resulting studies (Wood (1941«) assembled a bibliography of over \9\0b; West 1910) provided the first evi- 2,600 references on North American fur dence that moles included corn, or any animals. substantial amount of plant food, for Some valuable contributions on the that matter, in their diet. relationship of muskrat populations to 96 Ii.MNOis Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2 fluctuating water levels in bottomland the season (Yeager & Elder 1945:49- lakes flanking the Illinois River have been 51). In 1939 and 1940, on the Pere made bv Natural Historv Survev re- Marquette Wildlife Experimental Area, searchers. Bellrose c

of red foxes for sport hunting, . . . sponse of raccoons to a food windfall of 2. The education of those who hope for ducks (Yeager Rennels and & 1943) increased small game populations through fox geese (Yeager Si Elder 1945) made avail- extermination campaigns to the more con- able as hunters' crippling losses at the crete and lasting results that may be expected Pere Marquette Wildlife Experimental from habitat improvement programs. . . . 3. The elimination of bounty payments on Area immediately above the confluence of red foxes. the Illinois and Mississippi rivers and at 4. The enactment and enforcement of more the Horseshoe Lake Game Refuge in effective antirabies laws, especially as ap- Alexander County. At the Horseshoe plied to the compulsory vaccination and Lake Game Refuge, where crippling quarantine of domestic dogs, and prompt reduction by organized trapping of red fox losses were alarmingly high, bird remains, populations in which rabies epizootics occur. chiefly those of Canada geese, occurred 5. The increased attention by game man- in 20.7 per cent of the raccoon droppings agers to the proper management of the red collected a day after the hunting season fox resource in general, including assistance with the cropping of surplus animals in areas opened and in 87.9 per cent of the drop- where adequate cropping has not been ac- pings collected 3 weeks after the close of complished by hunters. December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 197

Game Mammals.—The cottontail "that some component of green vegeta- rabbit tops the list of game mammals in tion, possibly Vitamin E, is responsible Illinois in a number of respects. In a for stimulating the pituitary glands of survey of license-stub kill cards for the rabbits into the secretion of somatic nutri- 1950-51 hunting season, Marquardt & tives, and consequently, determining the Scott (1952:4) found that rabbits pro- breeding conditions of the animals." vided twice as many sportsmen with game Dr. Rexford D. Lord (1958:274) in the bag as did any other game species has recently constructed life tables which and numbered more than twice as many indicate that as many as 24 to 27 per cent as any other kind of game animal re- of the rabbits available to hunters in ported. Rabbits constitute the chief game autumn may be the young of rabbits born animal of the state largely because they in the spring of the same year, are widely distributed and because they Ecke & Yeatter (1956:212-3) at- possess the reproductive potential to main- tributed the death of a rabbit, estimated tain themselves despite high mortality, in- to have been about 13 days of age, to cluding that from severe hunting pressure. coccidiosis and suggested further study of Proving that there is some bad with coccidiosis as a cause of mortality among the good, however, is the fact that tula- rabbits. Detailed studies of ectoparasites remia, a disease which is transmissible to of rabbits have been carried on since 1952 man, occurs in rabbits. "In the period bv Dr. Lewis J. Stannard, Lysle R. 1926-1949, Illinois had more than 3,000 Pietsch, Dr. Carl O. Mohr, and Dr. reported cases of human tularemia, about Lord. twice as manv as anv of the other states" The realization that tradition for a (Yeatter & Thompson 1952:351). Yeat- summer hunting season on squirrels in ter & Thompson ( 1 952 : 379 ) reported that Illinois was not biologically sound touched

"The human tularemia rate in any year off a thorough investigation (Brown Si. in Illinois seems to be determined both by Yeager 1945) of fox squirrels and gray temperatures about the time of the open- squirrels in 1940. The chief objection to ing of the rabbit season and by the a summer hunting season was that it re- abundance of rabbits." They concluded sulted in the killing of pregnant and lac- that the incidence of human tularemia in tating females. Brown & Yeager (1945: Illinois could be reduced by delaying the 526) estimated that summer hunting re- opening of the rabbit hunting season until sulted in a wasteful loss of 31.8 unborn about December 1. As a result of these and suckling squirrels for each 100 squir- findings, the opening of the hunting sea- rels bagged. Because the tradition for son in Illinois was postponed until No- summer hunting was strong and because vember 26 in 1955. In recent years meth- squirrel hunting was good in some parts ods of treating tularemia in humans have of the state despite early hunting seasons been greatly simplified by the use of anti- in the past, Brown & Yeager (1945:

biotics. It seems certain, however, that 526—8) believed it unwise to enact a sea- most hunters will prefer not to depend son beginning so late that it would pre- upon antibiotics—that they will enjoy vent all losses resulting from the killing their rabbit hunting far more knowing of pregnant and lactating females and that by hunting within a season which they observed: "Such a season could hard-

opens after the onset of sharp freezing ly begin earlier than October 1, and it weather they and their families are ex- would certainly be opposed by a large posed to the hazard of tularemia only to number of hunters." A compromise sea- a minimum extent. son of September 15 to November 15 in Yeatter & Thompson (1952:378) central and northern Illinois and Septem-

recommended, as a refinement to their ber 1 to October 31 in southern Illinois studies, further study of ticks, other tula- was recommended. This recommendation remia vectors, and the biologv of the has not been accepted by Illinois hunt- rabbit. Ecke (1955:294-6) recorded a ers. complete description of the courtship and The report by Pietsch (1954) on deer mating of cottontails. Also, Ecke (1955: populations in Illinois will be of especial 305) found evidence which suggested value to the future wildlife historian, 198 Illinois Natural History Survey Huli.ktin Vol. 27, Art. 2

Pietsch reported upon the early history of tures included fencerow plantings, instal- the deer in Illinois, recent populations, lation of den boxes, block planting, and and iTianajj;einent. Huntinjj; was suggested protection of strips along drainage ditches. as a means of control, and the deer sea- Usage of the den boxes was evaluated. son, after being closed for 56 years, was Fox squirrels appeared to extend their opened in 1957 for hunting with bows range and to increase in numbers as a and shotguns. result of the provision of den boxes , Miscellaneous Contributions to (Hesselschwerdt 1942:33-4, 36). Usable Mammalogy.— Mohr (1943/a 1947«) den boxes are no longer present on the appraised population data for small mam- area, and resident fox squirrels are un- mals in North America. He calculated common. As the fencerow plantings ma- the weight of specific populations within tured, cottontail rabbits and songbirds in- the area occupied and concluded that creased in numbers (Wandell 1948:262- population densities within groups of 3), but populations of pheasants and quail mammals having similar feeding habits have shown no appreciable increase. were limited by the size of the mammal Minks and muskrats trapped along an un- concerned. Also, Mohr {\947b) recorded grazed section of a drainage ditch in miscellaneous data on populations of cer- 1944-45 provided an estimated per-acre tain mammals in Illinois for future refer- income of $62.78, more than 10 times ence. that produced by the same ditch where it On December 1, 1956, a grant-in-aid was heavilv grazed (Yeager 1945:85). was made bv the National Institutes of On October 1, 1939, a Federal Aid Health of the U. S. Public Health Serv- project to determine the availability of ice to initiate a 3-year study of epizootiol- land for wildlife habitat on the inten- ogy of rabies in wild mammals. This in- sively cultivated farm land of the Illinois vestigation is aimed at identification of dark prairie was initiated (Spooner & the key hosts to rabies in Illinois and Yeager 1942). Land for refuges and those factors that make them key hosts. cover development was found to be available, without purchase, in small scat- WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT tered tracts, and obtainable through long- term easements. Spooner & Yeager ( 1942: "Applied programs in the field of bio- 54) concluded that "Although the proj- logical science are seldom, if ever, de- ect shows promise of wide application on veloped without the aid of years of pa- the Illinois prairie, there are yet many tient, so-called unapplied, researches" problems which must be further an- (Prison 1942Z':5). Prison believed that alyzed before its entire success is proved." sufficient basic knowledge had been ac- Natural History Survey staf¥ members cumulated to support applied manage- have participated in various other pro- ment programs of an exploratory nature, grams closely related to management of and, with characteristic vigor, he encour- upland wildlife. The Survey sponsored aged work of this kind in the late 1930's. the initial acquisition in 1940, by the Later, he insisted that these programs be Department of Conservation, of a tract evaluated for monetary return, wildlife of sand prairie and wet land in Lee Coun- yield, and other benefits. ty, the Green River Area, as a manage- Two of these early programs concerned ment area for prairie chickens, water- management of upland wildlife in central fowl, and other animals. It is believed and northern Illinois. One of the first that this tract of land has played an im- attempts to develop wildlife habitat on portant part in maintaining the only siz- intensively cultivated land took place on able flock of prairie chickens surviving the Urbana Township Wildlife Area, in northern Illinois. However, unless the which was believed "typical of the best area is managed with primary considera- Illinois cornbelt farmland" (Hessel- tion for the original objectives, it may schwerdt 1942:31). Habitat develop- well go down in history as the place ment was begun on this area in 1937, where native prairie chickens met their and in 1939 the project came under the end in northern Illinois. Frank C. Bell- Federal Aid program. Development fea- rose proposed the purchase of the Rice December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 199

Lake Wildlife Area by the state in 1942, lakes of the Illinois River valley. They and the area, now the best duck area in concluded that bottomland lakes in the the state, was purchased by the Illinois Illinois River valley had an annual per- Department of Conservation in 1943. acre value to the public, 1944-1947, of In 1955 a Federal Aid research proj- $26.35, made up as follows: duck hunting ect was initiated by Southern Illinois $12.18, angling $2.40, commercial fishing University, the Illinois Department of $9.65, and fur trapping $2.12; they esti- Conservation, and the Illinois Natural mated that privately owned lakes were History Survey to determine the economic capable of producing an average yearly values and benefit to wildlife of wide- gross return to owners of $18.57 per acre row culture of corn in southern Illinois. (Bellrose & Rollings 1949:23). Potential benefits, to the farmer, of wide- Following an investigation of the ef- row culture and interplantinji; with cover fects of flooding on mammals in and crops included conservation of soil, in- around a bottomland lake in the Illinois crease of fertility, elimination of the low- River valley, Yeager & Anderson (1944: payinji oat crop in rotations, saving of 178) concluded that "The effect of flood- labor, and yields of corn comparable to ing on mammals ranged from heavy those from conventional cultural methods mortality in the case of woodchucks to (Vohs 1957). apparently little basic change in the be- The extent of use of wide-row corn- havior of minks." For various kinds of fields by wildlife varied with the at- fur-bearing and game mammals, Yeager tractiveness of the interseeding. How- (1949) recorded the changes in abun- ever, comparable observations on the dance caused by permanent flooding of numbers of wildlife in wide-row fields wooded bottomland over an 8-year pe- and standard interval fields revealed ra- riod, 1939-1946. The site was a tract tios of 5 to 1 for bobwhite quail, 12 to 1 of 600 acres in the junction of the Mis- for mourning doves, and 6 to 1 for cot- sissippi and Illinois rivers; the area was tontail rabbits. Wide-row corn is con- flooded in 1938 by closing of the gates sidered to have great potential for wild- of the then new Alton dam. life management especially, because it provides for an increase in wildlife values THE FUTURE in thousands of acres of corn. Evaluations of wildlife populations and Because the wildlife resource and the possibilities for their management were environment essential to its existence made on marginal lands. Analyses were have economic and recreational values made of possibilities for management of beyond general public appreciation and coal-stripped land for the benefit of up- because knowledge on which to base inland game and furbearers (Yeager 1941^, telligent management of this resource is 1942), management of agricultural drain- in the best interest of the people of Illi- age systems for production of furbearers nois, I believe that we must plan for the (Yeager 1943), and yields of fur from future of wildlife research in Illinois as animals produced on different types of a part of our evaluation of the past. land (Yeager 1945). Another project Forbes (1907^:892) expressed this concerned the use of hunting dogs in view when he wrote sport and conservation (Yeatter 1948).

Levee and drainage districts have re- that we are . . . practically interested in what has come and gone only as it may help us to duced the flood plain along the Illinois bring a new thing into being in a way to se- River by almost half, about 200,000 cure its permanent continuance and its normal acres. In view of the resulting loss of growth. recreational opportunities and the increased danger from floods, Bellrose In the past the wildlife research pro- (1945) made a survey of the relative gram of the Illinois Natural History values of drained and undrained bottom- Survey has been heavily weighted toward lands. Later, Bellrose & Rollings (1949) investigations of migratory game birds. calculated the annual per-acre value, to These investigations have been extremely the public and to owners, of bottomland valuable and must be continued in the 200 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

future; however, increasing attention and populations. And much of it must must be j^iven to other wild species, in- continue to move in this direction. How- cluding nongame species. Nongame spe- ever, means for improvement must be cies must be studied not only because constantly sought out. In life history they represent economic and esthetic studies, we must be increasingly objec- values but also because some of them, tive. In ecology, we must be mindful of such as mice, are especially useful in basic the need for land-use practices which are research. Responsibility for research on compatible with the best interests of both certain species cannot be side-stepped on landowners and wildlife, especially in the ground that effective study of these view of the increasing use of marginal species is being carried on in other states, land and agricultural chemicals. In the for Illinois has problems characteristic of area of population mechanics, we must its own land-use pattern and it bears a not only measure population trends and responsibility to other states inasmuch as population composition ; we must also enlightenment on particular problems is seek and evaluate with greater refinement often best obtained through comparison those factors which influence population of range-wide differences. trends and make-up.

While it is true that great progress In the future more attention must be has been made in wildlife research, and given to fields of study only lightly the number of unknowns has been re- touched upon in the past. Animal be- duced, this increased knowledge has ex- havior, a vital and challenging field, must panded our awareness of unknowns. be explored particularly, for what an ani- Many research techniques have been de- mal does is more important to the wild- veloped, but, in most instances, the de- life manager than what it is. Mobility, gree of their reliability has not been especially migration, must be examined adequately determined, and refinement is more critically. Nutrition, qualitative as desirable. Although the research has been well as quantitative, must be investigated, increasingly objective, it must be ad- and techniques for evaluating "condition" mitted that there is need for improve- in wildlife must be explored. Anatomy, ment. The expanding field of wildlife embryology, genetics, physiology, and research requires specialization, but it also biochemistry must, of necessity, play a requires integration and synthesis. larger part in the evaluations of the This post-mortem of wildlife research future. impresses me with the fact that the qual- We must guard against the neglect or ity of a contribution is influenced not shunning of certain research by avoiding only by the capabilities of the individual a "that's been done before" philosophy. researcher but also by the length of time It may well have beert done before, but devoted to concentrated effort on par- we must be careful to evaluate the ticular problems. If real progress is to thoroughness with which it was done. be realized in the future, the sustained We must examine it for weaknesses and and concentrated effort of top-flight re- for its value as a basis for new working searchers must be insured. Illinois will hypotheses. stand among the leaders in wildlife re- The wildlife research of the Natural search only so long as the means with History Survey has been instrumental in which to attract and hold qualified per- bringing about desirable changes in estab- sonnel for extended periods is provided. lished policies and practices and in the Provisions must be made for long-range establishment of new policies and prac- research, with monographic-type publica- tices which affect wildlife. We must pro- tion being an objective. And, finally, we vide adequate bases for the policy making must guard against becoming desk- and of the future. To these ends we must laboratory-bound theorists and interpret- move in the direction of prompt publica- ers. It is essential that contact be main- tion, and we must make certain that use- tained with living organisms in their nat- ful publicity is given especially to those ural surroundings. findings which indicate that support of, Much of our research effort has moved or changes in, practices or administrative in the direction of life history, ecology, policies are desirable. December, 1958 Scott: Wildlife Research 201

Our thinking must be projected far pollution problem such as would virtually into the future in an efifort to visualize deny aquatic life outside protected areas, those areas where knowledge will be most unless pollution control, including provi- needed. Anticipating the future is ad- sion for disposal of radioactive waste, mittedly fraught with pitfalls. It seems keeps pace with increased water utiliza- certain, however, that human populations tion. will continue to increase in Illinois. This The provision of a means for satisfy- increase will be attended by more inten- ing the psychological needs of a human sive use of land and water, more exten- population with more leisure time and sive transportation and communication relatively less elbow room comprises a systems, more extensive residential and formidable challenge. If the human pop- industrial areas, more exhaustive use of ulation is to maintain some semblance of fuels and metals, greater use of atomic sanity, services such as those offered by energy, more automation, and more lei- wildlife biology must be given equal sure time. recognition with those of the physical From the wildlife manager's point of sciences. Perhaps the average family of view, this condition forewarns of an in- the future will tend to satisfy more of creasingly severe competition between its needs for pleasure in the out-of-doors wildlife and basic human needs. When and for escape from the pressures of civi- it is considered that wildlife must be pro- lization in its own backyard. Hence, the duced primarily on lands utilized for wildlife manager should contrive to know other purposes, the problems of the fu- more about the management of the home ture for wildlife become obvious. The in- landscape for wildlife. It seems certain creasing demand for human food will that an increasing amount of hunting will make it essential that harvest methods be take place on regulated shooting areas, refined to reduce waste, that more heavily that is, unless hunting proves to be good yielding crops be developed, that more in outer space. marginal land be brought into use, and The wildlife manager's problems of that more agricultural chemicals be ap- the past, considerable as they have been, plied. This promises not only to reduce seem as child's play compared with those wildlife populations but to force them looming in the future. The wildlife man- below minimum survival levels, unless ager is going to need determination, cour- effective provisions, such as wide-row age, ability, compensation, and means such corn may prove to be, are constantly as never before. Perhaps we can ease sought out by wildlife managers. The some of his problems by the effective need for refuges to insure the survival planning of current research to provide of rare species will increase. The relative a sound basis for the essential decisions importance of those wild animals which of the future. Indeed, wildlife manage- compete with humans for food by eating ment as a profession may well depend on or contaminating it will be magnified. the soundness of today's plans for the Intensive use of water could create a future. :

Publications and Public Relations

JAMES S. AVARS

MANY of the men whose names were Trained in the classics though most of written larjje in the early annals of these leaders were, many were neverthe- the Illinois Natural History Survey had less aware that classical education had been educated in the classical tradition. limitations. They saw that in Illinois, in Most of the physicians, educators, and the middle of the nineteenth century, edu- others whose formal schooling included cation must be brought out of ivied halls college had undergone the discipline of to the furrow and the work bench. Latin and Greek studies. In the Illinois College classroom Tur- Jonathan Baldwin Turner, elected first ner was a teacher of Latin and Greek. president of the Illinois Natural History Out of the classroom, he was a leader in Society in 1858 (Bateman 1858^:258), the movement for industrial education, was a graduate of Yale College and for the education of the farmer and the me- many years Professor of Belles Lettres. chanic. Latin, and Greek at Illinois College, Turner asked (Carriel 1911:76): Jacksonville (Carriel 1911:12, 46). But where are the universities, the appara- Charles E. Hovey, first secretary of the tus, the professors, and the literature specifically adapted to any one of the industrial Society (Bateman 1858Z':258) and first classes? . . . society has become, long since, head of the Illinois State Normal Uni- wise enough to know that its teachers need to versity, was a graduate of Dartmouth it be educated ; but has not yet become wise College (Marshall 1956:28). Joseph Ad- enough to know that its icorkers need educa- dison Sewall, early curator, had studied tion just as much. at both Yale and Harvard and was a Socrates, Cincinnatus, Washington, graduate of Harvard Medical College Franklin, and other worthies. Turner ar- (Marshall 1956:78). gued, derived their education "from their Benjamin Dann Walsh, first State connection with the practical pursuits of Entomologist, was a graduate of Trinity life" (Carriel 1911:117):

College of Cambridge University in Eng- What we want from schools is to teach men land (Weiss 1936:234). William Le ... to derive their mental and moral strength from their own pursuits, whatever they are, Baron, second State Entomologist, was, and to gather from other sources as much more like Sewall, a graduate of Harvard Med- as they find time to achieve. We wish to teach ical College (Goding 1885:122). them to read books, only that they may the Although Stephen Alfred Forbes, better read and understand the great volume of nature ever open before them. fourth State Entomologist, first and only Can, then, no schools and no literature, Director of the State Laboratory of Nat- suited to the peculiar wants of the industrial ural History, and first Chief of the Nat- classes, be created by the application of science ural History Survey, had comparatively to their pursuits? little formal education as a youth, he had Walsh (\S68b:9) emphasized that his subjected himself to the discipline of lan- annual report as Acting State Entomolo- guage study. At home he had studied gist was "intended chiefly for the use of French and Spanish, and in Confederate common folks." prisons during the Civil he had War Writing as Editor of the only volume spent some of his "abundant leisure" in of Transactions published by the Natural studying Greek from books he managed History Society itself, C. D. Wilber to buy at Mobile (Howard 1932:6). (186W:3—1-) epitomized the educational The early leaders in Illinois science, movement of the time, a movement that most of them classicists before they were might be termed a revolt of the classicists scientists, had developed respect for the against the classical tradition meaning and sound of w^ords, and had ac- It has been the aim of the Editor, to present quired a skill in word usage that carried only such articles and papers as are immedi- into their scientific writings. ately useful and interesting to the citizens and [202] December, 1958 Avars: Publications and Public Relations 203

schools of Illinois, with a hope that a zeal for State Horticultural Society itself were the pursuits and studies of Natural History dated 1863. The first Proceedings of the may spring up among our people, like the seeds Entomological Society of of the sower, in the parable, falling upon good Philadelphia soil, and yielding, "some sixty and some an were published in 1861. The American hundred fold." Naturalist was not founded until 1867, In order to render the greatest good to all, the Botanical Gazette not until 1875. the subjects have generally been treated in a The Prairie Far/ner had been estab- popular rather than a technical style. It has been said, that he who places a valuable truth lished at Chicago in 1841, and to this pe- or fact within the reach of the million, is doing riodical, frankly slanted toward the infor it. more humanity than he who discovers terests of practical farmers, Illinois sci- And, indeed, if scientific men, or libraries and entists of mid-century turned for publica- museums, cannot contribute to the elevation of the masses who are less privileged, their use- tion of their technical papers. The pub- fulness is questionable. lication by Prairie farmer of many of these papers, some significant enough to The ideas reflected in Turner's ques- attract the attention of eminent scientists tions and answers and in Wilber's com- in other parts of the country, is indication ments culminated in the Morrill Act of of the extent to which the classicists and 1862, in land ^rant colleges, and, spe- the industrialists had become wedded. cifically, in the Illinois Industrial Uni- That publication of scientific papers versity at Urbana. Both cause and effect was an important aim of the founders of of the movement for general education the Illinois Natural History Society is was the increasing thirst that Illinois evident from written records of the or- people in the middle of the nineteenth ganization. The object of the Society, as century had for knowledge, the growing outlined by Cyrus Thomas in his letter conviction that information should be read before Illinois teachers meeting in widely disseminated. The movement led Decatur, December 29, 1857 (Bateman to the formation of, and was abetted by, 1858^:12), the Illinois State Horticultural Society, shall be the investigation and study of the the Illinois State Agricultural Society, Flora, Fauna, Geology, and Mineralogy of Illinois and the Natural History Society. Illinois, and the illustration of the same by The Natural History Society was not gathering specimens, exchanging the same, and an accident nor an isolated segment of by publishing such meritorious works thereon

as the authors may present, . . . history. It was part of a contagious movement sweeping the prairies. As seen At the last session of its second meet- by Wilber (1861^:7) : ing, held on June 20 and 21, 1859, at Bloomington, the The demand for this movement seemed to Society (Francis proceed from a want of accurate knowledge in 1859Z':664) resolved that "the Execu- nearly all departments of Natural History in tive Committee be required to procure the State; and also, from a desire that all facts the publication of the papers and proceed- and discoveries in a field so vast as Illinois, ings of the Society in some paper gener- should be made immediately subservient to the great ends of popular education. ally circulated through the State." The Executive Committee in turn resolved EARLY PUBLICATIONS that, "in accordance with the resolution of the Society, we select The Prairie The Illinois scientist in mid-nineteenth Farmer as its medium for publishing the century looking for means of disseminat- papers and proceedings of the Society." ing knowledge had few publication out- Another outlet for papers written by lets. Among the small number of scien- members of the Natural History Society tific journals published before 1860 were was provided by the Illinois State Agri- The American Journal of Science, found- cultural Society. In its own published ed in 1818, the Entomologist of London, Transactions the Agricultural Society in- in 1840, and the Boston Journal of Nat- cluded the Transactions of the first three ural History, in 1834. The first Trans- meetings of the Natural History Society actions of the Illinois State Agricultural and several papers contributed bv mem-

Society were published in 1855; the first bers (Francis \859a, \859b, " Wilber Transactions published by the Illinois 1861rt). 204 Illinois Natural History Survey I^ullktin Vol. 27, Art. 2

In 1861 the Natural History Society The following year, Forbes staged an itself published what it termed the "Sec- intellectual sit-down strike over a pro- ond Edition" of Volume I, Series I, of posed publication. Insufficient funds and its Transactions (Wilber 1861r/). Most conflicting legalities would not permit of the material in this volume had been him to include what he considered suit- printed previously by the Aj^ricultural able illustrations in the State Entomolo- S()ciet\ in its Transactions for 1857—1858 gist's report he had prepared for publica- (Wilber KSbl^). Wilber's Preface to the tion in 1886. volume published by the Natural History Forbes (1886^:3) explained the situa- Societ\ was dated October 30, 1861 tion in the preface to a group of articles (Wilber 186h/:4). The Civil War had that he and members of his staff had writ- begun 6 nn)nths before. ten and that he had submitted to the In 1867, after the War was over and State Board of Agriculture for publica- men again had time to consider civilian tion in its Transactions: science, the state legislature in a single A recent opinion of the Attorney Genera! session made an appropriation to the Illi- makes it doubtful whether the State Entomolo- nois Natural History Society, provided gi-t of Illinois has the right, under the laws referring to that for a State Entomologist, and authorized office (to some extent incon- sistent and conflicting), to prepare any other establishment of the Illinois Industrial than a biennial report; and a change in prac- University (Illinois General Assemblv tice of the State Board of Contracts leaves no 1867). doubt whatever that a report published this year could not illustrated. The legislative act that provided for a be As an elaborate monograph of insects injurious to Indian corn State Entomologist required him to pre- was intended as the principal part of my ento- pare "a report of his researches and dis- mological report for 1885, and as this article coveries in entomology for publication by certainly should not be published without a the state, annuallv" (Illinois General As- large number of excellent figures, I have decided, under existing sembly 1867:36)'. circumstances, not only to withhold this paper, but also to refrain from The act of 1867 in which state appro- presenting any formal report for 1885, leaving priations were first made to the Illinois it to the State Legislature to provide for the Natural History Society and the act of proper illustration of th? reports hereafter, and to remove the present inconsistencies of the 10 years later establishing the Illinois law. Unwilling, however, that the work of the State Laboratory of Natural History office of the past year should be without repre- made no mention of publications (Illinois sentation in the Transactions of the State General Assembly 1867:21-2; 1877: Board of Agriculture, with which the entomological report has been annually published 14-6). In 1879, however, the state leg- for the last ten years, I have submitted to the islature appropriated to the State Lab- Board, at the request of its Secretary, C. F. oratory for "publication of bulletins, the Mills, Esq., the following' miscellaneous essays sum of two hundred and fifty dollars per on economic entomology, summarizing the results of such part of our operations annum" (Illinois General Assembly as may well be published without cuts. 1879:42). An act approved June 27, 1885, a few At its next session the Illinois Gen- months after Forbes had moved to Ur- eral Assembly (1887:72) appropriated to bana, was specific about publication. It the State Laboratory of Natural History stipulated that the Director of the State $300 for publication of Laboratory bul- Laboratory "shall present for publica- letins and $500 for "the illustration of tion, from time to time, a series of sys- the biennial report of the State Entomol- tematic reports covering the entire field of ogist. the zoology and the cryptogamic botany of In these days of high cost of printing, Illinois." The act appropriated "for the engraving, and other services, such sums publication of bulletins, the sum of three as $300 and $500 seem insignificant. In hundred dollars per annum, and for the 1887, however, they bulked large enough preparation and publication of the second to help confirm in the public mind the volume of the report upon the zoology of importance of publication and illustra- the State, the sum of fifteen hundred tion in scientific research. dollars per annum" (Illinois General As- In a biennial report issued about 3 years sembly 1885:23-4). after assuming his duties in Urbana, : —

December, 1958 Avars: Publications and Public Relations 205

Forbes (18S8:7) described in detail the Walsh's first and only report as State publications that were being issued under Entomologist was followed by the re- his direction ports of his successors: 4 by William Le Baron, 6 by Cyrus Thomas, and 18 by Our regular publications run in four series, two from the Laboratory and two from the Forbes. Le Baron (1871) named Ins first Office of the State Entomologist,—the former report the first report of the State Ento- comprising the State zoological report and the mologist. The reports were discontinued bulletins of the State Laboratory of Natural when the State Entomologist's Office was History, and the latter the biennial entomological report and the bulletins of the entomolog- merged with the Illinois State Labora- ical office. tory of Natural History in 1917. During the past two years we have finished In 1876, about 4 years after his appoint- the printing of the first volume on the zoology ment as Curator of the Illinois Museum of the State, —containing five hundred and twenty pages of text and forty-six plates, of Natural History, Forbes issued the devoted to the ornithology of Illinois as far as first number of a technical series that has the water birds. This is a reprint of the vol- come down through the years as the Bul- ume, the first edition having been entirely de- letin. It has been known successively as stroyed in the burning of the office of the State the of the Illinois of Printer last February. Bulletin Museum Natural History, 1876; Bulletin of the PUBLICATIONS SERIES State Laboratory of Natural History, 1877 to the end of June, 1917; Bulletin

The words "Volume I, Series I," at the of the Illinois State Natural History Sur- top of the title page of the only Trans- vey, July, 1917, to early 1932; and Illinois actions published by the Illinois Natural Natural History Survey Bulletin, late History Society under its own name are 1932 to the present. Throughout its ex- evidence that the members looked for- istence the Bulletin has reported the re- ward hopefully to continued publication. sults of mature, original research. Most The date at the bottom of the page, 1861, of the articles have been slanted toward and a glance at American history give technical workers in the biological sci- testimony to the role the Civil War ences.

played in the Society's annals. In 1 8^ 1 Of wider interest are numbers of the Charles Hovey, first secretary of the So- circular series. The emphasis in this se- ciety and head of Illinois State Normal ries is on "how-to-do"— for example, how University, marched off to war as Colonel to control diseases or insect pests of shade of the Schoolmaster's Regiment, taking trees. Directions in the circulars are with him most of the men of the student based on the best available information body and some of the faculty (Marshall and usually only to a limited extent on 1956:75-6). No one knows how many original research by the writers. The lan- potential scientists died at Fort Donelson guage of the circular series is less tech- and in other engagements, or how much nical than that of the Bulletin. brain power from Illinois centers of learn- The complete history of the circulars ing was siphoned from the science of peace is not known. "We have also issued sev- into the science of war. eral entomological circulars not of any Two years after the Civil War was series," Forbes (1888:7) wrote 70 years over, biological science in Illinois re- ago. The modern circular series dates sumed its march, but the Natural His- from 1918 and a 6-page unnumbered pub- tory Society limped badly. It never re- lication titled "The More Important In- covered from the effects of the conflict. secticides and Repellents," by W. P. However, in voting an appropriation to Flint. Between 1918 and 1930, 13 other the Natural History Society and estab- circulars (3 unnumbered and 10 num- lishing the State Entomologist's Office bered) were issued by the economic ento- and the Illinois Industrial University, the mologists, 4 by the foresters, and 1 by the Illinois General Assembly (1867) gave botanist on the staff. Each circular was substantial evidence that the people of the issued as a product of the section repre- state wanted to continue the educational sented by its author. In 1934 the circu- movement that founders of the Society lar series was reorganized and the early had helped to start. circulars were numbered or renumbered. 206 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

The last circular published, Illinois Trees tions of typewritten copy. The most re- and Shrubs: Their Insect Enemies, is cent article of the Biological Notes is numbered 47. Some of the circulars have No. 39. been reprinted more than once, one of The fourth of the series of publications them, that on insect collecting, five times. now issued by the Illinois Natural His- Diverse in several ways are the articles tory Survey is the manual. Each number published in the Biological Notes series. is concerned with a single group of the

A few of the circulars, articles of the Bulletin, and biological notes issued recently by the Illinois Natural History Survey.

the first of which was issued in Decem- state flora or fauna, and each is designed ber, 1933, in mimeographed form. Some for use by young as well as mature nat- of the articles stand as progress reports uralists. The first of the manuals was of extensive projects, later to be subjects Fieldbook of Illinois Wild Flowers. It of articles in the Bulletin. Some are final was issued in 1936, is now out of print, reports covering small projects. Some are and is being revised. Three other man- technical. Some emphasize "how-to-do" uals have been published, one on land and in content and language are similar snails, one on native shrubs, and one on to the circulars. They are on various mammals. subjects and of various lengths. Early Preceding the manual series in time, articles in this series were mimeographed and somewhat similar in character, were and they contained no illustrations. Recent the now discontinued final reports, two articles have contained illustrations and on birds and one on fishes (Ridgwav they have been planographed reproduc- 1889, 1895; Forbes & Richardson 1908). December, 1958 Avars: Publications and Public Relations 207

Other discontinued series were the Ex- respondence, for the preparation of pa- ecutive Reports of the State Laboratory pers for the press, the correction of proofs, of Natural History, 1878-1916, and of and other clerical service." To the "effi- the State Entomologist, 1900-1915. Most cient secretary" was soon assigned the of these reports were published as pam- "labeling, determination, and arrange- phlets and were published also in Univer- ment of the insect collections" of the sity of Illinois reports or in Transactions State Laboratory (Forbes 1887:2). By of the State Horticultural Society. 1896 he was listed as Systematic En- Annual reports made by the Natural tomologist and Curator of Collections History Survey to the Illinois State De- (Forbes 1896:2). partment of Registration and Education Miss Snyder joined the staff of the were begun in 1918 and have been con- State Laboratory of Natural History in tinued to the present. These reports have 1883 and retired from the staff of the been published by the Division or by other Natural History Survey in 1925. She administrative units of the state govern- died in 1938 at the age of 93 years. She ment. Biennial reports have for many was listed successively as amanuensis, years been included in the Blue Book of stenographer, secretary, and editor and the State of Illinois. proofreader. Apparently, as Hart's ento- A considerable number of important mological activities increased, his editorial contributions by Illinois Natural History duties were taken over by Miss Snyder. Survey staff members have been published A scientist who knew Miss Snyder well in the bulletin and circular series of the characterized her recently as "an excellent Illinois Agricultural Experiment Station. editor." He added, "overcritical in a Many staff-written articles covering way." Good editors, like good scientists, results of research have been published in are apt to be "overcritical in a way." technical journals. In a biennial report Tradition reports that Forbes was not published 70 years ago, Forbes (1888:8) easily satisfied either with his own or his listed about a dozen articles "written at assistants' papers, that he was meticulous the Laboratory, but published elsewhere." about detail. In each of the past few years, approxi- H. H. Chapman, Yale University staff mately 80 articles written by staff mem- member who worked on forestry prob- bers of the Illinois Natural History Sur- lems for the Natural History Survey dur- vey have appeared in publications other ing the summers of 1922 and 1923, stated than those issued by the Survey. recently that Forbes was accustomed "to revising the reports of his subordinates, EDITORIAL PERSONNEL cutting them down to about one-fourth of their original bulk" (letter of July 10, That some editing was done on the 1958, from H. H. Chapman to C. W. first papers published by the Illinois Nat- Walters). ural History Society is evident from a Successor to Miss Snyder in 1926 was sentence in the Secretary's Report pub- H. Carl Oesterling, who for 2 years, be- lished with the Transactions for 1860 fore he was appointed full-time Editor of " (Wilber 1861J:8) : The following pa- the Natural History Survey, was em- pers were prepared—most of them— for ployed jointly by the Illinois Geological the last meeting of the Society, and have Survey, Illinois Water Survey, and Nat- since been revised for publication in this ural History Survey. Oesterling had previ- report." The Preface indicates that Wil- ously taught at the University of Illinois. ber (1861^:3-4) was the Editor. After Oesterling went to the Univer- For many years Forbes himself did sity of Illinois Press in 1931, Carroll B. considerable editing of the papers issued Chouinard was appointed to replace him. by the agencies he headed. Until 1926 Following Chouinard's appointment, the his principal editorial assistants were editorial office was called the Section of Charles A. Hart and Miss Mary Jane Publications. Chouinard resigned in 1937 Snyder. "Mr. C. A. Hart, my efficient to go to Pennsylvania State College, and secretary," Forbes (1882^:8) wrote in an James S. Ayars was appointed Editor. In early report, "is responsible for the cor- 1947 the title of Editor was changed to 208 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27. Art. 2

Technical Editor. In 1948 the Section tional motion pictures, photographs, and of Publications was renamed the Section magazine feature articles. Many public of Publications and Public Relations. contacts have been made each year by the Until Mrs. Blanche Penrod Young Chief and members of the staff in ad- was appointed Assistant Technical Editor dressing groups of persons interested in in September, 1948, the editorial staff had biological sciences and related subjects. consisted of the Editor and temporary or part-time assistants. In 1958 Mrs. Diana EDITORIAL POLICY Root Braverman was appointed as a second Assistant Technical Editor. The scientific articles published by the For many years photographs for illus- founding fathers of the Illinois Natural trating publications have been taken by History Survey and by Forbes and his members of the technical staff'. More contemporaries set standards of excel- than 60 years ago, Forbes (1894:36) lence that have served as a tradition and mentioned in a biennial report "a dark a challenge to subsequent members of the room for photography" among the rooms staff. Through the years, exactness of re- available to the State Laboratory of Nat- search and quality of the published re- ural History. ports based on research have been given Robert E. Hesselschwerdt was the precedence over quantity of research and first person on the staff whose title in- speed of publication. Most of the organi- cluded the word photographer. He was zation's reports that stand as landmarks appointed Assistant Technical Photogra- in biological literature were several years pher in 1946 and assigned to the Section in the making. Extreme examples are of Publications. Upon his resignation in some of the reports on the extensive bird 1948, he was replaced by Charles L. studies made in 1905-1909; the last of

Scott, who is now picture editor of the the reports on these studies was not pub- Milwaukee Journal. lished until 1923 (Forbes 1907/^, 1908, William E. Clark, the present staff 1913; Forbes & Gross 1921, 1922, 1923). photographer, was appointed in April, Even 70 or more years ago, when print- 1951. ing and engraving processes were less efficient than now, Forbes laid great stress PUBLIC RELATIONS on adequate illustrations. His policy with respect to adequate illustrations has been Long before public relations in name continued, and with improvement in were added to Illinois Natural History printing and engraving processes have Survey activities, public relations in fact come changes in illustration practices that were being practiced with consummate have added to the convenience of readers. skill. Forbes had a natural flair for pub- Instead of grouping illustrations at the lic speaking and for writing. He was end of an article, as Forbes was sometimes popular as a speaker before scientific, ag- forced to do, recent editors have been able ricultural, and educational groups. His to place each illustration close to its prin- articles on insects and other subjects cipal text reference. were welcomed by editors. In a biennial In the writing and editing of reports report Forbes (1888:8) mentioned "a designed for publication is still felt the considerable number of articles written influence of the founding fathers, the for the agricultural papers in response to classicists who sought to broaden the inquiries from their editors." base of education. Respect for words is His well-organized, stimulating, even combined with respect for persons, the po- exciting reports of accomplishments by, tential readers. or plans for, the agencies he represented Editorial problems have not been so were included as important parts of larger simple in the past half centurv as when reports by university presidents or other Wilber (1861^/:3) wrote that' "the sub- administrators. jects have generally been treated in a pop- In recent ^ears public relations media ular rather than a technical style." The have included principally news releases wide range of subject matter and the di- (to press, radio, and television), educa- versitv of interests of the various reader December, 1958 Avars: Publications and Public Relations 209 groups served by the Natural History tation of the results of a particular seg-

Survey have made necessary a diversity of ment of research ; to include all pertinent style and even of format. Each report to data and to exclude all inconsequential be published is written and edited for a or extraneous matter ; to achieve accu- particular reader group in the hope that racy in original data and in quoted and

to this group the report will be "immedi- paraphrased material ; to state only such ately useful and interesting." conclusions as can be justified by data

The joint aim of the writer, or writers, presented ; to make all statements so clear and the editorial staff is to make each that they can be easily understood and published paper an orderly, logical presen- cannot readilv be misunderstood. Library

RUTH R. WARRICK

VY/^HEN Cyrus Thomas proposed a reptiles, fishes, insects, plants, and mis- Natural History Society of Illinois cellaneous biological subjects. in 1857, his plan provided for the development of a library. In the letter out- THE LIBRARY AT URBANA lining his plan, we find this statement: In 1885, when Forbes accepted the "That such works as can be collected by position of Professor of Zoology and En- gift, which will be useful in the investiga- tomology at Illinois Industrial Univer- tion of Natural History and relate there- sity (soon to become the University of to, be gathered bv the members to form Illinois), he made the request that the a library" (Bateman 1 858^:12 ). property of the State Laboratory of Nat- While the Natural History Society ural Historv be transferred to this Uni- was in the process of organization, Dr. versity (Burrill 1887«:10-1). "The es- E. R. Roe of Bloomington reported for the sentials of my original work and of the Committee on Library (Wilber 1861^: State natural history survey can be trans- 12) : "That it shall contain all available ferred from the Normal building to the works on the Natural Sciences, Home basement of the University without and Foreign Surveys, Manuals, Works of detriment to any part of the work of the in the several departments. Reference ." Normal School, . . The property Miscellaneous Works, not strictly scien- transferred included the library (Burrill tific. Maps and Charts, etc," 1887a: 101). A special project of the State Labora- THE LIBRARY AT NORMAL tory of Natural History in 1893 was an exhibit of the zoology of Illinois at the When the Society received its charter Columbian Exposition, held in Chicago. from the state legislature in 1861, a li- This exhibit included a section of the brary was provided for in Section 3 (Wilber 1861^:15): library, "the books selected being mainly entomological, and including serial publi- Said natural history society shall also pro- cations, periodicals, monographs, reference vide for a library of scientific works, reports of home and foreign surveys, manuals, maps, books, pamphlets, etc., to the number of charts, etc., etc., such as may be useful in about five hundred volumes" (Forbes determining the fauna and flora of Illinois, 1894:7). and said library shall be kept in the museum When the biological station was estab- of said society at the State Normal University. lished near Havana in 1894, the libraries This library, while it was still at Illi- of the University and of the Laboratory nois State Normal University, Normal, supplied a working library of about 120 was transferred to the Illinois State Lab- volumes (Forbes 1894:3, 19). oratory of Natural History when the The floating laboratory, launched in Laboratory was created in 1877. April, 1896, had a cabin that at one end

The library served not only the mem- housed an office and library, 1 1 feet, 6 bers of the Natural History Society and inches by 16 feet. A 24-page illustrated the State Laboratory; it was used by pamphlet describing the biological sta- naturalists located in other parts of the tion contained the information that to state. In the report for 1879-1880 (Forbes summer students doing research "access 1880/: 9-20), a classified list of more than will be given to the biological library of 300 titles of the principal works added the Station. Books will also be loaned, as during that period wms included. This list needed, from the library of the State Labo- was for the "benefit of the students of ratory of Natural History and from that natural science throughout the State" of the University of Illinois" (Forbes and included works on mammals, birds. 1896:16, 26-7),' [210] ;

December, 1958 Warrick: Library 21

catalog all books, The library remained in the possession (1) The University is to journals, etc., including arrears and recata- of the State Laboratory of Natural His- loging. Natural tory and its successor, the State (2) The University is to provide in the History Survey, until 1928, when it was regular library budget a fund for the pur- Natural History Sur- turned over to the University of Illinois chase of books for the vey (at present $400). Library (Cunningham 1928:275-6). (3) The University is to manage the Nat- This transfer was made with the follow- ural History Survey Library the same as ing stipulations: other departmental libraries, including provision of service to the Natural History Survey article now belonging to the 1. That each from other libraries on the campus. The pro- library of the Natural History Survey or fessional staif of the Survey is to receive shall bear a distinctive added to it hereafter service from the various libraries on the mark campus on the same basis as the faculty of additions shall be made to 2. That such the University. it, from time to time, as are necessary to (4) The University is to allow the Natural History Survey as the work of the Natural History Survey "preferred use" of the ma- the Chief thereof and approved certified by terial in the Natural History Survey Library by the President of the University; and as "preferred use" is defined in your letter 3. That the scientific staff of the Natural to me of December 16. History Survey shall have at all times a prior (5) The University is to provide, besides use of books, pamphlets, and right to the general supervision, the sum of $700 in 1940- papers of the aforesaid library, their use by 41 for staff in the Natural History Survey members of the faculty and by the students Library. of the University being second to this claim. It is to provide $1500 for each year of the biennium 1941-43. the Natural History Building When (6) The Natural History Survey is to pro- was completed, the library moved to the vide housing for such books as need to be rooms assigned to it (Forbes 1894:35-6). housed in the Natural Resources Building. (7) The Survey is to relieve the University Since my last report to you the State Labora- September 1, 1943, of the responsibility for tory has removed to the rooms assigned to providing staff for library service. it in the new Natural History Hall of the University of HIinois, five on the first floor The Natural History Survey Library, and two in the basement. These rooms are opened as a separate unit in September, a Director's office, 21 ft.xl9 ft., a library room 1940 (Lill 1942:1), was located on the 22x32, . . . fourth floor of the Natural Resources Provision was again made for a sepa- Building, and remained in that location rate library when the Natural Resources until the west wing of the Natural Re- Building was planned. Plans for trans- sources Building was completed. In Feb- ferring the book collection from the Nat- ruary, 1952 (Simmons 1952:1), the li- ural History Building to the Natural brary was moved to its permanent loca- Resources Building were being considered tion on the first floor at the south end of as early as July, 1939. A letter dated the west wing. July 26, 1939, from Dr. P. L. Windsor, Director of University Libraries, to Dr. LIBRARY COLLECTIONS T. H. Prison, Chief of the Natural His- tory Survey, contained this statement: In a paper, "Natural History in Schools," which was read before the Illi- I am beginning to think of the preparations nois State 'Peachers' Association in 1860, that will have to be made when the State Survey building is completed and you take A. M. Gow of Dixon gave a brief his- over with you, such parts of the Natural His- tory of the Illinois Natural History So- tory Library as you think are necessary for ciety and stated that its library at that your current work. time contained 300 volumes (Gow 1861 : After much planning and working out 96). of policies, an agreement between the Nat- Professor Porbes in his 1881-1882 re- ural History Survey and the University port stated that additions to the library was reached. This agreement was out- since his last report had been 360 vol- lined in a letter dated January 22, 1941, umes and 200 pamphlets, many of them from Dr. Carl M. White, then Director "rare and costly works — the foundation of University Libraries, to Dr. Prison, as stones of zoological and botanical litera- follows: ture" (Porbes 1882^:7). He wrote that 212 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

"particular attention has been paid to zoology, botany, wildlife, and conserva- cataloguing, and this has been kept fully tion, are emphasized. abreast of the additions, A card catalogue For many years, the library has added of authors is now absolutel\ complete to to its collection by exchanging the publi- date, and a subject catalogue is well cations of the State Laboratory of Nat- under way." ural History and the Natural History In 1885, when the State Laboratory Survey with other institutions. The |X)licy of Natural History was transferred from toward exchanges was expressed by Mr. Illinois State Normal University to the Gow (1861:96) nearly 100 years ago: University of Illinois at Urbana, the li- "Fhe library of the Society will embrace brary had a collection of 1,207 bound everything that can be procured by gift, volumes and 3,856 pamphlets and period- purchase or exchange, upon Natural His- icals (Burrill 1887^:101). The library tory in particular, and Science in general." additions in 1899-1900 were 648 volumes As the number of publications of the and 764 pamphlets (Forbes 1901:11). State Laboratory increased, the library Professor Forbes in 1909 stated that the was able to establish a larger number of library then had nearly 7,000 books and exchanges, especially with European so- something over 17,000 pamphlets (Forbes cieties and institutions (Forbes 1901:10). 1909:55-6). We are now receiving in exchange for our The library at present contains over State Laboratory Bulletin one hundred and 19,000 volumes and approximately 5,000 eighty-one periodical scientific publications, pamphlets, the greater part being period- of which fifty-nine are American, twenty- eight are British or British-colonial, twenty- icals and other serials. The field of en- six are German, sixteen French, twelve Ital- tomology is represented most strongly in ian, and the remaining forty are Russian, the collection, but other subjects, such as Swedish, Norwegian, Danish, Dutch, Hun-

Part of the Illinois Natural History Survey library in the Natural Resources Building. This library is noted especially for its large collection of bound volumes of periodicals in the biological sciences. D cccniDcr, 1958 Warrick: Library 213

garian, Portugese, Egyptian, South American, the Report of Committee on Library, the and Japanese. following provision for a library was

At the present time the library has an made (Wilber 1861^/: 12) : "That the So- exchange arrangement with approximately ciety devote all moneys obtained by do- 500 scientific institutions and societies, a nations and memberships to this import- large number of which are foreign. ant object [library], except so much as are necessary for expenses." LIBRARY PERSONNEL In an early report of the Director of the State Laboratory of Natural History, Provision for the care of the library a plea was made for a public scientific has been made from the beginning of the library (Forbes 1878/^:5-6): Natural History Society to the present A most indispensable requisite for thorough time. The person in charge of the library work in any direction is an increase of the has always had the title librarian and Library. Much of the time and money already invested in the Laboratory collections has been a member of the stalif, first of and belongings must lie idle until this im- the Natural History Society (Wilber provement is made. There is not anywhere 1861^:10) and later a member of the within reach of our naturalists a scientific stafif of each of the state agencies that fol- library sufficient to assist them to reliable lowed, except for a period from 1928 original work in any department of natural history. Nothing which the State could do for (Cunningham 1928:275) to 1943 when science would so stimulate a productive ac- the University of Illinois assumed full tivity among them as a moderate appropria- responsibility for the book collection. tion for a public scientific library; and there The first librarian was Ira Moore, is evidently no place where this library may be so properly built up as in connection instructor in mathematics at Illinois State with the State Laboratory of Natural His- Normal University (Wilber 1861

The library received its support from state, we hope that a statement made by appropriations made by the state legisla- Professor Forbes a half century ago is ture to the State Laboratory or Natural still true and that the library will always

History Survey until the books were maintain the high standard set for it by transferred to the University of Illinois, its founders. "Apart from its collections, at which time the University assumed . . . the most useful possession of the the responsibilit\' for the book collection Laboratory is its library, which is the (Cunningham 1928:275-6). product of many years of careful selection After 100 years of library service to and purchase of the literature of the ." the staff and to the naturalists of the world . . (Forbes 1909:55). Former Technical Employees

Illinois Natural History Society, Illinois State Entomologist's Office, Illinois State Museum of Natural History, Illinois State Laboratory of Natural History, Illinois Natural History Survey BESSIE B. EAST

POLLOWING is a partial list of for- of their important contributions to the -- mer employees of the Illinois Natural work of the Natural History Society and History Society (1858-1871), Illinois the maintenance of its collections, the State Entomologist's Office (1867-1917), names of two earlv curators, C. D. Wilber Illinois State Museum of Natural His- (1858-1864) and Joseph A. Sewall tory (1871-1877), Illinois State Labora- (1864-1867), and of the first librarian, tory of Natural History (1877-1917), Ira Moore (1858-1863), have been in- and Illinois Natural History Survey cluded; all three were members of the

(since 1917). The list is not complete be- stafif of Illinois State Normal University. cause early records are fragmentary or do The first official employee whose sal- not exist, and because, for the sake of brev- ary was paid from funds appropriated by ity, it seemed desirable to omit the names the state legislature for that purpose was of many short-term or part-time em- John Wesley Powell, appointed Curator ployees. A number of collaborators who in 1867. From this beginning, the staff w^orked closely with regular staff members has increased to its present total of 101. are not listed, although they made contri- No present employees are included in the butions to the official publications. Because following list. Adams, Charles Christopher Berger, Bernard George Entomologist, 1896-1898 Entomologist, 1941-1945 Adams, Leverett Allen Betten, Cornelius Zoologist, 1929 Entomologist, 1931 Alexander, Charles Paul Brown, Frank Arthur Entomologist, 1919-1922 Zoologist, 1935

Alexopoulos, Constantine J. Burks, Barnard De Witt Botanist, 1930-1931 Entomologist, 1937-1949 Ames, Ralph Wolfley Burrill, Thomas Jonathan Plant Pathologist, 1951-1952 Botanist, 1885-1892 Anderson, Harry Warren Butler, Cyrus W. Botanist, 1922 Biologist, 1880-1882 Anderson, John M. Campana, Richard John Biologist, '1939-1941 Plant Pathologist, f952-1958 Apple, James Wilbur Campbell, Leo Entomologist, 1943-1949 Botanist, 1930-1931 Auden, Kenneth Francis Chandler, Stewart Curtis Entomologist, 1925-1927 Entomologist, 1917-1957 Baker, Frank Collins Chapman, Herman Haupt Zoologist, 1931-1932 Forester, 1922-1923 Balduf, Walter Valentine Chase, Elizabeth Brown Entomologist, 1923 Biologist, 1945-1948 Barnickol, Paul George Chouinard, Carroll Benedict Aquatic Biologist, 1945-1948 Editor, 1931-1937 Barrett, E. G. CoMPTON, Charles Chalmer Botanist, 1931-1932 Entomologist, 1921-1944 Beach, Alice Marie COQUILLETT, DaNIEL WiLLIAM Entomologist, 1899-1900 Entomologist, 1881

[215] 216 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

Craig, Wallace Foster, T. Dale Aquatic Biologist, 1898-1899 Zoologist, 1931-1932 Crawley, Henri Douglas French, George Hazen Forester, 1950-1951 Entomologist, 1877-1878 Creager, Don Baxter Frison, Theodore Henry Plant Pathologist, 1939-1943 Entomologist, 1923-1930; Chief, Culver, Lawson Blaine Natural History Survey, 1930-1945 Forester, 1947-1954 Garman, Philip Daniels, Eve Entomologist, 1914 Botanist, 1924-1926 Garman, W. Harrison Davis, James Elvvood Zoologist, 1877-1889 Forester, 1935-1947 GiRAULT, AlECANDRE ArSI-NE Davis, John June Entomologist, 1908-1911 Entomologist, 1907-1911 Glasgow, Robert Douglass DeCoursey, John D. Entomologist, 1905-1909, 1912-1915, Entomologist, 1929-1932 1927 DeLong, Dwight Moore Glenn, Pressley Adams Entomologist, 1934-1936, 1938, 1941, Entomologist, 1911-1917 1945 Goding, Frederick Webster DoziER, Herbert Lawrence Entomologist, 1885 Entomologist, 1932 GoFF, Carlos Clyde Driver, Ernest Charles Entomologist, 1927-1930 Zoologist, 1930 Goss, Edna Lucy DuGGAR, Benjamin Minge Librarian, 1906-1908 Botanist, 1895-1896 Gross, Alfred Otto Durham, Leonard Ornithologist, 1906-1907, 1909, 1912 Aquatic Biologist, 1947-1950 Hankinson, Thomas Leroy Earle, Franklin Sumner Zoologist, 1911 Mycologist, 1886 Harris, Hubert Andrew Eddy, Samuel Botanist, 1930-1933 Botanist, 1925-1929 Hart, Charles Arthur Elder, William Hanna Entomologist, 1880-1918 Game Specialist, 1941-1943 Hart, Lydia Moore Engelhard, Arthur William Artist, 1891-1898 Plant Pathologist, 1955-1956 Hawkins, Arthur Stuart Farrar, Milton Dyer Game Specialist, 1938-1945 Entomologist, 1931-1946 Hayes, William Patrick Fell, Rachel M. Entomologist, 1926, 1928-1934 Botanist, 1881-1882 Hempel, Adolph Ferris, John Mason Zoologist, 1894-1896 Plant 'Pathologist, 1957-1958 Hesselschwerdt, Robert Edward FisK, Vernon C. Zoologist, 1936-1942; Photographer, Forester, 1921-1923 1946-1948 Flint, Wesley Pillsbury Hoffman, Paul Fredrick, Jr. Entomologist, 1907-1943 Plant Pathologist, 1951-1954 Forbes, Ernest Browning Hood, Joseph Douglas Zoologist, 1894-1896, 1899-1901 Entomologist, 1910-1912 Forbes, Henry Clinton HoTTES, Frederick Charles Librarian, 1894-1902 Entomologist, 1928-1930 Forbes, Stephen Alfred Hunt, Francis D. Curator, State Museum of Natural Aquatic Assistant, 1925-1937 History, 1872-1877; Director, State Hunt, Thomas Forsyth Laboratory of Natural History, Entomologist, 1885-1886 1877-1917; State Entomologist, HuTCHENs. Lynn Henry 1882-1917; Chief, Natural History Aquatic Biologist, 1936-1938, Survey, 1917-1930 1946-1947 December, 1958 East: Former Technical Employees 217

Janvrin, Charles Edwin Milner, Ange V. Librarian, 1912-1929 Librarian, 1880-1882 Johnson, Willis Grant Moore, Ira Entomologist, 1894-1896 Librarian, 1858-1863 Jordan, James Schuyler Moore, Thomas Edwin Game Specialist, 1948-1955 Entomologist, 1948-1956 Kahl, Hugo Nyberg, Florence Anna Entomologist, 1892-1894, 1901-1902 Assistant to the Chief, 1922-1945 Kelley, Grace Osgood O'Donnell, Donald John Librarian, 1908-1912 Zoologist, 1931-1937 Knab, Frederick Oesterling, H. Carl Artist, 1903-1905 Editor, 1926-1931 Knight, Harry Hazelton Peake, Charles O. Entomologist, 1930, 1932-1933, 1937 Knight, Kenneth Lee Botanist, 1921-1923 Entomologist, 1938-1939 Peirce, Alan Stanley KoFOiD, Charles Atwood Botanist, 1933-1934 Aquatic Biologist, 1895-1900 Pepoon, Herman S. Krumholz, Louis A. Botanist, 1931-1933 Zoologist, 1938-1941 Plunkett, Orda Allen Kudo, Richard R. Botanist, 1922 Zoologist, 1930 Porter, Charles Lyman Large, Thomas Botanist, 1921-1922 Aquatic Biologist, 1899-1902 Powell, John Wesley Le Baron, William Curator, 1867-1872 Entomologist, 1870-1875 Powers, Edwin Booth Leigh, Walter Henry Entomologist, 1917 Game Specialist, 1935-1938 Rasmussen, Daniel Irvin Low, Jessop Budge Biologist, 1931-1932 Game Specialist, 1941-1943 Richards, William Robin Luce, Wilbur Marshall Entomologist, 1950-1953 Zoologist, 1929-1930, 1932 Richardson, Robert Earl LuETH, Francis X. Aquatic Biologist, 1903-1904, Zoologist, 1939-1940 1909-1933 McCauley, William Edward RiEGEL, Garland Tavner Entomologist, 1934-1941 Entomologist, 1938-1942 McClure, Howe Elliott Ries, Donald Timmerman Entomologist, 1930-1933 Naturalist, 1938 McCORMICK, A. K. Robertson, William Beckwith, Jr. Aquatic Biologist, 1881-1882 Game Specialist, 1952-1956 McDouGALL, Walter Byron Sawyer, Leslie Edwin Botanist, 1928 Forester, 1929-1935 Malloch, John Russell Schneider, Irving Robert Entomologist, 1913-1921 Plant Pathologist, 1954-1956 Mally, Frederick William ScHOPF, James Entomologist, 1889-1890 Botanist, 1931 Maltby, Cora M. Schreeder, W. F. Librarian, 1885-1886 Forester, 1921-1925 Marten, John Scott, Charles L. Entomologist, 1888-1894 Photographer, 1948-1951 Middleton, Nettie Selander, Richard B. Entomologist, 1878-1880 Entomologist, 1955-1958 Miller, August Edward Sewall, Joseph A. Entomologist, 1926-1928 Curator, 1864-1867 Miller, Ross Jewell Seymour, Arthur Bliss Forester, 1947-1956 Botanist, 1881-1883, 1884, 1886 218 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27. Art. 2

Shelford, N'lCTOR Ernest Thompson, David Hiram Ecologist, 1914-1927 Zoologist, 1923-1944 Shoemaker, Hurst Titus, Edward Sharp Gaige Zoologist, 1942, 1944 Entomologist, 1902-1903 Shropshire, Leslie Harold TowNSEND, Lee Hill Entomologist, 1931-1942 Entomologist, 1932-1936 Simmons, Lillian Marguerite Trumbower, John Abbott Librarian, 1943-1952 Botanist, 1932-1933 SxHTH, Dora Van Cleave, Harley [ones Biologist, 1894 Parasitologist, 1911-1912 Smith, Emma A. Vasev, George VV. Entomologist, 1877 Acting Curator, 1871-1872 Smith, Frank Vestal, Arthur Gibson Botanist, 1909 Zoologist, 1894-1897, 1907-1910 Von Limbach, Bruno Smith, Lindley Malcolm Zoologist, 1940-1945 Entomologist, 1907-1917 VVadley, Francis Marion Snow, Francis Huntington Entomologist, 1920 1892 Entomologist, Walsh, Benjamin D. Snyder, Mary Jane Entomologist, 1867-1869 Amanuensis and Editor, 1883-1925 Wandell, Willet Norbert SOMMERMAN, KaTHRYN MaRTHA Forester, 1945-1954 Entomologist, 1939-1946 Webster, Francis Marion Sowls, Lyle K. Entomologist, 1881-1884, Game Specialist, 1940-1941 1902-1904 Spooner, Charles S. Weed, Clarence Moores Entomologist, 1917-1920 Entomologist, 1885-1888 Spooner, Charles S., Jr. Weinman, Carl John Biologist, 1939-1942 Entomologist, 1937-1952 Stanley, Willard Francis West, James Alexander Zoologist, 1935 Entomologist, 1905-1908 Stout, Gilbert Leonidas Wilber, C. D. Botanist, 1926-1930 Curator, 1858-1864 Summers, Henry Elija Wolf, John Entomologist, 1892-1893 Botanist, 1880 Frank SuRANY, Paul Wood, Elmer Aquatic Biologist, 1905-1909 Entomologist, 1950-1955 Woodworth, C. W. Surface, Harvey Adam Entomologist, 1884-1886 Zoologist, 1899 Wright, John McMaster Tanquary, Maurice Cole Entomologist, 1943-1957 1910-1912 Entomologist, Yeager, Lee Emmett Taylor, Estes Park Forester, 1938-1945 Entomologist, 1903-1905 Young, Paul Allen Tehon, Leo Roy Botanist, 1922-1925 Botanist, 1921-1954; Acting Chief, Yuasa, Hachiro Natural History Survey, 1945-1946 Entomologist, 1921-1922 Telford, C. J. Zetek, James Forester, 1921-1929 Entomologist, 1909-1911 Thomas, Cyrus ZUCKERMAN, BeRT MeRTON Entomologist, 1875-1882 Plant Pathologist, 1951-1954 ;

LITERATURE CITED

Agassiz, Louis Bartlett, S. P., Secretary 1863. Methods of study in natural history. 1893. Report of the Commissioners. 111. Ticknor & Fields, Boston, viii + 319 Fish Commrs. Rep. 1890-1892. 52 pp. pp. Bateman, Newton, Editor Alexander, Charles P. 1858rt. The meeting at Decatur. 111. Teacher 1925. An entomological survey of the Salt 4(1) :l-25. Fork of the Vermilion River in 1921, ISSSZ*. Natural History Society. 111. Teacher with a bibliography of aquatic in- 4(8) :258-9. sects. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. Bateman, Newton, Secretary 15(8):439-535. 1867. Proceedings of the Board of Educa- Anonymous tion of the State of Illinois (Decem- 1860. The anniversary week at Blooming- ber 19, 1866; March 26, 1867). Pe- ton. The agricultural convention oria. 12 pp. annual meeting of the Illinois Nat- 1871. Proceedings of the Board of Educa- ural History Society, and commence- tion of the State of Illinois (June 28, ment exercises of the State Normal 29, 1871). Peoria. 20 pp. University. Chiefly compiled from 1872. Proceedings of the Board of Educa- the reports of the Chicago Press and tion of the State of Illinois (June 26, Tribune and Chicago Times, Chi- 1872). Peoria. 12 pp. cago. 67 pp. Bayless, Mrs. Anne Douglas 1930. Professor S. A. Forbes, dies after 1957. The annual meeting— 1957. 111. Au- more than 60 years of service to the dubon Soc. Bui. 1957(102) : 1-4. University and State. 111. Alumni News 8(7) :278-82. Bebb, M. S. 1936. Fieldbook of Illinois wild flowers. 1859. List of plants occurring in the north- 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Man. 1. x-^406 ern counties of the state of Illinois, pp. in addition to the catalogue given by Ayars, James S. Dr. J. [sic] A. Lapham. 111. Ag. Soc. 1956. Leo Roy Tehon, 1895-1954. 111. Acad. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:586-7. Sci. Trans, for 1955, 48:224-5. Beck, Lewis C. Babcock, H. H. 1826a. Contributions towards the botany of 1872. The flora of Chicago and vicinity. the states of Illinois and Missouri, The Lens l(l):20-6; 1(2): 65-71; Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts 10(2) :257- l(3):144-50; l(4):218-22. 64. Baker, Frank Collins 1826Z'. Contributions towards the botany of the states of Illinois 1906. A catalogue of the Mollusca of Illi- and Missouri. Am. Sci. and Arts :167- nois. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 7(6): Jour. 11(1) 53-136. 82. 1828. 1939. Fieldbook of Illinois land snails. 111. Contributions towards the botany of the states of Illinois and Nat. Hist. Surv. Man. 2. 166 pp. Missouri. Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts 14(1): 112- Balham, Ronald W., and Wm. H. Elder 21. 1953. Colored leg bands for waterfowl. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 17(4) :446-9. Bellrose, Frank C. Bannister, Henry M. 1940. Quail and pheasant studies in an 1868. Geology of Cook County. Pp. 239-56 orchard county. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. 13. in Vol. Ill, Geological Survey of Notes 11 pp. 1941. food plants of the Illinois Illinois, A. H. Worthen, Director. Duck valley. 111. Hist. Springfield, Illinois. River Nat. Surv. Bui. 21(8) :237-80. Barnard, W. S. 1944. Duck populations and kill: an evalu- 1880. Notes on the development of a black- ation of some waterfowl regulations fly {Simulium) common in the rapids in Illinois. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. around Ithaca, N. Y. Am. Ent., n.s., 23(2) : 327-72. 1(8) :191-3. 1945. Relative values of drained and un- Barney, R. L. drained bottomland in Illinois. Jour. 1924. A confirmation of Borodin's scale Wildlife Mgt. 9(3) :161-82. method of age determination of Con- 1950. The relationship of muskrat popula- necticut River shad. Am. Fish. Soc. tions to various marsh and aquatic Trans, for 1924, 54:168-77. plants. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 14(3): Barnickol, Paul G., and William C. Starrett 299-315. 1951. Commercial and sport fishes of the 1953a. Housing for wood ducks. 111. Nat. Mississippi River between Caruth- Hist. Surv. Circ. 45. 47 pp. ersville, Missouri, and Dubuque, 1953Z'. A preliminary evaluation of cripple Iowa. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. losses in waterfowl. N. Am. Wild- 25(5):267-350. life Conf. Trans. 18:337-60.

[219] 220 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

1954. The value of waterfowl refuges in Boewe, G. H,

Illinois. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 18(2) : 1939. Diseases of small grain crops in Illi- 160-9. nois. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Circ. 35. 1957. A spectacular waterfowl migration 130 pp. through central North America. 111. Borodin, N. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 36. 24 1924. Age of shad (Alosa sapuiissima Wil- pp. son) as determined by the scales. 1958fl. The orientation of displaced water- Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1924, fowl in migration. Wilson Bui. 54:178-84. 70(l):20-40. Brendel, Frederick 1958^1. Celestial orientation bv wild mal- 1857. Historical researches upon the culti- lards. Bird-Banding 29(2) :75-90. vated grain fruits in the state of Illi- 1959. Lead poisoning as a mortality factor nois. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1856- in waterfowl populations. 111. Nat. 1857, 2:471-83. Hist. Surv. Bui. 27(3). In press. 1859a. Additions and annotations to Mr. Bellrose, Frank C, and Harry G. Anderson Lapham's catalogue of Illinois plants. 1943. Preferential rating of duck food 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, plants. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 3:583-5. 22(5):417-33. 1859/^. The trees and shrubs in Illinois. 111. Bellrose, Frank C, and Louis G. Brown Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:588- 1941. The effect of fluctuating water levels 604. on the muskrat population of the 1859f. The oaks of Illinois. III. Ag. Soc. Illinois River valley. Jour. Wildlife Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:605-31. Mgt. 5(2):206-12. 1859^. Forests and forest trees. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:651-61. Bellrose, Frank C, and Elizabeth Brown Ghase 1860. Botanical notes. Notices and additions to Illinois flora. Prairie Farmer, 1950. Population losses in the mallard, n.s., [Author's black duck, and blue-winged teal. 6(19):294-5. name given as Fred. Brendell.] HI. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 22. 1861. The water lily. On the peculiar 27 pp. growth of the water lily {Nelumbium Bellrose, Frank C., and Jessop B. Low luteiim JViUd.). 111. Nat. Hist. Soc. 1943. The influence of flood and low water Trans. 2nd ed. Ser. 1, 1:65-7. levels on the survival of muskrats. 1870. Occurrence of rare plants in Illinois. Mammal. 24(2) : 173-88. Jour. Am. Nat. 4(6):374. Frank G., and Glair T. Rollings Bellrose, [Brendel, Frederick] 1949. Wildlife and fishery values of bot- 1876. The tree in winter. III. Mus. Nat. tomland lakes in Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Bui. l(l):26-32. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 21. 24 pp. Brendel, Frederick Bennett, George W. 1887. Flora Peoriana. The vegetation in 1943. Management of small artificial lakes: the climate of middle Illinois. J. W. a summary of fisheries investiga- Franks and Sons, Peoria. 89 pp. tions, 1938-1942. 111. Nat. Hist. G., and E. Yeager Surv. Bui. 22(3):357-76. Brown, Louis Lee 1943. Survey of the Illinois fur resource. 1947. Fish management— a substitute for III. Hist. Surv. Bui. :435- natural predation. N. Am. Wildlife Nat. 22(6) Conf. Trans. 12:276-84. 504. 1945. Fox squirrels and gray squirrels in 1948. The bass-bluegill combination in a Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. small artificial lake. III. Nat. Hist. :449-536. Surv. Bui. 24(3):377-412. 23(5) 1952. Pond management in Illinois. Jour. Bruce, Willis N. Wildlife Mgt. 16(3) :249-53. 1952. Automatic sprayer for control of bit- 1954«. Largemouth bass in Ridge Lake, ing flies on cattle. 111. Nat. Hist. Coles County, Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 27. 11 pp. Surv. Bui. 26(2):217-76. 1953. A new technique in control of the 1954/'. The effects of a late-summer draw- house fly. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. down on the fish population of Ridge Notes 33. 8 pp. Lake, Coles County, Illinois. N. Am. Bruce, W. N., and George C. Decker Wildlife Conf. Trans. 19:259-70. 1951. Tabanid control on dairy and beef Bennett, George W., David H. Thompson, and cattle with synergized pyrethrins. Sam A. Parr Jour. Econ. Ent. 44(2):154-9. 1940. Lake management reports. 4. A sec- 1957. Experiments with several repellent ond year of fisheries investigations formulations applied to cattle for at Fork Lake, 1939. III. Nat. Hist. control of stable flies. Jour. Econ. Surv. Biol. Notes 14. 24 pp. Ent. 50(6):709-13. Birge, E. A. 1958. The relationship of stable fly abun- 1929. Fish and their food. Am. Fish. Soc. dance to milk production in dairy Trans, for 1929, 59:188-94. cattle. Jour. Econ. Ent. 51(3) :269-74. Di 1958 Literature Cited 221

Brush, H. L. Carter, J. Cedric 1857. On the culture of the vine in Illi- 1939. Progress in the control of elm dis- nois. 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1856- eases in nurseries. III. Nat. Hist. 1857, 2:407-12. Surv. Biol. Notes 10. 19 pp. Burks, B. D. 1941. Preliminary investigation of oak dis- 1953. The mayflies, or Ephemeroptera, of eases in Illinois. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. Bui. 21(6) :195-230. 1945. Wetwood of elms. III. Nat. Hist. 26(1) : 1-216. Surv. Bui. 23(4) :407-48. Burr, J. G. 1952. Distribution and spread of oak wilt 1931. Electricity as a means of garfish and in Illinois. U. S. Dept. Ag. Plant carp control. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, Dis. Reptr. 36(1) :26-7. for 1931, 61:174-81. 1955. Leo Roy Tehon, 1895-1954. Phyto- Burrill, Thomas J. pathology 45(3) :115. 1874. Aggressive parasitism of fungi. 111. Carter, J. C, and Noel B. Wysong Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1873, n.s., 1951. Isolation of the oak wilt fungus 7:217-21. from swamp white oak. U. S. Dept. Ag. 1876. Lettuce mould and leaf blights. 111. Plant Dis. Reptr. 35(3) : 173-4. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1875, n.s., 9:139-44. Carver, Jonathan 1778. 1877. Injurious fungi. 111. Hort. Soc. Trans, Travels through the interior parts for 1876, n.s., 10:213-20. of North-America, in the years 1766, 1881. Blight, or bacteria-ferments, in fruit 1767, and 1768. Printed for the au- trees. Ind. Hort. Soc. Trans, for thor, London. 543 pp. 1880, 20:84-91. Chapman, Herman H., and Robert B. Miller 1885. Parasitic fungi of Illinois—Part I. 1924. Second report on a forest survey of 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 2(3):141- Illinois. The economics of forestry 255. in the state. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 1886. Annual address of the president: 15(3) :46-172. Bacteria and disease. Am. Soc. Mi- Coquillett, D. W. croscopists Proc. for 1886, 8:5-29. 1881. Larvae of Lepidoptera. III. Ent. Rep. Burrill, Thomas J., Corresponding Secretary 10:142-86. 1887rt. Thirteenth report ... of the Board [Coues, Elliott] of Trustees of the University of 1 ST. Birds and insects. Nuttall Ornith. Illinois (Illinois Industrial llniver- Club Bui. 8(2) :105-7. sity) . . . for the two years ending September 30, 1886. 305 pp. Creager, Donald B. 1941rt. Ring spot of popular peperomias liurrill, Thomas J. caused by virus. Florists' Rev. 1887//. The forest-tree plantation. 111. ITniv. 87(2256) :15-6. Rep. 13:255-82. 1941/;. Control black mold of rose grafts by 1887('. A disease of broom-corn and sor- chemical treatments. Florists' Rev. ghum. Soc. Prom. Ag. Sci. Proc. 89(2290) :21-2. 8:30-6. 1941r. Control program for peony measles. 1888. Drouth and trees. III. Hort. Soc. Florists' Rev. 89(2296) :22-3. Trans, for 1887, n.s., 21:110-7. 1942. Thielavia root rot of sweet peas and 1889rt. Road and street horticulture. 111. its control. III. Florists' Assn. Bui. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1888, n.s., 62-284-5. 22:153-9. 1943(7. Spraying ground with Elgetol con- 1889/;. The biology of ensilage. 111. Ag. trols peony disease. III. Florists' Exp. Sta. Bui. 7:177-94. Assn. Bui. 68:311-3. 1890. Canada thistles, their extermination. 1943/;. Prevention of disease losses In 111. Ag. Exp. Sta. Bui. 12:379-87. callas. III. Florists' Assn. Bui. 1903. Experiments in spraying for bitter 73:340-3. rot. 111. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1902, 1943r. Carnation mosaic. Phytopathology n.s., 36:54-66. 33(9) : 823-7. Campbell, F. L. 1944. How to recognize and control mosaic 1946. Valediction: Theodore Henry Prison. on carnation plants. Florists' Rev. Sci. Monthly 62:91-3. 93(2409): 27-9. Carbine, W. F. 1945. Mosaic of the common coleus. Phyto- 1939. Observations on the spawning habits pathology 35(4) :223-9. of centrarchid fishes in Deep Lake, Creson, E. T., Aut R. Grote, J. W. Oakland County, Michigan. N. Am. McAllister, Benj. D. Walsh, Editors Wildlife Conf. Trans. 4:275-87. 1865. Answers to correspondents. Pract. Carriel, Mary Turner Ent. 1(3) :18-9. 1911. The life of Jonathan Baldwin Tur- Cunningham, Harrison E., Secretary ner. [Published by the author, Jack- 1928. Thirty-fourth report ... of the sonville, Illinois.] 298 pp. Board of Trustees of the University 222 Illinois Natural History Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

of Illinois for the two years ending Ecke, Dean H., and Ralph E. Yeatter June 30, 1928. 1x1 + 840 pp. 1956. Notes on the parasites of cottontail Curl, E. A. rabbits in Illinois. III. Acad. Sci. 1953. Studies on the availability of oak Trans, for 1955, 48:208-14. wilt inoculum in Illinois. Phytopa- Eddy, Samuel

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19S5fl. Natural availability of oak wilt in- Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 17(4) : 203-32. ocula. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 1931. The plankton of some sink hole ponds 26(3) :277-323. in southern Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. 1955/'. Removal of spores from mycelial Surv. Bui. 19(4) :449-67. mats and transmission of Endoconidi- 1932. The plankton of the Sangamon River ophora fagaceartim by air currents. in the summer of 1929. 111. Nat. Hist. U. S. Dept. Ag. Plant Dis. Reptr. Surv Bui. 19(5) :469-86. 39(12): 977-82. Edwards, Samuel Curl, E. A., G. J. Stessel, and Bert M. 1857. Cultivation of evergreens. III. Ag. Zuckerman Soc. Trans, for 1856-1857, 2:413-5. 1952. Macroscopic growth of the oak wilt 1868. Planting and cultivation of forest fungus in nature. Phytopathology trees. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1865- 42(1): 6. 1866, 6:283-6. 1953. Subcortical mycelial mats and peri- Elder, William H. thecia of the oak wilt fungus in na- 1946. Age and sex criteria and weights of ture. Phytopathology 43(2) :61-4. Canada geese. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. Davis, John J. 10(2) :93-lll. 1913. The Cyrus Thomas collection of Elder, William H., and Nina L. Elder Aphididae, and a tabulation of spe- 1949. Role of the family in the formation cies mentioned and described in his of goose flocks. Wilson Bui. 61(3): publications. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 10(2):97-121 + 2 pis. Engelmann, George 1919. Contributions to a knowledge of the [1843.] Catalogue of a collection of plants natural enemies of Phyllophaga. III. made in Illinois and Missouri, by Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 13(5):53-138 Charles A. Geyer; with critical re- + 13 pis. marks, &c. Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts 1920. New species and varieties of Phyl- 46(1) : 94-104. lophaga. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. English, L. L. 13(12) :329-38 + 6 pis. 1958. Illinois trees and shrubs: their insect Davis, N. S., Jr., and Frank L. Rice enemies. Ill, Nat. Hist. Surv. Circ. 1883. Descriptive catalogue of North Amer- 47. 92 pp. ican Batrachia and Reptilia, found Eschmeyer, east of Mississippi River. 111. Lab. R. W. Nat. Hist. Bui. 1(5) :3-64. 1938. The significance of fish population studies in lake management. N. Am. DeLong, D. M. Wildlife Conf. Trans. 3:458-68. 1948. The leafhoppers, or Cicadellidae, of Illinois (Eurymelinae-Balcluthinae). [Etter, S. M., Secretary] 1876. Proceedings of, the Board of III. Nat Hist. Surv. Bui. 24(2): 97- Educa- 376. tion of the State of Illinois (Decem- ber 15, 1875). Springfield. 20 pp. Deyo, V. K., Chairman of Committee Etter, S. M., Secretary 1867. Report on president's address. III. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1866, 11:57-8. 1877. Proceedings of the Board of Educa- tion of the Durham, Leonard State of Illinois (June 21, 22, 1877). Springfield. 27 pp. 1955. Effects of predation by cormorants Evers, and gars on fish populations of ponds Robert A. in Illinois. Thesis submitted as par- 1949. Setaria faberii in Illinois. Rhodora :391-2. tial fulfillment for Ph.D. degree. 51(612) 1950. Andropogon elliottii in Illi- University of Illinois, Urbana. iv + Chapm. nois. Rhodora :45-6. 113 pp. 52(614) 1951. Four plants new to the Illinois flora. Eames, J. P. Rhodora 53(628) :lll-3. 1857. Evergreen trees on the prairie. III. 1955. Hill prairies of Illinois. 111. Nat. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1856-1857, 2: Hist. Surv. Bui. 26(5) :367^^46. 416-7. 1956. Two plants new to the Illinois flora.

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228 Illinois Natural Hist()r> Survey Bulletin Vol. 27, Art. 2

Levine, Norman I). Mann, Roberts, Editor 1952. Eimrria tniit/nalahia and Tyzzeriti 1956. Policies of the Department of Con-

sp. (Proto/oa : Eimerii(lae) from the servation: a report by the Conserva- Canada goose. Cornell Vet. 42(2): tion Advisory Board. State of Illi- 247-52. nois, Springfield. 36 pp. 1953. A review of the coccidia from the .Vlarkus, Henry C. avian orders CJaliiformes, Anseri- 1932. The extent to which temperature formes and Charadriiformes, with changes influence food consumption descriptions of three new species. in largemouth bass (Huro floridana) Am. Midland Nat. 49(3) :696-719. Am. Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1932, 1954. Leufocytozoon in the avian order 62:202-10. Columbiformes, with a description of Marquardt, William C, and Thomas G. Scott L. martlinuxi Mathis and Leger 1910 1952. It's in the bag. III. Wildlife 7(2): Pro- from the mourning dove. Jour. 4-5.

tozool. 1(2) : 140-3. Marshall, Helen E. D.. and Harold C. Hanson Levine, Norman 1956. Grandest of enterprises: Illinois State Blood parasites of the Canada goose, 1953. Normal University, 1857-1957. Illi- canadensis interior. Jour. Branta nois State Normal University, Nor- Wildlife Mgt. 17(2) :185-96 + 1 pi. mal. xiii + 355 pp. Lill, Althea McAtee, W. L. 1942. Natural History Survey Library, an- 1917. Life and writings of Professor F. E. nual report. May 1, 1941-May 31, L. Beal. Auk 34(3) :243-64. 1942. 6 pp. [Not published, but 1924. Notes on a collection of Erythroneura available in University of Illinois and Hymctta (Eupterygidae) chief- Library. Urbana.] ly from Illinois, with descriptions of Lincoln, Frederick C. new forms. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 1924. Returns from banded birds, 1920 to 15(2) :39-44. Bui. 1923. U. S. Dept. Ag. Dept. 1926. Notes on Homoptera from Illinois, 1268. 56 pp. with descriptions of new forms, Lord, Rexford D., Jr. chiefly Eupteryginae. III. Nat. Hist. 1958. The importance of juvenile breeding Surv. Bui. 16(3): 127-36. to the annual cottontail crop. N. Am. McDougall, Walter B. Wildlife Conf. Trans. 23:269-75. 1917. Some edible and poisonous mush- Loucks, W. E. rooms. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 1894. The life history and distribution of ll(7):413-555. the prothonotarv warbler in Illinois. Mead, S. B. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 4(3):10-35. 1846. Catalogue of plants growing spon- Low, Jessop B., and Frank C. Bellrose taneously in the state of Illinois, the 1944. The seed and vegetative yield of principal part near Augusta, Han- waterfowl food plants in the Illinois cock County. Prairie Farmer 6(1): River valley. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 35-6; 6(2):60; 6(3):93; 6(4):119- 8(l):7-22-f 1 pi. 22. Lucas, Clarence R. Middleton, Nettie 1939. Game fish management. Am. Fish. 1878. A new species of Aphis, of the genus Soc. Trans, for 1938, 68:67-74. Colopha. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 1(2):17. Malloch, J. R. 1915. The Chironomidae, or midges, of Miller, Robert B. Illinois, with particular reference to 1923. First report on a forest survey of the species occurring in the Illinois Illinois. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. River. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 14(8) :291-377 + 27 pis. 10(6):275-543 + 24 pis. Miller, Robert Barclay, and L. R. Tehon 1917. A preliminary classification of Dip- 1929. The native and naturalized trees of tera, exclusive of pupipara, based Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. upon larval and pupal characters, 18(l):l-339. with keys to imagines in certain fam- Minier, George W. ilies. Part I. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. 1865. Cultivation of forest trees. III. Ag. Bui. 12(3) :161-409+30 pis. Soc. Trans, for 1861-1864, 5:779-80. 1918. The North American species of the 1868. On the cultivation of forest trees. genus Tipliia (Hymenoptera, Acu- III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1865-1866, leata) in the collection of the Illinois 6:279-82. State Natural Historv Survey. HI. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 13(1): 1-24+1 Mohr, Carl O. pi. 1943rt. Illinois furbearer distribution and 1921. A new species of Erythroneura (Ty- income. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. phlocybidae, Hem.-Hom.). Brooklyn 22(7):50S-37. Ent. Soc. Bui., U.S., 16(1) :25. 1943/'. A comparison of North American D ecemner, 1938 Literature Cited 229

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Am. Midland Nat. 37( 1 ): 223-49. nois . . . for the two years ending 1947//. Major fluctuations of some Illinois September 30, 1900. xix+334 pp. mammal populations. III. Acad. Sci. 1902. Twenty-first report ... of the Board Trans, for 1947, 40:197-204. of Trustees of the University of Illi-

nois . . . for the two years ending Moore, J. Percy September 30, 1902. xxii + 383 1901. The Hirudinea of Illinois. III. Lab. pp. 1906. Twenty-third report ... of the Nat. Hist. Bui. 5( 12) :479-92 + 6 pis. Board of Trustees of the University of Illi- MulvihiU, Wm. F., and L. D. Cornish nois . . . for the two years ending 1930. Flood control report: an engineering September 30, 1906. xxv + 498 pp. study of the flood situation in the Powers, state of Illinois. Illinois Division of Edwin B. 1918. A collecting bottle especially Waterways, Springfield. 402 pp. adapted for the quantitative and qualitative Mygatt, E. G. determination of dissolved gases, 1855. Bark louse of the apple tree. III. particularly very small quantities of Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1853-1854, 1: oxygen. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 514-7. 11(10) :577-8. Needham, James G., and Charles A. Hart Pratten, Henry 1903. The dragon-flies (Odonata) of Illi- 1855. Catalogue of the birds of Illinois. nois, with descriptions of the im- 111. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1853-1854, mature stages. Part I. Petaluridae, 1:598-609. Aeschnidae, and Gomphidae. III. Reynolds, P., Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. 6(1) : 1-94+1 pi. John Corresponding Secretary 1861. Transactions of the Illinois State Ag- Nelson, E. W. ricultural Society . . . Vol. IV, 1859- 1876. A partial catalogue of the fishes of 1860. Springfield. 698 + iv Illinois. III. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bui. pp. 1865. Transactions of the Illinois State Ag- 1(1) :33-52. ricultural Society . . . Vol. V, 1861- Nevin, James 1864. Springfield'. 992 + vii pp. 1898. Artificial propagation versus a close [Reynolds, season for the Great Lakes. Am. John P.] 1866. Fish. Soc. Proc. 27:17-25. Address of the president. III. Hort. Soc. Trans, for 1865, 10:7-10. O'Donnell, D. John 1935. Annotated list of the fishes of Illi- Reynolds, John P., Corresponding Secretary

nois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 20(5) : 1868. Transactions of the Illinois State

473-500. Agricultural Society . . . Vol. VI, 1865-1866. Springfield. xxxv Ordway, O. + 666 + XXIV pp. 1857. Treatise on the advantages to be derived from the cultivation of flowers. Richardson, Robert E. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1856-1857, 1921. The small bottom and shore fauna 2:401-6. of the middle and lower Illinois Pietsch, Lysle R. River and its connecting lakes, Chilli- to its 195 V. White-tailed deer populations in Illi- cothe Grafton: valuation; its nois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes sources of food supply; and its rela- 34. 22 pp. tion to the fishery. HI. Nat. Hist. 1957. The beaver in Illinois. III. Acad. Surv. Bui. 13(15) :363-522. Sci. Trans, for 1956, 49:193-201. 1925fl. Changes in the small bottom fauna of Peoria Lake, 1920 to 1922. III. Pillsbury, William L., Corresponding Secre- Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 15(5) :327-88. tary 1925/a Illinois River bottom fauna in 1923. 1892. Sixteenth report ... of the Board III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 15(6) :391- of Trustees of the University of Illi- 422. nois . . . for the two years ending 1928. The bottom fauna of the middle Illi- September 30, 1892. 296 pp. nois River, 1913-1925: Its distribu- 1894. Seventeenth report ... of the Board tion, abundance, valuation, and index of Trustees of the University of Illi- value in the study of stream pollu- nois . . . for the two years ending tion. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 17(12) : September 1894. 338 30, pp. 387-475. 1896. Eighteenth report ... of the Board of Trustees of the LTniversity of Illi- Ridgway, Robert

nois . . . for the two years ending 1881. A revised catalogue of the birds September 30, 1896. 334 pp. + 20 pis. ascertained to occur in Illinois. 111.

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Descriptive catalogue. Vol. I. Spring- 1947. Comparative analysis of red fox field, viii + 520 pp. feeding trends on two central Iowa 1895. The ornitholog>- of Illinois. Part 1. areas. Iowa Ag. Exp. Sta. Res. Bul. Descriptive catalogue. Vol. II. 353:427-87. Springfield. 282 pp. 1955. An evaluation of the red fox. III. 1901. The birds of north and middle Amer- Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 35. 16 ica: A descriptive catalogue of the pp. higher groups, genera, species, and 1957. Legal protection for hawks and owls subspecies of birds known to occur in in Illinois. III. Wildlife 12(2):[3-5]. North America, from the Arctic lands Scott, Thomas G., and Willard D. Klimstra to the Isthmus of Panama, the West 1954. Report on a visit to quail manage- Indies and other islands of the Car- ment areas in southeastern United ibbean Sea, and the Galapagos Ar- States. III. Wildlife 9(3):5-9. chipelago. U. S. Natl. Mus. Bui. 50. 1955. Red foxes and a declining prey pop- Part I. xxx + 715 pp. ulation. South. 111. Univ. Monog. Riley, Charles V. Ser. 1. 123 pp. 1866. Entomological notes. Prairie Farmer, Sharpe, Richard W. U.S., :432. 17(25) 1897. Contribution to a knowledge of the Riley, Charles V., Editor North American fresh-water Ostra- 1869 In memoriam. [Brief biography of coda included in the families Cythe- -70. Benjamin D. Walsh.] Am. Ent. 2(3) : ridae and Cyprididae. 111. Lab. Nat. 65-8, Hist. Bul. 4(15):414-84+10 pis. Robertson, William B., Jr. Shelford, Victor E. Investigations of ring-necked pheas- 1958. 1917. An experimental study of the effects Illinois. ants in III. Dept. Cons. of gas waste upon fishes, with espe- Tech. Bul. 1. 138 pp. cial reference to stream pollution. III. Roe, R., and Henry Schmidt Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. 11 (6) :381-412. 1897. Report of the Commissioners. 111. 1918a. Equipment for maintaining a flow of Fish Commrs. Rep. 1894-1896. 21 pp. oxygen-free water, and for control- Ross, Herbert H. ling gas content. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. 1937. Studies of Nearctic aquatic insects. Bul. 11(9) :573-5. I. Nearctic alder flies of the genus 1918^. Ways and means of measuring the Sialis (Megaloptera, Sialidae). III. dangers of pollution to fisheries. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bul. 21(3): 57-78, Nat. Hist. Surv. Bul. 13(2): 25-42. 98-9. Shelford, V. E., and W. P. Flint 1944. The caddis flies, or Trichoptera, of 1943. Populations of the chinch bug in the Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bul. upper Mississippi valley from 1823

23(1) : 1-326. to 1940. Ecology 24(4) :435-55.

1947. mosquitoes of Illinois ( Diptera, The Shelford, V. E., and R. E. Yeatter III. Hist. Bul. Culicidae). Nat. Surv. 1955. Some suggested relations of prairie

24 ( ) : 1-96. 1 chicken abundance to physical fac- 1956. Evolution and classification of the tors, especially rainfall and solar mountain caddisflies. University of radiation. Jour. Wildlife Mgt. 19(2) : Illinois Press, Urbana. 213 pp. 233-42. Sargent, C. S. Short, C. W. 1889. Portions of the journal of Andre 1845. Observations on the botany of Illi- botanist, Michaux, written during his nois, more especially in reference to travels in the United States and Can- the autumnal flora of the prairies. ada, 1785 to 1796. an intro- With West. Jour. Med. and Surg., n.s., duction and explanatory notes. Am. 3:185-98. [Typed copy made at the Phil. Soc. Proc. 26(129) :1-145. University of Illinois from volume Schacht, Frederick William borrowed from library of St. Louis 1897. The North American species of Medical Society.] Diaptomus. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. Simmons, Marguerite 5(3) : 97-223. 1952. Natural History Survey Library, an- 1898. The North American Centropagidae nual report, July 1, 19Sl-June 30. belonging to the genera Osphranti- 1952. 5 pp. [Not published, but cum, Limnocalanus, and Epischiira. available in University of Illinois III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. 5(4) :225-70. Library, Urbana.] Schenck, Norman C, and J. C. Carter Smith, Frank 1954. A fungistatic substance extracted 1895a. A preliminary account of two new

from vitrain. Science, n.s., : 119(3085) Oligochaeta from Illinois. 111. Lab. 213-4. Nat. Hist. Bul. 4(5) :138-48. Scott, Thomas G. 1895/'. Notes on species of North American 1943. Some food coactions of the northern Oligochaeta. III. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bul. plains red fox. Ecol. Monog. 13(4): 4(8):285-97. 427-79. 1896. Notes on species of North American December, 1958 Literature Cited 231

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plant in Illinois. : briculid genus from Florida, with Mycologia 22(6) 271-87. additional notes on the nephridial and circulatory systems of Mesoporo- Surber, Eugene W. drilus asymmetriciis Smith. 111. Lab. 1931. Sodium arsenite for controlling sub- Nat. Hist. Bui. 5( 11) :459-78 + l pi. merged vegetation in fish ponds. Am. 1901. State natural history surveys. Science, Fish. Soc. Trans, for 1931, 61:143-7. n.s., 13(328) :566-8. Swingle, H. S., and E. V. Smith 1905. Notes on species of North American 1939. Increasing fish production in ponds. Oligochaeta. V. The systematic re- N. Am. Wildlife Conf. Trans. 4: lationship of Lumbriculus {T/iino- 332-8. drilus) inconstans (Smith). 111. Lab. 1942. Management of farm fish ponds.

Nat. Hist. Bui. 7(5) : 45-51. Ala. Polytech. Inst. Ag. Exp. Sta. 1915. Two new varieties of earthworms Bui. 254. 23 pp. with a key to described species in Swingle, Illinois. 111. Lab. Nat. Hist. Bui. Roger U. 1942. Phloem necrosis: 10(8) :551-9 + l pi. a virus disease of 1918. A new North American oligochaete the American elm. U. S. Dept. Ag. of the genus Haplotaxis. 111. Nat. Circ. 640. 8 pp. Hist. Surv. Bui. 13(3):43-8+l pi. Tehon, Leo Roy 1928. An account of changes in the earth- 1924. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illi- worm fauna of Illinois and a de- nois. Mycologia 16(4) :13S-42. scription of one new species. 111. 1925. Three alfalfa diseases new to Illi- Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 17(10) : 347-62. nois. 111. Acad. Sci. Trans, for 1925, 1930. Records of spring migration of birds 18:203-5. at Urbana, Illinois, 1903-1922. 111. 1928. Methods and principles for interpret-

Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 19(2) : 105-17. ing the phenology of crop pests. 111. Smith, George W. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. 17(9) :321-46. 1927. History of Illinois and her people. 1933. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illi- Vol. 2. The American Historical nois. Mycologia 25 (4) :237-S7. Society, Inc., Chicago and New York. 1935. A monographic rearrangement of 496 pp. Lophodermiiim. 111. Biol. Monog. 13(4) :231-381. Smith, Lloyd L., Jr. 1937

Stannard, Lewis J., Jr. News 28(33) :13. 1957. The phylogeny and classification of 1939f. Two new fungi on legumes. Myco- the North American genera of the logia 31(5) : 537-43. suborder Tubulifera (Thysanop- I9'i9d. New species and taxonomic changes in the Hypodermataceae. Mycologia tera). III. Biol. Monog. 25. 200 pp. 31(6) :674-92. Starrett, William C, and Paul G. Barnickol 1942. Fieldbook of native Illinois shrubs. 1955. Efficiency and selectivity of commer- 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Man. 3. 307 pp. cial fishing devices used on the Mis- 1943. A new mucor-like fungus from plant sissippi River. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. roots. 111. Acad. Sci. Trans, for 1943, Bui. 26(4):325-66. 36(2) :109-1S. Starrett, William C, and Perl L. McNeil, Jr. 1951rt. The drug plants of Illinois. III. Nat. 1952. Sport fishing at Lake Chautauqua, Hist. Surv. Circ. 44. 135 pp. near Havana, Illinois, in 1950 and 1951/'. Fungistatic potencies of some fluori- 1951. 111. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes nated />-benzoquinones. Science, n.s., 30. 31 pp. 114(2973) :663-4.

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of the rust, the bunt, the smut, and Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force other maladies of wheat, and of oats Base, Ohio. in the field. Part V of Aiimurgia or Telford, Clarence J. Means of rendering less serious the 1923. CJrowth studies of certain bottom- dearths: proposed for the relief of land species in southern Illinois. III. the poor. Translated from the Ital- Acad. Sci. Trans, for 1923, 16:210-3. ian of Giovanni Targioni Tozzetti. 1926. Third report on a forest survey of Phytopathological Classics 9. xxiv Illinois. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. + 139 pp. 16(1) :1-102. Tehon, Leo Roy 1952/*. Fungistatic capacities of aromatic Thomas, Cyrus fluorine compounds in relation to 1857. Natural history of Illinois. 111. cloth-rotting fungi. Part 3. Fluori- Teacher 3(12) :424-5. nated anisoles, benzyls, benzoic acids, 1859a. The study of natural history. 111. biphenyls, and toluenes. AF Tech. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:665- Rep. 6518(3). 46 pp. Wright Air 70. Development Center, Wright-Patter- 1859/a Orthoptera of Illinois. III. Ag. Soc. son Air Force Base, Ohio. Trans, for 1857-1858, 3:682-5. 1954. Fungistatic capacities of aromatic 1861fl. Notes on Illinois insects. III. Ag. fluorine compounds in relation to Soc. Trans, for 1859-1860, 4:631-49. cloth-rotting fungi. Part 4. Fluori- 1861/^. Mammals of Illinois. Catalogue. 111. nated phenols, benzyl alcohol, and Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1859-1860, 4:651- biphenyls. AF Tech. Rep. 6518(4). 61. 38 pp. Wright Air Development 1861r. Plan for a natural history survey. Center, Wright-Patterson Air Force III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1859-1860, Base, Ohio. 4:663-5. 1865. Insects injurious to vegetation in Illi- Tehon, L. R., and G. H. Boewe nois. III. Ag. Soc. Trans, for 1861- 1939. Charcoal rot in Illinois. U. S. Dept. 1864, 5:401-68. Ag. Plant Dis. Reptr. 23(19) :312-21. 1876. A list of the Orthoptera of Illinois. Tehon, L. R., and Eve Daniels III. Mus. Nat. Hist. Bui. l(l):59-69. 1925. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illi- [1878.] A list of the species of the tribe nois—II. Mycologia 17(6) :240-9. Aphidini, family Aphidae, found in Tehon, L. R., and E. Y. Daniels the United States, which have been 1927. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illi- heretofore named, with descriptions of some new species. 111. Lab. Nat. nois—Ill. Mycologia 19(3) : 110-29. Hist. Bui. 1(2):3-16. Tehon, Leo R., and Hubert A. Harris 1880. Temperature and rainfall as affect- 1941. A chytrid inhabiting xylem in the ing the chinch bug periodicity in its Moline elm. Mycologia 33(1) :118- — increase. Am. Ent., n.s., l(10):240-2. 29. 1881. Tenth report of the State Entomolo- Tehon, Leo R., and W. R. Jacks gist ... on the noxious and beneficial 1933. Smooth patch, a bark lesion of white insects of the state of Illinois. III. oak. Jour. Forestry 31(4):430-3. Ent. Rep. 10. 238 + vi pp. Tehon, L. R., C. C. Morrill, and Robert Thompson, David H. Graham 1925. Some observations on the oxygen re- 1946. Illinois plants poisonous to livestock. quirements of fishes in the Illinois III. Ag. Exp. Sta. Circ. 599. 103 pp. River. III. Nat. Hist. Surv. Bui. Tehon, L. R., and G. L. Stout 15(7) :423-37. 1928. An ascomycetous leaf spot of cow- 1933rt. The migration of Illinois fishes. III. pea. Phytopathology 18(8) :701-4. Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 1. 25 pp. 1929. Notes on the parasitic fungi of Illi- Mimeo. 1933/-'. The finding of very joung Polyodon. nois— IV. Mycologia 21 (4) : 180-96. Copeia 1933(1 ) :31-3. Tehon, Leo R., and Sylvia Wolcyrz 1941. The fish production of inland streams 1952rt. Fungistatic capacities of aromatic and lakes. Pp. 206-17 in A sympo- fluorine compounds in relation to sium on hydrobiology. University of cloth-rotting fungi. Part 1. Fluori- Wisconsin Press, Madison, ix + 405 nated quinones and phenols. AF pp. Tech. Rep. 6518(1). 62 pp. Wright Air Development Center, Wright- Thompson, David H., and George W. Bennett Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. 1939rt. Lake management reports. 2. Fork 1952/;. Fungistatic capacities of aromatic Lake near Mount Zion, Illinois. III. fluorine compounds in relation to Nat. Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 9. 14 pp. cloth-rotting fungi. Part 2. Fluori- 1939/*. Lake management reports. 3. Lincoln nated phenols, nitrobenzenes, and Lakes near Lincoln, Illinois. 111. Nat. anilines. AF Tech. Rep. 6518(2). Hist. Surv. Biol. Notes 11. 24 pp. 58 pp. Wright Air Development 1939r. Fish management in small artificial De 1958 Literature Cited 233

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Some Recent Publications of tfie Illinois Natural History Survey BULLETIN BIOLOGICAL NOTES Volume 26, Article 1.—The Mayflies, or Ephem- 29.—An Inventory of the Fishes of Jordan eroptera, of Illinois. By B. D. Burks. May, Creek, Vermilion County, Illinois. By R. 1953. 216 pp., frontis., 395 figs., bibliog. $1.25. Weldon Larimore, Quentin H. Pickering and Leonard Durham. August, 1952. Volume 26, Article 2.—Largemouth Bass in 26 pp., 25 figs., bibliog. Ridge Lake, Coles County, Illinois. By 30.-—Sport Fishing at Lake Chautauqua, near George W. Bennett. November, 1954. 60 Havana, Illinois, in 1950 and 1951. By pp., frontis., 15 figs., bibliog. William C. Starrett and Perl L. McNeil, Volume 26, Article 3.—Natural Availabili^ Jr. August, 1952. 31 pp., 22 figs., bibliog. of Oak Wilt Inocula. By £. A. Curl. June, 31.—Some Conservation Problems of the 1955. 48 pp., frontis., 22 figs., bibliog. Great Lakes. By Harlow B. Mills. Octo- Volume 26, Article 4.—Efficiency and Selec- ber, 1953. (Second printing.) 14 pp., illus., tivity of Commercial Fishing Devices Used bibliog. on the Mississippi River. By William C. 33.—A New Technique in CoDtrol of the Starrett and Paul G. Barnickol. July, House Fly. By Willis N. Bruce. Decem- 1953. 42 pp., frontis., 17 figs., bibliog. ber, 1953. 8 pp., 5 figs. Volume 26, Article 5,—Hill Prairies of Illi- 34.—White-Tailed Deer Populations in Illi- nois. By Robert A. Evers. August, 1955. nois. By Lysle R. Pietsch. June, 1954. 24 80 pp., frontis., 28 figs., bibliog. 17 figs., bibliog. Volume 26, Article 6.—Fusarium Disease of pp., 35. of the Fox. Gladiolus: Its Causal Agent. By Junius L. —An Evaluation Red By Thomas G. Scott. July, 1955. (Second Forsberg. September, 1955. 57 pp., frontis., printing.) 16 illus., bibliog. 22 figs., bibliog. pp., 36. Spectacular Waterfowl Migration Volume 27, Article 1.—Ecological Life History —A of the VVarmouth. By R. Weldon Lariraore. Through Central North America. By Frank August, 1957. 84 pp., color frontis., 27 figs., C. Bellrose. April, 1957. 24 pp., 9 figs. bibliog. 37.—Continuous Mass Rearing of the Euro- pean Corn Borer in the Laboratory. By CIRCULAR Paul Surany. May, 1957. 12 pp., 7 figs., bibliog. 32.—Pleasure With Plants. By L. R. Tehon. July, 1958. (Fifth printing, with revisions.) 38.—Ectoparasites of the Cottontail Rabbit in 32 pp., frontis., 8 figs. Lee County, Northern Illinois. By Lewis J. 42.—Bird Dogs in Sport and Conservation. Stannard, Jr., and Lysle R. Pietsch. June, By Ralph E. Yeatter. December, 1948. 64 1958. 20 pp., 14 figs., bibliog. pp., frontis., 40 figs. 39.—A Guide to Aging of Pheasant Embrjros. 45.—Housing for Wood Ducks. By Frank C. By Ronald F. Labisky and James F. Opsabl. Bellrose. February, 1955. (Second print- 4 pp., illus., bibliog. ing, with revisions.) 47 pp., illus., bibliog. 46. —Illinois Trees: Their Diseases. By J. MANUAL Cedric Carter. August, 1955. 99 pp., 3.—Fieldbook of Native Illinois Shrubs. By frontis., 93 figs. Single copies free to Illi* Leo R. Tehon. December, 1942. 307 pp., nois residents; 25 cents to others. 4 color pis., 72 figs., glossary, index. $1.75. 47.—Illinois Trees and Shrubs: Their Insect 4.—Fieldbook of Illinois Mammals. By Donald Enemies. By L. L. English. May, 1958. 92 F. Hoffmeister and Carl O. Mohr. June, pp., frontis., 59 figs., index. Single copies 1957. 233 pp., color frontis., 119 figs., glos- free to Illinois residents; 25 cents to others. sary, bibliog., index. $1.75.

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