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Home , Agouti, Bamboo rat, Barbary ground squirrel, Cane rat, Epixerus, Fat mouse

AS A SOURCE

LYNWOOD A. FIEDLER, USDNAPHIS/S&T, Denver Wildlife Research Center, P.O. Box 25266, Denver, C.Olorado 80225- 0266.

ABSTRACT: Rodents, one of several kinds of vertebrates included in the human diet, are very suitable as human food. More than 71 genera and 89 of rodents, mostly hystricomorphs, have been consumed by man. Some have even been domesticated for private or commercial production of food for human consumption. Rodents in the temperate world serve only as a supplement to the regular diet of humans; but in the tropical world, they are widely accepted and a popular source of protein. Although harvesting field for human food is beneficial, it is not an effective pest control strategy. C.Onsuming rodents in pesticide-treated areas and handling rodents with potential zoonoses are two possible risks.

Proc. 14th Vertebr. Pest Conf. (LR. Davis and R.E. Marsh, Eds.) Published at Univ. of Calif., Davis. 1990.

INTRODUCTION Capturing rodents for food is not a very effective method for Rodents comprise a substantial portion of wild reducing crop losses; however, it is one way of recovering consumed by man throughout the world. and hares, some of the food value destroyed by these pests. part of the diet for many human cultures, are lagomorphs, an Being a pest does not necessarily mean a will be of closely related to rodents. This paper will eaten by man. For example, along the Trans-Amazon address only rodents and will follow taxonomic nomenclature Highway, where rats and mice are serious pests, they are not of Honacki et al. (1982). For several years, the U.S. National eaten by Brazilian colonists (Smith 1976). Among the Academy of Sciences has gathered information on the use of noncolonists, it is only when larger species become rodents and other potential microlivestock for food. It will be scarce that Amazonians eat rodents regularly. In one area publishing a report later this year that will bring together the where the was degraded and hunting was common, scattered literature on this subject (National Research C.Ouncil, { ) and (Dasvorocta spp.) accounted in press). for 39% of the annual game take by weight; but in forested areas where larger mammal species were still abundant, these Advantages in Utilizing Rodents for Food rodents comprised only about 3% of the take. Although human food habits are extremely diverse, man Rodents are occasionally consumed or used for special has been mostly opportunistic as well as preferential in the circumstances. The ( porcellus) in South selection of food items. Many available to humans are America and the house ( sp.) in have been not physiologically acceptable; however, rodents are very used for medicinal purposes (de Vos 1977, Muller-Haye suitable as human food. Besides providing protein, rodent 1984). Rodents are also used for feasts, religious ceremonies, contains essential amino acids necessary in the human and exchanges for certain initiations (Sale 1983, Muller-Haye diet. 1984). At the University of Arizona, pack rats (Neotoma sp.) Rodents are one of several kinds of vertebrates that are are consumed by a social club (Secret Order of the Neotoma included in the human diet. Wild birds (which are not used Eater) that insists these rodents are a delicacy (Anon. 1987). as a food source to any great extent, Eltringham 1984), reptiles, and amphibians do not offer as many eating History of Rodent Eating advantages for human food as those provided by rodents. Peruvians have been consuming guinea pigs for centuries. Rodents generally are not encompassed by game laws and are The guinea pig, domesticated since at least 2500 B.C. usually abundant and easy to catch. Some rodents are even (Lanning 1967), was the first rodent raised for food. By the numerous near dense human populations where larger 15th century AD. (during the Incaic Empire), it was the arc scarce (den Hartog and de Vos 1973, de Vos 1977). principal meat consumed. (!!ydrochaeris Although one species of rodent eaten by man weighs more hydrochaeris)may have been domesticated in as early as than 50 kg, most are small enough to be consumed in one AD. 1565 (Gonzalez-Jimenez 1984). meal, thereby eliminating the need for refrigeration or other Early Chinese ate "household deer" [common rat food-storage methods such as sailing and drying. Relatively (probably Rattus norvegicus or B_. flavioectus) and high reproductive rates in rodent populations allow for rat (Rhiwmys spp.)] and during the Tang dynasty (AD. 618- continuous harvesting without depletion. Among 907) ate newborn rats stuffed with honey, conveniently invertebrates, insects offer most of the eating advantages for snatching them with chopsticks (Hendrickson 1983). Romans human food as rodents; insects contain about 35 to 50% popularized the edible [Myoxus (=Glis) gfil] by the protein (DeFoliart 1975)-a much higher percentage than 2nd century. It was caught from the wild in autumn when it rodents. However, insect food sources are generally very was fattest and either roasted and dipped into honey or baked seasonal. while stuffed with a mixture of , pine nuts, and other Many rodent species that are eaten are agricultural pests. flavorings. Romans also raised dormice in special pots called In fact, the majority of rodent pest species in West are "gliraria" and in large outdoor enclosures where they were fed frequently consumed (Funmilayo 1979). Despite decades or walnuts, chestnuts, and acorns for fattening (Brothwell and even centuries of human predation, most of these rodents Brothwell 1969). Southeastern Europeans still enjoy dormic.e. continue to be pests and cause significant crop losses. The Maoris of New 7.ealand used snares and pit traps in family hunting territories to trap the kiore or Polynesian rat

149 (R. exulans, Best 1942). In the 16th century, they introduced much as local , mutton, or pork (Asibey 1974a, Baptist this rat to as a food item by carrying it in their and Mensah 1986). Also, in Manaus, Brazil, the top ten wild ships. Elsewhere the Irula, a tribal group in , has species served in 23 urban restaurants included three traditionally included rats in its diet and today is hired by rodents-paca, agouti, and capybara (Wetterberg et al. 1976 Indian farmers to capture rodent pests. cited in de Vos 1977). More recently a United States Army Quartermaster About 75% of the African population below the Corps survey identified 42 different societies in which people depend on traditional sources of protein such as wildlife rats (Harris 1985). Traditionally we think of "rat eaters" (mainly fish) and insects (Asibey 1974b). In , as (rodentiophagists?) as belonging to primitive societies--small much as 73% of meat comes from wild animals (Eltringham groups living in remote areas with large, undisturbed land 1984) of which the grassculler is the most popular rodent areas available for hunting and trapping small mammals. eaten. Meat from the giant rat is widely accepted, but in However, hunters today could be considered just as some areas it is not popular and difficult to market (Baptist traditional. The squirrel, a rodent in the and Mensah 1986). In eastern Africa, Ethiopians along the suborder, is one of the most important game animals in the western border eat mice and giant rats (de Vos 1977), and United States. About 40 million gray ( some Sudanese eat Nile rats ( niloticus) and field carolinensis) and a lesser number of fox squirrels (§. nigcr) mice. are harvested annually (Flyger and Gates 1982). In southern Africa, rodents are consumed in Tal:>oo.s on rat eating are not as common as one would (Gelfand 1971), Z.aire, Z.ambia, , and . expect. Leviticus 11:29 prohibits eating "the ." The Species eaten include cane rats (Jbryonomvs swinderianus), Hebrew word used means rat or mouse. Judaism apparently (Hvstrix africaeaustralis), yellow-footed squirrels is the only religion to specifically ban rats, since Christians are ~araxerus ~ . and springhares ~edetes capensis). Wild not bound by food restrictions written in the Old Testament. animals, including substantial numbers of readily available Although Moslems avoid scavengers, the Holy Koran (2, 168) springhares (Butynslci 1973, Butynski and von Richter 1974), only forbids "the flesh of swine," and Buddhists are only provided 90.7 kg of meat/person/year and about 40% of the prohibited from killing or witnessing the killing of animals diet in some areas of Botswana (Child 1970). Von Richter (Harris 1985). Thus in Burma, where most people are (1969) conservatively estimated that 60% of the protein Buddhists, the rat hunters described by Drummond and consumed in Botswana came from wild animals. Crowe (1 985) arc either tribal or Christian. Consumption of rodents is popular in Asia. In southern There are several tal:>oo.s, including supernatural beliefs, Asia, primarily rats and squirrels are hunted. Hunts in that prevent many Nigerians from eating giant rats may yield 20,000 rice rats at a time (Hauck et al. (Cricetomvs spp., Ajayi 1974). Although commensal rodents 1959). Filipinos commonly skin, eviscerate, and sun dry are generally not eaten by man, because they are associated Philippine ricefield rats @. !.· mindanensis) and Asian ricefield with urban filth or disease, the siege of Paris in 1871 and rats @. argentiventer), which are then deep-fried and served food shortages in World War II forced many people to eat in coconut oil. In a taste test at the University of the city rats. In , only rats caught in the bush [Praomys at Los Banos, rat meat was ranked as (=Mastomvs) natalensis), not in homes@. ra11us), were eaten acceptable as pork sausage (Rodent Research Center 1974). because the latter sometimes ate fingers and toes of humans­ Barbecued rat is frequently available at barrio markets in the -and eating them, according to Malawians, would be the same Philippines. In northern Asia, (M. bobak) provide as eating humans (Drummond 1982). In several parts of the tarbagan (bobac or bobak) meat for some Chinese and world, tribal women during menstruation, pregnancy, or Tibetans (Simoons 1961). po.5tpartum, and occasionally children, are prohibited from Latin America has many edible rodents, including the eating rats. However, in many cultures, women and children largest rodent in the world (weighing about 50 kg), the routinely gather and consume small rodents. capybara, and the most familiar, the guinea pig. Several cavies (Cavia spp., Dolichotis spp., sp.), spiny rats GEOGRAPHICAL INCIDENCE ( spp.), agoutis, and pacas have been consumed for Temperate climates occur in mostly developed countries centuries. ( maximus) meat has been where wild game, including rodents, serves only as a commercially sold in cans in Argentina (den Hartog and de supplement to the regular diet. In the United States, mostly Vos 1973). This rodent is not plentiful now, but its meat and squirrels, but also muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus, particularly hide are still popular. in the midwest), (Erethizon dorsatum), and ground Australian aborigines do not generally consume rodents hog (Marmota monax) are eaten by humans. Native (Bourne 1953); however, Jones (1980) and Calaby (1980) American Navajo ate prairie (Omomys sp.) baked in mud mention one rodent [Raltus colletti (=sordidus)] being eaten while the Paiute ate , squirrels, and rats (den Hartog by one aboriginal group. In Melanesia, rats are not and de Vos 1973). uncommonly trapped for food. For example, New Guineans Muskrat is also eaten in the Netherlands and Belgium, eat giant naked- or mooaic-tailed rats (Uromys sp., Luyken et where the meat is "white, tender, and excellent" but still not al. 1964). as popular as restaurateurs had hoped (Kyle 1987). Elsewhere in Europe, squirrels, beaver (Castor fiber), RODENT SPECIES EATEN (Marmota sp.), and dormice have been eaten. Table 1 lists 71 rodent genera, representing more than 89 Tropical climates include mostly lesser developed species that are consumed by man. Families and genera from countries where rural, tribal, or nomadic people commonly use all three rodent suborders are well represented; however, rodents as a food source. Exceptions occur in West Africa more families (14 of 25) and species (more than 35) are where some urban dwellers eat expensive grasscu1ters hystricomorphs. The hystricomorphs are usually larger, tastier (Thryonomvs spp.) with a market price two to four times as (they are vegetarians), and easier to catch when available.

150 Both the and suborders contain genera and more than 22 species. Africa has more than 36 26 rodent genera eaten by humans. Five of seven ~ible rodent species used for food by man, while Latin America and Sciuromorpha families appear in Table 1 and include 19 the Caribbean contain more than 24 species, almost all of which arc hystricomorphs.

Table 1. Some rodent species used as a food source by man.•

Geographic Scientific name Common or local name Area Suborder

Agouti (=Cuniculus or Paca, tepezcuinte, give nut or gibnut, conejo pintado, Central and H Stictomvs) l?:!!E! lapa, laba, guagua Anomalurus spp. Scaly-tailed flying squirrels Africa s squirrels Arvicanthis niloticus Unstripped grass rat, Nile rat, kusu rat Africa M Atherurus africanus African brush-tailed porcupine Africa H Atlantoxerus getulus Barbary Africa s bengalensis Lesser bandic:oot rat Asia M !!· indica Greater rat Asia M Bathvergus suillus Dune mole rat Africa H Calloociurus prevosti Prevost's squirrel Asia s Cannomys badius Lesser Asia M Capromvs pilorides Cuban , hutia conga Cuba H Castor canadensis Beaver North America s £:. fiber Beaver Europe s Cavia aperea Cavy, aperea South America H £:. fulgida Cavy South America H £:. porcellus Guinea pig, cuy, curi, sucuy, jaca, conejillo South America H £:. tschudii Cavy South America H Coendou bicolor Prehensile-tailed porcupine South America H Crateromys schadenbergi Busy-tailed cloud rat Philippines M Cricetomvs emini and African giant rats, giant rats, pouched rats, Africa M £:. gambianus "agouti," "rabbits" Africa M Crvotomys spp. Common mole rats Africa H Cynomys sp. Prairie North America s Dasvorocta spp. Agouti, cotia South America H Q. punctata Agouti Central America H Dinomys branickii Pacarana, false paca South America H Dolichotis patagonum , patagonian cavy, pampas hare South America H Q. salinicola Salt-desert cavy South America H ebii Ebiana palm squirrel Africa s Ercthizon dorsatum North America H Funisciurus spp. African striped squirrels, rope squirrels Africa s Geocapromvs brownii Jamaican hutia Caribbean H Gerbillus spp. Northern pygmy gerbils Africa M hueti Huet's dormouse Africa M Heliophobius Silvery mole rat, sand rat Africa H argenteocinereus Heliosciurus spp. Sun squirrels Africa s Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris Bocaburro, cabiari, capiba, capibara, capigua, South America H capigua, capiguara, capincho, capybara, carpincho, chiguire, chiguiro, chindo, cbindoco, culopando, dia-baj, jesus, julo, kiato, pataseca, ponche, poncho, ronsoco, samanai, sancho, tanacoa Hylomyscus alleni Allen's Africa M africaeaustralis South African porcupine Africa H H. brachvura Common porcupine Asia H H. cristata Africa H ldiurus spp. Pygmy scaly-tailed flying squirrels Africa s orientalis Greater Egyptian Africa M rupestris , moco, capibari South America H viscacia Mountain viscacha South America H

151 Table 1. (continued)

Geographic Scientific name Common or toe.al name Area Suborder

Lag~tomus maximus Vizcacha, viscacha, South America H Lemniscomvs griselda , zebra mouse Africa M Marmota bobak Bohac, bobak, tarbagan Asia s M. monax Woodchuck, ground hog, marmot North America s Microc.avia australis Mountain cavy South America H Myoc.astor ~ , nutria, coipo South America H and Europe Myoprocta acouchy Green acouchy(i), agouti South America H M. exilis Red acouchy(i), agouti South America H Myoxus (=Glis) ~ Fat or Africa M Neotoma spp. Pack rats, wood rats North America M indica Short-tailed bandicoot rat, short-tailed mole rat Asia M rat, pest rat Oenomvs hypoxanthus Rufous-n~d rat Africa M Ondatra zibethicus Muskrat, marsh North America M and Europe Orthogeomvs spp. Taltuzas Central America s Otomvs angoniensis Angoni vtei rat Africa M Paraxerus ~ Yellow-footed squirrel Africa s Pedetes capensis Springhare Africa s Pelomvs fallax Groove-toothed creek rat Africa M petaurista Giant Asia s Petromus typicus D~ie rat Africa H Phloeomvs spp. Slender-tailed cloud rats Philippines M aedium , zagouti, hutia Caribbean H Praomvs (=Mastomys) Multimammate rat Africa M natalensis Proechimvs spp. Spiny rats, casiragua South America H Protoxerus spp. Oil palm squirrels Africa s Rattus argentiventer Asian ricefield rat Asia M ,B. exulans Polynesian rat, bush rat, kiore Asia and New M Zealand ,B. !:· mindanensis Philippine ricefield rat Philippines M ,B. sordidus ( =colletti) Djingombula, small fat rat Australia and M Ratufa affinis Giant squirrel Asia s Rhabdomvs pumilio Four-stripped gr~ mouse Africa M Rheithr~iurus macrotis Tufted ground squirrel, Groove-toothed squirrel Asia s spp. Bamboo rats Asia M campestris African Africa M Sciurus carolinensis Gray squirrel North America s §.. niger North America s Solomys spp. Naked-tailed rats Melanesia M caurinus Northwestern Africa M §.. pratensis Fat mouse Africa M Thryonomys gregorianus Savanna Africa H r. swinderianus Marsh cane rat, cutting grass rat, grasscutter Africa H Trichys fasciculata Long-tailed porcupine Asia H Uromys anak Giant naked-tailed rat Melanesia M Xerus spp. African ground squirrels Africa s

8Sourccs primarily were Booth (1960), de Graaff (1981), den Hartog and de VO& (1973), Jardin (1970), Nowak and Paradiso (1983). Geographic area denotes continent, except where distribution of species is limited to a much smaller area. Suborder initials: S = Sciuromorpha; M = Myomorpha; H = Hystricomorpha.

152 DOMESTICATION meat is also better tasting, sells at a higher price, and contains Domestication of several rodent species has evolved in more fat. areas where rodents have been eaten for a long time and where the supply no longer meets demand. Research for Africa improving domestication of the capybara has occurred in Two rodent species in West Africa, the giant African rat Brazil, Columbia, and Venez\iela. Both relatively sophisticated (Cricetomys gambianus) and the grasscutter or cane rat as well as simple domestication methods are widely used in (Thryonomys swinderianus), are now being domesticated. Latin America and West Africa. The simple methods are Due primarily to reduced habitat and more people, these two used by the landless poor, who can raise easily kept rodents, rodent species are no longer present in West Africa in such as the guinea pig in Peru or the gra~tter and giant rat sufficient numbers to satisfy human demand. Both the giant in . rat and grasscutter are considered delicacies by poor and rich Not all rodents are good candidates for domestication. Africans alike. In southern Nigeria, 71 % of those who Mason (1984) outlines four characteristics that a domestic returned survey forms indicated acceptance of the giant rat as animal in its most developed form should exhibit: the animal food. Acceptance was more pronounced among poorer and must (1) breed under human management, (2) provide a younger groups (Ajayi and Olawoye 1974). product or service useful to man, (3) be tame (or be induced Large commercial rearing facilities are being established to become tractable), and (4) be selected away from the wild in Nigeria for the 1-1.5 kg giant African rat (fewe et al. type. The guinea pig, described below, has all four of these 1984). Breeding programs gradually reduced agnostic favorable characteristics. behavior and produced docile animals from the fifth generation (Ajayi et al. 1978). Domestication costs were Latin America initially about $0.45/animal from weaning to adult (Ajayi The guinea pig, domesticated for centuries in the , 1974). Although they can be fed household scraps, such a is found in most rural homes and fed a diet of household diet alone will not sustain growth (fewe and Ajayi 1982). food scraps. In Peru there are 20 million domestic guinea Grasscutter breeding programs for selecting docility, pigs which annually produce 64 million edible carcasses (Kyle favorable growth and reproductive characteristics have been 1987). This animal is an excellent food source since the flesh started in (Baptist and Mensah 1986) and Nigeria is 19% protein. (Ajayi 1983). Trials in Nigeria showed that 25 females and Capybara domestication is a serious venture in 5 males could produce 200 young/year, yielding 400 kg of high , where licensed ranches harvest about 85,000 protein carcass meat (Kyle 1987). This 5.5 kg animals each year. The partially web-footed graze prefers elephant graM and sweet potato, and is kept in some near water and do not compete with cattle, even in the wild Nigerian homes for food. (Gom.alez-Jimenez 1977). Animals are captured in the dry season and the meat, then leaner than at other times of the DISCUSSION year, is deboned, salted, and dried. Harvest rates of 40% can Human food habits may appear to be irrational; but in occur without population depletion, and the net cash return most cases, they have a practical origin (Harris 1985). Rat per hectare is nearly three times higher for capybara than for meat is perfectly suitable nutritionally and poses no risk to cattle ($11 versus $4; Escobar 1973 cited in Gom.alez-Jimenez human health when it is properly prepared, yet some cultures 1977). Meat production efficiency of capybaras is more than do not use it for food. According to Harris (1985), when three times greater than cattle; and compared with sheep and there is no practical benefit for a culture to eat a particular rabbits, capybaras need less food per unit weight. In 1977, food (such as rodent meat) the practice is spumed. In that sold at $2/kg in Venezuela (Gom.alez-Jimenez situation, other food sources are usually more available, are 1977). Taste varies, probably due to the oil content in the less expensive, require less effort, and provide sufficient fat. All recipes call for the removal of fat, usually by boiling nutrition. three times and throwing away the fat and water. For other When larger wild mammals or production no rodent species consumed, fat is very desirable and nutritionally longer provide sufficient protein, rodents often fill the gap. beneficial. Domestication of rodents, however, is not an easy as task, and Capybara pelts (carpincho leather) bring high prices in simply encouraging the use of microlivestock on small farms European markets (Gonzalez-Jimenez and Parra 1975). In is not enough. Basic technology, fodder crops, coordination fact, in Brazil, Uruguay, and Argentina, capybaras are hunted with other crops, disease, climate, and the general well-being mostly for their pelts, which stretch in one direction only, of the animal must be considered (HuM 1982). Captive making them excellent for high quality gloves (Gom.alez­ breeding programs may take years of effort before favorable Jimenez 1977). In parts of South America, the animal is characteristics are genetically expressed in a domesticated wild considered a pest when it damages rice, , and other species. crops. Despite widespread, unfounded recommendations, Attempts to breed paca (Agouti J2l!E!) and agoutis harvesting field rats is not an effective pest control strategy. (Dasyprocta mexicana and !2_. punctata) in captivity have Human predation on rats is subject to the same principles occurred in Latin America. Cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs do that govern other predator/prey relationships. Rodent pests not do well in lowland, humid environments, generating a are usually gathered when they are most plentiful, after need to domesticate a more suitable species (Smythe 1987). harvest when crop damage has already occurred. When Some early su~ in breeding and taming the paca have rodents are more difficult to capture, other food sources are already been achieved at the Tropical Research Institute in used. Documentation is lacking to establish that predation on Panama. Compared to the agouti, the paca produces more rodents in agricultural areas reduces crop losses. Other meat and is more desirable for domestication (being effective crop protection strategies, including the proper use nocturnal, less active, and more hygienic; Smythe 1987). Paca of rodenticides, are available for many rodent pest situations.

153 Collecting rodents for food should be avoided in CHILD, G. 1970. Wildlife utilization and management in agricultural areas where rodenticides or other pesticides, Botswana. Biol. Conserv. 3(1):18-22. including insecticides, are used. Pesticide materials may be DEFOLIART, G. R. 1975. Insects as a source of protein. retained in meat. If a person consumed enough rodents Bull. Entomol. Soc. Am. 21:161-163. containing such residues, the potential for health effects would DRUMMOND, D. C. 1982. Man eats rats. Soc. Biol. be of concern. If necessary, the potential risks presented by Hum. Aff. 47(2):69-75. different species and materials could be clarified by further DRUMMOND, D. C., and T. J. CROWE. 1985. Rat study. Expooure to zoonoses from ectoparasites, blood, and hunters of Burma. Museum Ethnographers Group urine while handling rodents to be used for food is another Newsletter 18:47-52. ~ible risk that deserves attention. ELTRINGHAM, S. K. 1984. 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