Volume 2 Socio-Economic Profile • Environmental Quality Archaeological Resources • Early Acccounts of the • Ecology of the Mackinaw River Area
MACKINAW R AREA ASSESSMENT
':I ~£§ O(PIIATt.4ENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES
MACKINAW RIvER AREA ASSESSMENT
VOLUME 2
Part I: Socio-Economic Profile l11inois Department ofNatural Resources Office of Realty and Environmental Planning Division ofEnergy and Environmental Assessment 524 South Second Springfield, Illinois 6270 I
Part II: Environmental Quality l11inois Department ofNatural Resources Office of Scientific Research and Analysis Illinois State Water Survey, 2204 Griffith Drive, and Waste Management and Research Center, One East Hazelwood Drive Champaign, Illinois 61820
Part III: Archaeological Resources Michael D. Wiant Illinois Department ofNatural Resources Office of Scientific Research and Analysis Illinois State Museum Spring & Edward Streets Springfield, Illinois 62706
Part IV: Early Accounts of the Ecology of the Mackinaw River Area John White Ecological Services 904 South Anderson Urbana, Illinois 6180 I
800/1997 Printed by the authority ofthe State ofIllinois Other CTAP Publications
The Changing Illinois Environment: Critical Trends • Summary Report • Volume 1: Air Resources • Volume 2: Water Resources • Volume 3: Ecological Resources ,. Volume 4: Earth Resources • Volume 5: Waste Generation and Management ,. Volume 6: Sources ofEnvironmental Stress • Volume 7: Bibliography Rock River Area Assessment, technical report The Rock River Country: An Inventory ofthe Region's Resources, general report Cache River Area Assessment, technical report The Cache River Basin: An Inventory ofthe Region's Resources, general report Annual Report 1995, Illinois RiverWatch Stream Monitoring Manual, Illinois RiverWatch PLAN-IT EARTH, Flowing Waters Module PLAN-IT EARTH, Forest Module ForestMonitoring Manual, Illinois ForestWatch Illinois Land Cover, An Atlas, plus CD-ROM Inventory ofEcologically Resource-Rich Areas in Illinois Illinois Geographic Information System, CD-ROM of digital geospatial data
All CTAP and Ecosystems Program documents are available from the DNR Clearinghouse at (217) 78Il-7498 or TDD (217) 7811-9175. They are also available on the World Wide Web at http://dnr.state,il.us/ctap/ctaphome.htm, or http://dnr.state,i1.us/c2000/manage/partner.htm, as well as on the EcoForum Bulletin Board at I (800) 528-5486 or (217) 78Il-8447.
For more information about CTAP, call (217) 524-0500 or e-mail [email protected]; for inforination on the Ecosystems Program call (217) 78Il-7940 or e-mail at [email protected].
ii About This Report
The Mackinaw River Area Assessment examines an area situated along the Mackinaw River in the central part ofIllinois. Because significant natural community and species diversity is found in the area, it has been designated a state Resource Rich Area.
This report is part ofa series ofreports on Illinois Resource Rich Areas where a public private partnership has been formed. These assessments provide information on the natural and human resources of the areas as a basis for managing and improving their ecosystems. The determination ofresource rich areas and development ofecosystem-based information and management programs in Illinois are the result ofthree processes -- the Critical Trends Assessment Program, the Conservation Congress, and the Water Resources and Land Use Priorities Task Force.
Background
The Critical Trends Assessment Program (CTAP) documents changes in ecological conditions. In 1994, using existing information, the program provided a baseline of ecological conditions. I Three conclusions were drawn from the baseline investigation:
I. the emission and discharge of regulated pollutants over the past 20 years has declined, in some cases dramatically, 2. existing data suggest that the condition of natural ecosystems in Illinois is rapidly declining as a result of fragmentation and continued stress, and 3. data designed to .monitor compliance with environmental regulations or the status of individual species are not sufficient to assess ecosystem health statewide.
Based on these findings, CTAP has begun to develop methods to systematically monitor ecological conditions and provide information for ecosystem-based management. Five components make up this effort:
1. identifY resource rich areas, 2. conduct regional assessments, 3. publish an atlas and inventory ofIllinois landcover, 4. train volunteers to collect ecological indicator data, and . 5. develop an educational science curriculum which incorporates data collection
1 See The Changing l/Iinois Environment: Critical Trends, summary report and volumes 1-7.
iii At the same time that CTAP was publishing its baseline findings, the Illinois Conservation Congress and the Water Resources and Land Use Priorities Task Force were presenting their respective findings. These groups agreed with the CTAP conclusion that the state's ecosystems were declining. Better stewardship was needed, and they determined that a voluntary, incentive-based, grassroots approach would be the most appropriate, one that recognized the inter-relatedness ofeconomic development and natural resource protection and enhancement.
From the three initiatives was born Conservation 2000, a six-year program to begin reversing ecosystem degradation, primarily through the Ecosystems Program, a cooperative process of public-private partnerships that are intended to merge natural resource stewardship with economic and recreational development. To achieve this goal, the program will provide financial incentives and technical assistance to private landowners. The Rock River and Cache River were designated as the first Ecosystem Partnership areas.
At the same time, CTAP identified 30 Resource Rich Areas (RRAs) throughout the state. In RRAs where Ecosystem Partnerships have been formed, CTAP is providing an assessment of the area, drawing from ecological and socio-economic databases to give an overview ofthe region's resources -- geologic, edaphic, hydrologic, biotic, and socio-economic. Although several ofthe analyses are somewhat restricted by spatial and/or temporal limitations ofthe data, they help to identify information gaps and additional opportunities and constraints to establishing long-term monitoring programs in the partnership areas.
The Mackinaw River Assessment
The Mackinaw River begins near Sibley in Ford County and runs west to meet the lllinois River south ofPekin, Illinois. The boundaries ofthe Mackinaw River Area Assessment, as well as the Mackinaw River Ecosystem Partnership area, coincide with the boundaries ofthe Mackinaw River Basin. This area is situated along the roughly 125-mile river in the counties of Tazewell, McLean, and Woodford, with small sections in Mason, Livingston, and Ford counties. The Basin has 15 subbasins (identified by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency) which cover approximately 1,138 me (728,495 acres). The land in the Panther Creek and the "middle" Mackinaw River subbasins, an area totaling 124,740 acres, was designated a state "Resource Rich Area" because it contains significant natural community diversity. The Mackinaw River Ecosystem Partnership was subsequently formed around this core area ofhigh quality ecological resources.
This assessment is comprised oftwo volumes. In Volume 1, Land Cover Inventory provides an overview of the land cover in the region; Geology discusses the geology, soils, and minerals in the assessment area; Water Resources discusses the surface and groundwater resources; and Living Resources describes the natural vegetation communities and the fauna ofthe region.
In Volume 2, the Socio-Economic Profile discusses the demographics, infrastructure, and economy ofthe area, focusing on the three counties with the greatest amount ofland in
iv t 1
S08IIe 1:2700000
Dr.ln.go bllline from 1:24000 .cal. WIIter.hod bound.rle••• dfSUneatl!ld by the U.S.O.s. Water Re'DUrC8a OMidDn.
Major Drainage Basins of Illinois and Location of the Mackinaw River Basin Scale 1:528000 I o ~ 10 HiM... I ! o Ii '0 1$ 2Q Itlom\!l.' r I F""'"""F' F""""""""'"""";
Subbasins in the Mackinaw River Basin. Subbasin boundaries depicted are those determined by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. the watershed area -- McLean, Tazewell and Woodford counties; Environmental Quality discusses air and water quality, and hazardous and toxic waste generation and management in the area; Archaeological Resources identifies and assesses the archaeological sites, ranging from the Paleoindian Prehistoric (B.C. 10,000) to the Historic (A.D. 1650), known in the assessment watershed; and Early Accounts ofthe Ecology ofthe Mackinaw River Area describes the ecology ofthe area as recorded by historical writings ofexplorers, pioneers, early visitors and early historians.
vii
Table of Contents
Part I: Socio-Economic Profile Summary '" 1-1 Demographic Trends 1-3 Health Trends 1-19 The Regional Economy 1-31 Agriculture 1-47 Outdoor Recreation 1-57 Transportation Infrastructure 1-65 Property Taxes 1-81 References 1-95
Part II: Environmental Quality Air Quality 2-1 I Water Quality 2-7 ·1 Hazardous and Toxic Waste Generation and Management 2-17 1 References 2-33 1 1
Appendix A-I I
Part III: Archaeological Resources Introduction 3-1 Archaeological Resources ofthe Mackinaw Watershed 3-5 References 3-31
Part IV: Early Accounts of the Ecology of the Mackinaw River Area Introduction 4-1 Mackinaw River 4-1 Prairies and Groves 4-8 Springs 4-29 Early Farming 4-30 Prairie Fires 4-38 Fauna 4-42 Weather Extremes 4-62 Laments and Pleas for Nature Preservation 4-71 References Cited 4-79
ix
------_._-
PART I SOCIo-EcONOMIC PROFILE
- ,I
Contributors
Project Coordinator David Baker
Editors '" David Baker, Karen Miller
Maps John Bishop, Will Hinsman
Summary David Baker
Demographic Trends Karen Miller
Health Trends Wayne Hartel
The Regional Economy Mark Bonardelli
Agriculture Mark Bonardelli
Outdoor Recreation John O'Conner
Transportation Infrastructure Tom Heavisides
Property Taxes Wayne Hartel
I
I
I
I
I
I-iii I
I
I
I
I ------
Table of Contents
Summary 1-1 Demographic Trends 1-3 Population 1-3 Population Characteristics 1-7 Households and Housing 1-14 Conclusion 1-16 Health Trends 1-17 Mortality Rates 1-17 Major Causes ofDeath 1-18 Infant Mortality and Premature Births 1-22 Teenage and Single Mothers 1-24 Health Care Access 1-26 Conclusion 1-28 The Regional Economy , 1-29 Structural Change in the Economy 1-31 Economic Characteristics by County 1-35 Conclusion 1-42 Agriculture 1-43 Production 1-45 Cash Receipts : 1-48 Conclusion I-50 Outdoor Recreation 1-51 State-Owned Recreation Sites 1-51 Boating 1-51 Fishing and Hunting : 1-53 Conclusion I-55 Transportation Infrastructure '" 1-57 Auto Traffic I-57 Other Traffic 1-61 Conclusion 1-61 Property Taxes 1-63 Tax Revenues 1-63 Property Tax Base 1-64 Tax Rates 1-67 Property Tax Distribution 1-68 Conclusion 1-69 References '" '" '" 1-71
I-v List of Figures
.Demographic Trends Figure 1-1. Mackinaw River Area Population Trends 1-3 Figure 1-2. Municipalities and Major Highways 1-4 Figure 1-3. Urban Land Use, Mackinaw River Area 1-7 Figure 1-4. Age Distribution, Mackinaw River Area 1-8 Figure 1-5. Estimated Mean Age by Census Tract 1-9 Figure 1-6. Education Trends 1-10 Figure 1-7. 1990 Educational Attainment by Census Tract 1-11 Figure 1-8. Per Capita Income 1-12 Figure1-9. 1990 Per Capita Income by Census Tract 1-13 Figure 1-10. Percent ofPersons Living in Poverty 1-14 Figure I-II. Median Value ofOwner-Occupied Housing, in 1993 Dollars 1-16
Health Trends Figure 1-12. TotaIMortalityRate 1-17 Figure 1-13. The Major Causes ofDeath in the Mackinaw River Area, 1960-64 and 1986-90 1-18 Figure 1-14. Heart Disease Mortality 1-19 Figure 1-15. Cancer Mortality 1-20 Figure 1-16. Stroke Mortality 1-21 Figure 1-17. Infant Mortality 1-22 Figure 1-18. Premature Births as a Percentage ofTotal Births 1-23 Figure 1-19. Percentage ofBirths to Teenage Mothers 1-24 Figure 1-20. Percentage ofBirths to Single Mothers 1-25 Figure 1-21. Staffed Hospital Beds 1-26 Figure 1-22. Number ofDoctors Per 100,000 People 1-27
The Regional Economy Figure 1-23. Changes in Employment and Personal Income 1969-1993 1-29 Figure 1-24. Significant Employment Sectors by Census Tract 1-30 Figure 1-25. Major Employers in the Mackinaw River Area 1-33 Figure 1-26. Employment Distribution in the Mackinaw River Area 1-34 Figure 1-27. Earnings Distribution in the Mackinaw River Area 1-35 Figure 1-28. McLean County Employment, by Sector. 1-36 Figure 1-29. McLean County Earnings, by Sector 1-37 Figure 1-30. Tazewell County Employment, by Sector.. , 1-39 ,Figure 1-31. Tazewell County Earnings, by Sector.. 1-39
I-vi ------
Figure 1-32. Woodford County Employment, by Sector 1-40 Figure 1-33 . Woodford County Earnings, by Sector 1-41
Agriculture Figure 1-34. Cropland in Mackinaw River Area 1-43 Figure 1-35. Agricultural Landcover 1-44 Figure 1-36. Number ofFarms 1-45 Figure 1-37. Com Production 1-46 Figure 1-38. Soybean Production 1-46 Figure 1-39. Hogs and Pigs Inventory 1-47 Figure 1-40. Cattle Inventory : 1-48 Figure 1-41. Crop Cash Receipts 1-49 Figure 1-42. Livestock Cash Receipts 1-49
Outdoor Recreation Figure 1-43. Significant Natural Resource Areas in the Mackinaw River Basin 1-52
Transportation Infrastructure Figure 1-44. Airports, Railroads, Major Roads, and Navigable Rivers 1-58 Figure 1-45. Vehicle-Miles Travelled in the Mackinaw River Area, 1973-1993 1-60 Figure 1-46. Annual Growth in Road-Miles and Vehicle-Miles Travelled in the Mackinaw River Area, 1973-1993 1-60
Property Taxes Figure 1-47. Average Annual Percentage Change in Property Tax Revenue 1-64 Figure I-48. Major Property Tax Districts 1-65 Figure 1-49. Average Annual Percentage Change in Property Tax Base 1-66 Figure 1-50. 1981 Property Tax Base by Class ofProperty 1-66 Figure 1-51. 1993 Property Tax Base by Class ofProperty 1-67 Figure 1-52. Average Property Tax Rate 1-68 Figure I-53. 1993 Property Tax Distribution 1-69
List of Tables
Demographic Trends Table I-I. Population 1-5 Table 1-2. Population Density 1-5 Table 1-3. Incorporated Municipalities, Mackinaw River Area 1-6 Table 1-4. Median Age 1-8
I-vii Table 1-5. 1990 Educational Attainment " 1-10 Table 1-6. Number ofHouseholds 1-14 Table 1-7. Median Household Income " " .. " " " " 1-15 Table 1-8. Housing Units' " " " " " " " 1-15
Health Trends Table 1-9. Mortality Rates " "."." 1-18 Table 1-10. Heart Disease Mortality" 1-19 Table I-II. Cancer Mortality " " " " , " 1-20 Table 1-12. Stroke Mortality " " " " " ".1-21 Table 1-13. Infant Mortality " " " 1-23 Table 1-14. Percentage ofPremature Births." "" " "."." " 1-24 Table 1-15. Percentage ofBirths to Teenage Mothers " 1-25 Table 1-16. Percentage ofBirths to Single Mothers 1-25 Table 1-17. Hospitals in the Mackinaw River Region " 1-26 Table 1-18. Number of Staffed Hospital Beds " 1-27 Table 1-19. Number ofDoctors per 100,000 Population " " 1-28
The Regional Economy Table 1-20. 1993 Employment and Personal Income " 1-31 Table 1-21. 1993 Total Personal Income " " "."." " .. 1-31 Table 1-22. Major Employers, Mackinaw River Area 1-32 Table 1-23. 1991 Private Non-Farm Establishments, McLean County " 1-36 Table 1-24. McLean County Selected Statistics " 1-37 Table 1-25. 1991 Private Non-Farm Establishments, Tazwell County 1-38 Table 1-26. Tazewell County Selected Statistics " " " 1-38 Table 1-27. 1991 Private Non-Farm Establishments, Woodford County 1-40 Table 1-28. Woodford County Selected Statistics " " .. " " " 1-41
Agriculture Table 1-29. Acreage Planted in 1994 1-45 Table 1-30. 1994 Selected Crop yields " " " 1-47 Table 1-31. 1993 Farm Cash Receipts " " 1-48
Outdoor Recreation Table 1-32. Natural Areas and Nature Preserves 1-53 Table 1-33. Boat Registrations, 1988 and 1994 " 1-53 Table 1-34. Hunting Activity .. " " " " " I-54
I-viii ------
Transportation Infrastructure Table 1-35. Miles ofRoad 1-57
Property Taxes Table 1-36. Real Property Taxes Revenue 1-63 Table 1-37. Real Property Tax Base 1-64
l-ix
Summary
The Mackinaw River area is rich in both natural resources and human resources. The river basin bisects a highly productive agricultural landscape and is bounded by two metropolitan areas, Bloomington-Normal on the southeast and Peoria on the northwest. This report profiles the socio-economic characteristics ofthe three main counties through which the Mackinaw River and its tributaries flow -- McLean, Tazewell, and Woodford.' It provides a historical perspective as well as a current picture ofthe human-related resources ofthe region.
The Mackinaw River .area has a population of 285,525, nearly 90% in McLean and Tazewell counties. Both McLean and Tazewell counties are highly urbanized; 75% of their populations live in urban areas (communities greater than 2,500 population), while only 21% of the population of Woodford County lives in urban areas. All three counties have grown by 60-70% since World War II. In the past decade, however, Tazewell and Woodford counties have lost population as manufacturing jobs declined in the Peoria MSA. McLean County has continued to grow with an economy built around insurance, higher education, and, most recently, automobile manufacturing.
The Mackinaw River area economy supports 158,168 jobs and generates $5.9 bil\ion in personal income. Manufacturing, clearly the largest employment sector in 1969, declined to the fourth largest by 1993 while continuing to support the largest earnings. Service and wholesale/retail employment has grown instead, with these sectors now representing more than 45% ofthe workforce.
Significant differences exist among the economies ofthe three counties. McLean has experienced the greatest growth, with total jobs expanding by 70% in the last 25 years, compared to a more modest 20% growth in Tazewell County. The FIRE/transportation! utilities sector dominates the McLean economy, with State Farm Insurance alone employing more than 9,400 workers. Also, unlike other counties, McClean County's manufacturing sector has grown in recent years with Mitsubishi Motors opening a plant that employs nearly 4,000 workers. In Tazewell county manufacturing employment has actually declined by more than 10,000 jobs. Due to two large Caterpil\ar plants, however, manufacturing remains the largest employer in the county. Woodford county has a
1 While the accompanying natural resources assessment emphasizes the watershed as its unit of analysis, socio-economic data are displayed geographically using the 310 census tracts defined by the U.S. Census Bureau to encompass the three counties. Census tracts are small, sub-county level areas delineated by the U.S. Census Bureau for purposes ofthe deceunial census. They are designed to be relatively homogeneous with respect to population characteristics, economic status, and living conditions. In practice they vary considerably in population and size. In the three-county area, the census districts range from 0 to 5,214 in population and from less than I acre to 43,514 acres in land area.
1-1 relatively small economy with many workers commuting to the surrounding counties for work.
Farmland dominates the landscape surrounding the Mackinaw River. About 60% of the land in the river basin is farmed and more than 85% ofthe land in the three counties. McLean County contains more farmland -- nearly 700,000 acres -- and produces more com and soybeans than any other county in the state. While farming may be ubiquitous in the Mackinaw River area, agriculture produces only 2% ofthe area's income and this percentage has declined over time. Farm property's share oflocal property tax revenues has actually declined by nearly two-thirds since 1981.
While lacking high-profile outdoor recreation areas, the Mackinaw River area is notable for its high quality streams. Panther Creek and the portion of the Mackinaw River north and east of the Mackinaw River Fish and Wildlife Area are both designated as "Class A" streams, indicating that they are high-quality habitats for a rich variety of plants and animals. These streams and surrounding areas offer an array of outdoor activities, from fishing and hunting to canoeing.
The human resources of the Mackinaw River area provide an important context for future plans to manage and preserve the unique and ample natural resources of the area. This report is part ofan overall assessment ofthe area's natural and human resources.
1-2 Demographic Trends
The character ofan area is determined not only by its natural environment, but also by its human environment -- the size, growth, density, distribution and characteristics ofthe population living there. The following section describes population growth and distribution, and trends in age, income, education, households, and housing.
Population
Between 1870 and 1990 the combined populations ofMcLean, Tazewell and Woodford counties have grown 183%, quite a bit less than the statewide growth of350%. Tazewell County grew the most, 343%, with steady increases beginning in the early part ofthe century. In McLean County population rose 139% and in Woodford County, 72% (Figure 1_1)1
Since World War II all three counties have grown by 60-70%. In the 1980s, however, Tazewell County, a suburban component ofthe Peoria metropolitan area, and Woodford County, an exurban component, lost population as manufacturing jobs declined in the Peoria MSA. There has been no such decline in McLean County, which has a healthy
140,000 .------,
120,000
100,000
80,000
60,000
·20,000 -l--=="""'----~-""'"
O+--t---..,c---+---+-+--T--<---;----.-+--T-~ 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990
Figure I-I, Mackinaw River Area Population Trends
1 Population data was taken from the J993 JIIinois Statistical Abstract.
1-3 I
Figure 1-2. Municipalities and Major Highways
Road information from USGS 1:100,000 digital line graph files. ~ iC" fl Paso .:.~ Gril ".-Cheooa -::I,:fureka , ;~ "...... ~ '~'f ,,,;Henwrtn N Interstates N US and State Highways N Scale 1:520000 ' .' County Boundaries 'N •••• 0 25 N Mackinaw River Basin t Miles Table 1-1. Population 1990 % ofState County % change, Po ulation Po ulation Rank2 1970-1990 McLean 129,180 1.1% 14 24% Tazewell 123,692 1.1% 15 4% Woodford 32,653 0.3% 45 17% Mackinaw River area 285,525 2.5% 14% Statewide 11,430,602 100.0% 2.9% economy built around insurance, higher education, and, most recently, automobile manufacturing. As of 1990, the Mackinaw River area was home to 2.5% ofthe state's population (Table 1-1). Population is projected to grow over the next 25 years, with McLean County seeing approximately 30% growth, Tazewell 17% and Woodford 8%2 Urban Population Both McLean and Tazewell counties are highly urbanized; 75% oftheir populations live in urban areas (communities greater than 2,500 population) compared to 85% statewide.3 Woodford County has only 21% ofits population living in urban areas, but that portion of the population doubled between 1970 and 1990 as the county became part ofthe exurban fringe ofthe Peoria metro area. Trends in population density are listed in Table 1-2. Overall, the population density ofthe Mackinaw River area is about three-fifths the statewide average density. Table 1-2. Population Density (persons per square mile) 1870 1910 1950 1990 McLean 45.6 57.5 64.7 109.1 Tazewell 43.0 52.4 117.4 190.6 Woodford 35.9 38.8 40.4 61.8 Mackinaw River area 42.7 51.9 73.7 121.0 Statewide 45.7 101.5 156.8 205.7 2 Projections and county ranking taken from 1994 State Profile, Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. 'Urbanization data from 1990 and 19931l1inots Statistical Abstract. 1-5 Table 1-3. Incorporated Municipalities, Mackinaw River Area City or City or 1990 vill e villa e Po ulation McLean County East Peoria C 21,378 Anchor V 178 Green Valley V 745 Arrowsmith V 313 Hopedale V 805 Belleflower V 405 Mackinaw V 1,331 Bloomington C 51,889 Marquette Heights C 3,077 Carlock V 418 Minier V 1,155 Chenoa C 1,732 Morton V 13,799 Colfax V 854 North Pekin V 1,556 Cooksville V 211 Pekin C 32,254 Danvers V 981 Tremont V 2,088 Downs V 620 Washington C 10,136 Ellsworth V 224 Woodford County Gridley V 1,304 Bayview Gardens V 418 Heyworth V 1,629 Benson V 410 Hudson V 1,006 Congerville V 397 LeRoy C 2,777 El Paso C 2,499 Lexington C 1,810 Eureka C 4,454 McLean V 819 Germantown Hills V 1,636 Normal T 40,023 Goodfield V 454 Saybrook V 767 Kappa V 134 Stanford V 648 Metamora V 2,520 Towanda V 543 Minonk C 1,982 Tazewell County Panola V 43 Armington V 348 Roanoke V 1,910 Creve Coeur V 5,938 Secor V 389 Deer Creek V 630 Spring Bay V 439 Delavan C 1,642 Washburn V 1,075 Source: Illinois Counties & Incorporoted Municipalities, December 1, 1993, Illinois Secretary olState. Urban Land Use Only a small percentage of the land in the Mackinaw River area is urban -- 68,586 acres according to satellite imagery taken between 1992 and 1994,4.5% ofthe counties' combined land area, a little less than the statewide rate of 5.8%4 In McLean County urban land comprises 32,299 acres, or 4.3% ofthe land. Tazewell County has 27,152 acres (6.4%),and Woodford County has 9,135 acres (2.6%). 4 Illinois Landcover, An Atlas, lL Deparunent ofNatural Resources, June 1996. Used here, urban land includes low, medium and high density urban land, transportation, and urban grasslands. 1-6 I_Tazewell __ McLean __Woodfordl 50,000 .,------, 45,000 l======~-~--====="1 40,000 - . 35,000 -_... . . 30,000 <0 . 25,oooJ.... ~----~------=::------.==------.~------.~------. 20,000 ~ . 15,000 " . 10,000 - -- -..-...... -.-.•...... -.- " - . 5,000 o+------~------~ 1982 1987 1992 Figure 1-3. Urban Land Use (acres) Land use infonnation is also available from the U.S. Department ofAgriculture Soil Conservation Service, which has conducted a National Resources Inventory (NRl) in 1982, 1987 and 1992 (Figure 1_3).5 According to the NRI, between 1982 and 1992 urban land use grew 18%, (to 5.4% ofland in the 3-county area), compared to a 13.7% increase statewide (to 6.3% ofIllinois' land area). McLean County experienced the most urban growth, up 43.6% over the ten-year period, far more than its growth in urban population (8%) during a similar time frame (1980 1990). Population Characteristics Age As in the rest ofthe state, the area's population is aging. From 1970 to 1990, the percentage ofpersons aged 0-19 dropped from 39% to 30% ofthe area population. The number ofpersons aged 65 and over, however, rose from 9.2% to 12% ofthe population6 In 1990, about 30% ofthe area residents were younger than age 20, and 12% were older than age 64. 5 Because different methodologies are used and the data are collected from representative sample points in each state, the NRI data v31)' slightly from the satellite data. 6 Age, race and education data from the 1994 State Profile, Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. 1-7 180,000 160,000 140,000 120,000 100,000 ao,OOD 00,000 40,000 20,000 0 AgeG-19 Figure 1-4. Age Distribution, Mackinaw River Area By 2020, the number of elderly is projected to increase considerably in Tazewell and Woodford counties, from 13% to 24% and 14% to 23%, respectively. Median age rose 5.7 years in the combined three-county area between 1970 and 1990 (Table 1-4). It rose 4.2 years in McLean County, 7.6 years in Tazewell, and 5.6 years in Woodford County. This compares to a statewide median age increase of 4.4 years. Table 1-4. Median Age 1970 1980 1990 McLean 24.6 26.1 28.8 Tazewell 27.2 29.4 34.8 Woodford 28.5 29.1 34.1 Mackinaw River area 26.3 28.0 32.0 Statewide 28.4 29.9 32.8 Figure 1-5 shows age distribution in more detail, by census tract. The northeastern portions ofMcLean and Woodford counties, the South Pekin area and sections ofEast Peoria have the highest mean age, while the areas surrounding Bloomington-Normal and the areas north and southeast ofPeoria-Pekin have predominantly younger populations. Race and Gender The area has a very small minority population, 3%; far below the 18% minority population statewide. McLean County has the largest percentage at 6%; both Tazewell and Woodford counties have less than 1%. 1-8 ,-------- Figure 1-5. Esti mated Mean Age by 1990 Census Tract r:Mx!;~iiMt}(!f:::·i;¥\j: • • • • • ·.:,~~}Ni;@:~t:!1 • • • ~~ifi};;\HX:i!ll----1 • ~~l~ %::::d:. :.. ...:.(\.hNXYF~ r:::W~~);W . ~lil~l] 0 Less Than 29 0 30- 32 N [lJ 33 - 36 Scale 1:520000 ! ••••• 0 25 ~ 37 and Over t Miles 90.0% ,------, 60.0"+-- 70.0%"---r 60.0% 50.0% 40.0% 30.0% 20.0% 10.0% 0.0% High High CQuege, College School School Mackinaw State.....de Mackinaw Statev,.;de River River A... Figure 1-6. Education Trends The percentage ofmales has remained steady at 48%, similar to the statewide trend. In McLean County, the number ofmales rose almost one percentage point between 1970 and 1990, while the number dropped the same percentage in Tazewell County7 Education Between 1970 and 1990, education trends in the Mackinaw River area were consistently ahead of statewide trends. By 1990, statewide college trends caught up with the area, but the rate ofhigh school completion statewide continued to lag behind. McLean County, home oflllinois State University and Illinois Wesleyan University, led the area with the most college graduates, 29%. The census map in Figure 1-7 shows that, not surprisingly, the populations with the highest educational attainment live in the Bloomington-Normal and Peoria-Pekin areas. Table 1-5. 1990 Educational Attainment (persons age 25 and over) Not Completing Completing High Completing Four or Hi School SchoolOnI More Years of Colle e McLean 15.3% 55.7% 29.0% Tazewell 21.4% 65.0% 13.6% Woodford 20.0% 64.6% 15.4% Mackinaw River area 18.5% 60.7% 20.8% Statewide 23.8% 55.2% 21.0% 7 Gender data from 1970, 1980, and 1990 Census. 1-10 Figure 1-7. Educational Attainment By 1990 Census Tract Percentage 01 those over 25 who are High School Graduates or Higher. • .• .. I Q, .• ~ll~!f • .Iif • !mljIWil:i{:ffii\i<~" :~ ...• .•..~.,.":',...•..•.I.! ,'_'.:....:',:;:::·.::. :t':"":,': :.:::: ~·:·;~·:~tf·:~~~i~':·;..•• ' ," .••. D Less Than 71.4% 0 71.5% - 80.3% N [EJ 80.4% - 89.3% Scale 1:520000 ! aM WM. ~ 89.4% and Over 0 25 t Miles $25,000 ,------==------, $20,000 t- $15,000 $10,000 $5,000 $0 McLean TSZ8'0Y811 Woodford Mackinaw State.....cte River an>a Figure i-8, Per Capita income Per Capita Income Per capita income is slightly lower in the Mackinaw River area than it is statewide; in 1990 it was $2,366 lower than statewide per capita income. 8 From 1970-1990, per capita income rose 43% in the three-county area, It rose 45% in McLean, and 41 % in Tazewell and Woodford counties. Out of 102 counties, in 1992 McLean County was ranked 12 in per capita income, Tazewell County was ranked 20, and Woodford County 27. The areas with the highest per capita income are generally in the Bloomington-Normal and Peoria-Pekin metropolitan areas, the areas with lower mean age and higher education levels (Figure 1-9). The poverty rate is lower in the Mackinaw River area than it is statewide -- 10% compared to 12%. Even so, between 1970 and 1990 the rate rose 65.5% in Tazewell County, 21% in McLean County and 3% in Woodford County9 The significant increase in Tazewell County is probably attributable to the loss of7,500 manufacturing jobs in the Peoria metro area. 8 Per capita income data from 1994 State Profile. 9 Poverty data from 1970, 1980, and 1990 Census. 1-12 Figure 1-9. Per Capita Income By 1990 Census Tract ~i~~~1 .~.~.'::.:'.. !:.::. :.:~!·lmGm·:, • .~.' D Less than $10,904 0 $10,905 - $12,807 N [ill $12.808 - $15.667 Scale 1:520000 I ••••• ~ $15.668 and Over 0 25 t Miles 12.0% ,---...,.------" 11.0% t::::..~= 10.0% ...::::...:::...:-.:...=-..:=.. --State~de 9.0% --Mclean ..... Mackinaw River area. -Taze\N8l1 8.0% L----·-···-···-···-···~···· __ Woodford 7.0% 5.0% 4.0% +------+------1 1970 1980 1990 Figure 1-10. Percent ofPersons Living in Poverty Households and Housing Households Between 1970 and 1990, while total population increased 14%, the number of households in the three-county area increased 36%. The number ofpersons per household dropped from 3.1 to 2.6 persons. Statewide, the number of households increased 20% while the average number ofpeople living in them dropped from 3.1 to 2.7. 10 Table 1-6. Number of Households 1970 1980 1990 McLean 32,860 42,210 46,960 Tazewell 36,530 46,630 47,260 Woodford 8,410 11,160 11,450 Mackinaw River area ..77,800. 100,000 105,670 Statewide 3,525,820 4,067,870 4,208,670 10 Household data from 1994 State Profile. 1-14 Table 1-7. Median Household Income (in 1993 Dollars) 1979 1989 Percent chan e McLean $35,474 $36,533 3.0% Tazewell $40,449 $36,028 -10.9% Woodford $40,612 $40,037 -1.4% Mackinaw River area $38,385 $36,715 -4.4% Statewide $36,962 $37,565 1.6% Between 1979 and 1989 the median income ofMackinaw River area households dropped 4.4% ($1,670), compared to statewide growth of 1.6% ($603).1l Household income increased slightly in McLean County, while it dropped considerably in Tazewell County, again, probably due to manufacturing job losses in the Peoria metro area. Housing Housing units in the area increased 38.5% between 1970 and 1990, while the number of vacant units increased by two-thirds. Statewide, units were up 22% and vacancies 51 %. The greatest increase occurred in McLean County where housing units jumped by almost half and vacancies by more than two-thirds. 12 Table 1-8. Housing Units 1970 1980 1990 . Units Vacanc Units Vacanc Units Vacanc McLean 33,327 4.4% 45,414 8.2% 49,164 4.8% Tazewell 37,649 3.1% 48,897 5.1% 49,315 4.3% Woodford 8,720 4.4% 11,799 6.3% 11,932 4.5% Mackinaw River area 79,696 3.8% 106,110 6.6% 110,411 4.6% Statewide 3,703,367 5.4% 4,319,672 6.3% 4,506,275 6.7% The median value ofowner-occupied housing units (in 1993 dollars) increased 51 % between 1970 and 1980, then dropped 25% overthe next 10 years (Figure 1-11). The biggest drop occurred in Tazewell County, down 35% during the ten-year period. Statewide, values rose 34%,-with a'2%drop between 1980 and·1990. '3 Over the 20-year period; during which time the Mitsubishi auto plant opened, McLean County experienced the largest gain in value, up 24%, compared to 30% statewide. 11 Median household income data from 1980 and 1990 Census. 12 Housing units and vacancies from 1990 and 1993 Illinois StatisticalAbstract. 13 Data on median value of housing from 1970 Census and 1993 Illinois Statistical Abstract. 1-15 $100,000 $90,000 $80,000 $70,000 $60,000 $50,000 $40,000 $30,000 $20,000 $10,000 $0 Mclean TaZ8'NB1l Woodford Mackinaw State""';de Riv@r ."'" Figure 1-11. Median Value o/Owner-Occupied Housing, in 1993 Dollars. Conclusion Since 1870 the three counties in the Mackinaw River Resource Rich Area have undergone varying levels of population growth. McLean and Tazewell counties experienced continuous growth, except recently when population declined in Tazewell County after 1980 as manufacturing jobs were lost in the Peoria metropolitan area. Woodford County grew very little until the 1950-1980 period. Overall, the area almost tripled its 1870 population. Seven out often people live in urban areas, and urban uses consume four percent ofthe land area. The populace is slightly younger than statewide; the median age in 1990 was 32.0 years compared to 32.8 years. Education levels are ahead ofthe state as a whole. In 1990,82% of residents over 25 years of age had completed high school compared to 76% statewide. One out offive had completed college, similar to the statewide trend. Per capita income grew 43% between 1970 and 1990, to $20,093, slightly behind the statewide trend. The number ofpeople living in poverty has increased, but remains lower than the statewide percentage of 12%. Following state and national trends, the number of households grew, while average household size shrunk._ Medianhousehold.income.in this area·dropped 4% between 1979 and 1989, to 98% ofthe statewide median household income; in 1979 it was 104% ofthe statewide median; The largest decline occurred in Tazewell County, where 9,000 jobs were cut between 1980 and 1990. 1-16 Health Trends The most commonly used measure ofa population's health is the mortality rate -- the number ofdeaths per 100,000 people. Mortality rates are provided for total deaths and by cause ofdeath. Other measures ofhealth are infant mortality rates and premature births, the number ofteenage and single mothers, and access to health care, measured by the number ofhospital beds and doctors per 100,000 people. Health is typically influenced by . the demographics and economics ofthe region, as well as by environmental quality. Mortality Rates1 The mortality rate in the 3-county Mackinaw River area is about 11% below the state average2 The county rates range from 695 per 100,000 people in McLean County (23% below state average) to 910 in Tazewell County. The mortality rate in the area dropped 17% between 1960 and 1979, but has risen 9% since then. The rate was only 9 % lower in 1994 than it was in 1960, while statewide it I--McLean --Tazewell--Woodford --StateI 1100 ,------, 1 900 I 800 . iii ! 700 b===..:::::.....:::::....":::.....:::::.. =::::~==:=::::::=.,~-l 600 5OO+----+-----+--~---t--~-+-----1 1960-64 1965-69 197(1.74 1975-79 1981-85 1986-90 1991-94 Figure 1-12. Total Mortality Rate I Mortality rate data is from lliinois Department of Public Health: Division of Health Statistics. Vital Statistics Illinois. various years. 2 In the discussion of the mortality rates, references to a mortality rate for a particular year is actoaIly a five-year average rate. For example, when citing the 1960 mortality rate it is in fact the 1960-{i4 average mortality rate. 1-17 Table 1-9. Mortality Rates (deaths per 100,000 people) 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1981-85 1986-90 1991-94 McLean 1039 1025 819 738 727 706 695 Tazewell 716 711 722 704 754 835 910 Woodford 1065 995 1005 859 808 853 851 Region 887 863 794 736 749 778 804 State 1016 1020 983 915 882 892 900 was 11.5% lower. The largest decline within the Mackinaw River area occurred in McLean County, where the rate fell 33% since 1960. Conversely, in Tazewell County, the mortality rate was 27% higher in 1994. Major Causes ofDeath The three major causes ofdeath, in descending order, are heart disease, cancer, and stroke. During the 1994 time period they accounted for more than 66% ofall deaths statewide and 65% in the Mackinaw River area. Deaths from both heart disease and stroke have declined in the state and in the Mackinaw River area since 1960, while deaths from cancer have risen considerably. 1960-64 1991-1994 Diabetes other 1% Heart Disease ,% 32% Arteriosclerosis 3% Pneumonia & Influenza 3% Accidents 5% Stroke COPD '2% 5% Pneumonia & Cancer Influenza 25% .% Accidents 3% Slroke .% Figure 1-13. Major Causes ofDeath in the Rock River Area, 1960-64 and 1991-94 1-18 1-Mclean - Tazewell - Woodford ...... State I 700,------, 600 asoo i i 400 j--_...... ~ 1300 200 100 +----+----+-----+----+----+---,--1 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1981-85 1986-90 .1991~94 Figure 1-14. Heart Disease Mortality Heart Disease In 1994 the mortality rate from heart disease was 15% lower in the Mackinaw River area than statewide, 258 deaths per 100,000 compared to 302. This is a considerable improvement from 1960 when the Mackinaw River area was 18% above the state average. All three counties have heart disease mortality rates lower than the state average. The heart disease mortality rate in McLean County has been well below the state average - 23% below in 1994. The rates in Tazewell and Woodford counties were 7% and 6% below the state average, respectively. Since 1960 the heart disease mortality rate has declined in the Mackinaw River area at a faster pace than the state rate -- declining 51% in the area and 32% in the state. McLean County had the largest decline -- dropping 64%. Table 1-Hi. Heart Disease Mortality (deaths per 100,000 people) 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1981-85 1986-90 1991-94 McLean 652 638 353 307 269 251 232 Tazewell 382 387 277 273 286 272 280 Woodford 680 598 425 338 339 320 283 Region 526 507 325 295 284 268 258 State 446 444 422 381 357 328 302 1-19 I-Mclean -Tazewell --Woodford --State! 240,------, 220 • 200 D. [ 180 I 'iii 160 ....-=:=, ! 140 120 100 +----+-----t----+----+----+--~ 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1981-.85 1986-90 1991-94 Figure 1-15. Cancer Mortality Cancer Since 1960, the cancer mortality rate has increased in the Mackinaw River area and statewide. The area rate has been below the state rate during that time; in 1994 the area had 199 deaths per 100,000 population, compared to 213 statewide. The r.ates in McLean and Woodford counties were 22% and 1% below the state in 1994, while Tazewell County had the highest rate, 8% above the state rate. The cancer mortality rate in the Mackinaw River area is increasing at a greater pace than it is statewide -- up 38%, compared to 22% statewide. Only the rate in McLean County is growing at a slower rate than the state average, increasing only 4% since 1960. Tazewell County had the largest increase in cancer mortality -- rising 82%. Table 1-11. Cancer Mortality (deaths per 100,000 people) 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1981-85 1986-90 1991-94 McLean 159 164 142 150 163 168 166 Tazewell 127 120 136 147 177 219 231 Woodford 162 151 169 161 166 209 211 Region 144 140 142 150 169 195 199 State 168 170 176 187 195 205 213 1-20 I--McLean --Tazewell--Woodford --StateI 160 ,------, 140 120 . . i &. 100 t·:::::····:::::·····:::::····:::::·····":'····::::····:;::·~I:s;;.:. I 80 ~------'---- I 60 40 20 O+----+----+----t----+-----+----1 1960-64 1965-69 197G-74 1975-79 1981-85 1986-90 1991-94 Figure 1-16. Stroke Mortality Stroke Stroke mortality has dropped dramatically since 1960 -- 37% in the Mackinaw River area compared to 41 % statewide. The most significant decline in the area was in McLean County, where the rate fell 66%. However, stroke mortality rose 18% in Tazewell County. The death rate from stroke was consistently lower in the Mackinaw River area than the state, until the 1980's. In 1994 it was 8% above the state average. Woodford County had the highest stroke mortality from the 1960s to the mid-1980s, but since has been slightly below Tazewell County. McLean County has the lowest rate, 18% below the state average and 37% lower than Tazewell and Woodford counties. Table 1-12. Stroke Mortality (deaths per 100,000 people) 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1981-85 1986-90 1991-94 McLean 145 128 101 84 71 60 50 Tazewell 67 67 71 60 65 65 79 Woodford 118 108 100 88 72 64 78 Region 104 95 87 73 69 63 66 State 103 103 98 83 66 60 61 1-21 Mortality and Demographics The lower mortality rates in the area compared to the state reflects in part the difference in demographic characteristics. For example, the Mackinaw River area has a lower elderly population and poverty rate than does the state as a whole. The elderly population and poverty levels have been shown to be positively correlated with mortality rates. Demographics also help to explain some ofthe differences in health within the region. McLean County, which has the lowest mortality rate in the region, has a smaller percentage ofelderly than the other two counties and the median age has increased at a faster rate in Tazewell and Woodford counties than in McLean. Infant Mottality and Premature Births3 Another measure ofcommunity health is the infant mortality rate. Infant mortality in the Mackinaw River area has typically been lower than the state average. In 1994, there were 6 deaths per 100,000 population in all three counties (40% below state average). Infant mortality has been declining at a steady rate since 1960, down 60% statewide and 68% in the area. The Mackinaw River area has also consistently had a lower percentage 1-- McLean --Tazewell --Woodford --State \ 25..------, 20 5 o+----+-----+----t--->----+----\ 196~ 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1981-85 1986-90 1991-94 Figure 1-17. InfantMortality 3 This data is from Illinois Department ofPublic Health: Division ofHealth Statistics. Vital Statistics IJIinots, various years. 1-22 Table 1-13. Infant Mortality (deaths per 100,000 population) 1960-64 1965-69 1970-74 1975-79 1981-85 1986-90 1991-94 McLean 19 18 18 13 12 8 6 Tazewell 19 22 16 13 11 9 6 Woodford 19 17 20 13 5 9 6 Region 19 20 17 13 11 9 6 State 25 18 21 16 13 11 10 ofpremature births (Figure 1-18), 29% below the state average in 1990.4 Within the Mackinaw River area the premature birth rates in 1990 ranged from 5.2% in McLean County to 6.8% in Woodford County. While the premature birth rate has been stable statewide, it rose 16% from 1960 to 1975 in the Mackinaw River area, and has declined 25% since then. Overall, premature births declined 13% between 1960 and 1990. McLean County experienced the greatest improvement with premature births down 22%. I--McLean Tazewell __ Woodford __ State I 9,------'------, 8 7 4 ,+----+----+----t-----t----t------j 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1965 1990 Figure 1-18. Premature Births as a Percentage ofTotal Births 4 From 1960-1985, the lllinois Department ofPublic Health defined prematnre births (in the Vital Statistics of Illinois) as babies born at a weight less than 2501 grams. In 1990, the Vital Statistics Report included the number ofbabies at less than 2599 grams. 1-23 Table 1-14. Percentage of Premature Births 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 McLean 6.7 5.3 6.7 8.3 6.8 6.0 5.2 Tazewell 5.7 5.9 6.3 6.7 5.0 5.8 5.3 Woodford 7.0 4.6 5.8 5.3 5.1 3.3 6.8 Region 6.2 5.5 6.4 7.2 5.8 5.6 5.4 State 7.6 8.3 8.2 7.7 7.2 7.2 7.6 Teenage and Single Mothers5 The rates ofinfant mortality and premature births are influenced by the number ofteenage and single mothers who often have less income and, therefore, less access to health care. Between 1975 and 1994 the teen birth rate declined both statewide and in the thre.e counties -- about 29% in the state, and 30% in the Mackinaw River area. Woodford County has had the largest decline in teenage mothers, falling 42% since 1975. The area's teen birth rate has consistently been below the state average, 16% lower in 1994. Within the Mackinaw River area, the percentage of teen mothers ranged from 9% in Woodford County to 12.7% in Tazewell County. 1-- Mclean --Tazewell --Woodford --State I 20,------,------, 18 .... 16 10 . 8 6+------+--_-----+------~ 1975 1980 1985 1990 Figure 1-19. Percentage ofBirths to Teenage Mothers 5 This data is from Illinois Depanment ofPublic Health: Division of Health Statistics, Vital Statistics Illinois, various years. 1-24 Table 1-15. Percentage ofBirths to Teenage Mothers 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 McLean 14.0 12.2 9.3 7.8 9.7 Tazewell 16.9 14.9 11.3 13.4 12.7 Woodford 15.6 9.1 7.6 8.3 9.0 Region 15.5 13.1 10.0 10.3 10.9 State 18.4 15.7 12.5 13.1 13.0 Though the percentage ofbirths to teenage mothers has declined since 1975, the percentage ofbirths to single mothers has increased. It jumped 85% statewide, and almost tripled in the Mackinaw River area. Table 1-16. Percentage ofBirths to Single Mothers 1975 1980 1985 1990 McLean 7.3 9.4 13.5 18.5 Tazewell 5.6 10.4 14.9 21.7 Woodford 5.1 5.8 5.4 13.8 Region 6.5 9.4 13.2 19.3 State 17.1 22.5 25.7 31.7 Even though the rate in the Mackinaw River area has jumped, the rate for the 3-county area has remained significantly below the state average during this IS-year period (39% lower in 1990). Tazewell County has had the largest increase, going from 5.6% in 1975 to 21.7% in 1990. [~McLean -Tazewell ~Woodford-Statel 35~------, 30 25 """"_=.cc r: 10 1=:=;;;;";::::"..;:;;;2::::::;;:_.=:...... 5 ·· .. . 0+------+------+------1 1975 1980 1985 1990 Figure 1-20. Percentage o!Births.fo Single Mothers 1-25 Table 1-17. Hospitals in the Mackinaw River Region (1994) City Staffed Beds BroMenn Healthcare Normal 416 St. Joseph Medical Center Bloomington 164 Hopedale Medical Complex Hopedale 119 Pekin Hospital Pekin 144 Health Care Access A key aspect ofhealth is the availability ofhealth care providers and facilities, specifically the number ofdoctors and staffed hospital beds. The Mackinaw River area has fewer hospital beds and doctors per 100,000 people than the state average. In 1993, the number ofbeds per 100,000 people in the Mackinaw River area were 52% less than statewide, with the majority ofbeds located in two Bloomington-Normal hospitals. The number of hospital beds per 100,000 population has declined 26% since 1975. The Mackinaw River area also has significantly fewer doctors per 100,000 people than has the state. In 1994, there were 115 doctors per 100,000 people, 50% below the state average of 229. There is a large variance within the region: Tazewell and Woodford counties only have 94 and 56 doctors per 100,000 people, and McLean County has 148 doctors for every 100,000 people. 10 Mackinaw River. SlaleI 700 ,------, 600 500 200 100 o 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993 Figure 1-21. Staffed Hospital Beds (per 100,000 People) 1-26 Table 1-18. Number of Staffed Hospital Beds· (per 100,000 people) 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993 McLean 560 551 462 422 298 Tazewell 232 221 232 240 200 Woodford 143 119 107 104 101 Region 364 347 318 307 234 State 631 628 579 507 468 In both the Mackinaw River area and the state, trends in health care availability have been toward more doctors and fewer hospital beds. Figures 1-21 and 1-22 show that since 1975 the number of staffed hospital beds has declined 26% statewide while the number of doctors has increased about 43%. In the Mackinaw River area there are 36% fewer hospital beds and 55% more doctors since 1975. 10 Mackinaw River. StateI 250 -,------., 200 t-----'------' 50 o 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 Figure 1-22. Number ofDoctors Per 100,000 People 6 Data on number of hospital beds is from the lIIinois Hospital & Health Systems Association. 1-27 Table 1-19. Number ofDoctors per 100,000 Population' 1975 1980 1985 1990 1994 McLean 93 115 129 135 148 Tazewell 64 69 93 98 94 Woodford 37 30 58 46 56 Region 74 84 105 109 115 State 160 172 205 225 229 Conclusion The total mortality rate has steadily declined in Illinois and in the Mackinaw River area. Infant mortality and mortality rates for heart disease and stroke have declined in both the Mackinaw River area and the state, while cancer mortality has increased significantly. Mortality rates in the Mackinaw River area have consistently been below the state average (except mortality from stroke). McLean County has the lowest mortality in the area, while Tazewell County has the highest total mortality rate and the highest mortality rate from cancer and stroke. Woodford County has the highest heart disease mortality rate. The percent ofbirths to teenage mothers declined in both the Mackinaw River area and the state, while the percent ofbirths to single mothers rose significantly. With respect to health care availability, the Mackinaw River area is below the state average in staffed hospital beds and number ofdoctors per 100,000 people. 7 Data on number ofdoctors is from the Illinois Department ofProfessional Regnlation. 1-28 The Regional Economy The economy ofthe Mackinaw River area generates 2.4% ofthe state's employment and 2.2% ofits personal income. In 1993, total personal income' in the area was approximately $5.9 billion with 158,168 persons employed. McLean County accounted for 53.2% ofthe area's employment and 46.9% ofthe personal income. Tazewell County's share ofemployment was 39.0% and its share ofpersonal income was 42.3%. Woodford County, the smallest county, had 7.5% ofthe employment and 10.9% ofthe personal income. During the period 1969-1993, the area experienced higher employment growth .than did the state as a whole -- 1.7% average annual growth, compared to 0.9% statewide. In fact, McLean County fared well, with employment up over 70%, from 48,743 to 84,123 workers. Employment in Woodford County grew by 49% to 11,879 workers by 1993. In Tazewell County, however, employment grew more slowly, about 20%, from 51,396 to 62,166 workers. Personal income -- which includes earnings (wages and salaries minus Social Security deductions), dividends, interest payments, rent and transfer payments -- grew at a faster rate than did employment. Growth averaged 2.2% annually in the Mackinaw River area, slightly higher than the 1.7% rate ofgrowth experienced statewide. All the counties saw increases over the period, with Tazewell County growing more slowly than McLean and Woodford counties. '00 " eo '" " '" " " Figure 1-23. Changes in Employment and Personal1ncome 1969-1993 1 Income and earnings discussed in this chapter are reported in 1993 dollars. Source of data: Regional Economic Information System, 1969-1993, United States Department of Commerce, Bureau of Economic Analysis. 1-29 Figure 1-24. Significant Employment Se~tors by Census Tract Significant is Oelined as Greater Than One Standar~ Deviation Above the Mean Percentage lor the 3-County Region .- •• L,,--' •••••• • ~: :~~~f9~: • • ·.'I' ...... • • • • I' • l' • • • ·r~'!. I, o ~ • McLean l , . 'l 1 • - • • • • 'l ~Y' ...... -..--._.~LI,.,...,.;-'.-::.-:.,...1 I' • • • • • • • • .. . ~:l ·• • •I ·.:~ :! !' ... ~---~-r'.,., , r;-; l: r ; ..... :~: • :r~\S'eJl . ' : '~...-- .. . ~ . r' .• .. ! .•• . D No Pnlllominant Seetllr m! Other (see Footnote) N n Wholesale & Retall Tra~e u Agriculture, Fores!JY, & FIsheries ~ SCale 1:520000 ~ Ourable & Non-ourable Manufacturing ~ SelVlce Industrtes 25 o Miles 'Other" inclu~es Public Aaminis1J'a1ion, Construction, TransportatiOn, t CommunicatiOns an~ Other PUblic Utilities. Table 1-20. 1993 Employment and Personal Income Employment % ofstate income McLean 84,123 1.04 Tazewell 62,166 .0.94 Woodford 11,879 0.24 Mackinaw 158,168 2.23 Illinois 6,482,565 100.00 Many workers commute from Woodford County to other counties, as reflected by the positive $217.3 million personal income residence adjustment,2 Workers from other counties travel to McLean and Tazewell counties for employment as reflected by a negative personal income residence adjustment. In total, residents ofthe Mackinaw River area make 1.2% oftheir earnings outside oftheir home county. Table 1-21. 1993 Total Personal Income (in millions) McLean Tazewell Woodford Mackinaw Illinois Sector Earnings 2,255.9 1,900.3 240.6 4,396.8 194,ll2.3 less contributions 154.2 134.6 16.6 305.2 13,509.2 plus residence adjust. -100.9 -66.6 217.3 49.8 -336.2 Adjusted Earnings 2,000.8 1,699.3 441.3 4,141.5 180,266.8 Div., Int., & Rent 412.4 377.8 llO.5 900.6 46,169.9 TransIer Payments 336.9 409.7 88.1 834.7 10,222.8 Total Real Income 2,750.2 2,486.8 639.9 5,876.8 263,636.5 Structural Change in the Economy Over the historical period, the structure ofthe U.S. and Illinois economies changed dramatically. Manufacturing declined in importance, while the service sector grew substantially. In Illinois, manufacturing dropped from 28% ofthe work force in 1969 to 15% in 1993, a 32% decline. Service sector employment, on the other hand, increased 115.4%, from 17% to 28% ofemployed persons. In the Mackinaw River area, manufacturing employment, clearly the major employer in 1969, declined to the fourth largest employment sector by 1993 although it retained its supremacy in earnings. By 1993, manufacturing's share ofemployment in the area had dropped to 16% oftotal employmerit, hillf its share in 1969. Manufacturing earnings, a substantial 42% oftota! earnings in 1969, declined over the period, but still remains the single largest earnings category, representing 30%, or $1.4 billion in 1993. 2 Adjustments are made in earnings to transIer 'place-of-work' income to 'place-of-residence' income. A negative adjustment means that more people commute to the county for work; a positive adjustment means that more people commute out ofthe county. 1-31 Table 1-22. Major Employers, Mackinaw River Area Company' City Map Business Classification SIC Employees Le end McLean County State Farm Mutual Auto Bloomington I Fire, Marine, Casualty Insurance 633 7,547 Insurance Mitsubishi Motor Bloomington 2 Automobile Assembly 371 3,962 Manufacturing Illinois State University Normal 3 Colleges & Universities 822 2,820 Bromenn Healthcare Normal 4 Medical & Surgical Hospital 806 1,400 State Farm Auto Insurance Bloomington 5 Insurance Adjusters 641 1,277 White Consolidated Ind. Bloomington 6 Household Vacuum Cleaners 363 1,200 GTE North, Inc. (Empire Bloomington 7 Local & Long Distance 481 1,200 S1.) Telephone OsfHealthcare System Bloomington 8 Medical & Surgical Hospital 806 900 County ofMcLean Bloomington 9 State & Local Government 911 750 Bromenn Healthcare (Main Bloomington 10 Medical & Surgical Hospital 806 735 S1.) Kathryn Beich, Inc. Bloomington II Fmit Confectionery 206 600 Country Mutual Insurance Bloomington 12 Fire, Marine, Casualty Insurance 633 599 Country Life Insurance Bloomington I3 Life Insurance, nec 631 468 Growmark, Inc. Bloomington 14 Fertilizers 519 450 GTE North, Inc. (Monroe Bloomington 15 Local & Long Distance 481 370 S1.) Telephone Nestle Food Company Bloomington 16 Fruit Confectionery 206 400 General Electric Company Bloomington 17 Motor Controls 362 400 Ill. Wesleyan University Bloomington 18 Colleges & Universities 822 368 US Postal Service Bloomington 19 Postal Service 431 350 BridgestonelFirestone Bloomington 20 Pneumatic Tires 301 350 Nussbaum Trucking Normal 21 Trucking, except local 421 350 Illinois Agricultural Assn. Bloomington 22 Growers' Association 861 344 State Farm Fire & Casualty Bloomington 23 Fire, Marine, Casualty Insurance 633 326 State Farm Life Insurance Bloomington 24 Life Insurance, nec 631 289 Wackenhut Corp. Bloomington 25 Guard Services 738 270 Tazewell County Caterpillar, Inc. East Peoria 26 Crushers, Grinders, etc. 353 5,579 Caterpillar, Inc. Morton 27 Road Construction Eqnipment 508 1,680 Par-A-Dice Gaming Corp. East Peoria 28 Gambling Services 799 1,070 Scrivner oflllinois, Inc. East Peoria 29 Groceries, General Line 514 1,063 Farmers Automobile pekin 30 Life Insurance, nee 631 599 Insurance Association Pekin Memorial Hospital Pekin 31 Medical & Surgical Hospital 806 550 Pekin Insurance Company Pekin 32 Fire, Marine, Casualty Insurance 633 500 Fleming Companies, Inc East Peoria 33 Groceries, General Line 514 500 Commonwealth Edison Pekin 34 'Electric Services 491 354 Hopedale Medical Hopedale 35 Medical & Surgical Hospital 806 300 Foundation ' Nestle Food Company Morton 36 Canned Fruits & Specialties 203 296 Woodford County Dmi, Inc, Goodfield 37 Turf & Grounds Eqnipment 352 365 3 Source: Dun and Bradstreet, Dun's Direct Access Business Database, New York, 1995, 1-32 . Figure 1-25. ~;;c wasnoum "~~Mlnonk Major Employers in the Woodford ,_~')i~' Mackinaw River Area ;ji Location of employers with more than 250 employees, <; . ,;''''I!,:Metamora /p'rRoanoke il ~!i>German(own Hills .,:i',EI Paso Gridley rM'iil.rCfienoa :? "'$',-" " *hinglo -~aiEureJra ~~' McLean "U 'i)j;-,!f.:;~~a;:·;{.~" Goot1tield Lexington '1 ,.]'1' Maroiielle He",~tIJf£,.,;' . ,Lr Irtn Pekm .. ··"·'"f~.' ..,Morton ! ,r;J "11 Hudson 27.'36 .. -, !#r}i :10'" ~ Mit ...: ':~rJremonl:lfl:gJlackiIlilW ". c.. Souln Pekin Tazewell ""c:," $. Hopedale .-li Minier "" .. '$" 3'5 -'C1:i4'. Delavan LeRoy If;i< t\!\> if;> ;;~~1j Heyworth ~' N Scale 1:520000 Source: Dun and Bradstreet, Dun's Direct Access Business Database, New York, 1995, o 25 t Miles 1969 1993 Fanning Other FarmIng OIher 6% ." """""".,>t '" '" MllI'UfaclUnng "" '6% Marufae:turlng 32% ."""" Transport, utllilles, FIRE '6% VIIholesale, Retail Tntde 22% FigJ-Ire 1-26. Employment Distribution in the Mackinaw River Area, 1969 and 1993 Service and wholesale/retail sector employment have taken up the slack in the labor force, constituting 36,623 and 34,078 workers respectively in 1993, or together more than 45% ofthe workforce. The service sector grew 3.3% per year in Illinois, jumping from 17% of employment in 1969 to 29% (1.9 million workers) in 1993, while the service sector in the Mackinaw River area increased 4.1 % per year, and now represents 23% oftotal employment. Wholesale/retail sector employment in the Mackinaw River area grew 2.6% per year to become the second largest employer in 1993. While the service and wholesale/retail sectors represent nearly half ofthe employment in the region, they produce only 29% ofthe earnings. Earnings from the service sector increased from 10% oftotal earnings to 16% ($706.7 million) in the region, while statewide it went from 15% to 27%. Wholesale/retail sector earnings increased over the period and constitute 13% oftotal earnings, or $563 million in 1993. The transport, utilities & FIRE (finance, insurance and real estate) sector maintains a significant presence in the Mackinaw River area. State Farm Insurance and its associated companies, along with GTE North, a telephone company, are large employers, making that sector the third largest in the area with 25,721 workers. In addition, this sector has increased its share oftotal earnings to 21 % or $905.2 million in 1993. Government employment has increased over the period with real earnings in the government sector representing 11% of total earnings. Government sector earnings have increased at an average annual rate of2.3%, to $475.9 million. . Farm employment has been on the decline over the historical period and in 1993 represented 4,845 workers, 28% less than in 1969: As with statewide farm income, Mackinaw River farm income fluctuated from year to year, presumably in response to crop yields and commodity prices. The overall decline in farm income in the Mackinaw River 1-34 1969 1993 Farming Farming Oller GoYemmeflt 2% 7% '" '''' S""~ Manufacturing "" "'" MarufadW1ng.,,, Tran5P0rt. utlUties, FIRE 21% Figure 1-27. Earnings Distribution in the Mackinaw River Area, 1969 and 1993 area was 64.9%, or 4.3% annually in the 24-year period. Using a five-year moving average to smooth the earnings fluctuations also indicates that farm earnings have declined 66.9%, or 5.1% annually. Economic Characteristics by County A look at the employment and earnings ofthe three counties individually reveals some similarities with the state and regional pattern, but also traits unique to each county. The large employers, as listed in Table 1-20, vary considerably across the counties; the largest facilities are insurance companies, medical services, automobile manufacturing, and a university. McLean County In 1993, McLean County had 84,123 workers with combined earnings of$2.3 billion. From 1969-1993, earnings increased 88%, 2.7% annually, compared to the state rate of 1.3%. The largest employer in McLean County, State Farm Insurance, employs more than 9,400 workers in the Bloomington area. State Farm and other insurance companies make the transport, utilities, and.FIRE.sector..very. important, ..especially in terms ofearnings. Since 1969, employment in this sector has grown by 84% to 17,663 workers, while earnings have grown by 153% (3.9% annually) to $686.7 million. Finally, while the farm sector is small relative to the other sectors, McLean County is the largest producer of corn and soybeans and has the largest amount ofland in the state devoted to farming. There were 2,150 farm workers in 1993, a decline of 36.4%, or 1-35 ,------ Table 1-23. 1991 Private Non-Farm Establishments', McLean County Total Agricultural services, forestry, fishing 50 50 o Mining o o o Construction 369 366 3 Manufacturing 111 88 23 Transportation and public utilities 136 118 20 Wholesale Trade 262 252 10 Retail Trade 859 791 68 Finance, insurance & real estate 318 296 22 Services 1,105 1,054 51 Unclassified 31 31 o 1.9% annually. Farm earnings were volatile, mostly due to fluctuating agricultural prices and extreme weather years. Earnings fluctuated from highs ofabout $200 million to losses in the drought year of 1983; in 1993, they were $39 million. A five-year moving average indicates that farm earnings declined 5% per year between 1971 and 1991. Although the county has never been a major industrial center, its manufacturing sector has not declined like it has statewide because, in the late 1980's, Mitsubishi Motors opened a plant that employs nearly 4,000 workers. The other large manufacturer in the county is White Consolidated Industries. Overall, 1993 manufacturing employment of7,590 is virtually the same as in 1969. 25,000 ,------, 20,000 -SelVices 15,000 --Whlsale. Retail __ Trprt. ~i1. FIRE -Govt --Other ..... Manu --Fann o +-t-+-+--+-+--+-+--+-+--+-+--+-+-;--+--+-+-;--+--+-+-;t-+--I 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 Figure 1-28. McLean County Employment, by Sector 'Source: Private non-farm establishment data from 1994 State Profile, Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. 1-36 Table 1-24. McLean County Selected Statistics average 1993 1993 change annual %of Earnings change Em I ent 1969-93 chan e workforce million $ 1969-93 Services 21,433 163.3% 4.1% 25.5% $463.1 148.7% Wholesale 17,891 88.8% 2.7% 21.3% $290.4 72.4% Retail Trans.,utilities, 17,663 84.0% 2.6% 21.0% $686.7 153.0% 3.9% 30.4% FIRE . Government 12,457 47.5% 1.6% 14.8% $296.5 73.3% 2.3% 13.1% Other 4,939 122.6% 3.4% 5.9% $127.4 74.4% 2.3% 5.6% Manufacturing 7,590 1.5% 0.1% 9.0% $352.6 72.1% 2.3% 15.6% Farming 2,150 -36.4% -1.9% 2.6% $39.3 -67.9% -4.6% 1.7% TOTAL 84,123 72.6% 2.3% 100.0% $2,255.9 88.4% 2.7% 100.0% Due to the growing health-care industry, the service sector grew 163% over the period, compared to statewide growth of115.4%. Service earnings grew 149% to $463.1 million in 1993. Tazewell County In 1993 Tazewell County had 62,166 workers with combined earnings of$I,900.3 million. From 1969-1993 earnings increased 19.8%, 0.8% annually, compared to the state rate of 1.3%. 700.000 600,000 500.000 ...... Services 400,000 __WhlsaleIRetail __ Trprt, util .• FIRE ...... Manu. 300,000 § __ Gov1 --Other 200,000 --Fann ot-+-+-+-+-+-+-t--+-+-t-....-,f--I\ct-f1-+-+-+~+-+-+-+-1 1 -100,000 -'- ...J Figure 1-29. McLean County Earnings, by Sector 1-37 Table 1-25. 1991 Private Non-Farm Establishments, Tazewell Connty Total Agricultural services, forestry, fishing 49 49 o Mining 5 5 o Construction 318 306 12 Manufacturing 112 94 18 Transportation and public utilities 151 135 16 Wholesale Trade 193 184 9 Retail Trade 725 683 42 Finance, insurance & real estate 212 208 4 Services 834 813 21 Unclassified 24 24 o Manufacturing remains the largest employer in the county in spite ofthe decline in employees over the period. The two Caterpillar factories in Tazewell County are the largest employers with over 5,500 employees in the East Peoria operation and over 1,600 employees in the Morton plant. Overall, in 1993, there were 16,313 workers in the manufacturing sector, down from 26,520 workers in 1969, a fall of38%. Despite these declines, manufacturing earnings remain 'important to the county with $966.9 million or halfofall earnings from the manufacturing sector. The service sector showed strong gains in employment, to 12,393 workers in 1993, a 168% gain or 4.2% annually. A substantial boost came from the riverboat gambling facility, Par-A-Dice Gaming, which opened several years ago and employs over 1,000 people. Earnings in the transport, utilities, & FIRE sector, ofwhich Farmers' Insurance, Pekin Insurance, and Commonwealth Edison are the largest companies, grew 97% to $195 mil1ion by 1993. Table 1-26. Tazewell Connty Selected Statistics average 1993 average. %of 1993 change annual %of Earnings change annual total Em 10 ent 1969-93 chan e workforce million $ 1969-93 chan e Services 12,393 167.7% 4.2% 19.9% $202.9 137.3% 3.7% Wholesale 13,601 93.3% 2.8% 21.9% $226.3 52.7% 1.8% Retail Trans.,utilities 7,075 80.4% 2.5% 11,4% $195.1 96.6% 2.8% 10.3% FIRE Government 6,193 24.5% ' 0.9% 10.0% $142.8 67.6% 2.2% 7.5% Other 5,172 103.5% 3.0% 8.3% $143.9 46.3% 1.6% 7.6% Manufacturing 16,313 -38.5% -2.0% 26.2% $966.9 -4.5% -0.2% 50.9% Farming 1,419 -19.9% -0.9% 2.3% $22.5 -59.4% -3.7% 1.2% TOTAL 62,166 21.0% 0.8% 100.0% $1,900.3 19.8% 0.8% 100,0% 1-38 30,000 -.------, 25,000 20,000 --Services __ Whlsale, RetaU ___ Trprt, util. FIRE 15,000 __Manu _Govt ___ other 10,000 __ Fann 5'~~~ 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 Figure 1-30, Tazewell County Employment, by Sector Wholesale/retail, the second largest employer, has grown by 93% since 1969 (2.8% annually), somewhat less than the service sector, Two large wholesale grocers, located in East Peoria, are important employers in this sector, The remaining sectors have also . experienced heaithy growth as can be seen from Table 1-26. Meanwhile, farm earnings declined 59.4% over the period to $22.5 million by 1993. Using a five-year moving average yields similar figures. ',600,000 1,400,000 1,200,000 1,000,000 -Services --WhlsaleIRetaU 800,000 --Trprt, util., FIRE § --Manu. 600,000 -Govt ___ Other --Fann 400,000 200,000 0 1 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1 3 -200,000 Figure 1-31. Tazewell County Earnings, by Sector 1-39 3,000 -,------, 2,500 ___ Services 2,000 --Whlsale, Retail __Trprt, util, FIRE __ Manu -GOV\ --other 1,000 -Farm 500 O+--<--+---+-+-+-+--+-t-+-+-+-<--+---+-+-+-+--+-t-+-+--+--l-J 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 Figure 1-32. Woodford County Employment, by County Woodford County In 1993 Woodford County, the smallest county in the Mackinaw River area, had 11,879 workers with combined earnings of $240.6 million. From 1969-1993, the amount of workers increased 48.9% while earnings increased 41.2%, 1.4% annually, slightly above the state rate of 1.3%. Woodford County is home to many commuters who earn income in neighboring counties; it has only 19 establishments with 50 or more workers. In contrast, McLean and Tazewell counties have 197 and 122 such establishments, respectively. Woodford County does maintain small but viable service and wholesale/retail sectors which accounted for 23.5% and 21.8% ofall Woodford County workers in 1993. Table 1-27. 1991 Private Non-Farm Establishments, Woodford County Total ••• [P~·hAA1~~r&~~Wl~~·.·.·.·.i·.························· ..... Agricultural services, forestry, fishing II II o Mining I I o Construction 92 92 o Manufacturing 36 29 7 Transportation and public utilities 42 41 1 Wholesale Trade 47 46 I Retail Trade 151 150 I Finance, insurance & real estate 48 48 o Services 169 160 9 Unclassified 5 5 o 1-40 80,000 70,000 60,000 50,000 --Services __WhlsaleIRetail 40,000 __ Trprt, util.. FIR.E ~ ..... Manu. ~Govt 30,000 -other __ Fann 20,000 10,000 °1 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1 3 -10,000 Figure 1-33. Woodford County Earnings, by County The 'other' sector (agricultural, forestry, and fisheries services; construction, and mining) grew 5.4% annually; the largest growth occurred in the agricultural, forestry, and fisheries services component, which averaged 16% per year. The manufacturing sector grew from 667 workers in 1969, peaked in the late 1970s, and in recent years has recovered its losses and now constitutes about 1,400 workers. The largest employer is a manufacturer ofturf and grounds equipment, Dmi, Inc., employing 365 people. Manufacturing earnings totaled $53.3 million in 1993, an overall gain of 184% since 1969 or 4.5% annual growth. The farm sector has traditionally been very important in this county. In 1969, it was the second largest employer after wholesale/retail trade, but by 1993 had dropped to fifth largest. Table 1-28. Woodford County Selected Statistics average 1993 average. %of 1993 change annual %of Earnings change annual total Em 10 ent 1969-93 chan e workforce million $ 1969-93 chan e Services 2,797 117.2% 3.3% 23.5% $40.7 72.8% 2.3% Wholesale 2,586 43.9% 1.5% 21.8% $46.0 34.0% 1.2% Retail Trans.,utilities, 983 18.9% 0.7% 8.3% $23.5 53.8% 1.8% 9.8% FIRE Government 1,661 8.0% 0.3% 14.0% $36.6 64.9% 2.1% 15.2% Other 1,138 255.6% 5.4% 9.6% $22.9 173.4% 4.3% 9.5% Manufacturing 1,438 115.6% 3.3% 12.1% $53.3 184.8% 4.5% 22.2% Farming 1,276 -17.1% -0.8% 10.7% $17.6 -63.4% -4.1% 7.3% TOTAL 11,879 48.9% 1.7% 100.0% $240.6 41.2% 1.4% 100.0% 1-41 Conclusion The Mackinaw River area supports a diverse economy of services, manufacturing, insurance, higher education and agriculture. Following state and national trends, the service sector grew significantly in the area between 1969 and 1993, while manufacturing declined. Manufacturing, however, continues to be a significant source ofearnings in the three-county region, followed by the combined transportation, utilities and FIRE sector. In terms of employment and earnings, the smallest county in the area is Woodford County, with 8% ofemployment and 5% ofearnings; however, many residents work outside ofthe county. Services and trade provide the most jobs, but farming and manufacturing remain important forces in the local economy. In McLean County, State Farm Insurance and its associated companies dominate the local economy, with services -- in particular health care -- close behind. Two Caterpillar plants keep manufacturing dominant in Tazewell County, but the service and wholesale/retail sectors have grown, partially because of a new gambling facility and two large grocery warehouses. 1-42 'I Agriculture Agriculture is a very important part ofthe economy in the Mackinaw River area. About 86% ofland is farmed in these three counties, compared to more than three-fourths of land statewide. 1 In fact, McLean County, the largest county in Illinois, devotes 79.7% of its land to crops, It has about 680,000 acres devoted to cropland, the largest amount in the state. Although McLean County leads the state in acreage, the amount ofcropland declined slightly, 3%, between 1982 and 1992, while it increased 1% in both Tazewell and Woodford counties, Cropland remained virtually unchanged statewide? During the same time period, the number offarms declined 21 % overall in the three county area. Farms were down 24% in McLean County, 19% in Tazewell County and 17% in Woodford County (Figure 1-36). Figure 1-34. Cropland in Mackinaw River Area 1 Department ofNatural Resources. Illinois Land Cover, An Atlas, June 1996. Agricultural land is defmed as cropland (planted in row crops, small grains orchards, and nurseries) and rural grasslands (fallow fields, pasture, and greenways) and may include a small amount ofnon-farm grasslands. 2 Infonnation taken from Agricultural Statistics, TIlinois Department ofAgriculture, various years. 1-43 Figure 1-35. Agricultural LandcQver III Rural Grass o Row Crops o 25 Miles Source: Land Cover database for Illinois 1991-1995 (/DENR. 1995) t 2,500 01982 1_1992 1 2,000 1,500 1,000 SOO Q McLean Tazewell Woodford Figure 1-36, Number ofFarms Production Crops As in the rest ofthe state, cOIJl and soybeans are the predominant crops in the Mackinaw River area (Table 1-29), especially in McLean County, Production ofboth crops fluctuated between 1983 and 1994 from 44 million bushels to 110 million bushels due to factors such as weather and market prices, McLean County is the largest com producer in Illinois, with a high of 59 million bushels in 1994 (Figure 1-37), Soybean production also fluctuated, ranging from 18 million bushels to 28 million bushels over the historical period, The production levels of all three counties fluctuated in unison; McLean County, the largest producer in Illinois, peaked at 15.4 bushels in 1985 (Figure 1 38), Table 1-29. Acreage Planted in 1994 (in thousands) Mclean Tazewell Woodford Mackinaw illinois Corn 357,9 152,9 141.5 652.3 11,450 Soybeans 308,2 129,0 122,3 559,5 9,530 Wheat 2,0 5.4 2,8 10,2 1,100 Hay 7,9 7,8 7,9 23,6 900 Sorghum 0.0 0,0 0,0 0,0 180 Total 676,0 295,1 274.5 1245,6 23,250 1-45 60000 .------~.,...... , 50000 -liJ-Mclean -+-Tazewell ...... Woodford '0000 0-1--+-_-+-+--+-_-+-+---+---+--+---1 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 Figure 1-37. Corn Production In addition to com and soybeans, area fanners also planted small amounts ofwheat and hay. Tazewell County produced half the wheat in the area, producing 5.4 million bushels in 1994. All three counties produced roughly the same amount of hay, about 7.9 million bushels. Trends in com and soybean yields vary among the three counties (Table 1-30), but overall, yields have been above the state average. In 1994, com yields ranged from 166 bushels per acre in McLean County to 175 bushels per acre in Woodford, quite above the statewide yield of 156 bushels per acre. Soybean yields in the three counties ranged between 49 and 53 bushels per acre, but remained above the statewide yield of 46. As was the experience statewide, the Mackinaw River area suffered yield losses in the drought years of 1983 and 1988. 16000,------, 14000 12000 ..!!!: 10000 j I 8000 ~ 6000 ...... __ . 4000 2000 . 0-1--+--+-+---+---+----<-+--+--+-+---+---1 1983 1985 1987 1989 1991 1993 1995 Figure 1-38. Soybean Production 1-46 Table 1-30. 1994 Selected Crop Yields (bushels per acre) j McLean Tazewell Woodford Mackinaw lllinois Com 166 172 175 171 156 Soybeans 49 49 53 50 46 Sorghum o o o o 99 Wheat 71 62 53 62 56 Hay (tons) 3.27 3.73 2.74 9.74 2.89 Livestock The Mackinaw River area has a relatively large inventory ofhogs but a small inventory of cattle. In 1994, ofthe 5.4 million hogs and pigs in Illinois, 304,300 head were in the Mackinaw River area. The hog and pig inventory declined in McLean County, but increased over the years in Tazewell and Woodford counties. The number ofhogs and pigs peaked in 1991 in all three counties and now stands at 76,900, 112,500 and 113,000 head in McLean, Tazewell and Woodford counties. 140000 I------==;:;::~--l 120000 -.. _-_ . 100000 80000 - .. 60000 - . 40000 -- 20000 o+--+----+-+--+------<--+---+-->---+----+--+---1 1982 1984 1986 1998 1990 1992 '994 Figure 1-39. Hogs and Pigs Inventory In 1994, there were 44,800 head ofcattle in the area, a small fraction (2.3%) ofthe 1.98 million in the state. In fact, the cattle inventory has declined steadily since 1969 from a high level of77,900 for the region. In 1994, McLean County had the largest inventory in the area with 18,500 head. Inventory in Tazewell and Woodford counties was 12,500 and 13,800, respectively, in 1994. 1-47 35000,..------, 25000 . 20000 15000 ...... "'-..... -~:;::::.....==...... ::=: ...... ~ 10000 5000 ..- - . O+--+---+--+--+-->---+--+-t---+---+--+---1 1982 1984 1986 ,... 1990 1992 1994 Figure 1-40. Cattle Inventory Cash Receipts In 1993, total fann cash receipts (the amount received from the sale ofcrops and livestock) for the Mackinaw River area represented 1.3% oflllinois total farm receipts. Because ofits $211 million in crop receipts, McLean County led in the three-county area in receipts. Between 1982 and 1993, farm cash receipts fluctuated slightly due to varying market prices, weather, and acres planted (Table 1-31). In 1993, crop sales accounted for approximately 80% ofcash receipts in the Mackinaw River area, compared to 72% statewide. The area provides about 6% ofthe state's crop receipts. Table 1-31. 1993 Farm Cash Receipts (in thousand dollars) McLean Tazewell Woodford Mackinaw lIlinois Crops $211,783 $81,980 $69,810 $363,573 $5,834,555 -Com 122,754 42,042 35,668 200,464 2,867,544 -Soybeans 85,834 33,301 32,253 151,388 2,301,952 -Wheat 420 909 608 1,937 181,738 -Other 2,774 5,727 1,281 9,782 483,321 Livestock $27,721 $30,066 $32,724 $90,511 $2,247,894 -Cattle 7,440 4,000 6,800 18,240 703989 -Hogs&Pigs 15,769 22,790 21,984 60,543 1,112,479 -Other 3,830 3,276 3,940 11,046 431,426 1-48 350,000 .----;;------~____, 300.000 250,000 ~ ~ 200,000 ---Mclean ..• __ Tazewell __ Woodford ] 150,000 100,000 50,000 .. "::::=::::.. : :",""'.0::::::::.=::"::::::::..:'::=::1. O+---I--!--+--I---+--+--+---+--I--+---I 1982 1984 1986 1986 1990 1992 Figure 1-41. Crop Cash Receipts Area livestock receipts accounted for 4% of the state's total fann receipts in 1993, and 20% ofthe area's receipts, Livestock has remained relatively stable over the historical period in the area. Woodford County led the area in 1993 with $33 million followed by Tazewell, then McLean, (Figure 1-42). 60,000 50,000 40,000 [ .. --Mclean ." 30,000 --Tazewell J __ Woodford 20,000 . 10,000 O+--I---+--I--+--+---+--!---+--+---I---< 1982 1984 1986 1988 1990 1992 Figure 1-42, Livestock Cash Receipts 1-49 Conclusion The Mackinaw River area is a large agricultural area ofthe state. In fact, McLean County, the largest county, has the most amount offarmland in the state and is the largest producer of corn and soybeans in the state. In 1995, McLean County produced 37 million bushels ofcorn, somewhat less than the peak year of 1994 with 59 million bushels and 13 million bushels ofsoybeans. The peak production year in McLean County for soybeans was 1985 with 15.4 million bushels. The area is typically above the state average in yields ofboth corn and soybeans. Tazewell and Woodford counties have increased their hog and pig inventory over the years and now account for over 225,000 hogs and pigs, about 74% ofthe area's hogs and pigs. Inventories ofcattle, on the other hand, have declined since 1982, standing at '44,800 cattle in 1994. Cash receipts for crops and livestock have fluctuated since 1982. In 1993, Mackinaw River area crop cash receipts were $363 million, while livestock cash receipts were $91 million. McLean County is the leader in cash receipts from crops while Woodford County leads in livestock receipts. 1-50 Outdoor Recreation While lacking high-profile outdoor recreation areas, the Mackinaw River area is notable for its high quality streams. The portion ofthe Mackinaw River north and east ofthe Mackinaw River Fish and Wildlife Area and Panther Creek are both designated as "Class A" streams, indicating that they are high-quality habitats for a rich variety of plants and animals, including species which are intolerant of pollution. These streams and surrounding areas, while not well known, offer an array of outdoor activities, from fishing and hunting to canoeing. State-Owned Recreation Sites1 Mackinaw River Fish and Wildlife Area The 1,248 acre Mackinaw River Fish and Wildlife Area is the most significant state operated outdoor recreation site in the Mackinaw River Basin. The site is lightly developed and attracts about 21,250 visitors annually. Hunting is the primary activity; deer, dove, and turkey are primary game. The site also provides the otily public access point on the Mackinaw River, a favored waterway for canoeing. Other activities include trail hiking, trap shooting, and wildlife viewing. Local economic benefits stem from the Department's fiscal spending, as well as from tourism. Natural Areas and Nature Preserves The Mackinaw River Basin contains 13 Natural Areas and Nature Preserves. Collectively, these sites, listed in Table 1-32, represent a diversified topography, with upland forests, blufRop forests, river bottom areas, and lowland forests. Most ofthe sites lie on or near the Mackinaw River. With an emphasis on natural preservation and conservation, these sites are undeveloped and lightly visited. Boating Despite containing otily 2.5% ofIllinois' population, the three counties in the Mackinaw River area accounted for about 3.9% ofthe state's boat registrations. Tazewell County has the most boats in absolute terms and relative to the population. This is largely due to its residents' easy access to boating opportunities on the Illinois River. McLean County has the least boats per capita in the area, though its rate is still above the state average. I Unless otherwise noted, infonnation in this section is from IDNR promotional materials, internal documents, and discussions with IDNR personnel. 1-51 Figure 1-43. Significant Natural Resource Woodford ,- Areas in the Mackinaw ' .. ~ River Basin ~ ____ - , ••• ".--._,0' -" .. , .... ,'" , I ~ ...... I .. •• __ ,--;," ) ',.0 , ,-2. ~ " , 0 1, , .,: - ~ ..~, .. J2J'\ cf '" , , C) I ~...... ~ ~ ... "- " .. Tazewell '. .... , .... ' ,4 • , '" ...... •...... -'." , "-...... ' ... r ..... \ • ., ' , " , MACKINAV IiiiTI ~ Nature Preserves Natural Areas and Biologically Significant Streams N • Scale 1:520000 State Fish and Wildlife Areas o i ••••-. --, o 25 ., , Mackinaw River Basin Miles 1_ .. I t Table 1-32. Natural Areas and Nature Preserves Acres Danvers Geological Area Natural Area 3 Green Valley Site 1,072 Indian Creek Woods Natural Area 30 Log Cabin Hill Prairie Natural Area 6 McCoy Woods Natural Area 47 Mackinaw River Natural Area 2 Mackinaw River Hill Prairie Natural Area 8 MeW's BluffNature Preserve 27 Parkland Site Natural Area 647 Parkland 40 Ridgetop Hill Prairie Natural Area 18 Ridgetop Hill Prairie Nature Preserve 17 Sparks Ponds Natural Area 866 Fishing and Hunting Nearly 24,000 fishing licenses' were sold in the three-county area in 1993, accounting for about 3.6% ofthe state total. In contrast to Illinois as a whole, the area's salesincreased between 1987 and 1993, indicating that the great flood of 1993 did not greatly affect local fishing. Sales to non-residents were fairly low at less than 2% in 1993, compared to just over 6% statewide. The low out-of-state turnout is probably due to the area's central location and the lack ofhigh-profile fishing sites. The Mackinaw River itselfis the primary fishing site in the area, thanks to the biological integrity ofthe stream and its supply ofsmallmouth bass and channel catfish. Panther Creek and Walnut Creek also attract fishing. Lake Bloomington and Evergreen Lake, both north ofBloomington-Normal, offer good to excellent fishing. Lake Bloomington features crappie, walleye, hybrid striped bass, and largemouth bass. Evergreen Lake offers strong bass, catfish, and crappie populations, and is notable for its 10 horsepower limit on motorboats. Table 1-33. Boat Registrations, 1988 and 1994 1988 1994 McLean County 4,142 4,985 Tazewell County. 6,976 8,265 Woodford County 1,438 1,879 Mackinaw River area 12,556 15,129 2 Acreage unavailable 3 Includes combination hunting/fishing, resident, non-resident, and lO-day non-resident fishing licenses. 1-53 Table 1-34. Hunting Aetivity Game Hunters Da s Afield Harvest Deer 61,547 3,308 -Archery 2,1l9 49,006 898 -Long Gun 3,342 12,541 2,410 Pheasant 6,593 41,375 26,416 Rabbit 5,467 32,392 32,406 Squirrel 23,823 31,529 -Fox Squirrel 3,523 20,701 27,134 -Gray Squirrel 820 3,122 4,395 Dove 2,851 14,372 43,146 In 1993, hunters purchased about 12,300 hunting licenses4 in the Mackinaw River area, down from 13,000 in 1990 but above the 1987 level of 11,300. The area's share of statewide license sales ranged from 3.4-3.8% these three years. Out-of-state- hunters accounted for only 1.5% ofhunting license sales in the area, compared to 3.4% statewide. Again, the central location and lack of high-profile hunting areas probably explain why in . state hunters account for nearly all activity. Between 1989 and 1993, deer was the most popular game, based on the estimated 61,500 hunter-days spent deer hunting annually. S While the long-gun season attracts more individual hunters, bow hunters spend almost four times as many days in the field due to the longer archery season. Long gun hunting accounted for about 73% ofthe 3,300 deer harvested. Pheasants attracted more individual hunters than did deer. Area hunters spent about 41,400 days afield and accounted for an estimated 8% ofthe state's annual pheasant harvest. Other popular game include rabbit, squirrel, and dove. While comparable data on waterfowl hunting is unavailable, activity does occur, most notably at the Powerton Reservoir located at the mouth ofthe Mackinaw River. Owned by Commonwealth Edison but managed by IDNR, the reservoir sustains a sizable waterfowl population. In general, however, the area's topography is not conducive to large concentrations ofwaterfowl. 4 Includes combination hunting/fishing, resident, non-resident, and 5-day non resident hunting licenses. 5 Hunting data from IDNR's "Hunter Activity and Wildlife Harvest in Illinois: County Averages for 1989-1993." This report relied on mailed hunter surveys. The authors caution that no adjustments were made to account for known biases inherent to this sampling technique. 1-54 Conclusion State-owned outdoor recreation sites in the Mackinaw River Area reflect the area's impressive topological diversity. Upland forests, lowland forests, river bottom areas, and blufftop forests are all represented. With an emphasis towards natural preservation, none ofthe sites are heavily developed. However, they still offer an array ofoutdoor activities. The Mackinaw River Fish and Wildlife Area, in particular, offers hunting, canoeing, trail hiking, trap shooting, and wildlife viewing. The Mackinaw River itself is the centerpiece ofthe area. Its biological integrity fosters a wide variety of wildlife, and it provides aprime location for fishing and canoeing. Most of the area's natural areas and preserves are clustered along the river. Boating is popular in the area, especially in Tazewell County. Fishing is popular with locals on the Mackinaw River, Lake Bloomington, and Evergreen Lake. Bass, catfish, walleye, and crappie are popular game fish. Deer and pheasant are the most popular hunting game, based on estimated hunter-days in the field. I-55 Transportation Infrastructure A region's transportation infrastructure -- its roadways, airports, waterways, and railways -- enables businesses and residents to move goods and people. Coupled with information regarding demographics and economics, trends in transportation infrastructure and its usage are strong indicators ofthe nature ofa region's development and its suitability for various resource management strategies. Auto Traffic Roads Several major highways cut through the Mackinaw River area connecting Bloomington Normal to the state's other major urban areas. 1-74, running east-west, connects Bloomington-Normal to Peoria and I-55 connects the area to Chicago and to St. Louis. Taking 1-39 due north from Bloomington leads to Rockford, while 1-155 provides a route between Lincoln and Peoria. In total the Mackinaw River is crossed four times by interstates. From 1973 to 1993 the total miles of road in the Mackinaw River area increased 308 miles, to 5,570 miles. The area has about 4% ofthe state's total mileage, and since 1980 the area's annual growth of .22% has been higher than the annual statewide growth of .19%.' Within the area, McLean County had the largest road network in 1993, with 49% of all road-miles. Tazewell County had 30%, and Woodford 20%. McLean and Tazewell had similar annual growth rates from 1973 to 1993 (approximately .3%), adding 163 miles and 104 miles respectively. Woodford County had a comparatively modest rate of .18%, with 40 additional miles ofroad. Table 1-35. Miles of Road 1973 1983 1993 Woodford 1,088 1,101 1,128 McLean 2,581 2,726 2,744 Tazewell 1,594 1,670 1,699 Total 5,262 5,497 5,570 1 Mileage data from Illinois Department of Transportation: Office of Planning and Programming; Illinois Travel Statistics, various years. 1-57 Figure 1-44. " Wlisllbum Major Airports, Roads, Railroads and Rivers Road and rail information from " USGS 1:100,000 digital line graph files. .. ."" Mf:lilmtJTiI ''!~oanoke ,.,~-~ I ,,~'0i: 1" (,1 C!f.'. '. ""'.",t'/f,;.,'-'wa ';~I·'Ti,t:.ureka 'ifF, , --0 , , [-74,.; IlliflOiS §'~'i'--4 '* Minier, ;k; , ~ , , , , 'l';t I .,Heyworth N Interstates N US and State Highways ~ .IV Railroads N Scale 1:520000 IV Major Rivers i ••••• o 25 (f) General Aviation Airports t Miles Vehicle Registration Residents ofthe Mackinaw River counties registered 170,801 passenger cars in 19922 Car registrations have grown by a fairly stable rate of 1.6% annually since 1972, slightly higher than the state average of 1.4%. Annual growth has been highest in McLean County (2.3%) and lowest in Tazewell County (1.1%). McLean and Tazewell counties had the most passenger car registrations in 1992, 78,081 and 75,372, respectively; Woodford County had significantly less, 17,348, reflecting its small population. Motorcycle registrations have been more volatile. Registrations jumped from 5,318 to 11,204 from 1972 to 1982, then declined to 7,801 by 1992. Each Mackinaw River county exhibited this pattern, as did the rest ofIllinois. The rapid growth in the 1970's and early 1980's may have been partially due to high gasoline prices. The subsequent decline is probably due to better fuel efficiency in cars, lower gas prices, changing styles, and an aging population. Registrations for trucks (excluding semis) and buses in the area increased from 27,420 to 58,133 between 1972 and 1992, an annual growth rate of3.8%, slightly above the state average of3.4%. In 1992, over 85% ofthe vehicles in this category were pick-ups, which have been reported separately since 1988. Pick-up trucks are more prevalent in the area than they are statewide; with roughly 3.4 passenger cars registered for each pick-up truck, compared to the statewide car-truck registration ratio of5.3:1. About 24,461 semis and trailers were registered in the three counties in 1992, more than one and a halfthe number for 19723 Like trucks and buses, growth was lower from 1982 to 1992 than it was the previous decade. Of course, semis usually function as long distance haulers; locally-registered semis may spend little time at "home", while out-of town semis routinely drive through. How many miles semis drive locally is difficult to determine from available data. Vehicle-Miles Traveled (VMT) In 1993, the Mackinaw River area accounted for an estimated 2,814 million vehicle-miles traveled (VMT), 3% of the state total. McLean County had the highest, at 1,401 million VMT, followed closely by Tazewell County at 1,045 million, while Woodford County had significantly fewer miles traveled, 368 million. 2 Vehicle registration data from the State of Illinois Office of the Secretary of State; County Statistical Reportfor Motor Vehicle License Units and Transactions Received, various years. • 3 This figure inclndes roughly 3,888 "regional" trucks -- mostly semis -- registered through !DOT's IRP program, where licensees pay prorated fees based on the percentage of miles driven in lllinois. 1-59 3000,------, 2500 2000 ';;;;;:.:o--~==--- . -Region -McLean -- Tazewell --Woodford 1000 ~S···:::···:;···;:;···-c···:'···"'···~···~···~···:::···;::··_·::;··';':;"'","''''''.. - _-. __ ::::-::.. --...:....;_.;w;.:.";'I1=-.-"- 500 ------'.'.' ----- __ ._-_ . o+-t-t--t--t-T-t-t--t--t-t-t--t--t-T-t-t--t--t--;H 1m 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~1 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~1~1 1~ Figure 1-45. Vehicle-Miles Traveled in the Mackinaw River Area, 1973-1993 Since 1973, annual VMT in the area has grown by an average annual rate of 1.48%, compared to a statewide average of 1.95%.4 This growth level has not been constant. Between 1973 and 1980, an era marked by severe oil shortages in 1973 and 1978, the VMT actually declined by 1.2% annually. Clearly drivers adjusted to high gas prices by driving less and it wasn't until 1986 that the regionwide VMT passed 1973 levels. VMT has grown more rapidly than road mileage in the area. This may suggest that roadways are growing more congested, although construction ofI-39 and 1-155 replaced existing two lane state routes, obviously relieving some congestion on those roads. 2.00% r-----;;;;::;;;;;::;::::::::;:;;:;:::;;:=~miill B1YMT Annual GroYoth 1.80% • Road Mila Annual Grovo.th 1.80% 1.40% 1.20% 1.00% 0.80% 0.80% 0.40% 0.20% Woodford McLean Tazewell Region State Figure 1-46. Annual Growth in Road-Miles and Vehicle-Miles Traveled, 1973-1993 4 VMf data from Illinois Travel Statistics. 1-60 v Other Traffic Bus Lines Intercity service in the Mackinaw River area is supported by the Bloomington-Nonnal hub ofGreyhound. This service connects travellers to major Illinois cities in all directions. Air Traffic The area contains one primary airport in Bloomington-Nonnal and one general aviation airport in Pekin. S The number of enplanements at the Bloomington airport, which offers commercial commuter service, grew significantly, from about 12,000 in 1972 to more than 67,000 in 1992. Travelers also use the nearby Peoria airport. Water There is no commercial water traffic on the Mackinaw or in its basin. However, the Mackinaw flows into the Illinois River which supports significant commercial traffic. Rail The Mackinaw River counties have Amtrak passenger rail service at Bloomington on the line that connects St. Louis and Chicago. This line should be supported for the foreseeable future, but budget pressures may continue to dictate a reduction in the number of trips. Two high density freight rail lines (defined as over 5 million tons offreight per mile) run north and south through the western portion ofTazewell County, connecting Peoria to Springfield and Decatur. Two light density lines (less than 5 million tons) located in southern Woodford County travel to Peoria. The lines typically serve agricultural businesses or connect industrial firms in urban areas to the high density freight network6 Conclusion The Mackinaw River area is well-traversed by major highways. Increases in road-miles have leveled off since the early 1980's, while vehicle-miles traveled grew 25% between 1973 and 1993. VMT declined in the 1970's, but began increasing again in the late 1980's, reflecting the increase in population and new interstates traversing the area. In addition to major interstate'travel, the area has·accessto Amtrak rail service, Greyhound bus service, and two airports which provide commercial flights. S See Illinois Department ofTransportation, Division of Aeronautics, Illinois Airport Inventory, 1993. 6 Rail Density data from mOT's Illinois Rail Plan: 1991-92 Update. 1-61 I Property Taxes Property taxes are the major source oftax revenue for local government in Illinois, providing more than 75% oftotal revenue. 1 These taxes finance the majority oflocal government services, including school districts, county, township, and municipality governments, and special districts such as fire, park, sanitary, library, and airport. Property taxes depend primarily on the tax rates and the equalized assessed valuation2 (i.e., tax base) ofproperty in the county. The tax rate is dependent on the amount of revenue sought by the local governments (tax levy), the assessed value ofthe property (tax base), and the legal maximum tax rate. The tax base is based primarily on the assessed values, which are usually reassessed every four years, and the amount of residential, commercial, and industrial expansion. Tax Revenues Property tax revenues in Illinois have increased significantly in the last ten years, after a steady decline during the 1970's and early 1980's. As illustrated in Figure 1-56, property tax revenues declined more than 1% annually from 1971-76 and about .5% a year from 1977-82. However, since then taxes increased more than 3% annually from 1983-88 and over 2% a year from 1989-93. Real property tax revenues collected in Illinois went from more than $9 billion in 1971 to almost $11.5 billion in 1993. Table 1-36. Real Property Tax Revenue (Million 1993$) 1971 1975 1980 1985 1990 1993 McLean 79.13 87.17 82.57 123.70 93.85 104.29 Tazewell 91.46 105.02 86.57 72.04 68.54 74.12 Woodford 22.87 21.78 23.92 19.27 18.52 . 21.98 Region 193.46 213.97 193.06 215.01 180.91 200.39 State 9,283.35 8,616.34 8,149.24 8,450.35 10,673.27 11,496.63 1 All property tax data is from Illinois Department of Revenue, Illinois Property Tax Statistics, various years. 2 Equalized assessed valuations are determined by several factors including: • property is assessed at 33.3% offair market value (except where property is classified); • equalization process is to correct for counties which over- or under assess property; • the amount offarmland in a county, which is assessed on productivity instead of market value. 1-63 r 4,------, 3~------ 2 101971-76 o 1977-a2 o ., 1983-88 .1989-93 ·1 ·2 ·3 ~------1 -4 L- .J McLean Taze'Nell Woodford S"to Figure 1-47. Average Annual Percentage Change'in Property Tax Revenue (using 1993 dollars) In the Mackinaw River area, property taxes have fluctuated around $200 million annually, ranging from $176 -$219 million. Property tax revenues in the area fell during the late 1970's and again in the late 1980's; otherwise, revenues have increased. Property tax revenues in 1993 are only 3.5% above the 1971 level. McLean County has had a considerable increase in property tax revenues, rising 31% since 1971. Property tax revenues have declined in Tazewell and Woodford counties, with Tazewell declining the most at 19%. Property Tax Base The property tax base in Illinois has declined 14% since 1969, though it has rebounded (28% increase) from the low point in 1985. The tax base in the Mackinaw River area has declined 48%. However, the tax base has increased 6% from the low point in 1990. Table 1-37. Real Property Tax Base (Million 1993$) 1969. , 1975 .1980 .1985 1990 1993 McLean 2171.3 1730.9 1646.2 1282.5 1385.5 1406.4 Tazewell 2212.0 2036.2 1547.6 1026.9 835.7 932.4 Woodford 628.3 463.3 491.8 343.1 256.4 289.6 Region 5011.6 4230.4 3685.5 2652.5 2477.6 2628.5 State 167167.8 136664.8 120426.9 112565.0 130952.9 144468.5 1-64 Figure 1-48. -;",'if>:'l , Major Property Tax Districts , , 1(Jj " , , , , , , I I 1 I i', __ Counties, Townships, Municipalities, -I--- +_ 1 --1------"k,'~ ,I ,I , and 1992 Unit School Districts ,~ I _ _ _ I and Codes. l!i ~~l ~* ,1 9 : 8 ..."~ : I I ____ l, . I i : ,,;P~it :, 7 , , , , ---- if- - ~ - ~...,--:-- , 701 , .U,- 'f" , IIV"~' , :702 8 : , , ,,------t' , ------~------+---- I , I , I , "',~ ,¥! : \;q ,I ,fu."" '.' I I , ,.: 16 I , , -----~------+------;~ , , , , , , 1, , , , , , , : ~\~ 2 : '$" I : , : ~* '------11 i1il~l. _ , : 18 , ----7------ ------~------, , , IV Unit School Districts N , " Township Boundaries Scale 1:520000 ~ County Boundaries i ••••• 0 25 t Miles 3 2 0 ·1 f-----j OJ 1969·76 01977-82 ·2 =---1 81983-88 ------1 .,989-93 ..-3 ·5 - ·7 McLean Tazewell Woodford Stale Figure 1-49. Average Annual Percentage Change in Property Tax Base (using 1993 dollars) The largest decline occurred in Tazewell County, where the tax base has declined 58% since 1969. The tax base has also declined in McLean (35%) and Woodford (54%) counties. Figures 1-50 and 1-51 show the make up ofthe tax base in 1981 and 1993 by the different classes ofproperty. In 1993, residential property provided the largest chunk ofthe state's tax base (50%), followed by commercial (28%), industrial (14)%, and farm property (4.3%). This was not much ofa change since 1981 except that farm property dropped from 12.4% to 4.3% ofthe tax base. Because ofthis decline, residential and commercial properties accounted for a higher proportion ofthe tax base in 1993 than in 1981. I[J Residential 0 Farm. Commercial fa Industriall Slale Woodford Tazewell Mclean 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100% Figure 1-50.1981 Property Tax Base by Class ofProperty 1-66 r [mReslclential OFann • Commercial mlndustrial! Slate Woodford Taze'Mltl Mclean 20% 40% 60% 80% 100% Figure 1-51. 1993 Property Tax Base by Class ofProperty Though all three counties receive a majority oftheir tax base from residential property, the make up ofthe tax base varies among the counties ofthe Mackinaw River area because of the different types ofeconomic activity dominating each county. Woodford County, for example, is a rural farm community and subsequently obtains a relatively large proportion ofits tax base from farm property, 33% in 1993. This is down from 46% in 1981. The tax base from residential property has increased from 44% to 56%. The tax base in McLean and Tazewell counties reflects their more urban character, with residential property providing 53% and 65% of the taxes and commercial property 30% and 20%. Since 1981, both counties have had more ofthe tax base from residential and commercial property and less from farm property. The percentage ofthe tax base from industrial property is significantly below the state average for all three counties. Tax Rates Over the past couple ofdecades the average property tax rate has risen in the state and the Mackinaw River area (Figure 1-52). The tax rate is typically expressed in dollars collected per $100 dollars of tax base. Since 1966, the statewide average property tax rate has risen from $4.60 to $8.00 per $100 oftax base -- almost an 80% increase. The tax rate has more than doubled in all three counties ofthe Mackinaw River area, although all three counties have been below the state average since 1966 until Tazewell County topped it in 1992. McLean and Woodford counties have consistently had lower tax rates than Tazewell County since the late 1970's; in 1993 they were 8% and 7%.below Tazewell County. 1-67 1-- McLean --Tazewell --Woodford -- State 1 9.00 .,------, 8.00 II 7.00 Jl 3 '5 6.00 8 & 5.00 4.00 Figure 1-52. Average Property Tax Rate Even within a county, there are differences in the tax rate. In Tazewell County, for example, the average tax rate is $8.161$100 oftax base, while the tax rate in Pekin, a city on the western border ofthe county, has a tax rate of$9.63/$100 (18% above the average county rate). Tax rate increases are directly related to a greater need for revenue andfor a significant decline in the tax base. For example, between 1969 and 1993 the tax base in McLean County declined by almost 35%, while revenue increased 31 %. To raise these additional revenues tax rates more than doubled. Property Tax Distribution In Illinois, property taxes are used to finance a variety oflocal government services, with the majority going to school districts (Figure 1-53). The remainder went to municipal (16%), county (10%), and township governments (3%), and to other services (11%) such as fire, sanitary, park, library, and airport services. In the Mackinaw River area, a great percentage goes to schools, ranging from 64% in McLean Countyto.71% in Woodford.County... McLean County is above the state average in tax distribution to county government, allotting 14% compared to 10% statewide. Woodford County distributes 9% to township governments, significantly above the state average of3%. All three counties are also significantly below the 12% state average of taxes distributed to other government services. Overall, the distribution of property taxes in state and the Mackinaw River area has not changed much since 1980. 1-68 I Conclusion Property tax revenues have increased significantly in the Mackinaw River area and the state. A 31% increase in revenues in McLean County accounts for the overall rise in revenues in the area. Tazewell and Woodford, have had moderately declining tax revenues. Property taxes are determined by the tax base and the tax rate. Overall, the tax base has declined and the tax rates have risen in the Mackinaw River area and the state. The tax base declined 48% in the Mackinaw River area while the tax rates have more than doubled. For the state, the majority ofthe tax base is from residential property. This trend holds true for the Mackinaw River area. Woodford County also obtains a large percentage ofits tax base from farm property (33%) and McLean County receives 30% from commercial property. For both the Mackinaw River area and the state, a majority of property tax revenues (ranging from 64%-71%) go to school districts. McLean Tazewell TO'M'lship TClWI'lship 4" ""'001 ""'001 5" 65" .." eo'my County 6% 14" Woodford State Other 12% Tov.nship Town&hip ... '" County Count)'... 10% C", ""'001 5" 56% Figure 1-53:1993 Property Tax Distribution) 3 The property tax distributions are based on total property taxes extended, which is the dollar amount of taxes billed to property taxes extended. This is different from the amount collected due to charges against collections such as protest, delinquencies, certificates oferror and other changes. The amount collected is typically more than 97% of the amount oftaxes extended. 1-69 ------ References Demographics Bureau ofEconomic and Business Research. 1990 and 1993. Illinois Statistical Abstract. Champaign, IL. University ofIllinois at Urbana-Champaign. lllinois Secretary of State. 1993. lliinois Counties & Incorporated Municipalities. Springfield, IL. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation Service. 1982, 1987 and 1992. National Resources Inventory. U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau ofthe Census. 1970 Census ofPopulation. General Social and Economic Characteristics: illinois. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau ofthe Census. 1970 Census ofHousing. Volume 1. Housing Characteristics for State, Cities, and Counties. Part 15: Illinois. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau ofthe Census. 1970 and 1980. Census of Population. General Population Characteristics: lllinois. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau ofthe Census. 1980 Census ofPopulation and Housing. Summary Characteristics for Governmental Units and Standard Metropolitan Statistical Areas: Illinois. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau ofthe Census. 1990 Census ofPopulation and Housing. Summary Population and Housing Characteristics. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Department ofCommerce, Bureau ofthe Census. 1990 Census ofPopulation and Housing. Summary Social, Economic, and Housing Characteristics. Illinois. Washington, D.C. U.S. Government Printing Office. Woods & Poole Economics, Inc. 1994 State Profile: TIlinois. Washington, D. C. Health Trends lllinois Department ofPublic Health. 1960-1970, 1975, 1985, 1990. Vital Statistics Illinois. Springfield, IL. Illinois Department ofPublic Health. 1991-1994. Vital Statistician. Springfield, IL. The Regional Economy United States Department ofCommerce, Bureau ofEconornic Analysis. 1995. Regional Economic Information System, 1969-1993. Washington, D.C. Agriculture TIlinois Department ofAgriculture. 1994. Agricultural Statistics. Springfield, IL. 1-71 Outdoor Recreation Anderson, W.L., L.K. Campbell, and D.M. Witzany. 1995. Hunter activity and wildlife harvest in lllinois: county averages for 1989-1993. Federal Aid Projects W-99-R and W-112-R. Springfield, ll... Illinois Department of Conservation. Transportation Infrastructure Illinois Department ofTransportation, Office ofPlanning and Programming. 1973-1993. Illinois Travel Statistics. Springfield, ll... lllinois Department ofTransportation. 1995. Illinois Airport Inventory Report 1995. Springfield, ll... Illinois Department ofTransportation. 1992. Illinois Rail Plan: 1991-1992 Update. Springfield, ll... Illinois Secretary of State. 1970-1992. County Statistical Report for Motor Vehicle License Units and Transactions Received. Springfield, ll... Property Taxes Illinois Department ofRevenue. 1966-1993. Illinois Property Tax Statistics. Springfield, Illinois. 1-72 ------PART II ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY Contributors1 Project Coordinators Nani Bhowmik, John Marlin Maps Brett Ward, Robert Sinclair, George F. Krumins Editor (Air and Water Quality) Sarah Hibbeler Air Quality Donald Gatz Water Quality Brett Ward Hazardous and Toxic Waste Generation and Management.. George F. Krumins I Contributor Affiliations: John Marlin and George F. Krumins, Illinois Waste Management and Research Center; all other contributors, Illinois State Water Survey. 2-iii Table of Contents Air Quality 2-1 Air Pollutant Concentrations 2-1 Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory 2-3 Visibility : 2-4 Atmospheric Wet Deposition 2-4 Water Quality 2-7 Overall Use Support 2-7 Rivers and Streams 2-9 Lakes 2-9 Sources of Impairment 2-9 Rivers and Streams 2-12 Lakes 2-12 Trends 2-12 Rivers and Streams 2-12 Lakes 2-13 Targeted Watershed Approach 2-14 Hazardous and Toxic Waste Generation and Management 2-17 Background 2-17 Assessment ofSites in the Region 2-18 Historical Hazards 2-18 Surface Impoundments 2-20 Superfund Sites 2-22 Landfills 2-23 TRI Sites 2-25 References 2-33 Appendix A-I List of Figures Water Quality Figure 2-1. Mackinaw River Basin 2-8 Figure 2-2. Overall Use Support for Streams in the Mackinaw River Basin 2-10 Figure 2-3. Overall Use Support for Lakes in the Mackinaw River Basin 2-11 Hazardous and Toxic Waste Generation and Management Figure 2-4. Mackinaw Watershed Landfills, Superfund, TRI Sites, Towns in Historical Hazards Database and Surface Impoundments 2-19 2-v List of Tables Air Quality Table 2-1. Air Quality Site Directory for the Mackinaw River Basin 2-1 Table 2-2. Daily Maximum I-hour Mean Ozone Concentrations, April-October 2-2 Table 2-3. Concentrations of Particulate Matter Less Than 10-11m Diameter.. 2-2 Table 2-4. Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations 2-3 Table 2-5. Estimated Stationary Point Source Emissions in the Vicinity of the Mackinaw River Basin 2-3 Table 2-6. Concentrations and Deposition of Major Ions in Precipitation at Bondville 2-5 Water Quality Table 2-7. Overall Use Support for Rivers and Streams 2-9 Table 2-8. Overall Use Support for Lakes 2-9 Table 2-9. Sources of River and Stream Impairment 2-12 Table 2-10. Sources of Lake Impairment... 2-12 Table 2-11. Water Quality Trends in the Mackinaw River. 2-13 Table 2-12. Water Quality Trends for Lakes 2-13 Table 2-13. Prioritization of Targeted Watersheds 2-14 Table 2-14. Mackinaw River Basin Watersheds 2-15 Hazardous and Toxic Waste Generation and Management Table 2-15. Towns in Historical Hazards Database, Mackinaw Watershed 2-20 Table 2-16. Surface Impoundments in the Mackinaw Watershed 2-21 Table 2-17. Superfund Sites within the Mackinaw Watershed 2-23 Table 2-18. Landfills in the Mackinaw Watershed 2-24 Table 2-19. TRI Companies in the Mackinaw Watershed 2-26 Table 2-20. Total Air Releases for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed 2-27 Table 2-21. Total Fugitive Air Releases for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed 2-28 Table 2-22. Total Stack Air Releases for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed 2-29 Table 2-23. Recycling Recovery Transfers for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed 2-29 Table 2-24. Total Transfers to Treatment Facilities for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed 2-30 Table 2-25. Total Transfers to Energy Recovery Facilities for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed 2-30 Table 2-26. Total Transfers to Disposal Facilities for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed 2-31 2-vi Air Quality Air Pollutant Concentrations The Mackinaw River basin straddles the border between the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (USEPA's) Burlington-Keokuk Interstate (IA-IL), Air Quality Control Region (AQCR) 65, and the East Centrallllinois Intrastate, AQCR 66. Unfortunately, however, no USEPA air quality measurement stations are located within the borders of the Mackinaw River basin. The nearest stations are west of the basin in East Peoria and Pekin (AQCR 65) and to the southeast in Champaign (AQCR 66). Air quality data for 1991-1995 from these stations are summarized in Tables 2-1-2-5. Table 2-1 lists the selected air quality measurement locations, their Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) coordinates, and the criteria pollutants measured at each (lllinois Environmental Protection Agency, /EPA, 1996). Criteria pollutants are those for which federal air quality standards have been set. Published annual reports from the IEPA (1992-1996) indicate that ozone (03) data are available at one site, particulate matter with aerodynamic particle diameters smaller than 10 micrometers (PMIQ) at two, and sulfur dioxide (502) at two..Neither carbon monoxide (CO) nor nitrogen dioxide (N02) was measured at any of these stations. Table 2-1. Air Quality Site Directory for the Mackinaw River Basin (Selected sampling sites from USEPA Air Quality Control Regions 65 and 66) City name UTM (AIRS code) Address coordinates (km) Equipment AQCR 65, Burlington-Keokuk Interstate (IA.IL) TazeweU County East Peoria East Peoria Medical Center N. 4504.500 PM 10 (1790002) 235 E. Washington E. 282.200 Pekin Fire Station No.3 N. 4492.693 SO, (1790004) 272 Derby E. 275.291 AQCR 66, East Central D1inois Intrastate Champaign County Champaign Booker T. Washington Elementary N. 4442.017 0 3, SO, (0190004) 606 E. Grove E. 395.248 Champaign Post Office N. 4441.819 PM IO (0190005) 600 N. Neil E. 394.066 2-1 Air quality standards are written to protect human health (primary standards) and welfare (secondary standards). Because health and ecological effects vary according to the nature of the pollutant, standards also vary in terms of averaging times and the metric (maximum or mean) of the measurement. For example, the ozone standard is written in terms of the maximum daily I-hour average concentration, while the particulate matter standard is written in terms of the maximum 24-hour average and the annual mean concentrations. Table 2-2 gives ozone data for Champaign, llIinois. Note that ozone was only measured between April and October (the ozone season) of each year. The values listed are the highest I-hour mean concentrations each year. The values are in the range of 0.081 to 0.104 parts per million (ppm), and none exceeded the standard for ozone. Table 2-2. Daily Maximum l-hour Mean Ozone Concentrations, April-October (in parts per million. ppm) Station 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Champaign-Washington Elementary 0.086 0.094 0.081 0.096 0.104 Note: There were no observed exceedences of the primary standard of 0.12 ppm at any station. Table 2-3 lists PMlO data. The highest annual maximum 24-hour mean concentration observed was 75 micrograms per cubic meter (llglm3) at the Champaign Post Office site in 1992, and the lowest was 49 Ilg/m3 at the East Peoria site in 1993. During 1995, the most recent year for which data are available, the highest 24-hour mean PMIQ 3 concentrations at these two sites were identical--53 /lglm . Annual mean PMlO 3 concentrations ranged from 22 /lg/m at the Champaign site in 1993 and 1995 to 31 Ilg/m3 at both sites in 1992. Neither site exceeded the standards for particulate matter. Table 2-3. Concentrations of Particulate Matter Less Than lO-/lffi Diameter (in micrograms per cubic meter. llg/m') Station 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 East Peoria-E. Peoria Medical Center Max. 24-hour mean 61 59 49 68 53 Annual mean 28 31 23 26 23 Champaign-Post Office Max. 24-hour mean 70 75 51 53 53 Annual mean 30 31 22 25 22 Note: There were no observed exceedences of the annual mean primary standard of 50 Ilglm' or the 24-hour primary standard of 150 Ilglm' at either station. Table 2-4 shows 502 data, including maximum observed 3-hour, 24-hour, and annual mean concentrations. Note that 502 concentrations were considerably higher at Pekin than Champaign, with values at Pekin exceeding Champaign values in every averaging time in each year shown. 2-2 Table 2.4. Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations (in parts per million. ppm) Station 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 Pekin-Fire Station No.3 Max. 3-hr mean 0.252 0.308 0.226 0.284 0.384 Max. 24-hr mean 0.119 0.073 0.118 0.186 0.146 Annual mean 0.007 0.007 0.006 0.007 0.008 Champaign-Washington Elementary Max. 3-hr mean 0.181 0.050 0.037 0.118 0.035 Max. 24-hr mean 0.070 0.023 0.022 0.042 0.013 Annual mean 0.005 0.003 * 0.004 0.003 Note: An asterisk (*) indicates that data did not meet the minimum statistical selection criteria. There were no observed exceedences of the annual mean primary standard of 0.03 ppm or 3-hour secondary standard of 0.5 ppm. Bold values exceeded the 24-hourprimary standard of 0.14 ppm. The maximum 3-hour mean concentrations ranged from 0.035 ppm at the Champaign Washington School site in 1995 to 0.384 ppm at the Pekin Fire Station site in 1995. Maximum 24-hour concentrations ranged from 0.013 ppm at Champaign in 1995 to 0.186 ppm at Pekin in 1994. Note that this value and the 0.146 ppm at Pekin in 1995 both exceeded the primary standard of 0.14 ppm for the 24-hour mean. Annual mean concentrations ranged from 0.003 ppm at Champaign in 1992 and 1995 to 0.008 ppm at the Pekin site in 1995. Neither site exceeded the primary or secondary standards for 3 hour mean or annual mean S02. Air Pollutant Emissions Inventory Table 2-5 presents estimated 1995 annual emissions of five criteria pollutants for the three counties that make up most of the Mackinaw River basin. The estimated emissions are for stationary point sources only; they do not include emissions from mobile or area sources. The table also shows the percentage of each pollutant's three-county total attributable to each county in 1995. Table 2·S. Estimated Stationary Point Source Emissions in the Vicinity of the Mackinaw River Basin (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 1996) Particulate Sulfur Nitrogen Volatile organic Carbon matter dioxide oxides material monoxide Coun TI r % TI r % TI r % TI r % TI r % McLean Tazewell Woodford 2-3 Tazewell County accounted for virtually all of the sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxide, and carbon monoxide emissions, as well as most of the particulate matter emissions. McLean County contributed most of the emissions of volatile organic materials. Emissions from Woodford County were minimal; their largest contribution to the three-county totals was 7% of particulate matter. Visibility Despite the simultaneous influence of atmospheric humidity, visibility can serve as an index of the concentration of airborne fine particles, ammonium sulfate in particular. The poorer the visibility, the higher the concentration of fine particles. A report of the National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP, 1990) reviewed spatial and temporal variations in visibility in the United States. A map of spatial variations of visibility during the mid-1970s shows that central lllinois had some of the poorest median midday airport visibility in the contiguous United States--about 10-11 miles. This contrasts with values of 20-45 miles in the Great Plains and values greater than 50 miles over most of the mountainous western United States. The NAPAP (1990) report also documents seasonal and long-term temporal trends. In 1950, visibility in central Illinois was worse in the first calendar quarter (roughly during winter) than during the rest of the year. By 1980, however, the situation had changed significantly: winter visibility stayed roughly constant, but spring, fall, and especially summer visibility had decreased substantially in central lllinois and most of the eastern United States. These trends coincide with increased use of electric power for summer air conditioning and the trend at that time toward construction of tall stacks for dispersion of power plant plumes. In addition, the NAPAP (1990) report documents the high correlation between sulfur emissions and haziness in the northeastern United States, and the trend toward decreasing sulfur emissions in the region since the 1970s. In view of the further reductions in sulfur emissions mandated by the 1990 Clean Air Act amendments, airborne fine sulfate concentrations should continue to trend downward, and this should translate into increased visibility in central lllinois in the future. Atmospheric Wet Deposition Deposition of materials in precipitation (Le., wet deposition) has been measured routinely by the National Acid Deposition ProgramlNational Trends Network (NADPINTN) at eight locations in Illinois. The location nearest the Mackinaw River basin is at Bondville (NADPINTN site IL-ll), near Champaign. Table 2-6 gives the precipitation amount, measured major ion depositions, and weighted mean concentrations at this site for 1993 and 1994. 2-4 About 101 centimeters (cm) of precipitation was recorded in 1993, about 20% more than the 80 cm measured in 1994. Concentrations of some individual ions were higher in 1994, as might have been expected from the usual inverse relationship between concentration and precipitation amount, but others were higher in 1993. Deposition fluxes of all ions were higher in 1993, because of the greater precipitation that year. Table 2-6. Concentrations and Deposition of Major Ions in Precipitation at Bondville (Data source: National Atmospheric Deposition Program, 1995-1996) pH Precip Ca Mg K Na NI4 NO, CI S04 H (lab) (lab) (em) Concentration, in ml!!L 1993 0.17 0.025 0.019 0.086 0.39 1.70 0.15 2.66 0.0498 4.30 101.0 1994 0.19 0.026 0.023 0.069 0.44 1.50 0.13 2.26 0.0359 4.45 80.3 2-yr precip. wtd. mean 0.18 0.025 0.021 0.078 0.41 1.61 0.14 2.48 0.0436 4.36 90.7 Deposition, in kglha 1993 1.72 0.252 0.192 0.868 3.91 17.11 1.54 26.89 0.503 -- 101.0 1994 1.55 0.209 0.185 0.554 3.52 12.DI 1.05 18.12 0.288 -- 80.3 2-yr. mean deposition 1.64 0.231 0.189 0.711 3.72 14.56 1.30 22.51 0.396 -- 90.7 2-5 Water Quality Water quality can be examined and reported using several different methods. For instance, it can be described according to the lllinois Environmental Protection Agency's (!EPA's) overall use attainment or overall use support, as discussed in the Illinois Water Quality Report, 1992-1993 (!EPA, 1994). Other approaches to assessing water quality include examining trends in water quality and the !EPA's Targeted Watershed Approach (TWA) program. This chapter describes the water quality of rivers and streams, lakes, and watersheds in the Mackinaw River basin. Figure 2-1 gives a general picture of all these features. Overall Use Support Overall use support is assessed in the Illinois Water Quality Report (!EPA, 1994) and refers to the classification of waters according to designated use. The lllinois Pollution Control Board established four designated uses for lllinois' waters: General Use, Public and Food Processing Water Supplies, Lake Michigan, and Secondary Contact and Indigenous Aquatic Life Use. Following are the five categories of overall use support: • Full Support - The water quality meets the needs of all designated uses protected by applicable water quality standards. • Full Threatened - The water quality is presently adequate to maintain designated uses, but if a declining trend continues, only partial support may be attained in the future. • Partial SupportlMinor Impairment (Partial Minor) - The water quality has been impaired, but only to a minor degree. There may be minor exceedences in applicable water quality standards or criteria for assessing the designated use attainment. • Partial SupportlModerate Impairment (Partial Moderate) - Water quality conditions are impaired to a greater degree, inhibiting the waterbody from meeting all the needs for that designated use. • Non-Support - The water quality is severely impaired and not capable of supporting the designated use to any degree. 2-7 Figure 2-1. Mackinaw River Basin Walnut Creek I "! "i '" Mackinaw River Money Creek little Mackinaw River Crooked Creek Basin Boundary Hickory Grove Ditch N ••,'". Watershed Boundary N Rivers and Streams II Lakes Rivers and Streams The basin has a total of about 1,410 river miles (measured at a 1: 100,000 scale). Of these, approximately 294 miles (20.8%) have been assessed by the IEPA. Table 2-7 shows the overall use support for rivers and streams in the Mackinaw River basin. Table 2-7. Overall Use Support for Rivers and Streams (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency) Percent of Overall use su ort River miles assessed miles Full Support 227.49 77.42 Partial Minor 46.35 15.78 Partial Moderate 20.00 6.80 Figure 2-2 depicts the overall use support for rivers and streams in the basin. Lakes There are 100 lakes in the Mackinaw River basin (I: 100,000 scale), with a total surface area of 1883.7 acres. The average lake surface area is 18.8 acres, with the largest being 700.0 acres and the smallest 1.6 acres. Of the 100 lakes in the area, four were assessed in the Illinois Water Quality Report. 1992-1993. Table 2-8 gives the name, surface area, and type of overall use support for each lake. Table 2-8. Overall Use Support for Lakes (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency) Surface area. Lake name in aCres Overall use SU ort Bloomington 635.0 Partial Minor Eureka 30.0 Partial Minor Evergreen 700.0 Full Threatened Windermere 13.0 Partial Minor Figure 2-3 depicts the overall use support for the four assessed lakes in the basin. Sources of Impairment Once the overall use support of an area has been determined, any sources of impairment must be found before the water quality can be improved. Impairment sources are identified only for waterbodies with less than full support in the Mackinaw River basin. 2-9 Figure 2-2. Overall Use Support for Streams in the Mackinaw River Basin (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency) I ,I "I •• At Basin Boundary ~ Full Support N Full Threatened N Partial Minor N Partial Moderate N Non-Support Figure 2-3. Overall Use Support for Lakes in the Mackinaw River Basin (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency) I II IS I I '"' 'If Eureka Lake 'If Lake Bloomington Evergreen Lake ... AI Basin Boundary Full Support ... • Full Threatened T Partial Minor Partial Moderate •• Non-Support Rivers and Streams Table 2-9 shows the sources of impairment for the rivers and streams in the Mackinaw River basin. In addition, the table shows the magnitude of impairment for each source: high (H), moderate (M), slight (S), or none (N). Table 2-9. Sources of River and Stream Impairment (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency) Name (station code) - assessed miles Munici A riculture H dromodification Mackinaw River (DK01) - 4.8 N s s Mackinaw River (DKI2) - 22.1 N s s Indian Creek (DKDOI) - 7.2 M s S Prairie Creek (DKF11) - 16.3 M S N Mud Creek (DKGOI) - 14.0 N H N *Note: The municipal field is for point source impairment. The remaining fields are for nonpoint source impairment. Lakes Table 2-10 shows the sources of impairment for the four assessed lakes in the Mackinaw River basin. In addition, the table shows the magnitude of impairment for each source: high (H), moderate (M), slight (5), or none (N). Table 2·10. Sources of Lake Impairment (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency) Urban Lake name Munici A riculture runoff H dromodification Bloomington S M S S M Eureka N H N N S Evergreen N H N N M Windermere N M N M N *Note: The municipal field is for point source impairment. The remaining fields are for nonpoint source impairment. Trends Rivers and Streams Another way to examine water quality is through trends. The IEPA analyzes rivers and streams using the Seasonal Kendall trend analysis on selected ambient stream assessment stations throughout the state. Following are some of the objectives behind the trend analysis presented in the Illinois Water Quality Report (IEPA, 1994): 2-12 • Evaluate the water quality impact from a point source discharge and the need for additional wastewater treatment controls. • Characterize the existing and potential aquatic resource of the receiving stream. • Detennine whether there is a significant biological impact on the receiving stream. • Identify a recommended stream monitoring site for National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) monitoring requirements to determine compliance with water quality standards. • Identify additional data needs if information is not adequate to achieved the above objectives. Table 2-11 shows the trend associated with each parameter used in the Seasonal Kendall trend analysis. The analysis was performed at station DKI2, which is located on the Mackinaw River near Pekin. Table 2-11. Water Quality Trends in the Mackinaw River (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency) Parameter Trend Water Temperature None Detected Specific Conductance Upward Dissolved Oxygen None Detected pH None Detected Chemical Oxygen Demand None Detected Total Suspended Solids None Detected Total Ammonia Nitrogen Downward Nitrate + Nitrite Nitrogen Upward Total Phosphorus None Detected Boron None Detected Stream Flow None Detected Lakes As with rivers and streams, the water quality of lakes can be examined in terms of trends. According to the !EPA (1994), "lake waterbodies with three or four years of calculated trophic state index (TSI) values were reviewed for trends using a linear regression, nonstatistical analysis." Not all lakes are examined for water quality trends. Table 2-12 shows the trends for the four assessed lakes in the Mackinaw River basin. Table 2-12. Water Quality Trends for Lakes (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency) Lake name Trend Bloomington Stable Eureka Improving Evergreen Fluctuating Windermere No trend assessment 2-13 Targeted Watershed Approach Water quality conditions can also be examined from a watershed perspective. The IEPA' s watershed monitoring program is called the Targeted Watershed Approach. Following is an excerpt from GIS Technology Support for the Targeted Watershed Approach by Sinclair et al. (1996). "The Targeted Watershed Approach (TWA) was developed to establish a framework for prioritizing Bureau ofWater program activities with targeted watersheds ..." "The TWA was conceived and developed primarily to facilitate water quality management planning. Objectives for the utilization of this approach are: • Identify watersheds with the most critical water quality problems and direct programs and resources to the solution of those problems. • Direct programs and resources to those watersheds considered to have the highest potential for improvement based on the State's Biological Stream Characterization (BSe) process, and other factors. • Protect existing high-quality water resources considered to be threatened (i.e., those waters displaying declining water quality trends but still fully supporting overall use attainment). • Integrate point and nonpoint source programs activities." The TWA has three watershed priority categories: point source predominated, combination point/nonpoint source predominated, and nonpoint source predominated. Table 2-13 breaks down the four categories of prioritization in the TWA. Table 2-13. Prioritization of Targeted Watersheds (Source: Sinclair et a1. 1996) Cate 0 * Oescri tion Priority 1 - Waters identified in section 303(d) of the Clean Water Act Threatened waters Surface water intakes that currently have Safe Drinking Water Act (SOWA) MCL violations Ground-water (GW) sources with SOWA monitoring detections over the GW.quality standards for Atrazine Ambient GW monitoring network Nitrate detections over the GW uali standards Priority 2 Watersheds with high potential for improvement Surface water intakes with previous (SOWA) MCL violations GW sources with SOWA monitoring detections below GW quality standards for Atrazine and Alachlor Ambient GW monitoring network Nitrate detections of 3-10 ppm 2-14 Table 2-13. Concluded Cate 0 " Descri tion Priorit 3 - Watersheds with lower otential for im rovement Priority 4 - Watersheds with suspected nonpoint source impacts as assessed and identified in the Clean Water Act 305(b) report "Note: Priorities 1-3 include point source predominated, combination point/nonpoint source, and nonpoint source only. Priority 4 is nonpoint source only. There are 15 watersheds in the Mackinaw River basin. Watershed name, identifier (corresponding to the Waterbody Identifier in the Illinois Water Quality Report), acres, square miles, and percent of basin are shown in Table 2-14. Table 2·14. Mackinaw River Basin Watersheds (Source: Illinois Environmental Protection Agency) Watershed Square Percent Watershed name identifier Acres miles of basin Panther Creek ILDKK01 61,616.24 96.28 8.46 West Panther Creek ILDKKBOI 37,630.12 58.80 5.17 Walnut Creek ILDKJOI 46,090.51 72.02 6.33 East Panther Creek lLDKKC02 24,379.26 38.09 3.35 Mackinaw River ILDK17 221,133.65 345.52 30.36 Mud Creek ILDKG01 29,799.92 46.56 4.09 Mackinaw River lLDK13 62,119.91 97.06 8.53 Money Creek ILDKP02 44,283.84 69.19 6.08 Henline Creek ILDKV01 25,950.82 40.55 3.56 Prairie Creek ILDKFll 14,735.43 23.02 2.02 Mackinaw River ILDK12 77,647.33 121.32 10.66 Crooked Creek ILDKTOI 18,760.08 29.31 2.58 Little Mackinaw River ILDKE01 32,921.05 51.44 4.52 Hickory Grove Ditch ILDKB01 20,876.85 32.62 2.87 Creek ILDKD01 16.41 1.44 All the watersheds in the Mackinaw River basin are Priority 2, nonpoint source predominated targeted watersheds. 2-15 Hazardous and Toxic Waste Generation and Management This section of the Watershed Assessment examines the historical and current location of sites in the Mackinaw River basin that may contain environmental contaminants, and manufacturing facilities that may emit pollutants. The environmental fate of pollutants is also examined. The aim of the report is to help major stakeholders develop goals and strategies for the use and protection of natural resources in watersheds where Ecosystems Partnerships have been formed. The reader is encouraged to review The Changing Illinois Environment: Critical Trends, Volume 5 (ENR, 1994), which provides in-depth background information about waste generation and management with respect to trends in Illinois' environmental and ecological conditions that may help determine an effective and economical environmental policy for Illinois. Background Toxic waste is literally poisonous waste. This refers to chemicals or compounds that can harm the environment, and the lifeforrns that inhabit it, including humans. Hazardous waste is the most general class, and includes toxies and other chemicals which may be flammable, explosive, radioactive, etc. For more than two centuries the Industrial Revolution that brought prosperity to many has also taken its toll on the Earth's environment and lifeforms. The very industries that provide economic well-being may cause pollution and adversely affect public health. This basic dilemma was not addressed in any comprehensive way in the United States until the 1970s, when a major pieee of legislation, the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), was enacted. "In 1976, Congress enacted the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA) to protect human health and the environment from the improper management of solid and hazardous waste. RCRA attempts to control most chemical hazardous wastes generated in this country through a manifest and recordkeeping system which tracks the movements of hazardous waste from generation to final disposal. The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is charged with the responsibility of putting into effect this federal hazardous waste management program which places upon the original 2-17 generator primary accountability for environmentally sound disposition of the waste" (American Chemical Society, 1987). RCRA started the evolution of modem federal environmental law in the U. S. A benefit, probably unforseen at the time, was that environmental data collected for the government's use became, for the first time, available to the general public. Fortuitously, this also corresponded to the personal computer revolution, so that now the average person has the means to manipulate, analyze and share important environmental information gleaned from extensive databases. The report draws upon the following environmental databases as resource material: • Historical Hazards (HH) • Surface Impoundment Inventory (SIT) • Landfills Database • Superfund • Toxies Release Inventory (TRI) See the Appendix for a detailed discussion of each of these databases and a list of contacts for further information. Assessment of Sites in the Region Specific potential sources of waste generation and disposal in the Mackinaw watershed are discussed below. l See the map, Figure 2-4, for geographic locations of these sites. Historical Hazards It is estimated that"Approximately 90% of hazardous waste disposal since the 1800s has been unregulated" (Collen, 1990). Since World War IT both the quantity and types of hazardous chemicals used and produced by industry has grown rapidly. The changing urban landscape only adds to the confusion about how, where, and to what extent, hazardous wastes still affect locales. Frequently wastes were dumped on-site or landfilled along with municipal refuse. Few or no records were kept by manufacturing firms about specific disposal practices prior to RCRA in 1976. These historical practices may have created potential risks and liabilities for buyers and sellers of real estate. 1 On the tables used in this section, if a field is blank, either no datum was available or it was invalid; if a field has a "0", the datum was reported to be zero. 2-18 - .------ Figure 2-4. Mackinaw Watershed Landfills, Superfund, TRI Sites, Towns in Historical Hazards Database and Surface Impoundments ' .. ~, . I ~. I, ,..; . ~.. .' n I FORD co, ",,-~ .. , C n91 • ~--- ~ ~, " @ Unpermitted Landfills e TRI Sites 6. Permitted Landfills * Towns in Historical Hazards Database o Superfund Sites \l Surface Impoundments Scale 1:528000 o 5 TO 16MI.." ! I ==::J o (; 10 15 20 Klameun i I ..-===I r Table 2-15. Towns in Historical Hazards Database, Mackinaw Watershed Benson Gridley Morton Carlock Hopedale Roanoke Colfax Lexington Sibley Deer Creek Mackinaw South Pekin EIPaso Manito Tremont Eureka Metamora There are 17 towns in the watershed shown in the Historical Hazards database (See Table 2-15). Each of these towns contains one or more possible sources of pollutants from historical industrial facilities, based on research into historical industrial practices and occupational health literature. 2 Surface Impoundments A surface impoundment is a lined or unlined lagoon used for the storage of liquids alone or mixed with solids, usually uncovered. The Surface Impoundment Inventory shows 31 impoundment sites in the watershed (See Table 2-16). The majority (24) of the impoundments are sewerage systems, and one each are for water supply, vitreous china food utensils and crude petroleum and natural gas (4 have invalid codes). Since these data were collected in 1980, some of these impoundments may no longer exist, and new ones may have been built. Surface impoundments can pose a significant risk to groundwater in shallow aquifers, because Illinois is in a humid region where precipitation amounts are generally greater than evaporation. This means that eventually some of impounded liquid will either accidentally overflow, drain into the ground, or need to be drained off deliberately (Pishkin, 1980).3 2 Detailed analysis is beyond the scope of this report. For a sample Historical Hazards report and order form, contact WMRC as listed in the Appendix. 3 Contact IEPA for details on specific impoundments. 2-20 Table 2-16. Surface Impoundments in the Mackinaw Watershed NPDES' Permit SICt Land Owner Number Code SICt Description Woodford County Swine Breeders 2207 E Washington, Bloomington, IL 61701 IL0036242 0211 Beef cattle feedlots Martin Bros Implement Rural Route, Roanoke, IL 61561 IL0035947 Village Of Roanoke Village Hall, Roanoke, IL 61561 ILOO21300 4952 Sewerage systems Village Of Metamora Village Hall, Metamora, IL 61548 IL0021521 4952 Sewerage systems Village Of Gridley Village Hall, Gridley, IL 61744 IL0021555 4952 Sewerage systems Mayor Of Eureka 128 N Main Street, Eureka, IL 61530 IL0025119 4952 Sewerage systems Maple Lawn Homes Rural Route 2, Box 9, Eureka, IL 61530 IL0032034 4952 Sewerage systems Don Ford 203 North Calender, Eureka, IL 61530 IL0046523 4941 Water supply Roger Blunier Rural Route I, Eureka, IL 61530 0211 Beef cattle feedlots HLP Developers Rural Route, Congerville, IL 61729 4952 Sewerage systems Evergreen Lake Sewage 303 County Court House, Bloomington, IL 61701 IL0036391 4952 Sewerage systems President & Board Of Trustees Village Hall, Goodfield, IL 61742 IL0048058 4952 Sewerage systems Libby McNeil & Libby Inc 200 South Michigan Ave, Chicago, IL 60604 Village President Village Hall, Deer Creek, IL 61733 IL0025194 4952 Sewerage systems Forestview Utility Corp Schrock Realty, Congerville, IL 61729 ILOO53899 4952 Sewerage systems Rival Manufacturing Co Vitreous china food Jefferson Street, Morton, IL 61550 3262 utensils II Dept Of Transportation 6035 N Mt Hawley Road, Peoria, IL 61614 4952 Sewerage systems II Dept Of Transportation Office #7 6035 N Mt Hawley Road, Peoria, IL 61614 4952 Sewerage systems Village Of Carlock Village Hall, Carlock, IL 61725 ILOO26778 4952 Sewerage systems Village President Village Hall, Morton, IL 61550 IL0030007 4952 Sewerage systems 2-21 Table 2·16. Surface Impoundments in the Mackinaw Watershed (continued) NPDES* Permit SIq Land Owner Number Code SICt Description Northern II Gas Co Crude petroleum and P.O. Box 190, Aurora; IL 60507 1311 natural gas Village Of Colfax Village Hall, Colfax, IL 6I728 ILOO36943 4952 Sewerage systems Village President Village Hall, Morton, IL 61550 ILOO30015 4952 Sewerage systems Tazewell County Health Department Court House, Pekin, IL 6 I554 IL0038024 4952 Sewerage systems Tazewell Co T B Sanitarium Mackinaw, IL 61755 ILOO24538 4952 Sewerage systems Clarksville Mobile Home Park Rural Route I, Lexington, IL 61753 4952 Sewerage systems Village Of Mackinaw Village Hall, 101 Fast Ave, Mackinaw, IL 61755 IL002966I 4952 Sewerage systems Tremont Sewer Dept Village Hall, Tremont, IL 61568 ILOO31461 4952 Sewerage systems Village Of Green Valley Village Hall, Green Valley, IL 61534 4952 Sewerage systems Genes Laundromat And Market Manito, IL 61546 4952 Sewerage systems Indian Creek Industrial Park Village Hall, Hopedale, IL 61747 4952 Sewerage systems *NPDES = National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System tSIC = Standard Industrial Classification Superfund Sites There are two active Superfund sites in the watershed (See Table 2-17). Both are still under investigation and are not on the National Priorities List. About half of the total number of Superfund sites in Illinois have descriptions, but neither of these do. The data provide no information on what problems and risks are associated with either site. More information may be available from the IEPA or USEPA. 2-22 Table 2-17. Superfund Sites within the Mackinaw Watershed EPA ID Site Name NPL Event Actual Status Type' Completion Date IL0981956436 Mackinaw Public Wen #4 No OSI 04/23/87 Near Water Plant PAl 06/05/87 Mackinaw, IL 61755 Tazewell county Sl1 12107188 IL0980606792 Pekin Metro LOFL No OSI 06/01181 South Towerline Rd PAl 06/01183 Pekin, IL 61554 PA2 08/20/90 Tazewell county HRI 01127187 sa 03/01184 S12 02119/86 'os - Discovery, HR - Hazard Ranking, PA - Preliminary Assessment, 51 - Screening Site Inspection Landfills Landfills are by far the most common means of disposal for solid waste, both past and present. There are 31 landfills recorded in the watershed - 4 permitted and 27 unpermitted (See Table 2-18). Of the permitted landfills, the data indicate two are inactive and two were active at the time of last update. One active site is located in Hopedale and named the Indian Creek Landfill Corp. The data show it accepts demolition debris, incinerator ash, special and industrial wastes. The liner is a combination of clay and synthetic (plastic) materials. Ground water monitoring is done at the site, but leachate is not collected. Offsite waste is accepted. The other active site is located in Green Valley and called Garman Farm. It accepts incinerator ash, and hazardous, special and industrial waste. Most of the unpermitted landfills are indicated to have "non-hazardous" waste; however any waste can present a hazard. Most of the unpermitted landfills are classified as open or random dumps. These may be minor in extent. Some have demolition debris, which may be from buildings or roads. These dumps must be examined on a case-by-case basis in order to assess any environmental risk they may pose: Though other environmental problems are associated with landfills, one of the most serious is water from rain or snow leaching contaminants from waste into the surrounding soil. Many landfills, especially unpermitted ones, have no barrier or liner to prevent this. These contaminants may then be transported into shallow aquifers, 4 For more information contact WMRC or the IEPA Regional Offices. Mason, Tazewell and Woodford counties are in Region 3, Livingston, McLean and Ford counties are in Region 4. See the Appendix for details. 2-23 Table 2-18. Landfills in the Mackinaw. Watershed IEPA Site Name City Legal Type Pennit Status* Number Description 2030550002 Lewis Martin Fanns Roanoke Land No 0 Inc Application 2030550001 Amigoni, Eli Roanoke 27N OlE 26 Landfill No CFC 2030400001 Gerdes Minonk 27N OlE 26 Landfill No CFC 2038040001 Charlet!, R H El Paso 27N OlE 26 Landfill No CFC 2038030002 Young Kappa 26N 02E 33 Landfill No CFC 2038030001 Young El Paso 26N 02E 33 Landfill No CFC 2038050001 Bateman Estate Kansas Twp 25N OlE 04 Landfill No 1130800001 Ronald Winterland Lexington 25N 04E Landfill No 2038090002 Hobbs. Paul Congerville 25N 01W 17 Landfill No 2038090001 Dickinson, R. L. Congerville 25N 01W 17 Landfill No 1798130004 Smith Morton Open Dump No 1798070017 Houseweart Groveland Open Dump No 538140001 Sibley Fann Service Gibson City 25N 07E 34 Landfill No CFC Co 810450001 Southern lllinois Woodlawn 02S OlE 36 Landfill Yes I Landfill 1130350001 Colfax Manufacturing Colfax 24N 05E 03 Secured No 0 Containers 1138100001 Brogard, Victor Danvers 24N 01W 05 Landfill No 1799999999 Mackinaw 24N 02W 18 Open Dump No I 1798110002 Garnbers Mackinaw Open Dump No 1798110001 Knuppel Brothers Mackinaw 24N 02W 18 Landfill No 1798170003 Gleuck Tremont Open Dump No 1798170004 Speers Tremont Open Dump No 1798170001 Horton, Harold Morton 24N 03W 22 Landfill No CNFC 1798010002 CornEd Pekin 24N 05W 16 Landfill Yes CFC 1798170002 Schmidgall, David R Tremont 24N 03W 21 Landfill No 1798010006 Woodrow Cemetery Peoria 24N 05W 36 Landfill No 1130200003 Hicks Bloomington 23N 02E 08 Landfill No CFC 1798090001 Harold Rowell Tremont 23N 03W 18 Landfill No 1798040001 Nafliger, Rosa Delavan 23N 04W 21 Landfill No CFC 1798090002 Indian Creek Landfill Hopedale 23N 03W 29 Landfill Yes 0 Corp 1798040003 Moore, Howard Delavan 23N 04W 23 Landfill No CNFC 1798010010 Gannan Fann Green Valley 23N 05W 22 Land Yes 0 Application *Status: CFC - Closed Final Cover, CNFC - Closed No Final Cover, I - Inactive, 0- Operational 2-24 wells or into streams and rivers used for drinking water. These leachates can also affect the environment, poisoning wildlife. The possible range of contaminants is large; they could consist of VOCs (volatile organic compounds) from discarded cleaning or painting compounds, heavy metals leached from household or vehicle batteries, oil from discarded machinery, and pesticides, to name but a few. Additionally, organic waste, such as discarded food, can provide a breeding ground for undesirable bacteria, and may attract unwanted wildlife. In short, any product harvested, processed or manufactured may find its way into a landfill. TRI Sites The Toxic Release Inventory (TRI) covers manufacturing releases to air, land, water and underground injection. There are six unique TRI sites in the watershed (See Tables 2-19 - 2-26). The first TRI site is American Buildings Company which produces pre-fabricated metal buildings and employs 260 people. Xylene (mixed isomers) is the only chemical reported as stack and fugitive air releases, and as transfers to an energy recovery facility. Specific information is not available on the exact uses American Buildings has for xylene, but it can be used for metal parts cleaning, or a solvent for paint, glues, etc. Since it is volatile, the majority probably simply evaporated. The main environmental concern with xylenes is that they can contribute to smog and ozone formation in the lower atmosphere. According to the data, 199 I and 1992 were the peak years for xylene emission, followed by a dramatic drop in 1993. The second site is DMI, Inc. It produces farm machinery. Reported releases include glycol ethers, sec-butyl alcohol and toluene. These VOCs might be used as solvents or cleaners. Manganese was also released. Glycol ethers can cause acute, chronic, developmental and reproductive toxicity. Sec-butyl alcohol is an eye and skin irritant, toxic on prolonged inhalation. Toluene can cause neurotoxicity, and can contribute to the formation of ozone in the lower atmosphere. Manganese is toxic, with a Threshold Limit Value (TLV) of 1 mg/mJ in fumes. The TLV is a "set of standards established by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists for concentrations of Airborne Substances in workroom air" (Lewis, 1993). 2-25 ------Table 2·19. TRI Companies in the Mackinaw Watershed Company Contact Person TRI ID *SIC Codes: '*Emp. (1993) (Primary) American Buildings Co. Terry Kuper 61738MRCNBEHIGH 3448 260 U.S. Highway 24 E (309) 527-5420 Prefabricated Metal EI Paso, IL 61738 Buildings & Cmpnts Mc Lean county DMI Robert McClure 61742DM POBOX 3523 350 P.O. Box 6, Route 150 E (309) 965-2233 Fann Machinery & Goodfield,IL 61742 Eqpt Woodford county Du Pont EI Paso Plant Robbie Deike 61738DPNTLRT24E 2819 123 U.S. Highway 24 E (309) 527-1203 Indl Inorganic EI Paso, IL 61738 Chemicals, NEC Woodford county Morton Metalcraft Co. David Stratton 6155011RTNMI021W 3444 550 1021 W Birchwood (309) 266-7176 Sheet Metal Work Morton, IL 61550 Tazewell county Ringger Feeds Stephen Baner 61744RNGGR116WS 116 W Second Street (309) 747-2196 Gridley IL 61744 Mc Lean county Roecker Cabinets 61550RCKRC850NM 2434 35 850 N Main Street Wood Kitchen Morton, IL 61550 Cabinets Tazewell county *Source: Harris Selectory ® The third site is DuPont, a herbicide manufacturer. From the beginning of the reporting process, up through 1993, it has emitted ethylene glycol. It might be used as a cooling agent, or in chemical processes. It is toxic by inhalation or ingestion. The next TRI site is Morton Metalcraft. They employ 550 in the manufacture of sheet metal. The chemicals that continue to be released in 1993 include three VOCs: glycol ethers, n-butyl alcohol, and xylene. These might be used for solvents or cleaners. Potential adverse affects for glycol ethers and xylene are mentioned above. N-butyl alcohol exposure can cause chronic toxicity. Previous to 1991, glycol ethers, n-butyl alcohol and xylene were transferred to treatment facilities, but afterward were transferred to energy recovery facilities. 2-26 Table 2·20 Total Air Releases for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed (Ibs) Year Company Chemical Released 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 American Xylene (mixed isomers 25597 24987 32982 41406 72920 60450 8675 Buildings Co. DMI Glycol ethers 8589 14242 0 0 0 0 Manganese 0 0 250 250 250 76 Sec-butyl alcohol 0 11567 0 0 0 0 Toluene 9127 0 0 0 0 0 Xylene (mixed isomers 0 0 0 7092 0 0 Du Pont EI Ethylene glycol 235 230 230 250 5 40 30 Paso Plant Formaldehyde 0 24 0 0 0 0 0 Morton Chromium 250 250 0 0 0 0 0 Metalcraft Co. Chromium compounds 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 Copper 250 250 0 0 0 0 0 Glycol ethers 4895 16163 20965 3139 11432 10534 11592 Manganese 250 250 0 5 5 0 0 Manganese compounds 0 0 250 0 0 0 0 Methanol 0 0 2782 2545 0 0 0 Methyl ethyl ketone 0 0 3133 2578 0 0 0 N-butyl alcohol 0 8978 20769 0 9892 8231 10075 Nickel 250 250 0 0 0 0 0 Toluene 0 0 11583 9648 0 0 0 Xylene (mixed isomers 9129 13491 61746 10464 12483 11571 16161 Ringger Feeds Copper compounds 0 5 5 5 5 5 Manganese compounds 0 5 5 5 5 5 Zinc compounds 5 5 5 5 5 5 Roecker Xylene (mixed isomers 18300 11000 Cabinets Ringger Feeds, the fifth TRI reported small amounts of copper, manganese, and zinc compounds as fugitive air releases. These might be used as trace minerals in the feeds. All three of these metals can cause acute and chronic toxicity, and have negative environmental effects. Zinc can also cause developmental toxicity. This is a good example of a toxic dilemma, explained by the maxim "the dose makes the poison." In trace doses, these metals are necessary to human health, but in large doses can be toxic. Every year a few hundred pounds of these compounds were transferred offsite to the Tazewell Recycling & Disposal Facility of East Peoria. 2-27 Table 2-21. Total Fugitive Air Releases for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed (Ibs) Year Company Chemical Released 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 American Xylene (mixed isomers) 12798 20490 26385 33125 60770 44340 2175 Buildings Co. DMI Manganese 0 0 250 250 250 76 Xylene (mixed isomers) 0 0 0 396 0 0 Du Pont EI Ethylene glycol 230 225 225 250 5 40 30 Paso Plant Fonnaldehyde 0 23 0 0 0 0 0 Morton Chromium 250 250 0 0 0 0 0 Metalcraft Co. Chromium compounds 0 0 0 5 5 0 0 Copper 250 250 0 0 0 0 0 Glycol ethers 250 0 0 0 0 0 250 Manganese 250 250 0 5 5 0 0 Manganese compounds 0 0 250 0 0 0 0 N-butyl alcohol 0 0 0 0 0 0 250 Nickel 250 250 0 0 0 0 0 Xylene (mixed isomers) 0 250 0 0 0 0 250 Ringger Feeds Copper compounds 0 5 5 5 5 5 Manganese compounds 0 5 5 5 5 5 Zinc compounds 5 5 5 5 5 5 Roecker Xylene (mixed isomers) 4600 2750 Cabinets The final TRI site is Roecker Cabinets, employing 35 in the manufacture of custom made and household wood cabinets. They reported xylene emissions in 1990 and 1991, but nothing in 1992 and 1993. Over the entire watershed, the TRI data indicate no releases to water, land or underground injection. There were no transfers to publically owned treatment works (POTWs), and no transfers to "other" facilities. Since most of the emissions are VOCs and easily disperse, and the watershed is not a highly industrialized area, the concentrations typically seen are not likely to cause major problems. The specific permitted landfilled materials are disposed of by licensed companies, and if done correctly, pose little or no risk. 2-28 Table 2-22. Total Stack Air Releases for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed (Ibs) Year Company Chemical Released 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 American Xylene(mixed isomers) 12799 4497 6597 8281 12150 16110 6500 Buildings Co. DMI . Glycol ethers 8589 14242 0 0 0 0 Sec-butyl alcohol 0 11567 0 0 0 0 Toluene 9127 0 0 0 0 0 Xylene (mixed isomers) 0 0 0 6696 0 0 Du Pont EI Ethylene glycol 5 5 5 0 0 0 0 Paso Plant Formaldehyde 0 I 0 0 0 0 0 Morton Glycol ethers 4645 16163 20965 3139 11432 10534 11342 Metalcraft Methanol 0 0 2782 2545 0 0 0 Co. Methyl ethyl ketone 0 0 3133 2578 0 0 0 N-butyl alcohol 0 8978 20769 0 9892 8231 9825 Toluene 0 0 11583 9648 0 0 0 Xylene (mixed isomers) 9129 13241 61746 10464 12483 11571 15911 Roecker Xylene (mixed isomers) 13700 8250 Cabinets Table 2-23. Recycling Recovery Transfers for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed (Ibs) Year Company Chemical 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 DMI Manganese 0 33333 15935 Xylene (mixed isomers) 24542 0 0 Morton Chromium compounds 0 0 0 0 8313 25464 17888 Metalcraft Manganese 0 0 0 0 147348 136468 146241 Co. Xylene (mixed isomers) 2136 0 0 0 0 0 0 2-29 Table 2-24. Total Transfers to Treatment Facilities for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed (Ibs) Year Company Chemical Released 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 OM! Glycol ethers 4329 250 0 0 0 0 Sec-butyl alcohol 0 250 0 0 0 0 Toluene 1414 0 0 0 0 0 Ou Pont EI Ethylene glycol 667 0 0 0 0 0 0 Paso Plant Morton Chromium compounds 0 0 0 250 0 0 0 Metalcraft Glycol ethers 20287 1273 0 9648 0 0 0 Co. Methanol 0 0 7663 8149 0 0 0 Methyl ethyl ketone 0 0 7663 8149 0 0 0 N-butyl alcohol 0 707 0 0 0 0 0 Toluene 0 0 28561 30723 0 0 0 Xvlene(mixed isomers) 0 57693 25775 32877 0 0 0 Table 2·25. Total Transfers to Energy Recover Facilities for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed (Ibs) Year Company Chemical Released 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 American Xylene (mixed isomers) 0 0 0 0 0 0 600 Buildings Co. OM! Xylene (mixed isomers) 0 0 0 5485 0 0 Morton Glycol ethers 0 0 0 0 11627 7557 10229 Metalcraft N-butyl alcohol 0 0 0 0 10113 5905 8841 Co. Xylene (mixed isomers) 0 0 0 0 12699 8302 14320 2-30 ------Table 2-26. Total Transfers to Disposal Facilities for TRI Sites in the Mackinaw Watershed (Ibs) Year Company Chemical 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 Morton Glycol ethers 250 1852 0 0 0 0 0 Metalcraft Co. N-butyl alcohol 0 1029 0 0 0 0 0 Xylene (mixed isomers) 2791 466 0 0 0 0 0 Ringger Feeds Copper Compounds 0 160 220 250 290 260 Manganese Compounds 0 140 160 180 220 180 Zinc Compounds 300 330 370 420 500 250 2-31 ,I References Air Quality lllinois Environmental Protection Agency. 1992-1996. lllinois Annual Air Quality Reports, 1991-1995. Bureau of Air, P.O. Box 19276, Springfield, ll.. 62794-9276. National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program. 1990. Acidic Deposition: State of Science and Technology Report 24, Visibility: Existing and Historical Conditions- Causes and Effects. Washington, D.C. National Atmospheric Deposition ProgramlNational Trends Network. 1995-1996. NADPINTN Annual Data Summaries, 1993-1994. Precipitation Chemistry in the United States. Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO. Water Quality Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 1994. lllinois Water Quality Report, 1992 1993. lllinois Environmental Protection Agency. Springfield, ll... Sinclair, R.A., B.R Ward, and Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. 1996. GIS Technology Support for the Targeted Watershed Approach. Illinois State Water Survey Contract Report 600. Champaign, ll... Hazardous and Toxic Waste Generation and Management American Chemical Society. 1986. RCRA & Laboratories. Department of Government Relations and Science Policy. Washington, DC. Colten, C.E. 1990. "Historical Hazards: The Geography of Relict Industrial Wastes." Professional Geographer, 42(2): 143-156. ENR 1994. The Changing Illinois Environment: Critical Trends, Volume 5: Waste Generation and Management. lllinois Department of Energy and Natural Resources. ll..ENRIRE-EA-94/05(5). Goidel, E.-S. and J. Craig. 1993. "Changes in Reported TRI Releases and Transfers." Pollution Engineering, March 1, 1993:45. Harris Selectory ®. 1996. "1996111inois Manufacturers Directory on Disc - (20+Emp)," Release 7.0 - ll.., ©1995 Harris InfoSource International. Lewis, RJ. Sr. 1993. Hawley's Condensed Chemical Dictionary. Van Nostrand Reinhold. New York, NY. 2-33 Mehnert, E. and MJ. Mushrush. 1991. Statewide Inventory of Land-Based Disposal Sites: FY '88 Update. Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center. HWRIC RR-041. Champaign, IL. Pishkin, R. 1980. Inventory and Assessment of Surface Impoundments in lllinois. lllinois Environmental Protection Agency. 4/8050 Job No. 8943. Springfield, IL. USEPA. 1987. "Title III Fact Sheet." U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1987 718-872 - 1302/1280. Washington, DC. USEPA. 1992a. CERCLNSuperfund Orientation Manual. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPN542/R-92/005. Washington, DC. USEPA. 1992b. Toxic Chemical Release Inventory Reporting Form R and Instructions, Revised 1992 Version. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 745-K-93-001. Washington, DC. USEPA. 1995. 1993 Toxies Release Inventory Public Data Release. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 745-R-95-01O. Washington, DC. USEPA. 1996a. "CERCUS Report Descriptions." USEPA World Wide Web Page: www.epa.gov/superfundloerr/impm/products/cursites/reports.htm. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. USEPA. 1996b. Pre-publication version of "40 CFR Part 372, Advance Notice of Proposed Rulemaking (ANPR)." USEPA World Wide Web Page: www.epa.gov/opptintr/tri/anprpre.htm. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. OPPTS-400106; FRL-5387-6. USEPA. 1996c. "Issues Paper #3." USEPA World Wide Web Page: www.epa.gov/opptintr/tri/trip3v6.htm. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 2-34 Appendix This appendix contains information about the databases used in the Hazardous and Toxic Waste Generation and Management section of Part II, "Environmental Quality". Environmental Databases of Historic and Current Pollution Sources The history and format of the databases used in the creation of included maps, tables and text is described. They are listed in roughly chronological order which incidentally roughly corresponds to their environmental importance. Because the databases are large and complex, only the most relevant environmental information contained in them is examined. Limitations and value of these databases All databases have their limitations. In a GIS, sometimes features that are in actuality areas are modelled as points. Features and attributes can be mismatched or features mislabelled. Approximations in data collection occur. There can be other limitations and errors, too. Results of any database search should be verified by field work and/or additional research. Even given these limitations, there is much value in all the databases used in these reports. However, data is simply numbers and words on a page or in a computer database. Only after becoming familiar with the context and reasonable uses of the data can the user come to an understanding of its worth. Historical Hazards (HH) Database WMRC's Historical Hazards (HH) database is based on probably the best available source of industrial practices prior to the 1970s: the Sanborn fire insurance maps. This data spans the years 1887 to 1950. Illinois State Museum staff under contract to WMRC interpreted and digitized these maps into a geographic information system, or GIS. GIS is a computer-based technology used to create databases, and analyze and output data in the form of maps, tables, etc. If a particular location listed in the HH data has an apparent potential environmental problem associated with it, the only sure way to see if contamination exists is to do field work including on-site testing. An HH report's primary utility is that it provides a good starting point for this field work. The main limitations of the HH database result from WMRC's use of the information for a role it was never intended -the production of reports used by environmental consultants doing Phase 1 assessments in connection with Responsible Property A-I Transfers (RPTs). The originally-required scope was fire insurance information for urban areas, and therefore, the database lists only possible sources of pollutants from industrial facilities, based on research into historical industrial practices and occupational health literature. Surface Impoundment Inventory (SIO A surface impoundment is a lined or unlined lagoon used for the storage of liquids alone or mixed with solids, usually uncovered. The five use categories are: industry, agriculture, mining, municipal, and oil and gas. The majority are used in the oil and gas industries, with municipal being the next most common. The last update to the georeferenced database used by WMRC was done in 1980, and the status of particular sites may have changed in the interim. Funding for the Surface Impoundment Assessment which produced the Inventory was provided by the USEPA pursuant to Section 1442(b)(3)(C) of the Safe Drinking Water Act, enacted in 1974. The following agencies provided data: the IEPA, Illinois Department of Mines and Minerals, Liquid Waste Control Association and the U.S. Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service. "The surface impoundment file is a reformatted version of the 1980 inventory of surface impoundments compiled by the Illinois Environmental Agency (IEPA) and contains data for impoundments used for disposal, storage, and/or treatment of liquids. . .The data for sites in the surface impoundment file were not updated because compilation of this file was a one-time effort by IEPA" (Mehnert, 1990). There are 5062 sites listed, with each site averaging 1.5 impoundments. The main limitation of this database is its age. More current information for specific sites may be available from the IEPA. Landfills Database (Inventory of Land-based Disposal Sites) This database was compiled from 1984 through 1989. Some limited updating was done in 1993. It includes permitted (legal) sites, and unpermitted (some illegal) sites as follows: random dumps, open dumps, abandoned sites, or other. It includes data from IEPA, Northeastern Illinois Planning Commission (NIPC), and county governments. There are 3430 sites listed. Limitations of this database include inconsistent coverage over the state because not all county governments reported, and the fact that some landfills are referenced by legal descriptions alone, not latitude and longitude. The legal descriptions place the landfill approximately within a one-square-mile area. A-2 Superfund Enacted on December 12, 1980, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) was the progenitor of many important environmental laws. On October 17, 1986, CERCLA was amended by the Superfund Amendments and Reauthorization Act (SARA), hence the common and inclusive name, Superfund. "The purpose of the Superfund Program is to address threats to human health or the environment resulting from releases of hazardous substances from abandoned or uncontrolled hazardous waste sites. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has the primary responsibility for managing activities under the Superfund program" (USEPA, 1992a). CERCLA and National Priority List (NPL) data are part of the Superfund. In early 1996 many sites were taken off the active list; these became the Archive Listing. According to text files accompanying the data release, the Archive Listing "lists all sites that were previously listed as contaminated or were suspected of being contaminated, but have subsequently been cleared of contamination or are no longer suspected of contamination. This report was previously called the Transition SitefEvent Listing.'" Active sites include NPL and Superfund sites still under investigation: "This report lists all Superfund sites/incidents, addresses, and Congressional districts, and the remedial, removal, and community relations events associated with each site/incident" (USEPA, 1996a). The Superfund database used here includes only the 445 active sites. Discussion on the Archive sites is not included because they are no longer considered hazards. The data is available in a limited number of fonnats. Toxies Release Inventory (TRI) and TRI Expansions "One part of the new SARA provisions is Title III: the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act [EPCRAj of 1986. Title III establishes requirements for Federal, State, and local governments and industry regarding emergency planning and 'community right-to-know' reporting on hazardous and toxic chemicals. The community right-to-know provisions of Title III will help increase the public's knowledge of and access to infonnation on the presence of hazardous chemicals in their communities and releases of these chemicals into the environment. Title III has four major sections...Section 313 is the toxic chemical release reporting emissions inventory" (USEPA, 1987). "The TRl collects data annually on the types and quantities of more than 300 toxic chemicals released and transferred to all environmental media by manufacturing facilities within the United States pursuant to the Emergency Planning and Community A-3 Right-to-Know Act of 1986" (Goidel, 1993). Covered are manufacturing releases to air, land, water and underground injection. The TRI data is used by a wide variety of groups and individuals, from industrial and environmental engineers involved in pollution prevention to citizens groups. The TRI data release used in these reports includes data starting in 1987 (the very first year) up through 1993, and is vast in factual scope and detail. There are 1921 TRI facilities listed for the state of Illinois, with a total of 70 tables for each facility, some of which contain more than 50 fields. The TRI data can be downloaded from the U.S. EPA's World Wide Web page (see Appendix) in a variety of formats, including ESRl's ARC/INFO GIS format. The main limitation with this database is that because of the vast amounts of data contained therein, it is unwieldy. Since this data is available in a large variety of formats, items covered may vary by format. The Pollution Prevention Act "The Pollution Prevention Act (PPA) of 1990 expanded TRI to require reporting about quantities of TRl chemicals managed in waste and about source reduction activities undertaken to eliminate or reduce those quantities. Under the PPA, source reduction is considered the preferred approach to managing waste" (USEPA, 1995). Source reduction is further discussed in the "TRl and Pollution Prevention" section. The waste management hierarchy is source reduction first, then recycling, energy recovery, and treatment and disposal, respectively. "Although the total quantity of TRI chemicals is increasing, some movement up the waste management hierarchy is seen in increased recycling and decreased release and disposal" (USEPA, 1995)" EPA's 33/50 Program The 33/50 Program, an extension of TRI, "is a voluntary pollution prevention initiative that targets 17 high-priority TRI chemicals for reductions in releases and transfers...The program derives its name from its reduction goals: an interim goal of a 33% reduction in the 1992 reporting year and an ultimate goal of a 50% reduction in the 1995 reporting year, as measured against 1988 data. These goals include all releases, as well as transfers to offsite locations for treatment and disposal. Transfers for recycling and energy recovery are not included because they were not reportable in 1988" (USEPA, 1995). Many of these 17 chemicals are volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are among the most-released chemicals. A·4 ------~- TRI and Pollution Prevention The value of TRI data for various uses and the expansion of TRI data collection are complex issues, surrounded in controversy. Whether a toxic substance has an impact on lifeforms is based on many factors. They include toxicity of the chemical; amount and duration of exposure; whether, how fast, and under what conditions the chemical degrades or combines with other chemicals; bioconcentration of the chemical in the food chain; the environmental medium to which the chemical has been released; and other factors. TRI does not cover the release or transfer of all toxic chemicals known. Some have not been added, and others have been taken off the list (delisted). Nor does TRI cover all facilities; ones with fewer than 10 employees or ones that release below the threshold are exempt. It is important to note that TRI data is available in many formats, and the data used in these reports is widely distributed. Included tables are not intended to single the chosen facilities out; this data is put forward merely as an example. More importantly, it may be very difficult, if not impossible to come to concrete conclusions based on TRI data alone. Based on all the facts and uncertainties, environmental engineers, or other qualified experts, must look at the full range of complex and interrelated issues of TRI and other releases in order to draw specific conclusions. One important source of uncertainty is the question of the exactness of the data collection and therefore its reliability. Because of the broad scope of TRI, and its recent proposed and realized expansions, the reliability of the data is only as good as the familiarity of a facilities' management and employees with the complex and changing rules and regulations involved. At the center of this issue is the fact that estimations are allowed in data collection. The facility can use one of four methods to estimate releases when filling out the required "TRI Reporting Form R." Each has a letter code that designates which "method...applies to the largest portion of the total estimated release quantity" (USEPA, 1992b). The estimates are made on: monitoring data or measurements; mass balance calculations; published emissions factors; and engineering calculations or judgement. Probably the most common means of addressing estimation issues is materials accounting (sometimes called "mass balance" or "input/output" accounting). In simplest terms, it is examining the "amounts of a toxic chemical coming into the facility, amounts transformed in products and wastes, and the resulting amounts leaving the facility site" (USEPA, 1996b). TRI does not currently require this potentially important quantitative information to be reported, but is considering doing so, as explained below. Many facilities already collect this information for internal use in order to estimate "fugitive" emissions, which are emissions that escape -they "disappear." This is especially true of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) which readily evaporate or volatilize. A-5 Also, TRl "does not provide data on source reduction, even though it is the preferred national approach for improving environmental performance" (USEPA, 1996b). This refers to pollution prevention. The EPA does remain firmly committed to expanding the public's Right-to-Know, because it considers Right-to-Know "to be among the most effective strategies for improving environmental performance" (USEPA, 1996c). The EPA believes that reporting rules need to be expanded to overcome these difficulties, so that clear and concise information, knowledge, and environmental assessments can be extracted from these data. This is evident by the recent expansions of TRl. One expansion of the TRl is the TRl-Phase 3 project, begun in 1993, in which the EPA continues to move TRl forward with regards to materials accounting. Even though the EPA is, in this case, considering use of non-TRl statutory authorities it is still referred to here as a TRl expansion. Environmental stakeholders generally claim it is important and valuable data, but they are opposed by many industry stakeholders who say it is a burden, may reveal trade secrets, is of little value, and it may not even fall under EPA's mandate. In November, 1994, as part of a TRl expansion, 286 chemicals and chemical categories were added to the list, most notably pesticide ingredients. In June, 1996, another major expansion was proposed, which, if enacted, will include the addition of seven new industrial categories: metal mining, coal mining, electric utilities, commercial hazardous waste treatment, petroleum bulk terminals, chemical wholesalers, and solvent recovery services. These are in addition to the 20 other industrial categories which already report. One of the major reasons TRl is considered a public policy success story is Pollution Prevention (P2). The idea of P2 is simply to reduce pollutants at the source, by analyzing and altering facilities' production processes and associated waste streams. The collection and use of TRl data has focused much internal attention by facilities and external attention by environmental stakeholders on waste reduction programs. This can create a win-win situation where not only can the facility reduce pollution, but also save substantial amounts of money through reductions in raw materials, waste disposal, labor, paperwork, and oversight. A prime resource for P2 are experts who work at WMRC and !EPA. The engineers help Illinois companies by examining manufacturing processes and waste streams and suggest ways to reduce or eliminate toxic releases. Detailed pollution prevention case studies are available from the WMRC. A-6 Contacts for Additional Information • Waste Management and Research Center George F. Krumins One East Hazelwood Drive Champaign, IL 61820 Voice: (217) 244-5776 FAX: (217) 333-8944 e-mail: [email protected] TRI Regional and State Contacts: • USEPA Region V: Thelma Codina (SP-14J) TRI Program Manager Pesticides and Toxics Branch 77 W. Jackson Blvd. Chicago, IL 60604 Voice: (312) 886-6219 FAX: (312) 353-4342 • Illinois: Joe Goodner Office of Chemical Safety Illinois Environmental Protection Agency P.O. Box 19276 2200 Churchill Road Springfield, IL 62794-9276 Voice: (217) 785-0830 FAX: (217) 782-1431 For Pollution PreventionlEnvironmental Engineering: • Kenneth Barnes Waste Management and Research Center One East Hazelwood Drive Champaign, IL 61820 Voice: (217) 244-9940 FAX: (217) 333-8944 e-mail: [email protected] • Mark Gerberding IEPNOffice of Pollution Prevention Voice: (217) 785-8797 A-7 For Illinois Environmental Protection Agency (IEPA): • Main office, Springfield: Voice: (217) 782-5562 TDD: (217) 782-9143 • Region 3 5415 North University Peoria, II., 61614 Voice: (309) 693-5460 • Region 4 2125 South First Street Champaign, II., 61820 Voice: (217) 333-8361 Online Resources For those with access, the Internet provides a convenient way to receive news, information and data. Listed are a few related World Wide Web pages: • Illinois Critical Trends Assessment Program: dnr.state.il.us/ctap/ctaphome.htm • Toxics Release Inventory: www.epa.gov/opptintr/tri/ • Superfund Home Page: www.epa.gov/superfundl • U. S. EPA Region 5 Home Page: www.epa.govlRegion51 • Search the Federal Register of the Government Printing Office: www.access.gpo.gov/su_docs/aces/acesI40.html • Envirofacts Querying Capability; search seven different EPA databases: www.epa.gov/envirolhtmlleCquery.html • Waste Management and Research Center (WMRC): www.hazard.uiuc.edu/wmrc/ WMRC Information Services The Waste Management and Research Center (formerly Hazardous Waste Research and Information Center - HWRIC) serves the citizens of Illinois through four programs: Information Services, Pollution Prevention, Research, and Laboratory services. Information Services includes reports, factsheets, and brochures; literature searches of WMRC's in-house library and article citation databases; computer databases including GIS databases used for environmental reports. The Historical Hazards (HH), Surface Impoundment Inventory (SIl), Landfills database, and Superfund database are all used for environmental reports at WMRC. A-8 ------ I I, I Among other uses, reports are frequently requested by environmental consultants involved in Phase I assessments for responsible property transfers (RPTsl For further details contact WMRC at: • Waste Management and Research Center One East Hazelwood Drive Champaign, n., 61820 Voice: (217) 333-8940 FAX: (217) 333-8944 1 In January, 1990, the Illinois Responsible Property Transfer Act went into effect. If buyers of real estate exercise "due diligence" and they buy contaminated property, they might possibly avoid the potentially devastating costs of remediation. This means if the buyer conducts an environmental assessment or review of the property's past uses, prior to acquiring title, they may not be culpable. The exact legal definition of "due diligence" is beyond the scope of this report. A-9 , 1 ------I' i i i PART III ARCHAEOLOGICAL RESOURCES Table of Contents Introduction 3-1 Archaeological Resources ofthe Mackinaw Watershed 3-5 References 3-31 List of Figures Figure 1. All Archaeological Components 3-8 Figure 2. Unidentified Prehistoric Archaeological Components 3-9 Figure 3. Paleo-Indian Archaeological Components 3-10 Figure 4. Unidentified Archaic Archaeological Components 3-11 Figure 5. Early Archaic Archaeological Components 3-12 Figure 6. Middle Archaic Archaeological Components 3-13 Figure 7. Late Archaic Archaeological Components 3-14 Figure 8. Unidentified Woodland Archaeological Components 3-15 Figure 9. Early Woodland Archaeological Components 3-16 Figure 10. Middle Woodland Archaeological Components 3-17 Figure 11. Late Woodland Archaeological Components 3-18 Figure 12. Mississippian Archaeological Components 3-19 Figure 13. Upper Mississippian Archaeological Components 3-20 Figure 14. Protohistoric Archaeological Components 3-21 Figure 15. Unidentified Historic Archaeological Components 3-22 Figure 16. Historic Native American Archaeological Components 3-23 Figure 17. Historic Colonial Archaeological Components 3-24 Figure 18. Historic Pioneer Archaeological Components 3-25 Figure 19. Historic Frontier Archaeological Components 3-26 Figure 20. Historic Early Industrial Archaeological Components 3-27 Figure 21. Historic Urban Industrial Archaeological Components 3-28 Figure 22. Historic Postwar Archaeological Components 3-29 List of Tables Table 1. Chronology for Illinois Culture History 3-2 Table 2. Archaeological Resources in the Mackinaw River Assessment Watersheds 3-6 Introduction Illinois has long been the subject of archaeological research, largely because of the extraordinary record of human civilization found along its many rivers and streams and, to a lesser extent, in upland settings. Over the past century, archaeologists have developed a general framework ofculture history for the 12,000 years of human habitation in the state (Table 1) and through their research they have developed a corresponding body of information about human culture and earth history, including data about climate, plant and animal communities, and landscape evolution. llIinois culture history is divided into a series ofperiods, each period represents fundamentally different cultures or ways oflife as indicated by material culture or artifacts. The documentation ofarchaeological resources or sites, i.e., places where artifacts are found, provides the opportunity to further refine our understanding ofthe past and to explore how human culture has developed in the face ofboth environmental and social challenges. In brief, to the best of our knowledge human history in Illinois begins with the arrival of Native Americans during the waning stages of the last Ice Age. During the Paleo-Indian period, people lived in an environment very different from that typical ofthe state today. It was characterized by coniferous forests and many animal species such as mammoth, mastodon, and others that are now extinct or resident in other regions. Paleo-Indian sites are rare, small, and yield few artifacts. Based mostly on archaeological research elsewhere in North America, we know Paleo-Indian peoples were hunters and gatherers completely dependent on seasonal variations in food. During the Archaic Period, Native Americans continued their hunting and gathering practices using spears and spear-throwers, but by the end of the period they were cultivating several native plants for seeds. Along many ofIllinois' larger rivers there is evidence for more substantial, fairly permanent communities from which people embarked on hunting and gathering trips into upland settings. The Archaic Period begins with the advent ofa modem climate regime, but one marked with a prolonged period ofwarmer and drier climate (ca. 6,000 - 2,000 B.C.) which ushered in the expansion of prairie to the interior ofthe state. At the same time, we note that Native American settlements cluster along streams and around other permanent bodies of water. Hallmarks of the Woodland Period include greater dependence on cultivated plants, the establishment oflong-lasting villages often associated with the construction ofcemetery mounds, long distance trade to acquire a variety of materials from obsidian to marine shells, and the invention and widespread use of pottery vessels. During the later part of the Woodland period, com becomes a food staple for the first time, and the bow and arrow becomes the weapon ofchoice. 3-1 Table 1. Chronology for D1inois culture history. Period Sub-Period Calendar Years (Dates indicate beginning ofperiod) Postwar A.D. 1946 Urban Industrial A.D. 1901 Early Industrial A.D. 1871 Frontier A.D. 1841 Pioneer A.D. 1781 Colonial A.D. 1650 Native American A.D. 1650 Historic A.D. 1650 Protohistoric A.D. 1500 Upper Mississippian Oneota A.D. 1400 Mississippian A.D. 900 Late Woodland A.D. 300 Middle Woodland B.C. 200 Early Woodland B.C. 1,000 Woodland B.C. 1,000 Late Archaic B.C. 3,000 Middle Archaic B.C. 6,000 Early Archaic B.C. 8,000 Archaic' B.C. 8,000 Paleoindian B.C. 10,000 Prehistoric Unidentified During the Mississippian Period we see the development of complex societies with substantial gardens ofcorn, squash, and other cultivated plants, and a powerful ruling class who oversaw monumental public works projects, including the construction oflarge . earthen mounds situated in the center of major towns. Mississippian culture spread throughout Mississippi River valley and its tributaries and into the southeastern portion of the United States and affected other groups of people well outside this heartland. In general, Upper Mississippian and Protohistoric Iifeways are not well documented. Although some elements ofMississippian Period culture such as com gardening persist, others such as large-scale public works wane. During this period cultivated beans are added to the diet. The arrival ofthe French in the late 17th century provides for the first time written accounts ofNative American and European lifeways on the American frontier. With this record comes the identification of tribes and a more detailed documentation ofeveryday 3-2 life. The Colonial and Pioneer periods bring an increasing presence ofEuropeans and Americans into the Illinois country and with it conflict. The conflict culminates in the early 19th century with the brief but decisive Black Hawk War, after which tribes were required to move west ofthe Mississippi River. Written history does not adequately record many aspects ofdaily life. We have learned that archaeological investigations can provide greater insight into the past that supplements and expands historic accounts. Increasingly, archaeologists are exploring the material record ofthe last two centuries to provide a more comprehensive view ofhuman history, whether it be ofNative American or early settler's occupation sites. 3-3 Archaeological Resources of the Mackinaw Watershed When compared with other areas ofIllinois, archaeologists have done relatively little work in the Mackinaw River Assessment Watershed (MRAW). Virtually all ofthe research conducted to date has consisted ofidentifYjng and documenting sites (Jelks 1971, 1972; Wiant 1974; Wiant et al. 1975, Ferguson and Warren 1992). Excavation has been limited to a few sites in the upper reach ofthe watershed (McGowan and Hutchison 1992; Kriesa 1994). The 527 recorded sites (Figure 1), ranging in age from Paleo-Indian (circa 10,000 B.C.) to Post-World War II (after 1946), provide only a sketchy perspective of regional culture history. The first systematic archaeological surveys in the watershed occurred from 1971 to 1975 as part ofthe joint U.S. Park Service - Illinois Department ofConservation Historic Sites Survey (HSS). The purpose ofthe HSS was to identifY significant archaeological resources for future management objectives. In general, field work was limited to the spring ofthe year, and focused on cultivated fields that could be inspected by pedestrian reconnaissance, a process of systematically walking across cultivated fields searching for and collecting artifacts (Jelks 1971, 1972; Wiant 1974; Wiant et a!. 1975). Local artifact collectors were also interviewed to determine the location of sites. Field work concentrated on the lower two-thirds ofthe watershed and bluff crests overlooking the flood plain. Inspection ofcut banks along the river indicated that much ofthe flood plain was blanketed by modem alluvium. In fact, along some stretches ofthe river over three feet of alluvium cover the early 19th-century land surface making pedestrian reconnaissance ofthese stretches ofthe flood plain a futile activity. Also noteworthy are two projects conducted in the middle reach ofthe MRAW, including the joint Illinois State Museum - Illinois State University study ofthe FAP-412 highway corridor between Normal and LaSalle (Ferguson and Warren 1991) and the University of Illinois Public Service Archaeology Program work at Evergreen Lake (phillippe 1991; McGowan and Hutchinson 1992; Kriesa 1994). Excavation ofthe Evergreen Lake #2 site (lIMLI5) provided limited insight into Late Archaic occupation ofthe region. A total of527 archaeological sites are documented in the MRAW (Table 2). Some ofthe sites have more than one cultural component and thus, a total of 560 components have been recorded. Of these, most (48%) are culturally indeterminate prehistoric sites (Figure 2), i.e., no cultural diagnostic artifacts have been found at the site. Only one Paleo-Indian site (0.2%) has been discovered in the watershed to date (Figure 3). Among the other culturally affiliated prehistoric sites, those attributed to the Archaic period account for 17% (Figures 4 - 7), while Woodland (11.3%)(Figures 8 - 11) and Mississippian (3%) sites (Figure 12) are less common. No Upper Mississippian or Protohistoric sites have 3-5 Table 2. Archaeological resources in the Mackinaw River Assessment Watershed. Period Sub-Period Calendar Years Number of (beginning of period) Components Postwar AD. 1946 2 Urban Industrial AD. 1901 3 Early Industrial AD. 1871 4 Frontier AD. 1841 2 Pioneer AD. 1781 1 Colonial AD. 1650 0 Native American AD. 1650 2 Historic Unidentified AD. 1650 114 Protohistoric AD. 1500 0 Upper Mississippian Oneota AD. 1400 0 Mississippian AD. 900 16 Late Woodland AD. 300 12 Middle Woodland B.C. 200 7 Early Woodland B.C. 1,000 2 Woodland Unidentified B.C. 1,000 29 Late Archaic B.C. 3,000 5 Middle Archaic B.C. 6,000 11 Early Archaic B.C. 8,000 17 Archaic Unidentified B.C. 8,000 61 Paleoindian B.C. 10,000 1 Prehistoric Unidentified 271 Total 560 been documented (Figures 13 - 14). The only substantive analysis of prehistoric sites in the region was limited to the those documented along the FAP-412 corridor (Ferguson and Warren 1992). More detailed information about the prehistory ofthe MRAW will require further analysis of the artifact assemblag\;s. A total of 128 sites are classified as historic, most of which (I14 or 20%) are of indeterminate age (Figure 15). Of the total number of historic sites, only 2 (1.5%) are Native American sites (Figure· 16), the remainder are American farmsteads (98.5%) ranging in age from Pioneer to Post-World War II (Figures 17 - 22). In general, historic archaeological resources are under-represented because they were not systematically documented during the HS S work. As noted above for prehistoric sites, additional information about the historic sites in the MRAW will require further analysis of the artifact assemblages. 3-6 At present, the data provide limited but important insights into the past. For example, Museum archaeologists documented differences in the distribution of Archaic sites found along FAP-4l2 highway corridor. Early Archaic sites (ca. 10,000 - 8,000 B.C.) were more common on elevated landforms like end moraines. In contrast, younger sites were found first at lower elevations like ground moraines, and eventually in and along stream valleys. The shift in settlement location corresponds to changes in climate. About 6,000 B.C. the climate ofIllinois became warmer and drier. It is possible that a reduction in precipitation and development ofthe drainage network, decreased the amount ofsurface water and the height ofthe water table. At first, larger expanses ofland were available for occupation. Later, however, settlement focused on water sources available in streams (Ferguson and Warren 1992). Despite limited survey data, there is sufficient information to recognize that the MRAW has significant archaeological potential. Limited surveys, admittedly biased to a particular physiographic setting (i.e. bluff crests overlooking streams), have demonstrated the presence ofthe full range ofprehistoric and historic period habitation. Based on archaeological studies ofsimilar streams, it is anticipated that terraces ofthe Mackinaw River valley and some ofits larger tributaries have substantial archaeological potential, especially the downstream reach as it enters the Illinois River valley. Furthermore, it is likely that the thick alluvium on the flood plains may also conceal a number ofimportant sites. And finally, it is likely that the upland surface will be characterized by a moderate density of generally early (ca. 10,000 - 6,000 B.C.) prehistoric sites. Acknowledgments Dr. Harold Hassen, Dr. Dale Henning, and Mmjorie Schroeder provided helpful comments on drafts ofthis report. The illustrations were prepared by Dr. Erich Schroeder using the ARCIINFO-based Illinois Archaeological Site file. Nicholas Klobuchar, site file manager, also provided assistance. My thanks to them for their help. Errors or omissions in the report are the responsibility ofthe author alone. 3-7 5 o 5 10 15 Miles 5 o 5 10 15 20 IOlometers I o Archaeological site ( n = 527) IAS Database: March 21. 1997 Figure I. All archaeological components. s o s 10 1S Miles s o s 10 15 20 Kilometers I o Archaeological site (n = 271) IAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 2. Unidentified Prehistoric archaeological components. ,"., 5 o 5 10 15 Miles 5 o 5 10 15 20 Kilometers ! o Archaeological site ( n =1) IAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 3. Paleo-Indian archaeological components. 5 o 5 10 15 Miles 5 o 5 10 15 20 IOlometers o Archaeological site (n =61) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 4. Unidentified Archaic archaeological components. 5 0 5 10 15 Miles 5 0 5 10 15 20 Kilometers j o Archaeological site ( n = 17) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 5. Early Archaic archaeological components. ) 'I. ;"',.,_. 5 0 5 10 15 Miles 5 0 5 10 15 20 Kilometers o Archaeological site (n = 11) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 6. Middle Archaic archaeological components. 5 o 5 10 15 Miles 5 o 5 10 15 20 Kilometers I o Archaeological site ( n = 5) IAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 7. Late Archaic archaeological components. 5 0 5 10 15 Miles 5 0 5 10 15 20 Kilometers o Archaeological site ( n == 29) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 8. Unidentified Woodland archaeological components. '."~d J.-,. . --l"'~; 51='J"'~O~§jg5~;;;;~1~O"'E~15 Miles 5 0 5 10 15 20 Kilometers o Archaeological site ( n = 2) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 9. Early Woodland archaeological components. 5 0 5 10 15 Miles 5 0 5 10 15 20 Kilometers I o Archaeological site ( n = 7) LAS Database: Man:h 21, 1997 Figure 10. Middle Woodland an:haeologica1 components. ------ 5 0 5 10 15 Miles 5 0 5 10 15 20 Kilometers j o Archaeological site (n =12) IAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure II. Late Woodland archaeological components. 5 o 5 10 1S Miles 5 o 5 10 15 20 Kilometers I o Archaeological site (n = 16) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 12. Mississippian archaeological components. s o s 10 15 Miles s o S 10 15 20 Kilometers I o Archaeological site ( n = 0) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 13. Upper Mississippian archaeological components. s 0 5 10 15 Miles 5 0 5 10 1S 20 Kilometers o Archaeological site ( n = 0) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 'Figure 14. Protohistoric archaeological components. s o s 10 lS Miles s o s '0 15 20 Kilomoters 1 o Archaeological site (n:: 114) IAS Database: March 21,1997 Figure 15. Unidentified Historic archaeological components. 5 0 5 10 15 Miles 5 0 5 10 lS 20 Kilometers I o Archaeological site ( n =2) lAS Database: March 21. 1997 Figure 16. Historic Native American archaeological components. 5 o 5 10 15 Miles 5 o 5 10 15 20 Kilom8ters o Archaeological site ( n =0) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 17. Historic Colonial archaeological components. 5 o 5 10 1S Miles 5 o 5 10 15 2D Kilom~!"rs I o Archaeological site (n = I) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 18. Historic Pioneer archaeological components. 5 0 5 10 1S Miles 5 0 5 10 15 20 Kilometers I o Archaeological site ( n = 2) IAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 19. Historic Frontier archaeological components. s o s 10 15 Miles s o s 10 15 20 Kilometers j o Archaeological site ( n =4) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 20. Historic Early Industrial archaeological components. 5 0 5 10 15 Miles 5 0 5 10 15 20 Kilometers o Archaeological site ( n = 3) lAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 21. Historic Urban Industrial archaeological components. s o s 10 15 Miles s o S 10 15 20 Kilometers j o Archaeological site ( n = 2) IAS Database: March 21, 1997 Figure 22. Historic Postwar archaeological components. References Cited Anderson, C.J, D.E. Birkenholz, 1.R. Herkert, E.B. Jelks, 1.S. Phillippe, and A.R. Westover. 1985. A Natural and Cultural Resource Assessment ofthe Mackinaw River Basin, McLean, Tazewell, and Woodford Counties, Illinois. Submitted to the U.S. Army Corps ofEngineers, Rock Island District by Illinois State University, Department of Biological Sciences and Midwestern Archeological Research Center. Ferguson, J.A., and R.E. Warren (editors). 1992. Prairie Archaeology Volume II: Prehistoric Occupations Along Interstate-39 in North Central Illinois. Technical Report No. 93-396-11. Quaternary Studies Program, Illinois State Museum, Springfield. Jelks, E.B. 1971. An Archaeological Survey ofthe Upper Il1inois and Mackinaw River Valleys. In Preliminary Report of 1971 Historic Sites Survey Archaeological Reconnaissance of Selected Areas in the State ofIllinois: Part I, Summary Section A. Submitted to the Illinois Archaeological Survey by Illinois State University. Jelks, E.B. 1972. An Archaeological Survey of the Upper Il1inois and Mackinaw River Valleys. In Preliminary Report of 1972 Historic Sites Survey Archaeological Reconnaissance of Selected Areas in the State ofIllinois: Part I, Summary Section A. Submitted to the Illinois Archaeological Survey by Illinois State University. Kreisa, P.F. (compiler). 1994. Archaeological Excavations at Evergreen Lake Site #2 (1l-M1-15), McLean County, Illinois. Public Service Archaeology Program, Research Report No. 13. McGowan, KP. and D.L. Hutchinson. 1992. Investigations at Four Sites near Evergreen Lake, McLean County, Illinois. Public Service Archaeology Program Research Report NO.2. Department of Anthropology, University ofIlIinois, Urbana. Phillippe, J. 1991. Phase I Archaeological Survey ofProposed Raising ofLake Evergreen Reservoir. Midwestern Archaeological Research Center, Il1inois State University, Normal. Archaeological Survey Short Report dated July 17, 1991. Submitted to the Illinois Historic Preservation Agency for the City ofBloomington, Illinois. Weston, B.R. 1981. Upper Illinois River Unit (II) In Predictive Models in Illinois Archaeology: Report Summaries, edited by M.K Brown. Illinois Department of Conservation, Division ofHistoric Sites. Wiant, M.D. 1974. Project No.5, An Archaeological Survey ofthe UpperIllinois and Mackinaw River Valleys. In Preliminary Report of 1973 Historic Sites Survey Archaeological Reconnaissance of Selected Areas in the State ofIllinois: Part I, Summary Section A. Submitted to the Il1inois Archaeological Survey by Illinois State University. 3-31 Wiant, M.D., W.L. Minnerly, E.B. Jelks. 1975. Project No.5, An Archaeological Survey ofthe Upper Illinois and Mackinaw River Valleys. In Preliminary Report of 1974 Historic Sites Survey Archaeological Reconnaissance of Selected Areas in the State ofIllinois: Part I, Summary Section A. Submitted to the Illinois Archaeological Survey by Illinois State University. 3-32 PART IV EARLY ACCOUNTS OF THE ECOLOGY OF THE MACKINAW RIVER AREA ------_.__ ._- --- Table of Contents Introduction 4-I Mackinaw River '...... 4-1 Floods ...... ~ ...... 4-5 Mills ...... 4-7 Prairies and Groves ...... ,...... ,.. 4-8 Mclean County ...... 4-10 Tazewell County 4-13 Woodford County...... 4-19 Burr Oaks Grove and Sibley Lake 4-21 Lower Mackinaw River Sand Area...... 4-22 Bunches ...... 4-27 Thickets, Barrens, and Afforestation ...... 4-27 Springs 4-29 Early Farming ...... 4-30 Clearing Timber ...... 4-30 Breaking Prairie ...... 4-31 Draining Wetlands 4-32 Bluegrass ...... 4-33 Agricultural Pests ; ...... 4-35 Prairie Fires " 4-38 Fauna 4-42 Invertebrates ...... 4-42 Fishes 4-44 Amphibians and Reptiles 4-44 Birds and Mammals 4-47 Circle Hunts 4-60 Weather Extremes 4-62 Winter of the Deep Snow ...... , 4-62 Sudden Change 4-64 Extreme or Unseasonable Cold 4-65 Extreme or Unseasonable Heat 4-66 Drought ...... 4-67 Excessive Precipitation 4-67 Windstorms ...... , 4-69 Laments and Pleas for Nature Preservation 4-71 References Cited ...... 4-79 11'" <+77"- b oj Mackinaw River Area Minonk ' Watershed boundary Locations ofplaces Cazenovia Clayton I. ----Eureka. Town mentioned in the text. I Blue Mound Township , Roanoke ,I ___L __ Livingston EI Paso. I Gridley. ------,Chenoa. , Peoria. • Eureka I \ . R;. ~ I ,~-""_"'_"iK:;;=d:::""''fFe~~~_",,_..,...,. .,- ,,= II Ii 1, Lawndale Oop~y f~B'- 'F~II ',r~11"LSullivant ' Blue Mound : Anchor . ook. ~I Bloomington· Allin OldTown."'~ ~,Dawson , I I '" J. e::::' L10<_ () r d • i ----- ~ , I!; Malone Delavan- Boynton Hittle J L ...... ij__.__ --'-~--'-,=. Randolph Downs West I ='~l~I ~1 , :=L... i , Alleu-:~~~11 JL.: Ll' c Lea_ n _ .lb. '. .L_ __ -'3 _ .•.d J ; INTRODUCTION THESE PAGES PRESENT EARLY DESCRIPTIONS of the natural features and natural phenomena of the Mackinaw River valley and the immediately adjacent region. The Mackinaw River is a tributary of the Illinois River in central Illinois. Its valley lies primarily in McLean, Tazewell, and Woodford Counties. The Mackinaw River watershed also encompasses parts of Ford, Livingston, and Mason Counties. The descriptions have been derived largely from pioneer accounts and from the writings of early historians.' The quoted materials are true to their original published sources, which are listed in the References Cited. Spelling, punctuation, and grammar have not been standardized or corrected in the quotations. MACKINAW RIVER THE EARLIEST KNOWN MENTION of the Mackinaw River is from June of 1722, when the Sieur Fran<;<>is Philippe Renault led 12 French soldiers up the Illinois River in search of copper deposits that were reputed to occur somewhere in the Illinois River valley. One of the soldiers, Sublieutenant Legardeur Delisle, wrote in his journal for June 9, ... we left before daybreak in order to reach Pemitewy t. . .. We found Apple River, which is four leagues below Pemitewyon the right in going up. 16 This location - about ten miles below Peoria and on the east bank of the Illinois River confirms that Delisle was writing about the stream that we now know as the Mackinaw River. The Frenchmen ventured up the Illinois River as far as Starved Rock, searching unsuccessfully for copper that was supposed to be found at a coal outcrop. The entourage headed back down the Illinois River on June 18: Thursday the 18th, we left the Rock without the Indians that the chiefs had promised us for showing us the places where there were mines at Pemitewy and at Apple River. Five Indians came to me to ask passage to come to Cahokia, and I took them aboard believing that they would serve us as well as the others to point out to us the places where copper had been found . • Research for this report was conducted primarily at the Illinois Historical Survey at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. John Hoffmann and other staff members at the Illinois Historical Survey were a great help to the effort. Beverly Miller, Lisa Bell, Paula Hamman, Suzanne Wagner, and Connie Carroll of Ecological Services took part in various stages of preparation of the manuscript. Lisa Bell made the map. t Pemitewy (often spelled Pimit&>ui or some similar variant) was the name of Peoria Lake as well as the hamlet on its shore. June 25 found them back at Peoria. They continued down the Illinois River until they arrived again at the mouth of the Apple River (or Mackinaw): Having reached Apple River we asked our Indians if it was possible to go into that river and to go up it very far. They told us that it was impossible to go a quarter-league without finding the shoals that would bar us the route. Never theless we went in there and found to be true what the Indians had told us. We asked them if they did not know where copper had been found in that river. They told us that they knew nothing of it. Seeing that, we continued our journey and stopped to pass the night twelve leagues below Pemitewy. The explorers gave up their search and headed back to Fort Chartres, arriving at this fort on the Mississippi River on July 1, 1722. FIFTY-ONE YEARS LATER the region was under British rule, and Patrick Kennedy set out with an exploring party in search of a copper deposit that was said to be somewhere along a tributary of the Illinois River. On August 6, 1773 the expedition passed the Seseme Quian (Spoon River) and the Michilimackinac (Mackinaw River). Mr. Kennedy wrote in his journal, ... Set out early, and at 11 o'Clock we passed the Seseme-Quian river, it is on the western side of the Illinois river. . . . At sun-set we passed a river called Michilimackinac. It is on the south-eastern side of the Illinois River; is 50 yards wide, navigable for about 90 miles, and has between 30 and 40 small islands at its mouth; which at a distance appear like a small village. On the banks of this river is plenty of good timber, viz. Red and white Cedar, Pine, • Maple, Walnut, &c. and finding some pieces of coal, I was induced to walk up the river a few miles, tho' notfar enough, to reach a coal mine. t In many places I also found clinkers, which inclined me to think that a coal mine, not far distant, was on fire, and I have since heard, there was. - The land is high on the eastern bank of the river, but on the western are large plains or meadows, extending as far as can be seen, covered with fine grass. This river is 195 miles from the Missisippi. 24 • Red cedars (Juniperus virginiana) occur on bluffs along the Mackinaw River. Patrick Kennedy's report of white cedar might possibly have been a reference to the northern white cedar (7huja occidentalis). A single tree of this rare species was found by Frederick Brendel in the middle 1800s, along the Illinois River several miles north of the mouth of the Mackinaw. Consequently the possibility of white cedars along the Mackinaw River cannot be ruled out. Kennedy's mention of pine is questionable, for there are no confirmed reports of native pines from this part of Illinois. t During Patrick Kennedy's time, an outcrop of valuable minerals was called a mine even if it had never been mined. 4-2 Patrick Kennedy walked only a few miles up the Mackinaw River; he relied on second hand information for part of his description. NINIAN EDWARDS, Governor of the Northwest Territory in 1812, enlisted field agents to obtain details of the water route from St. Louis to the Straits of Mackinac on the Great Lakes. In 1870 his son Ninian W. Edwards published Governor Edwards' notes about the route. The account proceeds up the Illinois River and locates the Spoon River, naming it Shee-shee-quen. Continuing up the Illinois River, the next entry reads, "Little Makina is five leagues higher, on the south side; the Kickapoos have a village here." The Little Makina is Quiver Creek, which drains the broad lowland south of the Mackinaw valley. The Governor did not mention the Mackinaw River by name, but simply stated, "The river is four leagues higher on the north side and one league below Peoria." 14 OTHER EARLY WRITERS have recorded their impressions of the Mackinaw River. For instance Eliza Steele boated past the mouth of the river in 1840 and noted, "The Mackinaw is a clear stream, having rich bottom land, bounded by bluffs covered with white oak and cedar." 36 Joseph Cochrane wrote in 1876, "A few miles below Peoria lake the Mackinaw river comes into the Illinois on the east side, from the south. It is about one hundred miles in length, and was formerly boatable for a considerable distance." 11 An 1879 history of Mason County states, "Three miles below the city of Pekin, the Mackinaw comes in from its source, some eighty miles east, a turbulent stream of no use except for drainage. " 33 THE FOLLOWING PARAGRAPHS provide additional testimony about the character of the Mackinaw River and its tributaries in earlier days. The accounts generally proceed down stream from the headwaters. THE 1905 History ofTazewell County notes that the Mackinaw River is the longest stream in the county: "It rises on the farm of Wolf Greisheim, four miles southeast of Anchor, McLean county. It starts from a spring which was never known to go dry." 2 ACCORDING TO THE 1908 History ofMcLean County, The Mackinaw River is generally said to have its source in Anchor Township, though as a matter of fact the head waters of this stream come into this town from Ford County on the east. A small creek, sometimes called Skunk Creek, which has its origin in Sullivan Township, Ford County, and which requires a bridge at least twenty feet in length at the county line, is really the head-waters of the Mackinaw. 3 Henline Creek is the largest branch in the headwaters of the Mackinaw. The 1908 History ofMcLean County describes this creek in Lawndale Township: "Henline Creek crosses the township from east to southwest. It was formerly often called Henline Slough, and for much of its length was covered with a growth of coarse grass, but it has long had a definite channel. " 4-3 The History ofMcLean County goes on say, The Mackinaw and its tributaries, in the upper reaches, generally have shallow channels, seldom more than 25 or 30 feet in depth. In many places the smaller streams are mere drainage ditches. The channel of the main stream deepens, until, where it leaves the area of the county, the bluffs rise from 60 to 70 feet above the level of the river. • THE UPPER REACHES OF THE MACKINAW RIvER and many of its tributary creeks have been ditched. A 1976 history of Anchor and vicinity 5 reviews the initial efforts to dredge and channelize the upper Mackinaw. According to this book, the project was planned to drain 72,000 acres; and "Due to the straightening and deepening, it was expected the . Mackinaw would empty itself 18 times in the same length of time it formerly took to drain itself." Henline Creek, the largest headwater tributary of the Mackinaw, was dredged in 1910. The main stem of the Mackinaw was ditched downstream to a point two miles below Anchor in 1920-21. To this day, the balance of the river remains largely unstraightened except near its mouth. < THE MACKINAW RIVER TRAVERSES A SANDY PLAIN in its final miles before emptying into the Illinois River. The 1879 History ofTazewell County describes the river in Cincinnati Township, which embraces part of this sandy lowland: There are two streams in the township, one of which is of considerable size, and both of them have cut some queer freaks. The larger is the Mackinaw river. It enters the township near the center of section 19 and flows in a northeasterly course to the Illinois. Near the southwestern corner of section 8 it divides and what is known as the main stream courses northward and has its outlet on section 5, and the "cut-off" strikes the river from section 9. What was formerly the main river, after leaving the place of forking, on section 8, is now scarcely a brook, and, indeed, is dry much of the time. The cut-off, which a few years ago was the smaller, now carries the main current. Another of its freaks is noticed of late years. A short distance from the place where it enters the township, a branch has started from it and flows over the prairie through Spring Lake township, to the Illinois. Several years ago there was noticed a low flat place through this portion of the prairie, but no indication of a running stream. The strong current of the Mackinaw, however, is enabled to force its way through the sandy soil of this region and make a stream where it will. to This book discusses a smaller stream that parallels the final several miles of the Mackinaw before each stream enters the Illinois River: The other principal stream is known as Lost creek. It derives its name from the fact of it losing itself in the sandy soil. It will course along, a clear, flowing • When they mentioned "channels," the editors were referring to the stream vaHey with its bordering slopes-rather than referring to the channel that is contained between streambanks. 4-4 stream, and soon disappear. In some places not a drop of water can be seen on the surface during the entire summer season. It again comes to the surface and forms a current. • Floods ALTHOUGH RUNOFF IS ACCELERATED by farming and urbanization, floods are not a uniquely modem phenomenon. Even during the pioneer era -before much of the Mack inaw River valley had been transformed from wilderness to farmland-the river period ically rose high enough to spill over its banks and submerse its floodplain. In addition to over-bank flooding by the river, the uplands sometimes were inundated by rainwater and snowmelt because there were not enough well-developed channels to convey water quickly to the river. The dense prairie vegetation impeded runoff; this sometimes caused the upland plains to be flooded because water could not flow quickly to the streams. IN THE WINTER OF 1821-22 Nathan Dillon's family pioneered along the Mackinaw River north of Delavan. Mr. Dillon recounted, "When we arrived at the Mackinaw the ice was running in large quantities, and the stream hardly fordable ...." When some ofDillon's party went to cross the Mackinaw during a prolonged rainy spell later that winter, they found that ".the water overflowed the banks," and they had to build a raft to carry their wagons across the river. In May of 1824 Nathan Dillon was again stopped by the rain swollen Mackinaw River, but he managed to cross with the aid of an Indian's canoe. 10 JOHN THOMPSON WAS ONE OF THE FIRST white men to live along the Mackinaw River, beginning in 1829. A biographical sketch of Mr. Thompson states, "The Mackinaw is a very uncertain stream, and sometimes rises very high, and Mr. Thompson built a canoe to be used in this stream when it overflowed its channel. It was used several years for this purpose until a bridge was built. " 13 THE DEEP SNOW OF 1830-31 (see page 4-62) resulted in widespread flooding in central 11linois: "In the spring of 1831, when the snow melted, the face of the country was covered with water. The little creeks became great rivers, and all intercourse between the settlers was stopped; for people could have traveled better with steamboats than with ox teams." 13 Twin Grove was on the crest of the Bloomington Moraine, on a high divide between the Mackinaw River and Sugar Creek. Despite its elevated position, Twin Grove flooded when the Deep Snow turned to water: "During the spring after the deep snow the ground was so flooded with water that immense logs were floated off from the edge of Twin • The lower reaches of Lost Creek and the Mackinaw River run roughly parallel to each other and about four miles apart for more than 10 miles. Lost Creek is not in the Mackinaw River watershed because Lost Creek enters the Illinois River directly rather than joining the Mackinaw. 4-5 Grove to the prairie. These were the trunks of trees which had been blown down by a hurricane a few years before. " 13 John Lindley emigrated from Kentucky to McLean County in March of 1831, when the deep snow was melting and ". . . the country was a sea of water from one to three feet in depth." Mr. Lindley notect that "this was the case more particularly in Macoupin and Sangamon Counties." 13 ACCORDING TO THE 1879 History of Tazewell County, the spring and summer of 1835 brought a continued succession of hard rains. As a consequence . . . The Illinois and tributaries are said to have been higher than at the breaking up of the big snow in the spring of 1831, or any time since. '" The great prairies, then uncultivated and undrained, were a vast lake, and fish were plenty in almost every locality. The large ponds found here and there over the prairies in an early day contained fish large enough for domestic purposes. These ponds would dry up in the summer but in spring-time were well filled with water, and how the finny tribe managed to get there is a query the "old settler" cannot answer in a more satisfactory way than "they rained down when small." 10 IN DECEMBER 1836 JAMES HARLAN had to cross the Mackinaw to reach a mill. Accord ing to his daughter, "Rain had been falling for some time, and father feared the Mackinaw river would be so swollen it could not be crossed. . .. The river had risen so fast the horses could get over only by swimming." 37 In March 1833 Hiram Havens managed to cross the river to reach a mill on Panther Creek; but upon his return "... it was impossible to re-cross the Mackinaw, as it had risen to an enormous height." Havens was stranded by the flood for 17 days. 13 James Adams came to live along the Mackinaw River in Lexington Township in 1834; he later summed up four decades of observations by saying that the Mackinaw is "nearly always difficult and dangerous to cross in the spring of the year or during a thaw in the winter." 13 KING SOLOMON CUNNINGHAM spoke of two exceptionally wet times in McLean County, "when the water in the creeks and rivers rose to enormous heights." While reminiscing in the early l870s, Mr. Cunningham recalled that the Mackinaw was higher in 1844 than it had ever been known before or since; another high-water year was 1858. 13 A contemporary ofKing Cunningham, Uriah Hodge ofDanvers, said with regard tothe year 1844, "Sugar Creek near Mackinaw timber in Tazewell County, was that year three miles wide. The Mackinaw was that year deeper than ever before known by white men. The Kickapoo and Salt Creek were eight miles apart near Lincoln; but that year some parties crossed from one to another in a canoe." 13 Benjamin Wheeler's home in Hudson Town ship was stranded: "In 1844, the year of the great rains, he was at one time entirely hemmed in. The Six Mile Creek overflowed the bottom lands, and Mr. Wheeler's house stood on an island. The creek was higher than ever before, except the spring of 1831, when the deep snow went off." 13 4-6 EVEN THE UPPERMOST MACKINAW RIVER rose high enough to hamper travel or otherwise cause difficulties during the pioneer era. In 1858 a schoolhouse was erected on a desirable wooded site along the river near Colfax; but, "The Mackinaw River caused problems, so the school was moved about a mile south in 1867 " Another school was built close to the river southwest of Anchor in 1858; but, " swamp land, a result of poor drainage along the Mackinaw, created problems." This schoolhouse was moved three times, once being placed on two-foot concrete pillars to help avoid high water. 5 CLOSE TO THE MOUTH OF THE MACKINAW RIVER in Spring Lake Township, the water was often so deep that it could not be forded. According to information provided by one of the areas's first white farmers, "There was no bridge across the Mackinaw, and the settlers had to depend upon the slow-going ferry of John Bequeaith, and when the water was high, it was impossible to cross even on this." 10 WILLIAM LAWRENCE OF RURAL HUDSON awoke on May 10, 1880, to "one of the biggest floods on the grounds we had ever seen." He started on the road to Hudson: "It was an awful journey, all the streams were roaring and boiling and water spread far out on the sides. At several bridges the water was running over the banks for long distances." 22 THE 1905 History ofTazewell County reports that Farm Creek is "especially notable for its rapid rise and great destructiveness in times of high water." The book continues, "The same is measurably true of the Mackinaw, and to the treacherous character of its waters in flood time are due numerous deaths among those who have braved its dangers. " 2 Mills WATER MILLS REQUIRE a dependable and sufficient flow of water. The 1908 History of McLean County points out, "The large body of timber and the large amount of water in the Mackinaw made that stream a favorite place for mills." Considering all of the stream systems in county, the editors of this volume observed, "There were some 30 or 40 water mills in McLean County at one time or another." 3 An 1827 advertizement for real estate along the Mackinaw River near the Tazewell County line says the following: The site and the country connected with it, seem to furnish no cause of alarm in relation to health; there being no ponds, lakes, or swamps in the neighborhood. The ...• of the Mackinaw are very narrow, solid and generally elevated above the overflowing of high water. The clear and rapid current of the river dashing on alternate beds of rocks and gravel relieves it from the . . . of disease and . . . above any stream . . . of the Illinois River for mills and every descrip tion of machinery. " 19 • Omitted sections are illegible. 4-7 ------~ --~- The SangamonJournal for June 10, 1837, printed an article about the town of Mackinaw in eastern Tazewell County: "Mackinaw has a beautiful town site. The scenery about it is highly picturesque. Mackinaw River, half a mile distant, furnishes a permanent and extensive water power. There are five or six mill sites within two and a half miles of town on which there are at this time a gristmill and mills running fifteen saws." 19 Between 1835 and 1838, prospective millers received permits from the McLean County commissioners to build three mills in Money Creek Township: on the Mackinaw River (section 11), and on Money Creek (sections 7 and 29). 3 Several mill sites were located on the Mackinaw in adjacent Hudson Township: ., . Mr. Petitt built a saw-mill on the E. 1/2 of the N.W. 1/4 of Section 4, and the mill was run ten or fifteen years. In 1836 J. Moats obtained leave of the County Court to build a mill on the W. 1/2, Lot 2, N.W. 1/4, Section 2.• This was on the east side of the Mackinaw in the present Pastime Park. The dam was three or four rods north of the Witt mill. It was a saw-mill with possibly a small set of stones. About 1845 or '46 George Mason built the old grist-mill on the W. 1/2, Lot 2, Section 4, on the Mackinaw. He sold to Hiram and Ira Havens. It burned down, but was rebuilt and run until about 1890. 3 Farther upstream in Lexington Township: "In the fall of 1831 William Haner built a horse-mill on the Mackinaw. In 1836 John Patton built a water-mill on the Mackinaw and shortly after John Haner built a grist-mill on the same stream, and about 1840 his son John added a saw-mill. " 3 PRAIRIES AND GROVES NINEVAH SHAW KEPT A DIARY IN 1832 while he was a soldier during the Black Hawk War. His daybook provides glimpses of the Grand Prairie during the era when it was being claimed by white settlers. An unnamed companion of Shaw also wrote in the diary; in the following paragraphs, the anonymous soldier's entries are in italics. Shaw's group began their march in Clark County on June 9, 1832; four days later found them in southeastern McLean County: June 13th. Marched to Chineys Grove 16, t from thence to Oldtown Grove * 9 miles & encamped for the night. • The correct location is section 4. t That is, they had marched 16 miles to Cheney's Grove. The village of Saybrook is in the remnants of Cheney's Grove, in Cheneys Grove Township. *Old Town Grove stretched for miles along the Bloomington Moraine southeast of Blooming ton, through Old Town Township into Dawson Township. The troops camped in the vicinity of present-day Moraine View Slate Park. 4-8 Chineys grove a beautiful grove and Rich land Old town grove Rich land and beatiful Prairie ... 14th Marched to Smith's Grove, on money creek' 12 miles from thence to Mackinaw 15 miles & encamped. Smith grove very beautiful Prairie and timber rich land Mackinaw hand some river timber on plenty land on the river thin t June 15 Marched to Panther Grove, *10 miles, from thence to Crow creek' 14 miles & encamped. Panthe grove beautiful timber blew ash § & walnut Crow creek nasty looking stream land rich timber plenty 40 After taking part in the war in Wisconsin, Ninevah Shaw and several other men headed south along the route that they had taken north in June. Shaw's unnamed companion recorded the following notes, beginning on August 19: 19 March to pigeon grove" from thence to panther grove from thence to Mackinaw from thence to Money creek grove from panther grove to Macinaw the flies were very bad on Money creek the farms are beautiful and land very good August 20 Mach from money creek grove to Chineys Grove 20from thence to Sangamon 16 miles and encamp From Money creek to Chineys is 20 miles all Prairie this was a hot day from Chineys we traveled 15 miles after dark on account ofthe flies • Money Creek is a major northward-flowing tributary of the Mackinaw River. Smith·s Grove was northeast of Bloomington in Towanda Township. t That is, the hilly terrain near the Mackinaw had "thin" soil, unlike the deep, productive soil on level ground. *Panther Grove bordered Panther Creek, a southward-flowing tributary of the Mackinaw River west of EI Paso. , Crow Creek flows westward through southern Marshall County to the Illinois River. § Blew ash = blue ash (Fraxinus quadrangulata), an indicator of fertile soil. •• There was a passenger pigeon roost in southeastern Marshall County during the 1800s. According to the soldier's itinerary, this pigeon grove may have been on a branch of Crow Creek. 4-9 At this point the Black Hawk WaI veterans had retraced their route across the Mackinaw River valley and the Bloomington Moraine to the valley of the Sangamon. McLean County IN 1903 PETER FOLSOM AUTHORED an article titled, "The Natural Groves of McLean County." He introduced the topic by writing, The first settlers of McLean county found the country mostly prairie, but groves of timber to the amount of about one-eighth of the entire surface were scattered at intervals, which gave a paIk-like appemance to the whole country. These groves had tolerably sharp outlines, with but few points where scattering trees extended into the prairie, but as settlers clustered around the edges of the timber, the boundaries of the groves became changed until at the present time it is difficult to trace the outlines of the timber. 17 Mr. Folsom provided the following list of trees indigenous to McLean County: The burr, white, red, black, and chinkapin swamp oak, "linn, t honey locust, hackberry, coffee nut, sassafras, ironwood, black cherry, choke cherry, com mon or white elm, slippery elm, black and white walnut, shellbark hickory, pignut hickory, sugaI maple, soft or white maple, *white ash, blue ash, sycamore, cottonwood, mulberry, aspen, buckeye, box elder-red bud, dog wood, black haw, red haw, willow, service berry, sumach-prickly ash, blue " The identity of chinkapin swamp oak cannot be sunnised. t Linn = eastern basswood (Tilia americana). *Common or white elm = American elm (Ulmus americana); black and white walnut = .black walnut (Jug/ans nigra) and white walnut or butternut (J. cinerea); shellbark hickory = shagbark hickory (Carya avata); soft or white maple = silver maple (Acer saccharinum). 4-10 ------ beech or leatherwood, • paw paw, crab-apple, wild plum, elder, and wahoo. Wild currant, gooseberry and hazle are among the shrubs. The soil in the timber is a little different from the prairie soil, the former being a lighter color and more inclined to be clayey and it is generally regarded as being not so rich as the prairie. As the groves are gradually cleared and converted into farming lands and artificial groves and scattering trees increase on the prairie, it will soon become difficult to determine from the appearance of the country the boundaries of the original groves. Peter Folsom was the County Surveyor of McLean County. In 1856 he prepared a map showing the groves of the county, based on township plats prepared by the U.S. Public Land Survey. A reduced copy of this 1856 map is bound with Folsom's article. A COMPANION ARTICLE by George W. Minier is titled "Groves of McLean County." The Reverend Minier provided the names of 20 groves in McLean County, including White Oak Grove, which was the name for "timber along the Mackinaw." Minier deplored the destruction of the groves and prairie: In the first settlement of your county the tall grasses, now almost obliterated, kept the soil from washing away. The trees along the head waters of your streams; with their interwoven network of rootlets held the sacred gift of bountiful Heaven, in the almost exhaustless fertility of your soil from wasting and washing away. Every thoughtful man now sees by the deep ditches, the washouts on his farms, that some part of the soil has started for the Gulf of Mexico via Mackinaw, Illinois and Mississippi rivers. 27 The article includes a list of trees native to McLean County: In this county we have several species of deciduous trees, and so far as known to myself but one evergreen. Of course I mean natives, not exotics. Of the oaks (quercus) we have four varieties. Of maples (acers) three. Of elms (ulmus) two. Of walnuts Guglans) two. Omitting botanical names we proceed to enumerate: mulberry, hackberry, sycamore, honey locust, poplar, aspen, cottonwood, linden or basswood, coffeenut, hickory, ash, even the willow and sassafras attain to the dignity of a tree. We will not stop to speak particularly of the shrublike plants, the crab-apple, gorgeous in its spring blossoms, rival ling in beauty and fragrance many a cultivated species. The wild plum, thorn apple, black haw, and even the despised elder. THE 1879 "History of McLean County" observes of Gridley Township, "It is all prairie except the four or five sections along the Mackinaw, which were formerly well timbered with oak, black walnut, maple, ash, basswood and such other kinds of timber as grow • Blue beech or leatherwood = musclewood (Carpinus caroliniana). 4-11 naturally in this part of the State." Regarding Henline Creek in Lawndale Township, "The timber along the stream is of the varieties usually found in this portion of the State - oaks, black-walnut and hickory predominating." 26 THE 1908 History ofMcLean County describes the pioneer-era landscape thus: The country when first seen by the early pioneers consisted of gently rolling prairies, with here and there, chiefly along the streams, a grove of timber. In these groves were found white oak, red oak, maple, hickory, black walnut, ash, elm, butternut, buckeye, sassafras, and a variety of smaller growths. Much of the prairie land was wet and marshy, especially where the surface is only slightly rolling or nearly level, and here ponds were of frequent occurrence also. . . . The natural vegetation of McLean County consisted mainly of the annual growths of the groves and prairies, though there were a few ponds in the groves none of them deserving the name of lakes, and there were many swamps or sloughs in the prairie. 3 The text then lists the species that are in Peter Folsom's 1903 article (see page 4-10). The author observed, "There are a few varieties to be added to this list. " The red cedar grows sparingly along the Mackinaw in the northwestern part of Hudson Township, and in some places in Money Creek Township. In the northwestern part of Hudson Township, near the Mackinaw and very near the Woodford County line, is a place called Cedar Bluff. • One of the early settlers of the Hudson colony, Mr. J.D. Gildersleeve, found red cedar trees large enough to saw into thin boards, from which he made water buckets. There are possibly a few other varieties of trees not included above, among which may be the hop hom-beam and another kind of hickory. . . . There are still some varieties of native aquatic plants growing in our creeks and along the Mackinaw River, but those are found only in a few places. There are still a few ponds which do not dry up, but they are very few indeed. One is in Section 5, in Allin Township, where there are several acres of peat, and some standing water, in which may be found some water growing plants. This volume also states, "The prairie land in Martin Township is as good as can be found generally, though near the timber in the northern part,some of it is rather inferior, while some of the timber tracts are of moderate quality. " • Another Cedar Bluff occurred much farther downstream on the Mackinaw: "Every spring and fall the Kickapoo and Delaware Indians, in passing to and from Peoria (then called Ft. Clark), camped on Cedar Bluff, four miles northwest of Delavan, where they sought game in the timber that skirts the Mackinaw River" (Biographical Publishing Co., 1894). 4-12 DAVID COX CAME TO BLOOMING GROVE· in 1826. Nearly half a century later, a local historian interviewed the old pioneer. Mr. Cox tells of some peculiar vegetables, called the ramps, t which formerly grew in the timber. They tasted like onions, and were liked by the cattle, but gave a bad flavor to the milk. They flavored everything they touched and were very disagreeable, but are now nowhere to be seen. 13 Late in life Mrs. Cox recalled, "... when I wanted a nice dress, something better than father felt able to buy, I would take my basket and hoe and hunt through the woods and dig ginseng, which was dried and sold." CLAUDE Cox, WHO WAS BORN in Hudson in 1880, reminisced ... One of our greatest pleasures in the spring was to go to the woods one mile west of Hudson and gather armfulls of wild flowers, bluebells, sweet william, blue, white, and yellow violets, also dogtooth violets and bloodroot. In the summer we went to the woods for wild raspberries, blackberries, and goose berries, and along the right of way of the Illinois Central Railroad for wild strawberries. Then back to the woods after the frosts came for hickory nuts, butternuts, hazelnuts and black walnuts. The woods were full of nuts and we were permitted to help ourselves to them. No "keep out" signs. 22 CASSANDRA SUE RODGERS analyzed the vegetation of McLean County as it appeared when the U.S. Public Land Survey was conducted in the early l820s. Rodgers found that the following tree species were recorded by the Public Land Survey: white oak, black oak, oak spp. (i.e., unidentified species), hickory spp., bur oak, elm, black walnut, red oak, ash, sugar maple, linn, pin oak, cherry, cottonwood, hackberry, buckeye, chestnut, locust, haw, sycamore, maple spp., willow, box elder, ironwood, blue ash, crab apple, and wild cherry. These species are listed in the approximate order of their importance, based on the number and size of the trees. 32 • Tazewell County LATE IN 1825 THE HITTLE CLAN searched for a new home in the Mackinaw region. After visiting Fort Clark (peoria) and Pekin, they headed south toward the Mackinaw River: ". . . they passed through Pleasant Grove, where they found an abundance of hard maple timber." The Hittles were so impressed with the prosect of making maple sugar that they entered a claim to buy the land from the Federal government. Then they journeyed farther southward, and they "were still more pleased with the beautiful black walnut timber" • Bloomington was founded at Blooming Grove. tRamps = wild leek (Allium rricoccum var. rricoccum and A. rricoccum var. burdickil). Both varieties occur in McLean County. 4-13 along the Mackinaw River in Hopedale Township. The Hittles decided to buy this land and abandoned their first claim. But then they explored further and discovered an even more appealing forest along Sugar Creek in what later became known as Hittle Township: "The sight of such beautiful black walnut, hard maple and oak filled them with delight, and straightway they made a third and final claim." 10 BELLE HARLAN CAME TO TAZEWELL County as a toddler in 1834. Miss Harlan remin isced at age 69, The prairies were a vast uninhabited plain. . .. Father located just in the edge of the forest, near ten miles from Washington then known as Holland's Grove...... There was not a house or fence from our home to Washing ton, and we just took a straight line across the wide open expanse of country. The grass in places was as high as a man's head, and all stock could live well from spring until late fall. ... As for fruit, we had none only what grew wild-blackberries, raspberries, strawberries, gooseberries, wild crabapples, wild plums and grapes-all pretty sour fruit. '" Father kept bees, and we had an abundance of honey. Wild flowers grew in great profusion, so the bees could easily make honey. 37 EMMA SCOTT RECOUNTED THE FORTUNES of her parents, who numbered among the first white residents of Tazewell County in 1836: The hand of "Providence" had placed everything here for the needs of the pioneer-springs, timber, nuts, honey, grapes, plums, blackberries, crabapples, mayapples, gooseberries, wild cherries, herbs of every kind to cure their ailments, deer, turkey, geese, ducks, quail, prairie chicken, squirrel, etc., and pasture for their stock. The ambition to gather and preserve these supplies in their season only was necessary.... They dried corn, apples, pumpkin, beef and deer meat, kept plums under water, wild grapes in molasses . . . . There were a vast variety of nuts and the "bee trees" supplied an abundance of honey. They gathered herbs for teas in illness, made sassafras tea as a supposed blood purifier, slippery elm bark to take medicines in; also cut the bark of some trees up as an emetic and down as a cathartic. 37 JOHN THuRSTON VISITED TREMONT in June 1836: We have been gratified today by a ride through the country. We stopped at a place called 'Pekin and hired a coach to take us to Tremont, about ten miles; this was through prairie nearly all the distance. The first five miles was rather dry ground, what is called here "Barrens." This was covered with a variety of beautiful flowers which seemed like one continuous garden; I could gaze at nothing else. Two or three miles before we arrived at Tremont we passed through a wood of a mile or more in extent and then came to a rolling prairie of richer ground with more grass and fewer flowers. This opening was twenty 4-14 miles or more in length and three or four broad. About midway of it is situated the town of Tremont. 38 ELIZA FARNHAM HAS GIVEN US some of the loveliest first-hand portrayals of the Prairie State. For three years in the 1830s, Mrs: Farnham lived in the Mackinaw valley at Tremont. Here are selections from her work, Life in Prairie Land: Spring morning on the prairies! I wish I could find language that would convey to the mind of the reader an adequate idea of the deep joy which the soul drinks in from every feature if this wonderful scene! If he could stand where I have often stood, when the rosy clouds were piled against the eastern sky, and the soft tremulous light was streaming aslant the dewy grass, while not a sound of life broke on the ear, save the wild note just mentioned, • so much in harmony with the whole of visible nature, he would feel one of the charms which bind the hearts of the sons and daughters of this land. We are within the borders of a little grove. Before us stretches a prairie; boundless on the south and east, and fringed on the north by a line of forest, the green top of which is just visible in a dark waving line between the tender hue of the growing grass and the golden sky. South and east as far as the eye can stretch, the plain is unbroken save by one "lone tree, " which, from time immemorial, has been the compass of red man and his white brother. . . . The hazel copse is one of the most picturesque features of our landscape. It grows very abundantly, and in autumn yields an inexhaustible harvest of the most delicious nuts. It is found several miles from the woodland, and grows in clumps from three to six feet in height. At a little distance these shrubs have the appearance of green mounds thrown up on the smooth surface of the plain. Its shelter is much sought by the rabbit, the most tender and timid inhabitant of the prairie. Where the hazel has a strong compact growth it uproots the grass and leaves the soil unoccupied, except by an occasional flower or creeping vine, whose long tendrils make a beautiful festoonery for such little aisles. . . . Autumn in the prairie land is scarcely excelled for the richness of its charms by any other season. Coupled with the perfection of the wide vegetable world is an idea of repose which fills the soul. An immense country, whose energies have been springing all the previous months with ceaseless toil, whose rank luxuriance evinces the employment of tremendous powers, now lies all around you in the deep quiet which· ushers in atruly natural death. The sun pours forth a rich, mellow light; dim and soft, as if like a tender nurse he watched over this sleep of nature. • In the previous paragraph, Mrs. Farnham had described the sound of prairie chickens booming in the distance. 4-15 ... Sporting parties are made up among the gentlemen, and fruit parties, including ladies, to visit the nearest groves in search of haws, nuts, et eet. ... Our fruit parties usually resorted to a grove about a mile distant, on the west, and returned after an hour or two of delightful rambling, with baskets laden with the delicious haw-berry, a feast for many days. The paw-paw and persim mon did not flourish in our vicinity. They love the bottom lands of streams. The groves at this season are indescribably charming. There is not in the large foliage that gorgeous variety which we find in the eastern forest. The trees wear a more sober and uniform complexion; but there are a thousand minuter beauties which touch the heart. A few flowers linger in the borders of the woodland and skirt the small streams. In the deeper recesses some sprightly ones are found, indicating by their vigor and freshness that they belong to the season of frost. Among these is one which I dearly love. It grows upon a tall stalk sparsely set with leaves, and forms near the top a beautiful shaft, studded with myriads of small flowers of the most exquisite hue and loveliness. They are like so many bright eyes looking gaily out into the pleasant world around. This flower does not belong to the deep groves, but is found in the little glades or openings in the woodside. • And there, when October winds play among the leaves, and the bright sunshine pours through a sea of mist and smoke, into little nooks and corners, by decaying logs and upturned roots, where it has not gained admittance during all the leafy reign of summer, this bright flower is seen nodding and dancing merrily in the breeze as if it rejoiced in the approach ing gloom. The squirrel searches timidly about among the fallen leaves, making provision for the winter; and the hare, whom he often meets, skips by him, half in sport, half in earnest, seeking the tender twigs whereof to make her dinner. The ripened nuts dropping among the leaves often startle her from her contemplations, and drive her to seek refuge in the nearest clump of grass or bushes. 15 THE PARENTS OF LIZZIE ZINZER BROWN emigrated to Tazewell County in 1851 and settled at Washington. Mrs. Brown recalled in later years, "There was timber all along the Peoria road in the sixties, some of the trees being three feet through. " 37 THE VILLAGE OF MINIER was established in 1867 on a low divide between the Little Mackinaw River and the Sugar Creek drainage. A centennial history of Minier recalls, "The site of Minier was a low flat prairie, and there were pond~ of water within the present site of the village that scarcely went dry during the entire season." 20 THE 1879 History of Tazewell County states, • Eliza Farnham was describing a species of Liatris, perhaps the common rough blazing star (Liatris aspera)-or perhaps the savanna blazing star (L. scariosa vat. nieuwlandii), which was characteristic of this habitat but is now so rare that it is officially listed as a threatened species in lllinois. 4-16 The principal kind of timber found in the upland wooded tracts of this county are, the several varieties of oak and hickory, black walnut, butternut, maple, bass-wood, red-bud, sassafras, etc. On the river bottoms, and in low damp lands generally, the sycamore, buckeye, black ash, • elm, etc., are abundant. The sandy ridges are generally covered with a growth of scrubby oak, and black jack, t with a thin admixture of other species. *10 This volume has a chapter on botany, which begins, "There are probably over 500 species of plants growing spontaneously within the bounds of Tazewell county ....'" The chapter enumerates and describes more than 80 species of native and naturalized trees and shrubs. In this commentary is the remark, "Red-root, or New Jersey tea, was abundant in the margin of the uncultivated prairies, but is pretty well destroyed at the present day." The discussion lists about 200 of the most common herbaceous species. The listing of native herbs is as follows-given "as nearly as we can conveniently estimate, in the order of their abundance, the more common first." Growing Wild. - Besides several species each of grass, sedge, ferns, aster, golden-rod, wild sunflower, evening primrose, cone-flower, fleabane, cinque foil, tick trefoil, violet, crowfoot, milk-weed, cress, loosestrife, and beggar's lice, § there are the sneeze-weed, wood sorrel, wild bergamot, strawberry, wild cranesbill, boneset, spring beauty, clear-weed, arrow-head, tick-seed, blue cardinal flower, Mayapple, self-heal, scouring rush, spider-wort, ginseng, sweet William (two species), meadow parsnip (two or three species), cow bane, •• wild onion, louse-wort, vetchling, ditch stone-crop, cardinal flower, • "Black ash" must refer to one or more of the common species of ash, rather than the rare tree that is currently known as black ash (Fraxinus nigra). Or perhaps "black ash" refers to Acer negundo-which sometimes was known as black ash in the 1800s, but has most often been called box elder. t The species is described elsewhere in the book: "Barren Oak, or 'black jack,' is found mostly in sandy barrens. It seldom exceeds 25 feet in height. Leaves, wedge-shaped and three-lobed. " *The 1905 History of Tazewell County lists the same species as the 1879 History - excePt that the 1905 listing omits redbud and avers that hickory "has almost disappeared. " , Frederick Brendel, a botanist from Peoria, most likely contributed to this chapter. Dr. Brendel is not credited for the botanical information in the History of Tazewell County, but he wrote Flora Peoriana (1887) and probably is the only person Who could have written such an accurate and detailed technical discussion of Tazewell County's flora. § Tick trefoil and beggar's lice are both common names for members of the leguminous genus Desmodium. •• Meadow parsnip and cowbane are members of the parsnip family. Zizia and Thaspium are known as meadow parsnip. Cicuta maculata and Oxypolis rigidior are called cowbane. 4-17 milk-vetch, three-seeded mercury, pepper root, wild-mint, spotted touch-me not, soft rush (and probably one or two other species of rush), rue anemone, liver-leaf, marsh marigold, early meadow rue, blood-root, Indian turnip, mitre wort, white and purple trilliums, cat-~I flag, cup-plant, everlasting, avens, bell-flower, ox-eye, blue-joint grass, white lettuce, hawk-weed, lobelia (medi cal), gentian, yellow adder's tongue, harbinger of spring, skull-cap, hare-bell, stone-root, groundsel, catch-fly, false Solomon's seal, Gerardia (two species), dodder, wild senna, wood sage, American pennyroyal, wood nettle, black snaIs:e-root, water plantain, rattle-snake master, Dutchman's breeches, button snake-root, Solomon's seal, blue cohosh, Seneca snake-root, bastard toad-flax, arrow-leaved tear-thumb, iron-weed, water star-grass, peppermint, Greek valerian, trumpet-weed, hop, bell-wort, rosin-weed, • prairie dock. t . . . While the wild plants in the woods are supposed to be the same now as originally, the prairie has changed its grassy clothing for cultivated crops and hundreds of different weeds. Before settlement by the whites the prairie was mostly covered by one kind of grass. Several other kinds could be found, especially in places here and there, notably the blue-joint, *which grew the tallest of any. Along the sloughs and in other wet places there was the slough grass ' and several species of golden rod, aster and wild sunflower. All other kinds of weeds were scarce. Here and there were patches of rosin weed. But the golden-rod, aster, and sunflower made beautiful yellow stripes across the prairies in low places, which were peculiarly charming. In the earliest stages of the growth of prairie grass it was interspersed with little flowers-the violet, strawberry-blossom and others of the most delicate structure. Soon these disappeared, and taller flowers, displaying more lively colors, took their place, and still later, a series of still higher, but less delicately formed flowers appear ed. While the grass was green the prairies were adorned with every imaginable variety of color. In the summer the plants grew taller and the colors more lively; in autumn another generation of flowers came. . . . The original prairie grass can scarcely be found anywhere now. It cannot stand close pasturage. The blue or June grass § bears pasturage the best of any; but where live stock are kept off this grass it will be .eradicated by other kinds • In the l800s Silphium laciniatum was generally known by the name "rosin weed," rather than its currently accepted name "compass plant." t Note that rosin-weed and prairie dock were placed last in a list that was intended to name the species roughly in descending order of their abundance. *Blue-joint = big bluestem (Andropogon gerardi!). , Slough grass = prairie cord grass (Spanina pectinata). § Blue or June grass = Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis). 4-18 of grass. A curious fact similar to this, and of interest to botanists, is the eradication of the May-weed along the road-sides by hog-weed, • smart-weed, and Spanish-needles. Possibly this has been aided by the greater amount of wet weather for a few years past. THE 1905 History of Tazewell County says of Mackinaw Township, The north half of it is somewhat broken, and was at one time covered with a growth of excellent timber, t which has almost disappeared, being used for fuel and for building purposes. In the southern part the surface is a fine rolling prairie, and this section contains some of the best farming land in the State. 2 ON THE OCCASION OF WASHINGTON'S centennial celebration in 1925, Mr. E. Garber addressed the assembled crowd and recalled, "The prairie held many ponds where water became stagnant and produced malarial conditions. Cattle became infected with snake root *and other obnoxious weeds so that their milk produced sickness." Mr. Garber recounted that the larders of pioneer families held stores of "walnuts, butter nuts, hazel nuts, hickory nuts, dried pennyroyal leaves" ... "to say nothing of game. " 37 THE SESQUICENTENNIAL history of the town of Mackinaw includes this bit of local lore: Calamus Hill, surveyed in the late 1800's got its name from the calamus plant or sweet flag that grew in the swamps at the foot of the hill. The hill, south of Route 9 before crossing the Mackinaw River bridge, was very steep and the road at the foot of the hill was often covered with water. Finally the swamp was tiled, the hill was graded considerably lower, and the road was black topped. 19 Woodford County WRITING FOR THE Geological Survey ofIllinois in 1870, H.A. Green stated, The larger part of the county is prairie, and the surface is, for the most part, gently rolling. In the southern portion of the county the surface becomes more broken and hilly, and the prairies of much less extent, while in the western part, along the Illinois bluffs, and for some distance back, there is little or no prairie land, and the country is quite broken and intersected by deep ravines. • May-weed = dog fennet (Anrhemis cotu/a); hog-weed = common ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia). t The 1879 History of Tazewell County says of Mackinaw Township, "It is covered with a splendid growth of timber." Perhaps the passage of a quarter century made the difference between !lis" and "was." *Snake root = white snakeroot (Eupatorium rugosum). 4-19 The soil of the prairies is a black loam, usually from one to three feet deep, and sometimes even more, with a yellow or brown clay subsoil. Timber originally skirted, for the most part, the ridges along the water courses, and along their summits and steep slopes, the subsoil comes near the surface, and the soil is usually of a lighter color. Much of the timber has been cut away since the first settlement of the county, and the process of denudation is continually going on. The principal varieties of timber noticed on the level portions of the timbered lands were white, red, black and laurel oak, and shell-bark· and bitternut hickory, and along the slopes of the bluffs and in the valleys of the small streams, there are, in addition to those above mentioned, sugar and white maple, box elder, black walnut, butternut, white and red elm, t mulberry, wild cherry, sycamore, cottonwood, white and blue ash, hackberry, and red-bud, with an undergrowth of sumac and hazel. 21 IN 1877 PROFESSOR B.J. RADFORD issued the History of Woodford County, which says of the region's grasslands, But the greater part of the county is prairie, and when first settled was destitute of trees or shrubs, and was entirely occupied by herbaceous vegetation. The chief part of this was grass, of a coarse sort, which went under the common names of prairie grass and slough grass. These were of vigorous growths, the culms, or flowering stalks, sometimes growing as high as seven or eight feet, and afforded excellent pasturage. '" The grasses which grew in the sloughs and along the margins of the ponds were coarser and taller than those which grew on the uplands, and both localities were occupied by several varieties. There is very little of these native grasses now to be found in the county, and it is probable that the soil, having been cultivated, is rendered unfit for their production. The broad prairies were thickly interspersed with bright flowers, nodding their gay heads in the wind, as far as the eye could reach. Chief among these were those of the helianthus, or sunflower family. Flowers of this sort had a dark central head, surrounded by spreading rays of yellow or purple leaves, and were of many varieties. The ponds and sloughs were gorgeous with beautiful bright colored lilies, and many other species of wild flowers aided in ornamenting nature's broad flower garden - the prairies. 31 Professor Radford's history of Woodford County also summarizes the county's forest resources: Many valuable sorts of-timber are-natives of the county. Black, white, red and burr oaks are common; some black hickory and considerable white hickory. • Laurel oak = shingle oak (Quercus imhricaria); shell-bark hickory = shagbark hickory (Carya ovata). t White and red elm = American elm (Ulmus americana) and slippery elm (U. rubra). 4-20 The black walnut and the wild cherry furnish very beautiful cabinet wood, ... the sugar maple also furnishes a hard, durable cabinet wood, as well as the ash, both of which are found in our forests. Red and white elms are common. Among other varieties may be mentioned cotton-wood, sycamore, mulberry, red-bud, crab-apple, plum, willow, hack-berry, sumac, hazel, dog-wood, elder, prickly-ash, &c.• . . . Crab-apples were sometimes gathered and buried in the ground for winter use. Walnuts, hickory and hazel nuts were abundant, and the younger fry subsisted largely upon these. IN THE YEAR AFTER RADFORD'S BOOK was published, the editors of the Past ami Present of Woodford County reported much the same list of woody plants: The southern and western portions of the county, supply timber in great abundance, and many of the more valuable species are native to these sections. Black and white walnut, wild cherry, sugar maple, red and white elm, cotton wood, sycamore, mulberry, red bud, hackberry, the different kinds of oak, black and white hickory, etc., flourish in these localities, while some of the more common shrubs, such as hazel, willow, sumac, elder and prickly-ash, grow in profusion. 41 The Past ami Present volume states that Panther Creek (the main tributary of the Mack inaw River in eastern Woodford County) is "fringed with a fine grove of timber" in Roa noke Township. The cemetery at Eureka is described as "handsomely laid out, on a sunny slope, ... and like all other portions of Eureka . . . shaded by huge forest trees." Regarding Montgomery Township (which encompasses the confluence of Walnut Creek and the Mackinaw River), the volume reports, "... while a portion of the timber and 'barrens' are good farming lands, some of the bluffs and hills are good for nothing, except the timber, and even it is not worth a very great deal." Along the Mackinaw in Kansas Township, "More than three-fourths of the lands are timber and barrens, some of which is bluffs and brakes, and not very well adapted to farming purposes. " Burr Oaks Grove and Sibley Lake BURR OAKS GROVE or Sibley Grove is at the very head of the Mackinaw River valley, near the town of Sibley in Ford County. Between 1854 and 1878, the grove was part of the agricultural holdings of Michael L. Sullivant. At 65 square miles, Sullivant's property was characterized as "undoubtedly the largest com farm in the world under one man's management," and "probably without a rival in the world." 35 • Black hickory = ? Carya lexana on sandy soil and ? C. glahra (pignut hickory) on other soil; white hickory = shagbark hickory (c. ovala). Professor Radford appears to have referred to H.A. Green's list from Ibe Geological Survey ofIllinois (1870) when he compiled Ibis list of trees and. shrubs. 4-21 On September 23, 1871, Harper's Weekly issued a supplement titled "Farming in the Great West." This article details the farm's efforts to limit crop depredations: In the fall of the year Mr. Sullivant finds it necessary to detail a certain number of men as gunners to kill or drive away the innumerable flocks of wild geese and ducks which would otherwise destroy thousands of bushels of grain. In speaking of this, he says: "I tried at first to equalize the thing by planting a few hundred more acres, but my feathered boarders forced me to drain some of the lakes and ponds before I could get them to come in more reasonable force. " 35 Although much of Burr Oaks Grove was never cleared, it was long grazed by domestic stock. When D.S. Dalbey reported on the property in 1901, it was part of the 21,760-acre Sibley Estate, or Burr Oak Farms. Mr. Dalbey noted of the farm, "Every acre is under a high state of cultivation except 60 acres of a burr oak grove which is used for pasture." 12 The other outstanding natural landmark of Sibley is a lake at the edge of town. A book published in 1892 depicts Sibley Lake as "a most beautiful little sheet of water." 25 One young resident of early Sibley recalled how she and her friends "would pick up beautiful clam shells along the lake shore. " 35 Lower Mackinaw River Sand Area THE MACKINAW RIvER VALLEY encompasses part of a sandy plain in the very northern part of Mason County and in the southwest corner of Tazewell County. Geologist Henry Bannister characterized this sand area in 1870: In the greater part of Mason county, and over considerable tracts in the south western part of Tazewell county ... the prairies are low and comparatively flat, and in many portions, were originally overflowed, or marshy, at some seasons of the year. The soil of these prairies is a rich alluvium, generally more or less arenaceous, which forms, when sufficiently elevated or drained, one of the best producing soils in this district. 1 IN MASON COUNTY the Lower Mackinaw sand area extends across most ofManito Town ship. James M. Ruggles' 1879 history of Mason County discusses this sand area and 4-22 others in Mason County. He characterized them as "sand ridges-some of them quite high and some of them covered with an indifferent growth of timber. " These lands are considered of a poor quality by reason of the excessive quantity of sand mixed with the soil; but there are many things that they will produce, and in time they will be put in cultivation. . . . The richest and best lands of a portion of the county are so level that, in wet seasons, the natural drainage is not sufficient to carry off the surplus water; consequently, in wet years these lands are more or less non-productive. In the dry years, the high, sandy lands, for want of moisture, dry out, parch up and destroy vegetation to a greater or less extent, so that, in the dry years, the full crops are on the flat lands and in the wet years upon the high lands, where there is so much sand that a stranger to the soil would think nothing could grow. Of course, the best lands are those sufficiently elevated for drainage and containing enough and not too much sand mixed in the loam. 33 General Ruggles' description of Manito Township in 1879 includes the following: With the exception of two or three small groves in the north and northwestern portions of the township, the entire area of Manito Township is prairie. The central, eastern and southeastern portions are somewhat flat, yet for the most part easily susceptible of drainage. When the first settlers came, much of these portions were denominated swamp-lands, but these, by artificial drainage, have been converted into the most productive farms within her limits. And where once wild geese and ducks in countless numbers swam lazily about amidst the rank-growing rushes or floated calmly and undisturbed upon the stagnant waters, may now be seen finely cultivated fields teeming with the fast-ripening harvest. . . . When the first settlers came, the prairie, stretching back east from the river, presented to the eye a grand and imposing scene. As far away as the eye could reach, the tall, blue-stem prairie grass was waving in the autumn breeze like a boundless sea. This, with the myriads of flowers of all hues and colors interspersed, awakened feelings of admiration which the finest landscape gardening fails to inspire. Nature had wrought a work which art can never equal. Many of the flowers planted and nourished by the hand of Nature's God far surpassed in delicacy and beauty those of rarest culture of to-day. Every fall, the whole face of the country was swept over by fire, the flames of which would reach high up toward the heavens,· then swoop down, reaching a hundred feet ahead, taking into their grasp the tinder-like material. None but those who have seen our prairie fires of twenty or thirty years ago can comprehend their magnificent grandeur. THE SANDY PLAIN along the lower Mackinaw extends into Tazewell County. The 1879 history of the county relates, "The vast tract of prairie land in Spring Lake, Sand Prairie 4-23 and Cincinnati townships, were known in the early day as the sand prairie. It includes all the territory from the bluffs to the river bank. The soil is very sandy, hence the name, sand prairie." 10 Regarding Sand Prairie Township, the reader of this history book learns, "It was some years before the portion of the township lying south of the Mackinaw was settled.. It was a sandy prairie, and was thought to be almost worthless, but we now see some of the best farms in the county on this prairie. " 10 According to a man who settled in Spring Lake Township in 1851, ". . . this part of the county, to a great extent, was used as a public range for stock for many years after the first settlement of the county. The soil was regarded as not desirable on account of its sandy nature, consequently, it was not settled as rapidly as some other portions of the county." 10 The Mackinaw valley also includes the sand terrace in northwestern Malone Township in Tazewell County. In 1852 a State commission described this area as "comparatively dry, and ... composed of sand ridges interspersed with small oak timber." 10 THE MOST CAPTIVATING DESCRIPTION of the prairies in this region is by Albert Herre, who spent part of his boyhood on a farm near Delavan in the broad lowland occupied by Crane Creek. • Herre grew up to become a botanist at Stanford University, and in 1940 he reminisced on the pages of the American Botanist: From the end of spring in 1873, until the late summer of 1878, it was my privilege to see and enjoy the life of a great tract of virgin prairie. The prairie, as yet untouched by the plow, began west or a little northwest of Delavan, and stretched in a great arc southward and westward nearly to the Illinois river. It was six or seven miles wide and twenty or more miles long. This immense tract of land was so flat that it was too wet for the plow, and was used for grazing beef cattle. In addition large quantities of wild hay were cut from it. This hay not only gave the necessary winter feed but was also a much needed cash crop which was marketed in Pekin. The few scattered farmers lived on the low flattened sandy ridges bordering the prairie. At that time the sand hills, which rose but a few feet above the prairie, were the only land cultivated. Here and there the prairie was sprinkled with more or less circular permanent water holes or pools, locally called buffalo wallows. Around their edges grew a dense ring of sedges, cat-tails, and tall saw grass. t • The headwaters of Crane Creek are separated from the Mackinaw River valley by a low divide. t Saw grass = prairie cord grass (Spartina pectinara). 4-24 The first year we lived in a one-room log cabin with a loft above, where my uncle and his hired man slept. The cabin stood at the edge of a small grove, sixty or eighty acres in area, which was said to be the only grove on the whole prairie. This was not accurate, for the whole grove and most of my uncle's farm occupied a low ridge beside and not on the prairie. The prairie grass grew to a moderate height as a rule, but here and there became very rank. I remember one low place in the prairie not far from the cabin where the grass was of phenomenal luxuriance, so that a man on horse back became invisible when only 25 to 30 yards away. Two kinds of lady's slipper grew within a few yards of the cabin, the common little yellow lady's slipper being abundant, while the large white one was rare. Bluebells (Menensia virginica) grew everywhere, while a showy flower called "flies" by the pioneers, but which I learned in later years was Dutchman's breeches (Dicerura cucullaria), was very abundant. In fence corners at the edge of the wood grew a wild lily, Lilium philadelphicum var. andinum, its lovely flowers as high as my head. When my startled eyes saw the first wild lily it gave me a greater thrill than when I found the giant white lilies many years later in the mountains of northern Luzon. One of the most marvelous sights of my whole life, unsurpassed in niy travels in nearly all parts of the world, was that of the prairie in spring. Unfading are my memories of that waving rippling sea of lavender when the "wild sweet William," a species of Phlox two to three feet in height, was in full flower. It stretched away in the distance farther than the eye could reach, while I sat entranced in the rear end of the wagon bed as we jogged slowly on to Delavan. As the sea of phlox faded it was succeeded by another marvelous flower bed of nature's planting, and this in turn by others until mid-summer was reached. Then the great coarse perennials belonging to the Compositae • dominated, and instead of a single mass of color there was a vast garden of purple cone flowers, black-eyed Susans, rosin-weeds, blazing stars, asters, goldenrods, and others. I was introduced to the rosin-weed that first summer by playmates from the neighborhood. Over the prairie we went from rosin-weed to rosin-weed, our little fingers picking off the tiny bits of rosin on the great flower stalks, and popping them into our mouths until by and by we each had a mouth full of highly prized chewing gum. Every spring and fall the prairie was covered with water, so that the whole country side was a great lake. Only the sand ridges emerged here and there. • Compositae = members of the sunflowet family. 4-25 Wagon traffic came to a complete stop, and men could only get around on horseback, zig-zagging about along the low sand ridges. All day long swarms of water birds filled the air, and far in the night their cries sounded overhead. At the first gleam of dawn vast flights of ducks dashed to and fro and great flocks of wild geese sped swiftly across the sky. Many flocks of ducks just cleared the oaks and maples behind the cabin, so that one could have sat in a chair in front of the door and shot enough ducks in a few hours to last a family for a week. Not so with the wild geese, which were always shyer and harder to get. . . . The destruction of the prairie flora and fauna began when a great machine started to eat its way through the prairie, leaving behind it a stream of water on which it floated. As the "Big Ditch" was made, illiterate English and Irish day laborers dug lateral ditches by hand. This drainage made it possible to plow the prairie fauna for the first time, and I well remember when my great uncle, broke up his first piece of prairie, an eighty acre field. The prairie life survived to a surprising degree for several years more, and was still a source of joy and wonderment until I left Tazewell county. The advent of tile drainage early in the 80's completed the transformation of the prairie into ordinary farm land and brought in many more people. Of course the ducks and geese stopped coming, for there was neither water nor food to attract them. Migratory flocks of snipe and plover continued to come for a couple of decades, but their numbers had dwindled to a mere trickle when I left Illinois in 1900. The crawfish and bull frogs disappeared in a hurry, and the prairie chickens were destroyed by the combined efforts of the plow and shot gun. I returned to the region several summers during the '90's, but the prairie as such had disap peared, and of course its characteristic life with it. What a pity that some of it could not have been preserved, so that those born later might enjoy its beauty also. Now it is merely flat unending corn fields, and moderns may look on this article as only the iridescent childish romance of an old man. 23 A MASTER'S THESIS by Cassandra Sue Rodgers presents an analysis of the presettlement vegetation of Mason County, based on a study of the U.S. Public Land Survey's field notes and plats from the early 1820s. The Mackinaw River portion of Mason County is a sandy plain, not unlike the majority of the county. Rodgers' thesis lists the following tree species recorded by the Public Land Survey (in approximate order of their overall importance as a component-of the county?s vegetation): .. blackoak, blackjack oak, hickory spp. (unidentified species), maple, white oak, elm, willow, pin oak, birch, ash, cotton wood, sycamore, pecan, walnut, mulberry, locust, sassafras, oak spp., hackberry, redbud, haw, box elder, and coffee nut. 32 4-26 Bunches Bunch WAS A LOCAL EXPRESSION applied to small groves in the Mackinaw River region. For instance a small grove of oak trees along the Mackinaw near Anchor was known as . "Cunningham Bunch, then after Stewart bought the land, Stewart's Bunch." 5 The 1908 History ofMcLean County says of Anchor Township, "Every foot of soil in this township was originally prairie, except a few acres in Section 5, known to the early settlers as 'Cunningham's Bunch' ...." Regarding Martin Township, this volume states, . . . about one mile southeast of Colfax is a small grove on the banks of the Mackinaw called "Funk's Bunch," which is separate from the rest of the Mackinaw timber. Another small grove, known as Bray's Bunch, 'lies about one and a half miles south of Funk's Bunch. 3 Thickets, Barrens, and Afforestation SHRUBBY VEGETATION occurred in a variety of situations in the Grand Prairie region during the l800s; as an understory layer in woodlands, or out in the open prairie, or along the edge of timbered areas. As the 1908 History ofMcLean County notes, "The first farm lands were in the edge of the groves, which had to be cleared of the hazel-brush and thickets of small shrubs that bordered the groves." 3 Before it was consumed by the city, Major's Grove on the north side of Bloomington was described as "a beautiful body of timber, skirted by thickets of plum and crab-apple trees and hazel brush. " 30 In 1901 Belle Harlan-who spent the last two-thirds of the nineteenth century near Wash ington in Tazewell County - recalled how members of her community contended with brush. About 1840 her brother and some neighbors started out for Chicago with several ox teams and wagons. But as Miss Harlan underscored, "An ox is rather a cunning animal. Itwill eat all night and steal away to the brush early in the morning and lie hidden all day." Only a day or two out on their journey, "... their oxen hid, and they came back home hunting them." Although the oxen wore bells, the hunt lasted several days. The men finally found the beasts within sight of camp, early one morning "before they got to the brush. " 37 Another remark by Belle Harlan describes the brush. While recounting the route that she walked to school asa girl, ·she" said, "'Twas" a lonely road,through timber, thick with underbrush of a species ofoak that does not shed its leaves until spring." Young oaks and oak sprouts-especially black oak and its close relatives-commonly hold many of their leaves throughout the winter inonths. , Elsewhere in this book, the size of Bray's Bunch is given as 10 acres. 4-27 Miss Harlan mentioned the "barrens" when recounting one memorable incident from her early years on the upland north of the Mackinaw River: "Henry Meek of Walnut Grove, near the present town of Eureka, was one day at our house, and saw a deer and fawn standing a short distance off in the barrens. He drew up his gun and shot and killed the fawn, standing in our dooryard." Harlan elaborated, "Deer were plenty. 'Twas no uncommon sight to see eight and ten cantering over the prairies or through the barrens. " If she could often see deer in these barrens, the vegetation must not have been very tall and dense. When 19th-century Illinoisans described barrens, they often depicted a type of vegetation that was neither prairie nor forest- but something in-between.· The term barrens was applied to a wide range of situations in pioneer times. These areas often were shrubby with or without scattered large trees-and they sometimes had the appearance of a prairie with low shrubs. 39 In 1836 when John Thurston rode across "what is called here 'Bar rens'" between Pekin and Tremont, he failed to mention any woody growth: "This was covered with a variety of beautiful flowers which seemed like one continuous garden; I could gaze at nothing else." 38 Observations of James Owen offer some clues about the character of barrens in the Mackinaw region. When Mr. Owen settled in Cazenovia Township (Woodford County) in 1835, ". . . there were but a few large trees scattered over the plain, which Kentuckians and Virginians call 'barrens. ". In 1878 it was noted that "the beautiful young forest surrounding him now has grown up since." Mr. Owen planted an orchard where "there had been nothing of the kind in the neighborhood but wild plums and crab apples. " 41 The explanation of why barrens were transformed from grassy or shrubby areas to forest lies in a remark by McLean County historian E. Duis, who wrote in 1874, "Sometimes the settlers protected not only their farms from fire but a considerable prairie. The prairie so protected soon became covered with a growth of timber." 13 The open character of barrens in the Mackinaw region was maintained by wildfires; when the farmers put a stop to widespread burning, the barrens grew up in trees. As an 1879 description of Cincinnati Township in Tazewell County states, The timber along the bluffs in this township is of young growth. We are told by old settlers, who were acquainted with this section, that where the timber is now thick and trees as high as forty feet, they have seen the deer grazing, nothing to obstruct the view for miles save a cluster of bushes here and there. 10 In 1828 when Elisha Dixon arrived along the Mackinaw River near the northwest corner of McLean County, "Mackinaw-town was- simply brush and woods; it had the name of a town, but the town was not there." Dixon settled at a f~ in White Oak Grove after the Black Hawk War. In 1874 it was said of Mr. Dixon, "He worked hard and succeeded in • Residents of the Mackinaw River valley in the 1800s made a distinction between timber and barrens. For instance Jesse Walden's biography in The Good Old TImes speaks of him living in the "Mackinaw timber" but hunting in the "Mackinaw barrens." 4-28 ·. 1a . rzef ..... :~ . keeping the fire out of the grove, and now a fine a growth of timber has come up, equal perhaps to any in McLean County." l3 SPRINGS THE 1905 History ofTazewell County attests that a spring near Anchor is the source of the Mackinaw River (see page 4-3). And the 1879 History ofTazewell County makes mention of "minnows, which are found in the smallest spring branches." 10 In addition to these testimonies, there are numerous brief references to springs in the early literature of the Mackinaw valley. For instance Squire Sloan chose to live on the Mackinaw beside a "fine spring of water, which never runs dry." 13 Residents of Walnut Grove met beside the "old meeting house spring" to feast on squirrel soup (page 4-52). A pioneer woman listed springs among the Providential gifts that supported the region's settlers (page 4-14). It its 1870 report about Woodford County, the Geological Survey ofIllinois simply states, "... there are but few springs within its limits. ,,21 Mineral springs (i. e. salt springs and medicinal waters) have generally received notice in historical accounts, but this does not appear to be the case in the Mackinaw River valley. In his chapter about McLean, Tarze well, Logan, and Mason Counties in the Geological Survey ofIllinois (1870), Henry Ban nister summed up, Copperas and saline springs occur in various places in this district, and occasi onally give names to some of the minor streams. Such names as Salt creek, and· Lick creek occur here, as in other parts of the State. These springs, however, are few in number,.and.can.hardly.be.. considered of any economic value. 1 This same paragraph was appropriated by the editors of the 1879 History of Tazewell County, 10 but the county histories of the Mackinaw region provide few other significant details about springs. 4-29 EARLY FARMING DESCRIPTIONS OF PIONEER-ERA FARMING are productive sources of information about the natural character of the Mackinaw River valley. A good introduction to the subject comes from the pages of the 1879 History a/Tazewell County: For a great many years but few thought it advisable to attempt farming in the prairie. To many of them the cultivation of the prairies was an untried experi , ment and it was the prevailing opinion that the timber would soon become very scarce, a fear soon proven to be without foundation. Another obstacle that was . in the way for a great many years was that no plows suitable for breaking the prairie land could be had. The sod was very much tougher then than it was in after years when the stock has pastured the prairies and killed out the grass to some extent. It would be astonishing to the younger residents to see the immense crops of prairie grass that grew upon the fields which are to day in such a high state of cultivation. It grew in places six to twelve feet high. It was these immense crops of grass that furnished the fuel for the terrible fires that swept over the prairies during the fall. Then, again, there was so much of the prairie land that was considered too wet to be ever suitable for cultivation. Many of the older settlers now living well remember when farms that are now in the highest state of cultivation were a vast swamp. 10 The new occupants of the land had to contend with major efforts such as clearing timber, breaking the prairie sod, draining wetlands, and protecting their lives and livelihood from prairie fires. Clearing Timber McLEAN COUNTY HISTORIAN E. Duis explained that many of the first white farmers were apt to clear trees rather than bust sod: The earliest settlers came to McLean County from a wooded country, and did not understand the value of prairie land. It will scarcely be believed, but it is a fact, that many of them made their first farms by clearing timber in the groves, while the prairie was before them and needed no clearing!, 13 As THE EDITORS OF Chapman's 1879 history of Tazewell County explained, Clearing of timber land was attended with much hard labor. The underbrush was grubbed up, piled into heaps and burned. The large trees were in many cases left standing, and deadened by girdling. This was done by cutting through the bark into the wood, generally through the "sap," all around the trunk. 10 4-30 JOHN THOMPSON TOOK ADVANTAGE of the handiwork of the Delaware after he arrived in McLean County in the autumn of 1829: After a journey of twenty days he pitched his tent on the Mackinaw, about five miles east of where Lexington now stands. After looking around in various places he at last settled in the old Delaware Indian Town, situated on the banks of the Mackinaw. Many of the Indian lodges were then standing, and he used them for stabling and other purposes. . . . During the spring of 1830 Mr. Thompson was very busy completing an improvement on his farm. It seems that when the Indians were there, they had cut down many trees for the purpose of burning the tops, and in some places had cut enough to make a little Indian farm or patch for growing com. With this clearing Mr. Thompson had about fifteen acres under cultivation and raised a fair crop during the first season. 13 Breaking Prairie DR. E. DillS of McLean County wrote in 1874, The prairie grass in the early days grew very high, and its roots were tough and fibrous. It was therefore very hard for the settlers to break their prairie. A good breaking team consisted of five or six yoke of oxen, and the plow was an old fashioned Barshear, which cut a furrow twenty-two inches in width. . . . The prairie grass with its fibrous roots has also given way to civilization, and the pretty blue grass has taken its place. 13 THE 1905 History of Tazewell County explains why plowmen became expert botanists with a narrow specialty: Great strength was necessary in the breaking of the prairie sod for the reason that there were but few areas of upland prairie in which an abundant growth of "red root" and "devil's shoestrings" • was not found. The location of these roots was always marked by a top growth easily recognized by the plowman, and no man ever held a prairie plow but what braced himself the moment his eye caught sight of the well known top of "red root" or "devil's shoestring." They were "tough propositions," but had to be gotten out of the way before the land was safe for any lighter farming implement. 2 William Stackpole was the first white farmer in Anchor Township, at the head of the Mackinaw River. Mr. Stackpole did not find redroot to be much of an obstacle when he broke the prairie, according to the 1879 History ofMcLean County: • Red root = New Jersey tea (Ceanothus amerieanus); devil's shoestrings = lead plant (Amorpha eaneseens). 4-31 The "red root, " which was the great and only impediment to breaking prairie a hardy plant, of prairie growth, whose top was but slightly discernable in the grass, but whose large, firm root, running deep into the ground, was firm as a rock against any common plow-could only be overcome by the steady, stolid pull of well-trained cattle. Mr. S. had discovered that the root, to be killed, need not be cut off by the plow, but that a hit by the plow was sufficient to destroy its vitality and cause it to die; hence, he knew that he could plow with horses, and did. Men came from Cheney's Grove to see him fail in his plow ing; they came, saw, but he conquered. 26 WOODFORD COUNTY HISTORIAN Roy Moore pointed out the difficulty of traveling across the prairie wilderness: "The narrow trails were difficult to follow and the tall slough and prairie grass which grew to great height presented a serious barrier to the traveler's progress. " Mr. Moore continued, "It was many years before roads were laid out. Perhaps the first of these thru Woodford county passed thru Hanover and was followed by the stage coach that passed that way. It is said this was originally laid out by dragging a log across the prairie grass. " 28 Draining Wetlands WET PRAIRIE LAND with shallow bodies of standing water proved to be among the chief obstacles to farming in the Mackinaw valley. Extended rainy spells in 1844 and 1858 showed the pioneers that poor drainage imposed severe limitations on what lands could be farmed: In both of these wet years the rains caused tremendous injury to the com and other agricultural crops, and as these wet years happened before our wet lands had been drained, it was demonstrated that only a small proportion of our prairie soils could be relied on for crops in the wettest seasons, and about 1858 commenced the first experiments in drainage . . . . 3 Roy MOORE'S HISTORY of Woodford County emphasizes that the wet terrain posed major difficulties for both farming and traveling: The territory that is now so well drained was formerly covered with sloughs and ponds. Hundreds of acres of land now under cultivation were formerly under water a great part of the year. These, together with the slough grass, which was frequently eight or ten feet high presented a serious barrier to a successful breaking of the prairie. . . . The sloughs were miniature swamps, miry, sticky and extremely hard to cross. ltwas frequently necessary to double teams to cross them. . . . The journey was often made thru swamps and across rivers and streams that were without bridges. 28 4-32 Mr. Moore pointed out that the 12-mile road between Bloomington and East White Oak Grove "did not follow any direct line, but wound around, the highest ground being chosen, as it was less likely to become swampy or to be covered by ponds. The road was marked by plowing a furrow on each side of it with a prairie plow and ox team. " ONCE THE WET PRAIRIES WERE DRAINED, the soil proved to be among the most productive farmland anywhere. An 1879 description of Boynton Township in Tazewell County alludes to this fact: In point of acres under cultivation it is not surpassed by neighboring townships, and when we take into consideration the fact that Boynton, but a quarter of a . century ago, contained but little tillable land, the result is marvellous. It was attained only through unflagging energy on the part of its enterprising citizens and an admirable system of tile drainage. 10 Bluegrass KENTUCKY BLUEGRASS is not a native prairie grass. Pioneer farmers liked to have access to a mixture of both native grasses and bluegrass because the combination afforded an extended grazing season. Prairie grasses provide green forage during the heat of summer, when bluegrass tends to become dormant. Bluegrass does most of its growth during the spring and autumn seasons, when native grasses tend to be dormant. Although Kentucky bluegrass is not indigenous, it had already become established at some Indian villages in centrallllinois by the time the region was opened to white immigrants. For instance, after John Patton arrived along the Mackinaw River in Lexington Township in 1828, "... some hunters told him of the fine location at the Kickapoo town near Selma, with timber, water and blue grass. " 3 The best discussion of the advent and early use of bluegrass in Illinois is in the 1908 History ofMcLean County. John H. Burnham introduced the topic with a question: How many of our young people are there who realize that our blue grass is not native to McLean County? Our older residents are aware that, before 1834, there were but few spots in the county where blue grass was growing. It was to 4-33 be found at Indian Old Town, at the east end of Old Town Timber, • and it had recently taken root in a few other places, especially on the sites of Indian cornfields and villages. When Isaac Funk came to this county in 1824 he was intending to locate at Old Town, on account of the large tracts of blue grass in that vicinity. He knew this grass would give pasture about one month earlier in the spring than the prairie grasses and would hold out one month later in the fall; and that for cattle grazing a site covered with blue grass convenient to both timber and prairie grass would be exactly adapted to his wants. On his way from Sangamon County to view this county and finally select his location, he stopped over night at what is now Funk's Grove, and was greatly impressed with its fitness for adaptation to his plans for a large cattle ranch, as it would now be called, even if blue grass could not be found in the neighborhood. He, however, went on to see the blue grass at Indian Old Town, and was very reluctant to come to the decision that, all things considered, Funk's Grove was the best place. The seed of blue grass was generally believed to have been brought from the Kentucky blue-grass region by the ponies of the Indians on returning from some of the bloody Indian forays in that region, where our wild Kickapoos massacred many whites in the years between 1775 and 1810, after which time few, if any, such barbarous raids were made by the Indians of Central Illinois into Southern Illinois, Southern Indiana or Kentucky.. It is now well known that, after the wild prairie grasses have been partially killed off by pasturing, blue grass will take a start voluntarily and crowd out the native grasses, though it is almost impossible for this grass to start itself where the native grasses are flourishing with their natural luxuriance. But this fact was not known to our pioneers for quite a number of years after the first settlement of the county. The Indian settlement at Old Town was formerly so important that large numbers of ponies were kept there during a portion of the year, and the pasturage of the surround ing prairie must have partly destroyed the native grasses, and the tramping of these ponies in wet weather must have partially disturbed the prairie soil. This, with the gathering here of large numbers of Indian ponies at times, in all probability prepared the way for the many acres of blue grass found by our early settlers, provided it is a fact that the seed in some manner was brought here from Kentucky. This blue grass was so coveted by our new comers, who had generally known of its value in their old homes, that people from Cheney's Grove, Blooming Grove, and other groves resorted thither in the summer time at an early day, to gather grass seed for beginning its cultivation in their dooryards or. other .places at their homes. The result was that, in a few years, this grass made itself visible at many different points in this county at or near the same period, and people began to hope that, in time, it would become of some considerable value. The progress of its growth, however, appeared very • The east end of the Old Town Timber was in Dawson Township in southeastern McLean County. 4-34 slow until about 1865, from which time blue grass began to show itself almost spontaneously nearly allover the county, excepting perhaps in a few townships which were then mostly in their natural condition. It had before this become common in the oldest settled portions, especially in the western part of Mc Lean, but it soon grew almost everywhere. After 1865, however, cattle had so grazed our wild prairies which were still unbroken, that blue grass was even found on the new prairies, before they were broken up for cultivation. It also took possession of all places in the timber where trees were cut down, provided there was sufficient sunshine to enable it to grow. 3 .ALTHOUGH PIONEER FARMERS planted bluegrass for pasturage, such attempts were not always an immediate success; In 1831 Joel Hodgson emigrated ... to Tazewell County, Illinois, bringing with him a quantity of timothy, clover and blue-grass seeds. After subduing the wild sods of the prairie he sowed a few acres with his favorite grass seed, which is supposed to be the first importation of these grasses to this country. But this branch of agriculture gave little promise at first as its growth was very slow and weak. The development of these grasses was pronounced a failure, and so considered until the lands were abundantly fertilized; which so changed the soil, that three tons of dry hay were produced from one acre, thus showing that good husbandry of the prairies on the western wilds has made these grasses king of the land. 2 Kentucky bluegrass eventually prevailed after grazing by livestock weakened the prairie sod. As Professor E. Duis observed in 1874, "The vegetation of the country has been changed by settling it up. The prairie grass has disappeared, and the blue grass has taken its place." 13 Agricultural Pests TAZEWELL COUNTY PIONEER Belle Harlan recalled that her'community did not immedi ately need to contend with many of the crop pests that eventually carne to the region: "The ground yielded rich crops. We were sure of a plentiful harvest if the seed were put in the ground. No smut, rust, chinch bug, or any of the modem plagues to disappoint the tiller of the soil. "37 Some pests first had to spread into the new farming area, but others were already resident. Emma Scott, daughter of Tazewell County pioneers, recalled, "Ground squirrels, moles and crows were their first agricultural pests." 37 George Hay of Danvers Township recalled that "when the country in the West became so settled that plenty of wheat and com was raised, the sandhill cranes became numerous." [3 Mr. Hay's remark is supported by the experience of James and Mary Ann Gildersleeve, who made a new home in Hudson Township in 1836: After the country b~e a little settled, the ducks and geese and sandhill cranes became very numerous. At one time, while Mr. and Mrs. Gildersleeve 4-35 were riding over the country, which had lately been burnt by a fire, they saw what appeared to be a new fence, which extended a long distance; but as they approached, it proved to be some thousands of sandhill cranes. 13 DEER WERE A BIG PROBLEM. Dr. E. Duis reported, "The deer, which had been killed off during the winter of the deep snow, became numerous a few years later, and had a bad habit of eating up the settlers' com. '" The settlers hunted the deer not only to obtain venison, but to protect the com." About 1843 James Coons set out apple and peach trees at his new home in the Mackinaw River valley of McLean County. "He experienced great difficulty in protecting his first trees from deer, during the latter part of October, when the velvet was shedding from their antlers. For the deer would rub their antlers against the trees to get rid of the velvet." 13 PIONEER FARMERS IN MARTIN TOWNSHIP, in Mackinaw headwaters, contended with depredations by both herbivores and carnivores. The biography of William Wiley, who came to the area in 1835, states, "The deer, in an early day, were very thick in the Upper Mackinaw timber, and in the fall of the year would make bad work in the cornfields. Mr. Wiley has counted eighty deer in a line coming from the prairie into his cornfield at the edge of the timber, during the evening of a cold day." 13 Mr. Wiley had a new neighbor in 1837, who brought a flock of sheep with him from Ken tucky. The newcomer managed to save only one of his 25 sheep from wolves. 13 Across the Mackinaw River and farther downstream, a party of hunters discovered a gray wolf's den in a hollow log, drove the animals out with a fire, and killed "the mother of the pack and twelve wolves two-thirds grown." 13 IN THE SPRING OF 1833 a raptor interrupted worship services in the home of the Robert Hopkins family along the Mackinaw River in Lexington Township. Chickens were roost ing in the Hopkins' partly built wooden chimney; an owl seized one of the chickens but could not bear the heavy fowl beyond the yard. Mr. Hopkins recalled, "I won't say how long I continued the prayer, but it was short. I reached for my gun, glanced along its sights, shot the owl by good luck and released the chicken." 13 ELIZA FARNHAM WROTE about prairie chickens in the l830s, raiding crop fields during the harvest season near Tremont: The native birds, happy in the abundance which they cannot consume, fly cheerfully but quietly about, as if, their labor done, the season of rest had come to them also. The quail whistles and dances among the brown hazel thickets; the grouse flies· from field to field,dividinghis.depredations through the neighborhood, and bearing off, when unmolested, a full crop to the plains, which he loves better than the abodes of man. 15 . IN 1877 PROFESSOR RADFORD of Eureka College pointed out that the limited cropland in pioneer days could be overwhelmed by an abundance of birds: 4-36 Many a young farmer will smile to be told that the crows and blackbirds used to be regarded as formidable enemies of the pioneer's cornfield. These birds were in immense numbers, and cornfields were not numerous nor large, and when the corn was young these thievish imps exhibited great intelligence and a com mendable industry in pulling it up to get the grain which would adhere to the little stem. 31 Yet according to Mr. Radford, pioneer farmers were not immediately beleaguered by weeds: The weeds during the first few years of the country did not offer much hinder ance to cultivation. The soil was free from noxious seeds, and the farmer could tend, with his single plow, forty or fifty acres of com; and it seems that the improvement in cultivators has not been more than sufficient to counterbalance the increasing crops of weeds. New sorts are constantly met with, and many a farmer is coming to the conclusion that he has been trying to cultivate too much ground, until his land is foul with all manner of villainous growth. THE 1908 History ofMcLean County addresses the same subject with a slightly different viewpoint: When our prairies were first broken, a few weeds immediately began to show themselves, but it was several years before the weeds were very troublesome to the farmer, and even now the most of them are not difficult to control, provided the farmer cultivates thoroughly enough to kill them when they are quite small. 3 THE 1879 History ofTazewell County names more than one hundred plant species "grow ing in cultivated and waste places." The author noted that only four or five of the species are native, and the others "may be considered as introduced by Anglo-Saxon civilization." The essay concludes, The most troublesome weeds which are on the increase at the present time are the common and the taIl thistle, Indian mallow, toad-flax, wild lettuce or sow thistle, and jimson-weed. Clear-weed and mercury are becoming abundant in the gardens and door-yards where shade trees are plentiful, but they are not troublesome. 10 A FARMER'S OWN SWINE were prone to become wild and pestiferous. Hogs were allowed to range freely, and some of them established feral -populations. As B.J. Radford recalled in 1877, "The range was large, and what with wild strawberries, blackberries, and acorns and hazel nuts the pigs would take care of themselves during the summer and fall . . .." 31 John Benson brought some hogs to McLean County in 1822 and turned them loose: "They . _. became in one year so wild that they had to be shot to be saved. Ifhe had not shot them, probably he would have had no more claim on them than on a wild deer." 13 Pioneer chronicles have plenty of stories about dangerous encounters with wild hogs. 4-37 11 ' ~.~ "''''M:'.' " ,_I. . ,', ,,',' . " ' ".. ',;:"", ,'V'..: ;::.- " ""'__'_" II , c Ii ,--',"" ~::;'':'J'":",''' YF'", ,~, .'--; f. II :,' ·,::·;~o -.--~_ ~~'---: .::.~ J ... ..: " ..... J 0 r.ltfe . , PRAIRIE FIRES UNDER THE HEADING "Prairie Fires," the 1879 History ofTazewell County recounts the following from the pioneer era: Fires would visit the grassy plains every autumn. .., Many incidents are related of prairie fires. Kezer Hancock, after assisting in cutting about twenty tons of hay in 1838, most of which he mowed himself by hand, saw, to his great sorrow, one of those devastating prairie fires in its onward course toward it. On it came with great rapidity, and before anything could be done to save his hay it was converted into a blackened mass. The first winter I.M. Roberts came to this county, he, with his father and brother, made 9,000 rails and laid them up around their fields. A hunter set fire to the grass in November to find a wounded deer. The fire spread and swept off all their fences; their 9,000 rails, 16 acres of corn, their main crop, and only by great efforts were their house, bam and hay saved. The great conflagrations were caused either accidentally, or designedly from wantonness, or with a view of bewildering the game. The fire often spread further than it was intended it should. Wherever were extensive prairie lands, one-half was burned in the spring and the other half in the autumn, in order to produce a more rapid growth of the naturally exuberant grass, destroying at the same time the tall and thick weed stalks. Violent winds would often arise and drive the flames, with,such rapidity.that.riders,on the .fleetest steeds could scarcely escape. On the approach of a prairie fire the farmer would immediate ly set about "burning back, "-that is, burning off the grass close by the fences, that the larger fire upon arriving would become extinguished for want of aliment. In order to be able, however, to make proper use of this measure of safety, it was very essential that every farmer should encompass with a ditch those of his fences adjoining the prairie. When known that the conflagration 4-38 could cause no danger, the settler, though accustomed to them, could not refrain from gazing with admiration upon the magnificent spectacle. Language cannot convey,words cannot express, the faintest Idea of the splendor and grandeur of such a conflagration during the night. It was as if the pale queen of night, disdaining to take her accustomed place in the heavens, had despatched myriads upon myriads of messengers to light their torches at the altar of the setting sun until all had flashed into one long and continuous blaze. 10 PROFESSOR B.J. RADFORD penned this for his 1877 History ofWoodford County: The burning of the prairies in the fall exposed the farms of the early settlers to much danger, and sometimes rendered travel dangerous if the wind was high. The tall, rank grass would be killed by the sharp frosts, and in a few days become dry and combustible. In a strong wind a billow of fire would sweep over the plain and lick up this grass with the speed of a race horse. Those who crossed wide prairies at such times of year usually carried some means of lighting a fire, and in case of need the grass was fired and a space soon burnt, which afforded a safe retreat from the approaching danger. Matches would have been a great boon, but there were no matches in those days. The early settlers were compelled to keep fire, or depend upon the somewhat uncertain supply of flint and tow. It was sometimes found necessary to send to a neigh bor's and "borrow fire." The farmers would usually select some calm day, as soon as the grass would bum, and fire a strip about their fields, on the sides from which danger might be apprehended. Several neighbors would collect together, and all except one would be well armed with bundles of brush. The unarmed one would kindle a fire a few yards from the fence, and by means of brands conduct it in a line parallel with the fence. The men and boys with the brushes would arrange themselves close on either side of the fire line, and as soon as the burnt strip was wide enough to preclude all danger of being crossed by a fire coming in from the prairie, would whip out the flames, thus leaving a broad, black strip around the field. If this precaution was neglected the settler often paid pretty dearly for his carelessness. Many among us still remember the midnight alarm of the prairie on fire, and being hurried out of a comfortable nap to fight the destroying fiend. A prairie-fire at night is a beautiful and fearful sight, and the roar of the flames may sometimes be heard for several miles. These are things of the past now, but it is well for our children to know the dangers and hardships through which their present comforts and conveni ences have been brought to them. 31 IN IDS "Concise History ·of the Settlement.and Growth of Woodford County," Roy L. Moore included the following review of prairie fires: The danger that was feared above all others was the deadly prairie fire. The tall, rank growth of grass was often high enough to effectually conceal a horse and rider. As soon as it became dry, as it usually did in the fall, it afforded an easy means of starting a fire that spread with inconceivable swiftness. The 4-39 prairie fire can never be adequately pictured by one who has never seen it. The warning glow can be seen for a great distance by night, and the black clouds of smoke, coupled with red flames, create consternation among men and beasts. The roaring of the flames can be heard afar off, and long before the advancing flames arrive, scores of wild animals dash by in their mad flight from the flames which mean certain death to them. Their only hope lies in reaching some stream that may serve as a barrier to the awful advance of the flames. About the only means available for fighting these terrible fires was back firing, in other words starting a fire in advance of the flames, so as to put an impas sible barrier of burned prairie grass in its path. These fires frequently covered miles of territory before they could be checked. It was impossible to guard against the ravages of the flames with any degree of security, but it could be done to a certain extent by burning around a claim. A few furrows would be plowed around the farm, then a space would be left large enough to check the advance of a fire, then a few more furrows were plowed. The grass between the plowed portion was fired and the furrows proved an effectual barrier to the spread of the flames. 28 Mr. Moore then described the method of creating firebreaks that Professor Radford had related in his 1877 history of the county. Moore concluded, "After the sweeping destruction of such a visitor the territory passed over looked like a dreary waste, with here and there the charred carcass of some animal that had not been able to escape from the rapidly advancing enemy. Only after the county became settled and the prairies carne under cultivation was the danger from this source removed. " BELLE HARLAN, WHO GREW UP in the vanishing wilderness of Tazewell County, reached back six decades in her memory to recall . . . The prairies seemed boundless. Stock of all kinds ran at large, feeding on the prairie grass. During the summer the farmers would set fire to the grass and make what they called a late burn. When,the grass grew up in it the stock would gather for miles to feed on the tender grass. After the settlers began to spread out on the prairies (the first settlements were all on the water courses) care and watchfulness were required to keep the fire from spreading and destroying fences-and sometimes stock yards and houses. Hunters from the little towns and villages would sometimes slip in and start a fire for the purpose of hunting. Game was plentiful. The whole community for miles would·have·to·turn·out and·fight fire-sometimes all night. They would be scorched and blackened, and nearly exhausted when they got through. Woe betide the man or men who started the fire had they fallen into the hands of the settlers at such times. 'Twas a mean thing to do, endangering property for miles. The grass was so luxuriant it required hard work to stop a fire when once started. 37 4-40 EMMA SCOTT, ANEIGHBOR of Miss Harlan, recounted, "All stock roamed the prairies at will, while grain and hay stacks were for the most part at their mercy. As a safeguard against prairie fires they would plow several furrows around their properties, and even such precaution often failed to fully protect." 37 The fires most often visited in the fall, when the hay and unharvested crops were most vulnerable: "This danger was present generally from the middle of October after frosts had killed the grasses, until late in the spring when the new grass would deaden the fire." 3 IN 1828 JAMES REYBURN took up a claim on Panther Creek, a tributary to the Mackinaw where about 40 Indians lived.. A sketch of Mr. Reyburn's life relates, He found as many as six bee trees in one day. At one time, while taking up a bee tree in the Mackinaw barrens, an Indian fired the grass. The wind was blowing almost a gale from the fire towards Mr. Reyburn; but soon he was discovered by the Indian, who made a back fire and prevented a catastrophe. The Indian lit the fire to start up the deer. 13 Another fire in the neighborhood was not so benign. On the west side of Stout's Grove near the village of Mackinaw, Indians set fire to the grass by the cabin of Jesse Stout during the Black Hawk War in 1832. 19 BENJAMIN WHEELER ARRNED in Hudson Township in 1830. The Good Old Times relates, "Mr. Wheeler has suffered much by fire. " During the fall of 1830 a fire came up from Twin Grove, and everyone turned out to fight it; but it burned up all his rails, his wheat and his hay. . . . In about the year 1838 or '40, a fire came rolling over the prairie, and Mr. Wheeler and his boys tore down the rail fences as fast as possible to save them, but nine hundred of his rails went up in smoke. In 1840 or '41, the fire came so swiftly, that it jumped a piece of plowed and burnt ground two rods wide. At another time it jumped the big road, which is more than two rods wide. . .. Mr. Wheeler has seen fire going faster than a horse.could run and taking fearful leaps. It would suck in the air behind it, and move like a flock of wild geese with the center ahead and the wings on each side hanging back. 13 ELIZA FARNHAM RESIDED in the Mackinaw valley at Tremont from 1836 to 1839. In her book Life in Prairie Land, Mrs. Farnham told of the autumnal fires. Summer had worn away, with its wealth of golden grains and flowers.... the prairies faded from their.richgreen, save where here·and there a "late bum" showed the tender grass, like an emerald island in the vast brown ocean. . . . The air is filled with the smoke of distant fires; some day they creep up into your own neighborhood, and when night comes, light from the heavens and the earth as far as the eye can reach. These are magnificent spectacles. I have stood upon the roof of our large hotel in the evening, and looked into a sea of fire which appeared to be unbroken for miles. 15 4-41 Farnham mentioned "late burns," where farmers had burned patches late in the growing season, to remove mature vegetation and stimulate a growth of tender young grass. ALTHOUGH THE WILDFIRES OF THE PAST are generally thought of as prairie fires, the flames also swept through wooded areas. Early accounts of fires in woods are relatively scarce. Only a few such mentions have come to light in the Mackinaw region. Ormond Robison of Dry Grove Township in McLean County recalled that "the fires which swept over the prairie ... sometimes came into the timber and burnt up the young trees, and those which were dead," and, "Sometimes a tree would burn for days before it would faIl." 13 Hezekiah Davis attempted a tannery business near Tremont, but a group of colonists bought up the timber and prevented Me Davis from harvesting oak bark for his tannery. Matters were made worse because "it took him about a year and a half to tan hides, as the fires that ran through the timber had weakened the bark." 10 FAUNA Invertebrates THE Past and Present of Woodford County (1878) gives the names of 14 mussel species from the Illinois River or its tributaries in Woodford County, and it names four species of land snails in the county. 41 DURING THE 1800s the most often mentioned insect in the region was the green-head fly, now known as the deer fly. A biographical sketch ofJohn McClun, who came to McLean County in 1835, mentions, "In the summer time the green-head flies made traveling across the prairies difficult and even dangerous." 13 McLEAN COUNTY CHRONICLER E. Duis, writing of pioneer times: In those days the green head flies became very numerous and were almost an Egyptian plague. They became so troublesome that, during about six weeks of the year in fly-time, travelers were obliged to goon their journeys at night; and even then their horses or oxen were troubled by the flies, if the moon was shining brightly. Their bite was so severe that a horse, if turned loose during that season of the year, was liable to be goaded to death with pain, loss of blood and incessant kicking to become rid of the flies. They were the most numerous and troublesome on the routes where travelers usually passed with their teams. 13 . IN HIS 1877 History ofWoodford County, B.J. Radford recalled, Stinging flies and mosquitoes were produced in countless numbers by the sloughs and ponds, and at certain seasons of the year were a vexatious pest to man and beast. A large bloodthirsty fellow, known as the "Green-head fly," drove an unceasing business during the latter half of the summer, and was an object especially dreaded by horses and cattle. 31 4-42 · Forty years ago the deer r~amedoverthese ~sternwildsseldom disturbed bythe ...... · crack. ofthe huntsman's rjfle,aiuJ the minkand the otter reveled at their own sweet will .. · amid thepriJileval jrog-poilds. FortY years ago waS heard the music ofthe goosiaild. .. the saildhilfcraile. . Forty years agothecooilaild the opossUm curled their tails in ...... peac(? aild hamwnyaniidthese western wilds. Forty years ago the bearaild the pan~ .. ·.ther reared their hopeful cubs where now the seat ofjuStice stailds. Forty years ago . · the musical howl ofthe prairie-Wolfarose on the stilly.nightwherenowthe chords of . ·. the pianos trill sweeter ihan the harp of a thousaiuJ strings. Forty years agothertittle~ .. snake and the copperhead. the blue-racer and the ffiaSsasauger wound their sinuous, . tortuous coils among the reeds aildgrass aild rushes...... · -The Good 6td TImesinMCI-eanCoUllty(1874)~ . Professor Radford concluded his narrative about these' flies by noting, "They are about extinct now. " THE EDITORS OF THE 1908 History ofMcLean County observed of the pioneer era, It was a hardship to be obliged to endure the mosquito in days when mosquito nets were not in use, but mosquitos were not then considered dangerous. . .. It was almost, but not quite, dangerous to encounter the tremendous swarms of greenhead flies, and fly-time was a period of great hardship. 3 THE HONEY BEE is not a native American insect. The species was imported in hives and spread into the wilds in advance of white settlers. Honey bees were well established in the Mackinaw valley by the time white farmers arrived. The History ofTazewell County recalls of the pioneer era, "Large trees, containing many gallons, and often a barrel, were . frequently found by bee-hunters. . .. After the bee tree was discovered it was no trouble to get possession of the honey. The tree was felled, and the hunters would rush for their booty ere it was lost by running out upon the ground." 10 Aside from flies, mosquitoes, and bees, the pioneer literature of Illinois makes scant men tion of other kinds of insects. An 1874 retrospective of life in McLean County mentions, "The early settlers would sometimes run their horses to death or break their wind, or run into an ant-hill ... in chasing the wolves, and it was not always a safe business." 13 Ant colonies in the prairie can build mounds more than a foot high. 4-43 Fishes THE 1879 History of Tazewell County informs, "The waters of this county are quite prolific of the finny tribe." 10 The editors presented a list of about 20 kinds of fish, includ ing black bass, croppy (or big black sunfish), mud cat-fish-and "large numbers of other species denominated as minnows." CLAUDE Cox, WHO WAS A BOY in Hudson Township in the l880s, recalled later in life, "We were in the habit of going up to a park on the Mackinaw River, near a large dam, or up the river a few miles to the mouth of Money Creek for a Sunday School picnic every year. One year at the picnic on the Mackinaw, I caught a two pound channel catfish." 22 Amphibians and Reptiles ONE OF THE EARLIEST WIDTE RESIDENTS of Tazewell County related how the Potawatomi gathered and cooked turtles: The preparations incident to this journey are somewhat extended. Two horses are placed side by side, and a blanket stretched between them, and the party start for the streams. The turtles are thrown in this blanket, and when a full load is secured they are carried to the camp, and a large kettle filled with water is placed over the fire, and in the boiling chauldron the living turtles are thrown, until the kettle is filled. When thoroughly boiled, the meat is plucked from the shell and eaten. 10 IN MARCH 1827 ROBERT MCCLURE moved to Stout's Grove, which covered the rugged country on the south side of the Mackinaw River in western McLean County: "The rattlesnakes were then numerous at Stout's Grove, and Robert McClure celebrated the first year of his residence there by killing three hundred and thirty of these reptiles." 13 DR. E. Ours RECORDED A STORY by a farmer who had broken virgin prairie: During the early days the West was thickly inhabited by snakes, and the settlers tell great stories of the number they killed. Nevertheless the settlers often went to the field and did their ploughing barefooted. Mr. Peasley of Down says that while ploughing around a patch of ground, the snakes continually crawled away from the furrow to the center of the unplowed patch, and when it became very 4-44 small the grass was fairly alive with the wriggling, squirming reptiles, and they would at last break in every direction. The rattlesnakes frequently bit the oxen, but the latter seldom died on account of snake bite. The poison of the rattle snake is most virulent and dangerous in August. 13 DAVID KINDIG, WHO CAME TO TAZEWELL COUNTY in 1833 once found a glass lizard: "At one time while breaking prairie I noticed a joint snake on the land I was breaking. Thought I, Mr. Snake I'll catch you when you undertake to pass over the broken ground." I will here describe the joint snake. They are about eighteen inches long, resembling a garter snake, only more green and very solid. I have struck them one blow and it would break in three pieces. The head and body would crawl away. The body would not break-only the tail. They seem to come apart without any blood. I have heard some say the head would come back and gather up the pieces. I doubt the truth of that, for I have found the body afterwards all healed over as thick as the end of my finger. They are very harmless, making no attempt to bite a person. 37 BELLE HARLAN RECALLED THE SERPENTS of Tazewell County in the 1840s: ... we walked two miles through snow, and ice, and rain, and mud to school . . .. The last years of my attending school there I went alone. I was afraid to look either to the right or left of me, for fear I might see a wolf or some other horrible thing that could do me harm. Snakes abounded, and some of them were very poisonous. Sister Margaret and I were on our way to school one morning when we saw two snakes. It was a point with us to kill every one we saw. I stood to watch them that they did not get away, while she went in search of a stick. Before she returned I glanced to one side of the road in a little ravine exposed to the sun ('twas early spring) and saw a pile of them. I can call it nothing else, as I remember it now, for it was as large as a bushel basket. You may think this is a pretty big snake story, but it is a true one nevertheless. We did not kill any snakes that morning, but hurried on to school. They were of the garter snake species, but they are all snakes to me. 37 EMMA SCOTT OF WASHINGTON recalled incidents from the life of her father, who settled on the Tazewell County prairie in 1837: "Venomous snakes were very plentiful, too, and one day while at work in his timber, he could not tell why he stopped work and looked up, but just above him was hanging a very large black snake, evidently ready to drop on him and coil its powerful body around him." Once he attempted to harvest wheat at night, but "a rattler said, 'I am here, '" -so he left the field. 37 A BIOGRAPHY OF ISADORE TRIMBLE BAYLER, who was born in Tazewell County in 1850, informs the reader, "They used to tell big snake stories in the early days and they had good reasons as there were lots of rattlers, bull, black and other snakes. She remembers seeing a big black snake down by Cooper that was long enough to stretch across the road." 37 4-45 ALBERT HERRE MOVED TO A FARM on an expanse of virgin wet prairie south of Delavan in 1873. He recounted his experiences nearly seven decades later: That first summer was also remarkable for the number of snakes visible. There were many bull snakes and "blue racers" or blacksnakes from seven to eight feet long. These are not a child.'s estimate of lengths, but were actual lengths of snakes I saw killed and measured. As a rule people killed every large snake seen, just as they shot owls, blind to their economic value. Then of course there were hordes of garter snakes and several other kinds too, such as "milk snakes" and "spreading adders," the last named greatly feared by all the country people. As I grew older I learned to know and dread the common water snake, Natrix sipedon, which was called "water moccasin" and reputed to be the same as the venomous water moccasin of the southern states. Specimens up to eight feet in length were common along the Mackinaw, and on Salt Creek and its sloughs, in Mason county. It was not until I was seventeen or eighteen, and had studied zoology in high school that I learned our "water moccasin" and "spreading adder" were perfectly harmless creatures. 23 ACCORDING TO MR. B.J. RADFORD, expounding in 1877 about the bygone pioneer era, "Snakes were plentiful, especially on the prairies, the largest species sometimes attaining the length of eight or ten feet. The most dreaded was the venomous rattlesnake, which was very common, but now, happily, is rarely seen." 31 THE TESTIMONY OF Roy L. MOORE (History ofWoodford County, 1910) provides some insight about the attitude of people toward snakes: The driver of an ox team required considerable skill in the management of his oxen. He carried a gad, which consisted of a long pole, at the end of which was a lash. .,. The gad was frequently used to cut off the head of some noisy prairie bird or of a snake that happened to raise its head above the grass. Snakes formed one of the greatest dangers the settlers had to face. The country was over-run with them. There were numerous varieties and various sizes, and the pioneer was constantly on the lookout for the warning whir of venomous rattlers. The black and bull snakes and racers were quite large, frequently ten or twelve feet long. The racers possessed great speed, and the black snake had remarkable strength. It was no uncommon occurrence for a settler to do battle with a snake that taxed-both his-strength and courage before it was dispatched. The only tombstone in the cemetery at Panola marks the grave of Horace Allen who died as a result of the bite of a deadly copperhead snake. The silent motion of the grass was a warning and the boldest was cautious about approach ing until he had determined the direction in which the snake was headed. There 4-46 were thousands of little snakes that were harmless, but infested every part of the prairies. 28 WITH REGARD TO REPTILES, the 1879 History 0/ Tazewell County states, "All of the .species of this class that ever inhabited this region are still to be found here except the poisonous snakes." Regarding rattlesnakes, the text says, "There are two kinds, the bandy or striped and the prairie rattlesnake, the latter being still occasionally found. " Further remarks: The copperhead was always rare. Among the harmless snakes are the water snake, the garter-snake, the bull-snake, the milk snake, the black~snake, and the blue racer. Many reptiles found here are erroneously called lizards, but are salamanders and other like innocent creatures. Lizards are never found in this county. Among the tortoises or turtles are found the map turtle, the snapping and the soft-shelled turtle. Of the batrachian, or naked reptiles, • there are a few, and, though loathsome to sight and touch, are harmless. The toad, the bull-frog, the leopard frog, the tree toad, with some tailed batrachia, comprise the most of this order. 10 Birds and Mammals THE FOLLOWING PAGES BOAST of the abundance of wildlife in the Mackinaw region pri marily through tales and tallies of slaughter. Along with deer and turkeys, one of the prin cipal targets of hunters was the wolf-either the prairie wolf or the timber wolf (gray wolf). The prairie wolf is now known as the coyote. Pioneer narratives do not always make clear whether prairie wolves or timber wolves were the subject of a hunt. .Usually the informant simply refers to "wolves," but sometimes the species is named or can be surmised. The 1879 History a/Tazewell County makes the distinction in one of its passages: "Prairie wolves were numerous, and timber wolves were often seen." 10 But this book also confuses matters by referring to the coyote as the gray wolf, and to the timber wolf as the black wolf. One McLean County pioneer noted that they sometimes chased timber wolves more than 10 miles, "but never the prairie wolves." 13 A Danvers Township pioneer recalled that a pack of the "large timber or gray wolf" stood its ground and drove back his dog (rather than running like a prairie wolf). 13 And among the reminiscences compiled by Professor Duis, "The last wolf chase in which Mr. Means took part was very exciting. The wolf was a half-breed between the gray and the prairie varieties." 13 IN 1828 THE HENLINE FAMILY came to live beside the tributary of the Mackinaw that now bears their name. A biographer related, • The Balrachia, or naked (scale-less) "reptiles," are amphibians. • 4-47 The Henline boys amused themselves in their youthful days by trapping turkeys. These foolish birds would walk into the traps with theirheads down, eating corn, and would not know enough to put down their heads and walk out. Out of a flock of about thirty turkeys, only three knew enough to escape. 13 Two TRIBUTARIES OF THE MACKINAW owe their names to John Messer, an inveterate hunter who pioneered in Lexington Township in 1829. When he found turkey tracks along the first creek downstream from present-day Lexington, he named it Turkey Creek. "He went two miles farther on and wounded a buck by another creek, to which he gave the name of Buck Creek, a name it still retains." 13 JOSEPH MESSER CAME TO THE MACKINAW timber in McLean County in 1829. The story of his life recalls that he killed 18 deer one autumn, and "only one was shot while standing." He finally managed to kill one prize buck, "... which had a place to stay on the north of the Mackinaw, where it was protected in some measure by two ponds of water. It could there see a long distance and had timely notice of the approach of hunters and wild animals." 13 JOHN TROWBRIDGE PIONEERED along the Mackinaw River in Dillon Township (Tazewell County). A chronicle of his life tells of animals that he and his brother Jessie encountered during an excursion in the 1830s: They accordingly went over to a grove, called Walnut Grove, which they named at the time. This grove was eight miles from their cabin. In the first tree they cut down, which was a walnut, they found and killed four coons. . . . They set a trap and proceeded to cut a tree for fire. They soon returned to their trap and found a quail. This made them one breakfast. Toward evening ... they heard a loud noise. . .. Jessie laid down to sleep, but his brother kept him awake, fearful that the wolves would devour them, for it appeared that there were over 500 right around them. The following morning they left for home, and when on the top of a sand ridge, just below them they counted 110 deer. They were running in Indian file and were counted as they passed. The noise made by their hoofs was heard at a distance of over a mile. 10 John Trowbridge often went hunting with a neighbor: . On one trip they started up a wolf and killed it, and started another, gave chase, and killed it also. They then found three bee trees and got four tubs of honey. While they were cutting ·the third tree. ,the dogs -treed fifteen-coons, all of which were killed. This was called a good hunt. CROGHAN DAWSON CAME to the Mackinaw timber in Lexington Township in 1832. One of his favorite sports was running down fawns from horseback. While pursuing a fawn along Patton Creek, "The parties to the sport chased it far and fast enough to catch a deer. 4-48 At last it hid in the high grass, and two of the hunters . . . were thrown from their horses in the slough while trying to catch it. " • 13 Mr. Dawson took up the trades of farming and exterminating wolves. One winter he killed 26 wolves with strychnine. A neighbor on the Mackinaw, "who specialized in shooting turkeys," killed 15 of the birds in one day. At a nearby farm, the Smith boys trapped 750 prairie chickens during the winter of 1834-35. A downstream neighbor put his best turkey hunting success at "as many as twelve in a day." 13 DAVID KiNDIG, WHO MOVED TO TAZEWELL County as a boy in 1833, provided this wolf lore in Early History oj Washington, Illinois and Vicinity: The wolves were cute. They would run in swamps where you could not reach them with a horse. Ifyou would start a prairie wolf near the timber, in every . instance he would make for the prairie. They were numerous then, but all gone now. There are some grey timber wolves yet in the timber. Very fortunately when on the prairie, if you would run down a wolf and have nothing to kill it with, we would take our stirrup off the saddle and kill it; also snakes and badgers. I have done that a number of times. 37 Although Mr. Kindig recalled killing badgers from horseback, one McLean County pioneer's horse suffered a reverse fortune. James Means was chasing a wolf when his horse" stepped into a badger's hole and fell and broke its neck." 13 William McCullough's horse hit a gopher hole and broke its neck during a wolf hunt. 13 BELLE HARLAN CAME TO TAZEWELL County in 1834. She recalled 67 years later, Deer were plenty. 'Twas no uncommon sight to see eight and ten cantering over the prairies or through the barrens. . . . Wild turkeys, prairie chickens and quails were abundant. Brother Newton trapped the last named two in such numbers we grew tired of them. I have known mother to give some to the neighbors. Wolves, too, were numerous, and bold-so bold they would come within a few yards of the house in the full glare of day and catch a chicken. Sheep had to be penned at night or some of them paid for the omission with their lives. 37 A RETROSPECTIVE ON THE LIFE of the Reverend Mr. James Owen states, "Mr. Owen has been a great hunter in.. hisday,.and has probably. killed more deer than he has seen years, although he is verging on to his four score. .He informed us that in 1848 he killed fifty two foxes, and that 'it was not a very good year either for foxes.'" Mr. Owen had moved to northern Tazewell County (immediately north of the Mackinaw River basin) in 1835. 41 • One might infer that the grass on the upland was not tall enough to hide a fawn, but the slough grass was taller. 4-49 SAMUEL FINLEY WAS PART OF A FAMILY that pioneered in the Mackinaw valley of Woodford County in 1836. During the years when Mr. Finley was an active hunter, he killed more than three hundred deer. In one day he brought down four of these animals. He killed three one morning before breakfast, and on one occasion killed two bucks with one shot from his rifle. He bagged more than three hundred wild turkey the largest of which weighed over thirty pounds. On one occasion he and his brother got eighty-seven prairie chickens in about eight hours with rifles. Foxes, wolves, raccoons, opossums and many other varieties of game fell before the rifle of this sturdy hunter. 28 EMMA SCOTT RECALLED of her father, who came to Tazewell County in 1836, When snow was on the ground and the mornings were cold, father said he could gather all the prairie chickens he wished in short order, using a stick to stun them, and a bevy of quail would rush unsuspectingly into coops, or traps, in .quest of food. The hunter and trapper were richly rewarded for their efforts. There was never any scarcity of eats if one had ambition enough to go after them. 37 FROM THE PAGES OF THE 1908 History ofMcLean County comes this story of a pioneer .in the prairie headwaters of the Mackinaw: ... Curtis Batterton bought land in Martin Township here in 1836 and settled here in 1837. '" though Curtis Batterton is said to have hunted little except wolves-and, even then, he could scarcely raise and keep his sheep. The south and southeast part of Martin, like Cropsey and part of Blue Mound, being remote from the Illinois Central and Chicago & Alton Railroads, were very slow in being settled, and here deer were hunted as late as 1865. The Bloom ington hunters frequently roamed over these prairies finding geese and ducks in their season, and shooting deer quite plentifully until after 1858, and occasion ally finding a deer for several years later. 3 THE JONATHAN COON FAMILY came to the Mackinaw Valley in 1836 or 1837, living at a number of places in the vicinity of Money Creek. In 1843 Mrs. Coon watched as a panther passed close to their home. According to biographer E. Duis, "Mr. Coon has found the bones of buffalo and the horns of elk on the Mackinaw, but these animals seemed to scent the coming of civilized men from a long distance, and no living settler has ever seen buffalo or-elk in McLean ·County, so .far as the author can learn." 13 JAMES SMITH COON arrived in Illinois in 1837 and settled along the Mackinaw River in Gridley Township. His biography states, "He and his brother Michael set large steel traps for wolves, and in one season caught seventeen of these animals (the eighteenth left his toes), two or three badgers, one gray eagle and one white owl." 13 4-50 ELIZA FARNHAM WAS A RESIDENT of Tremont in Tazewell County. In 1846 she published Life in Prairie Land, which presents a word-picture of prairie chickens on their booming ground: These fowls are rarely heard to utter any noise except at one chosen hour of the day. On a spring morning before sunrise,. if you are in the vicinity where grove and prairie meet, the air resounds with a peculiar noise, between the whistle of the quail and the hoarse blowing of the night-hawk, but louder than either. You inquire what it is, and are told it is the prairie cocks greeting the opening day. 15 JACKSON ROUNTREE, who came to live near San Jose in 1851, recalled the abundance of game: Prairie chickens in great flocks, also wild geese, brants • and ducks were here. Large sandhill cranes that could carry away a whole shock of com. The wheatfields, ponds, and creeks were covered with these wild fowls. Wild deer roamed this country in great droves. Large grey wolves were plentiful in the swamps, in the high grass, and when night came we could hear them howl in every direction calling one another together. When the pack had assembled, they would bark and howl in good time. From a distance it sounded like a large chorus. These wolves would carry off the pigs, sheep, and calves from the settlers' corrals. 34 SlMON THOMAS, WHO GREW UP in Tazewell County in the 1840s and 50s, told a historian that "they did a good deal of hunting in those days." Thomas recalled that there were plenty ofdeer, wild turkeys, prairie-chickens, and quail. He said that he had seen "an old rail fence strung with prairie chickens for nearly half a mile. " 37 A MAN WHO CAME TO LIVE in the Mackinaw River portion of Spring Lake Township in 1851 recalled seeing "within rifle-shot of where he now lives, twenty-five deer in one drove." 10 ISADORE TRIMBLE BAYLER GREW UP in Tazewell County in the years before the Civil War. According to a historian who interviewed her, "Prairie chickens were plentiful in those days, and were easily trapped. Deer were also plentiful, and Mrs. Bayler would often see them come down by the dozen to drink at their pond." 37 IN 1866 JOHN WILSON BOUGHT AFARM five miles southeast of Minonk, in the prairie at the north edge of the Mackinaw valley. A record of his recollections states, "Wild game was plentiful. There were lots ofprairie chickens, .geese and ducks." He could shoot "a good deal of game from his front yard." 37 EpHRAlM MYERS, WHO CAME TO McLEAN County in 1830, recalled about four decades later that the largest deer he killed was "up on the Mackinaw, and it was indeed a most • Brant = snow goose and greater white-fronted goose (see page 4-58). 4-51 ------ enormous buck," dressed out at 240 pounds plus a 21-pound skin. 13 A biography of Ephraim Myers adds, Mr. Myers thinks that in all of his experience with wild animals the badger is the worst to kill and hardest to fight. A badger is a bluish colored animal with whitish stripes. It is shaped much like a woodchuck, and is about the size of a raccoon. . .. Mr. Myers once dug out a hole in which he found two young badgers and a bull snake. This was in the spring of the year. He thinks they must have passed the winter together. 13 THE 1877 History of Woodford County relates, The first comers found many sorts of animals here, which are at present nearly extinct. Among birds, there were quails, prairie hens and wild turkeys, all in great abundance, and all excellent for food. Many sorts of the feathered songsters are still with us, but their numbers have been too much thinned by useless and shameful warfare. Among our wisest laws are those for the protec tion of the birds. ... Prairie wolves were numerous and familiar neighbors. They gave the early farmer nocturnal concerts, and paid themselves from his sheep pen, or his tender piglings. .,. There was a few foxes and many deer which afforded sport in the way of the chase. Deer and fox hounds had then some excuse for existence, but now their occupation is gone. The groves abounded in squirrels, and raccoons were common. Coon hunting was chiefly prosecuted at night, and was splendid sport for boys and dogs. A fight between a large "coon" and the dogs was an exciting and interesting spectacle. . . . Badgers were occasionally met with, and now and then a black bear or a panther. Wild cats and skunks, and other animals common to the Mississippi Valley, were here. . . . In Walnut Grove· there used to be immense numbers of squirrels, and in the early summer the people, for miles around would collect at the old meeting house spring, on an appointed day, and enjoy what was called a "burgout." A burgout (pronounced burgoo) was a feast, the chief feature of which was squirrel soup. Early on the appointed day the young men would be abroad with rifles, in search of young squirrels. By eight or nine o'clock these would begin to come in from all directions with their game. ... The young man who brought in the greatest number of squirrels was the hero of the day . . . . 31 JAMES RUGGLES' 1879 ACCOUNT of Manito Township in Mason County preserves this record: At the date of the earliest settlements, game of all kinds abounded in plenteous profusion. It was by no means an uncommon thing to see herds of deer ranging • Walnut Grove was along Walnut Creek, the tributary of the Mackinaw River that flows through Eureka. 4-52 in numbers of from seventy-five to one hundred, and their course was plainly marked by the parting of the tall grass. .., Oftentimes, too, would they put the husbandman's labor to naught by completely destroying his patch of "gar den-sass" in a single night. Wild geese, ducks, cranes and other water-fowls were here in abundance, and were not a little source of annoyance to the early settlers in the destruction of their crops. Sometimes, an entire field of wheat would be destroyed in a few days by flocks of geese, as the biting of the geese seemed to poison the tender plant and utterly destroy it. The wily wolf and artful fox came in for their share of depredations, in robbing hen-roosts, pig sties and sheep-cotes; and what a wolf didn't know about howling wasn't worth knowing. . .. Coon Grove was so named from the vast number of coons found there in an early day. The same authority states that, when they came in 1841, "the woods were full of 'em." Many of the trees were hollow, and had beside them Indian ladders (saplings with the limbs cut off some distance from the body), and holes chopped into the trees-evidently the work of the Indians, made in their attempts to catch "old Zip Coon." At certain seasons of the year, Mr. Maloney states that they were wont to go, about sunset, and drive them from the fields like droves of sheep. The were very destructive to crops near the grove. 33 THE 1879 History ofTazewell County has an extensive treatment of the region's zoology. The discussion starts out . . . Many of the various species of animals that roamed the native prairie of Tazewell county, or made their homes in the wild forests within its borders, and lived undisturb~ an_d free from the haunt of the hound or the crack of the hunter's rifle, are gone from this section forever. Not even a specimen is preserved in taxidermy. The buffalo which grazed upon the verdant prairies has been driven westward. With or before it went the beaver, elk, badger, panther, black wolf and black bear. Some animals that were quite numerous have become very rare, such as the gray fox, the catamount, otter, lynx, and the beautiful Virginia deer. There still remain many of the different species, mostly inhabiting the country adjacent to the Illinois river and a few of the other larger streams. These are, however, fast disappearing, and ere long will be known only in the history, as are the deer, the beaver, and the bison. Among those still to be found here are the gray wolf, which is numerous in some parts, the opossum, raccoon, mink, muskrat, the common weasel, the small brown weasel, • skunk, woodchuck, or Maryland marmot, prairie mole, common shrew mole, t meadow and deer mouse, and the gray rabbit. Of squirrels there are the gray timber squirrel, the fox, chipmunk, the large, gray prairie squirrel, the striped and the spotted • Common weasel = long-tailed weasel; small brown weasel = least weasel. t Common shrew mole = shrew. 4-53 prairie squirrel, • and the beautiful flying squirrel. The dark brown and the reddish bat are common. Other small animals have been found here which have strayed from other localities. 10. The chapter lists about 150 kinds of birds in Tazewell County, from the ruby-throated humming-bird to the coot. The listing includes several remarks of particular interest: The turkey-buzzard has almost, if not quite, disappeared. · .. At an early day the Carolina parrot was often seen, but he has now entirely deserted this section. · . . The wild turkey, the choisest of game, has almost entirely disap peared ...... the prairie chicken ... if not carefully protected, must ere long follow the wild turkey, never to return. The ruffed grouse, wrongfully called "pheasant," has of late made its appearance. . .. The fate of that excellent bird, the quail, is only a question of a short time. . .. The wild pigeons continue to make their semi-annual visits, but not in such vast numbers as years ago. · . . The rough-billed pelican was the only genus of this family that ever stopped . : . , and it has now altogether ceased to make its visits here. · . . The glossy ibis has been seen here. Under the heading "Native Animals," the 1879 History of Tazewell County expounds, The wild animals infesting this county at the time of its settlement, were the deer, wolf, bear, wild-cat, fox, otter, raccoon, wood-chuck or ground-hog, skunk, mink, weasel, muskrat, opossum, rabbit, and squirrel; and the principal feathered game were the quail, prairie-chicken, and wild turkey.... The wolf was the most troublesome animal, it being the common enemy of the sheep. It was quite difficult to protect the sheep from their ravages. Sometimes pigs and calves were also victims of the wolf. .,. To effect the destruction of these animals the county authorities offered a bounty for their scalps and besides big hunts were inaugurated for their destruction, and "wolf hunts" are prominent among the memories of the early settlers. Such events were generally turned into a holiday, and everybody that could ride a nag or stand the tramp on foot joined in the deadly pursuit. A large circuit was generally made by the hunters, who then c!osed·in·on·every side, driving·the·hungry.wolves into the center of the corral, where they were despatched. The return home with the carcasses was the signal for a general tum-out, and these "pleasure parties" are still referred to by old citizens as among the pleasantest memories of early life in • Large, gray prairie squirrel = Franklin's ground squirrel; the striped and the spotted prairie squirrel = thirteen-lined ground squirrel. 4-54 Tazewell county. Many a hungry wolf has been run down on the prairies where now is located a town or fine farm residence. This rare old pastime, like much of the early hunting and fishing the pioneers indulged in here, departed·at the appearance of the locomotive. . . . Kezer Hancock, an early settler and quite a noted hunter, was out hunting in Groveland township in the year 1839, when he sent his very large bull-dog after a panther. ... Mr. Hancock has killed as many as 23 deer within three weeks' time. DR. E. Durs INTERVIEWED MANY of the region's first white hunters to write The Good Old Times in McLean County, 13 which was published in 1874. Between the covers of this clasSic one can find anecdotes such as, "The country was wild and game was plenty. There were prairie chickens and deer and wild turkeys. On one occasion Mr. Lucas killed a deer without stepping out of the doorway." And "Mr. Warlow did some hunting and often killed deer and wolves. Once while living on his farm he stood on his door step and killed a deer, which was standing near by. He several times killed two deer before breakfast." In the introduction to his book, Dr. Duis wrote, The earliest settlers say that it was easy to raise sheep at first; that the wolves would not molest them. But the wolves soon acquired a taste for mutton and became the most vicious and troublesome enemies with which the settlers had to contend. It became as much the duty of settlers to chase wolves as to plow, sow and reap. They caught the wolves in traps and in pens, killed them with clubs while chasing them on horseback, made ring hunts for the purpose of exterminating them, poisoned them, offered bounties for their scalps and made warfare on them in a thousand different ways. Sometimes when a wolf became very troublesome the settlers offered bounties for its particular scalp. More than a thousand bushels of corn were once offered for the scalp of a single wolf. It was killed by John Price of Downs, but he refused to accept the bounty. FROM THE 1910 History of Woodford County: The farmer's stock was in danger from prowling wolves that infested the country. It was even dangerous for a man to be alone on the prairie at night with a pack of hungry wolves on his track. This trouble from wolves was so great that a bounty was offered for a wolfs scalp. Foxes were also frequently found in the timber region but these were never so harmful as wolves, altho a bounty was·also offered for· a fox scalp. The·dayof,the wolfis past and the fox is now but rarely seen, altho occasionally one is found with her little ones in the timber. 28 MAJOR W. PACKARD PREPARED AN ARTICLE, "Game Birds and Animals of McLean County," for the second volume of the Transactions of the Mclean County Historical Society (1903). Here are selections from his discussion of mammals: 4-55 That the Bison was once feeding on our own prairies and resting in our beauti ful groves is a fact scarcely to be doubted although the evidence of their presence is now completely obliterated. Yet fifty years ago it was not at all rare to find on the burnt prairies bits of undecayed buffalo horn, and even remnants of the larger bones, yet recognizable; and occasionally their wallows were still faintly visible, where they had pawed out great holes in the earth fighting flies; and tradition through the older settlers, assures us that these signs of their occupation were still more abundant when they first came here. . . . The Elk, or moose deer, "Cervus alces" of Linnaeus, is a later rambler over our prairies, but yet not late enough to be remembered by any living resident, even those who were old residents as far back as the forties, but at that time and even later, pairs of their antlers were often found still intact, on the prairies and in the timber, proving conclusively that they were once here. o . . The Black Bear never was a permanent resident of this part of the Prairie State; the country is not suited to his tastes or habits. He lives further south as well as further north; but in some seasons when the mast has been scarce at the north and plentiful here a few of this species have strayed to this county in search of their natural food, and fewer yet have returned to their northern haunts. One, at least has been captured in McLean county within a few years. The Virginia Deer, "Cervus Virginiaeus," were here in great numbers in the early settlement of the county, and a few remained as late as the beginning of the seventies, when the last remaining old buck it is believed, a grand patriarch with branching antlers, was captured in the eastern part of the county. In the more generally timbered portions of the state there are said to be a few deer still remaining, and it may be that a solitary one, or pair may have been later than the time mentioned, even here, but they are fast disappearing before the advance of so-called ciVilization, which is very uncivil in some things; notably in destroying the noblest and rarest specimens of bird and beast for sport and for profit. 29 To round out his review of game mammals, Major Packard listed the Opossum ("which can hardly be considered a game animal"), ground hog or woodchuck, rabbit or cottontail, fox squirrel, and gray squirrel. Regarding the squirrels, Packard stated, "Both species have been very plentiful in all the timbered portions of the county, and are still to be met with in reasonable numbers by careful searching." Major Packard followed ·the classification oof ornithologists who thought that sandhill cranes and whooping canes were one and the same species: The migratory game birds that visit us annually in their season are numerous, furnishing sport for the hunter, and acceptable food for our tables. Standing above them all is the Sandhill Crane or Whooping Crane, Grus Americana. 4-56 ------ This magnificent bird formerly visited us in great numbers, arriving from the south in April or May and remaining until late in the fall . . . . . . . Some of these birds are pure white in color, while others, and the greater number are a rufous brown . . " ... The sandhill sometimes breeds . here . . " They choose their nesting places in a shallow pond where there are small tussocks standing above the water, and where the rank growth of water plants conceals them from view . . . . . . . These noble birds that once visited us so plentifully, are now rarely seen, or their familiar notes heard in this part of the great west, their favorite parade and feeding grounds are fenced in and "improved," and their nesting places are drained out and cultivated, and they, the winged lovers of liberty and seclusion have sought out a habitat better suited to their natural instincts. Packard's article has fairly extensive remarks about the abundance, behavior, habitats, and palatability of the birds that were commonly hunted in Mclean County. The following paragraphs consist of extracts from his commentaries. Wild Turkey: "... as late as 1844, when the writer first came to the state, the groves of Mclean county were well supplied with them ... and they were reasonably plenty for ten or fifteen years thereafter. But, like the Buffalo, the Elk, the Deer, they have been gradually decimated by the hunter until now, it is believed, not a single individual is left in this part of the state." Prairie Chicken (Pinnated Grouse): "... is one of the most numerous, as well as the most widely distributed of the native game birds of the western states, and the broad, fertile prairies of Mclean county have had, and still retain their full quota. But ... this beautiful and excellent member of the grouse family is gradually falling by the wayside, growing scarcer year by year, and in a few years will become a rara avis even here on its native heath, and one of its choicest places of resort, where, only a few years ago on any clear, early spring morning its booming could be distinctly heard in country, town, and village allover the county. " Ruffed Grouse (partridge, Pheasant): "also found in this county, but rarely, it is not at all plentiful, but is sometimes found along the streams where the thickets and under growth are almost impenetrable" Virginia Partridge (Quail, Bob White): "... we have always with us and usually in great abundance ...'. Time.wasin ,this county when the .flocks of this species were so numerous that the favorite mode of their capture was by netting them; actually setting long, funnel-shaped nets and driving these innocent little fellows into them, thus generally securing the whole flock in one drive, and hundreds of them in a day." Canada goose: "The flocks are not large when they stop with us in the spring, but are much larger when they return from their breeding grounds in the autumn. " 4-57 Snow Goose and White-Fronted Goose: "Both varieties are generally known to the hunters under the common, but improper name of "brant," the Brant or Brent Goose, . being a smaller, more compact bird, differently colored, of different habits, and not one of our visitors. " Mallard Duck: "very plentiful in its season . . . . Formerly when the ponds and sloughs of our prairies were undrained, they bred here in considerable numbers" Sprigtail (Pintail Duck): "perhaps the next most common variety .... They are not known to breed here . . . ." Tree, or Wood Duck: "builds its nest and rears its young in the hollow of some decaying tree near the water" Butter-Ball (Buffed Duck): "sometimes stays in our ponds and watercourses, but very seldom" • American Grebe: "a rare visitor, ... only two specimens I have ever met with here" Blue-wing and the green-wing, or winged teal: "They visit us perpetually in their season ...." American Coot (Mud-Hen): "visits us in small flocks, and feeds alike on the land and in the shallow water of our ponds, from which it never strays far away." Virginia Rail: "frequents the margin of ponds, and the sloughs where the grass is tall and thick" Sora Rail: "smaller, darker, and less beautifully marked than the Virginia. . .. It is however much more plentiful, lives more in and about the water among the flags and water plants which it utilizes in getting about, seldom descending into the water. " Least Water Rail: "almost too diminutive to shoot ... yet they are good food." t Kildeer (Kildee Plover): "well known" Golden Plover: "They formerly came to us in immense flocks the last of March or the first of April, and remained about thirty days, and when the prairies were open great numbers could be shotfrom·a wagon· or buggy if the horse waswiIling." • Butter-Ball (Buffed Duck) = bufflehead. t Least Water Rail = black rail. 4-58 Ringed Plover: "lives about the water more than the other varieties" • Bartramian Sandpiper (Upland plover, Field plover, Prairie Whistler): "a well known bird to sportsmen . . . this being one of its many breeding places . . . . They remain with us until late in the season and become very fat and toothsome . . . ." Little Sandpiper (Peep): "Their flesh is excellent and makes a dainty dish if you can secure enough of them." t Long-Billed Curlew: "used to come to our vicinity in considerable numbers, usually flocking with the golden plover on their first arrival, but later, pairing off, and a few raising their young here; but for several years none have been seen or captured in this county to my knowledge . . . ." Esquimaux Curlew: "They did not nest here but left with the plover. " Woodcock: "comes to us also, hiding in the thick brush where the ground is moist and soft . . . by no means plentiful in this portion of the state, but still a few are found ...." Yellowshank Snipe (Tatler): "often wading in the pond with other game" * Telltale Snipe (Godwit): "another talebearer of equal pertinacity with yellow shanks . . . the latter species is somewhat more numerous· , Wilson Snipe (Jack Snipe, English Snipe): "very common, well known and widely distributed species" Turtle Dove: "of late years thousands of them have been slain every season" IN 1904 THE STATE GAME COMMISSIONER compiled information on the status of the greater prairie-chicken. 18 In McLean County the species was described as "plentiful." Regarding Woodford County, the commissioner concluded, "... prospect good, and if protection of the game is held firm over the State, returns will show a great increase.• Tazewell County was not listed in the report. • Ringed Plover = semipalmated sandpiper. t Little Sandpiper (Peep) = least sandpiper and perhaps similar species. *Yellowshank Snipe (Tatler) = greater yellowlegs and ? lesser yellowlegs (Packard described the Taller as "standing high on his long, yellow legs). , Telltale Snipe (Godwit) = marbled godwit. 4-59 This report presents an optimistic picture of prairie chicken populations and trends in most of the state's counties in 1904. Although the Game and Fish Conservation Commission noted a general decline in prairie-chickens statewide between 1904 and 1914, the commission maintained a positive outlook: "Since this data was compiled there has been a decrease in the prairie chicken supply as well as in the supply of other game birds. Under the present system of game reservations, it is confidently expected that there will be a marked increase in the number of prairie chickens in the near future. " THE LYNX IS A LARGE CAT that ranges to the north of Illinois. The species is not gener ally considered to have been part of the Illinois fauna. Pioneer narratives and early county histories sometimes mention the lynx in Illinois - but these references might have been based on the bobcat, which is native to the state. Professor E. Ouis' Good Old Times in McLean County 13 includes three accounts of lynxes. The descriptions are of an animal larger than a bobcat. Along the Mackinaw River near Lexington, a group of men are said to have tracked and shot a lynx. According to Professor Ouis, "The paws of the lynx were round and fully as large as a good sized fist; its nails resembled the claws of a timber hawk, and were an inch and a half in length; its legs were enormous in size, large, and with the heavy fur seemed fully as large as the leg of a stout man." Or. Ouis' biography of Henry Crumbaugh says, "He once caught two lynxes in the edge of Old Town timber. These animals are of the wildcat species and are very large. ,Hun ters have sometimes mistaken them for dogs. They have spots and stripes on them, and are quite pretty. They are not considered dangerous to human beings, but are strong, and wouldbe very unpleasant animals to fight with." Ouis' biographical sketch of Hiram Havens of Hudson Township states that his father killed a lynx, but it is not clear where this animal was killed. This lynx was described as "... an immensely long-bodied animal, with spots or short stripes, and with legs which are short, thick and powerful. ... It measured six feet from tip to tip, but its tail was short. Its nails were two inches in length. " Circle Hunts DAVID KINDIG EXPLAINED how circle hunts were conducted in Tazewell and Woodford Counties: In the early settlement of the country we would have frequent wolf and deer hunts. We would arrange it thus: We would notify the people, far and near, that on a certain day we were to hunt; would hoist a pole and put a flag on it; select some elevated place on the prairie for the pole. We would go on horse back, armed with clubs and dogs (guns were prohibited). In those days people mostly lived along borders of the timber. They would form a circle and drive direct to the pole, chasing the game ahead of us. They would run north, meeting men and dogs, turn and run south, see men and dogs coming, would 4-60 run back and forth until they would get tired. By the time the game were all chased up, they were fatigued and easily captured. I was at a chase in Tazewell county. The place of meeting was near Tremont. Our company caught two deer. On our way down there Thomas Cress rode up to one and knocked it down with an axe handle. When we got to the ring we had chased up five deer and one wolf. The deer all got away, but we captured the wolf. At another time we had a hunt in Woodford county. We had enclosed seven deer and after we got them enclosed in one-fourth mile, two of the parties broke ranks and were going to claim and take them. Two deer ran out where they made an opening in the ranks and we lost all of them, but had the sport just the same. The dogs chased them some time after they were enclosed. 37 PROFESSOR RADFORD WROTE regarding prairie wolves in 1877, "One of the favorite methods of exterminating them was the circle hunt, and was conducted as follows." Upon a set day the settlers would gather at an appointed place on horseback; a captain was appointed and orders were given. As large a territory as practi cable was enclosed and the game driven towards a central point, agreed upon before hand. When the game was finally penned by riders near together the work of killing begun. The wolves which escaped through the line were chased down and dispatched with clubs. Deer would also be often taken in the circle. Bounties were offered by the state for wolf scalps, and wolf hunting for a time became profitable. Money was scarce, and it was sometimes easier. for the settler to get enough scalps to pay his taxes than enough money. The poor wolf has about succumbed to this unceasing warfare, and we have seen his lank, familiar visage for almost the last time. To his old neighbors and acquaintances this is a matter of small regret, which argues that Canis Lupus was a bad citizen.• 3[ • Other descriptions of circle hunts may be perused on page 4-54 of this volume, and in Bate man, Selby, Prince, and Burnbam (1908:649), Duis (1874:435,495,502, 522, 766, 799, 809), and Moore (1910:82). 4-61 ------...,....------ WEATHER EXTREMES STORMS AND EXTREMES in temperature and precipitation can have big impacts on the ecology of a region-both animal life and vegetation. The following first-hand narratives and early historical accounts stem from an era when the human populace as a whole lived closer to the natural environment and was more sensitive to the vagaries of weather. Although impressions of the weather "in the early days" probably rank among the least reliable of remembrances, pioneers did measure and document some important climatic events. Winter of the Deep Snow ACCORDING TO PROFESSOR Durs, "The winter of 1830 and '31 was the celebrated winter of the deep snow. " The weather during the fall had been very dry, and continued mild until late in the winter. But at last the snow came during the latter part of December; and such a snow has never since been known. The settlers were blockaded in their cabins and could do very little except pound their com, cut their wood and keep their fires blazing. A great deal of stock was frozen to death during this terrible winter. The deer and wild turkeys, which had been very numerous, were almost exterminated. The wolves, on the other hand, had a pleasant time of it. They played around over the snow, caught all the deer they wished, and were bold and impudent. . . . The settlers vary in their statements, some of them placing the depth at a little less than three feet, and some at more than four feet. 13 THE FOLLOWING REVIEW of the Deep Snow comes from the pages of the 1879 History of Tazewell County: The snow began falling on the night of the 29th of December, and continued to fall for three days and nights, until it reached an average depth of about four feet, but drifting in places as high as from eighteen to twenty feet. . . . For weeks the sun was not visible, and so intense was the cold that not a particle of snow would melt upon the south sides of the cabins. . . . To get wood they would cut trees at the top of the snow, and when spring came and the snow had disappeared, they often found the stump long enough to cut into fence rails. The snow lay on the ground until about the first of April .... During this winter, from Dec. 29, 1830, till Feb. 13,1831, it snowed nineteen times. After the snow had melted we are told that the bones of deer were so 4-62 ------numerous in some places that for one-quarter of an acre one could step from bone to bone over the whole surface, so many deer had perished there. 10 The depth of the accumulated snow was commonly reported to be three to four feet on the level. Among the specific measurements or exact estimates are the following: four feet in the woods where snow had not drifted, 13 44 inches, 3 40 inches in the timber, 13 18 inches in the first day of the storm, 2 and 33 inches or 36 inches in one of the first storms. 3 THE EFFECTS ON SOME WILDLIFE were especially severe because "the slight snow and sleet that fell before the heavy snow came froze the mast' to the ground, which, when the big snow came, the wild animals were unable to get to subsist upon, and, consequently, many died." 10 Esek Greenman of McLean County recalled that the deep snow made it very easy to catch deer and wolves ... "until a slippery crust formed on the snow, after which they could catch deer, but not the wolves." 13 The snow made it easier for wolves and dogs to capture deer, as a young woman from the Mackinaw valley recalled: . . . There was a great deal of wild game when we first came here, but there was not very much after the deep snow. Wild turkeys could get nothing to eat, and neither could the deer, and they perished in great numbers. Father used to chain his dogs to keep them from slaughtering the deer. The dogs could run on top of the snow crust, while the deer with sharp hoofs would sink through and become an easy prey to the dogs that might be loose. There were lots of prairie and timber wolves; I have counted seven from our door at one time. We had to be on the constant watch to protect young stock from them. 2 The deer that did survive became "so poor and hungry that they could be caught by hand. They could be attracted by felling a tree and when the poor creatures came to pick the leaves they could be easily caught." 13 The biography of a McLean County farmer states, He killed deer when the snow first fell, but they soon became poor and not worth killing. A day or two after the heavy fall of snow he went out hunting and followed a deer for some distance, when it went to a place where a dozen or more deer had tramped a space around them about twenty feet across with the snow drifted on all sides in high walls. . .. At last they broke from their pen and he shot two of them when they had run a short distance away. During that terrible winter the deer came up, after night-fall, and ate hay with his cattle. 13 This winter did not permanently devastate the deer population. Greenberry Larison of McLean County recalled that"game was made comparatively scarce by the winter of the • That is, the crop of acorns and other nuts and seeds that had dropped from trees and shrubs. 4-63 deep snow, yet the skillful hunter could find it." Larison reported that he had killed "a power of deer and turkey" during his hunting days. 13 According to Levi Danley of McLean County, the Deep Snow killed off the deer, but "a few years l!fterwards they . again became numerous. " Sudden Change NEXT TO THE DEEP SNOW OF 1830-31, the earliest white residents of the region were likely to recall a drop in temperature that was so precipitous that it was universally known as the Sudden Change. Dr. E. Duis introduced the historic event in his Good Old Times in McLean County: The month of December, 1836, was marked by a sudden change in the weather, more remarkahle, perhaps, than the great winter of the deep snow. The weather had been mild for some time, and rain had been falling, changing the snow to slush, when suddenly a cold wind-storm came and lowered the temper ature instantly from about forty degrees above zero to twenty degrees below. The face of the country was changed from water to ice immediately and, as Rev. Mr. Peasley said, appeared like a picture of the Polar regions. 13 MARGARET YOUNG, who lived near the Mackinaw River in Elm Grove Township (Taze well County) recalled the incident in this way: I also remember the remarkable change of the weather in 1836. I remember that the ground was covered with slush, and that some Dillon men stopped at our house on their way home from Pekin. The slush and ice had formed on the fetlocks of the horses until it had to be melted off by pouring hot water on before the horses could travel. Mother had geese that were flopping around in the water just before this change came, and they had to go and put them in some building to keep them from freezing up, so sudden was the change. 2 WILLIAM HODGSON of Groveland Township (Tazewell County) noticed the rapidly approaching storm from his woodlot: Before he could get to his house, which was only forty rods distant, the slush had frozen hard. The next day the surface of the country was one vast sea of ice. Two miles south of Hodgson's farm a drove of hogs out from protection froze to death. Cattle that were in the fields were held fast by the slush freezing about their feet, and it became necessary to cut away the ice to liberate them. J. Roberts, of Morton township, speaks of this change in the following lan guage: "In the winter of 1836, when there was some four inches of snow upon the ground, a warm rain fell which transformed the snow into slush. I was some thirty rods from my house when it began to freeze. I immediately started for it, and before I reached there it was frozen sufficiently hard to bear me up." 10 4-64 LEVI DANVERS, who lived in western McLean County, was stranded in Pekin by the Sudden Change: "... his yoke of oxen could not be taken back home for six weeks, on account ofthe slippery condition ofthe roads, for the whole country was a glace ofice." 13 STORIES OF THE SUDDEN CHANGE often relate that wet clothes were frozen stiff within a minutes. One man was midway crossing the Mackinaw River on a horse when the cold front swept past; by the time he reached the riverbank, his cape had been blown out straight and frozen stiff. Another man was on horseback crossing the Mackinaw on ice. As he reached the bank, his horse broke through the ice. Just then the Sudden Change hit, and "the intensely cold wind stupefied the horse." The rider abandoned his steed and hurried for shelter. The next day, "The horse was frozen solidly in the ice. The water and mud had not reached to its flanks, but it was so chilled by the sudden change, that it was powerless to loosen itself." 13 Although tales about the Sudden Change are legion, relatively few witnesses ventured to record an estimate of the drop in temperature. David Kindig of Tazewell County ven tured, "I think the mercury fell forty degrees in thirty minutes." 37 Extreme or Unseasonable Cold ACCORDING TO PROFESSOR E. Durs, "The season of 1831 was cool and short and few of the farmers raised good com. The winter previous was the winter of the deep snow, and the climate was so chilled that the effect was felt during the whole season of 1831. There was a frost every month in the year and the com could not ripen." 13 IT SNOWED IN CENTRAL ILLINOIS on June 23, 1837. At Bloomington, "It was heavy enough to make the green-leaved trees look white, but no damage resulted. " 26 THE "HISTORY OF McLEAN COUNTY" tells us, "June 7, 1859, a severe cold spell formed ice in Bloomington one-eighth of an inch thick. The frost cut all the com to the ground and killed the young leaves on hickory and other forest trees." 26 IN THE 1870s William H. Hodge of McLean County recalled the longest winter as that of 1842-43, "when cold winter weather set in on the fourth of November, and lasted until the following April." 13 A. biographical sketch of a neighbor, James Harbord, contains the following: "During the winter of 1842 and '43 scarcely any snow fell and the ground became so deeply frozen that winter weather did not break up until in April. Farmers often struck frost while ploughing on the north sides of fences in the early part of May. " 13 ISADORE TRIMBLE wAS BORN in Tazewell County in 1850. She recalled her parents talking about a frost on July 3, 1854, that "froze down the com four or five inches high and did a lot of damage." 37 THE 1908 History ofMcLean County confirms the above accounts, listing the winter of 1842-43 and 1854 as remarkably cold times, and it adds, ". . . again in 1855 there was great suffering." This volume states that January 1 to 4, 1864, was exceedingly frigid 4-65 "the thermometer falling from twenty to twenty-eight degrees below zero, with heavy snow-storms of fine drifting snow, . . . perhaps as near being a real Dakota blizzard as was ever experienced in McLean County." 3 ACCORDING TO CAPTAIN J.H. BURNHAM, "The year 1863, is noted as the one in which there was frost every month in the summer. In August, a very heavy frost destroyed much of the corn, and in September, another ruined most of that which had escaped in August." 26 THOMAS FELL OF McLEAN COUNTY reported enduring temperatures of26 and 30 degrees below zero in February 1848. 13 While making observations from 1877 through 1890, David Kindig of Tazewell County recorded the coldest temperature as 27 degrees below zero on January 3, 1879. 37 FREDERICK BRENDEL OF PEORIA published a set of meteorological observations that spanned three decades, from 1855 to 1885. He determined that the longest winter season was in 1856-57, when "the first frost was noticed on the 1st of October and the last on the 11th of May, a period of 223 days." 8 Extreme or Unseasonable Heat PROFESSOR E. DUIS, chronicler of McLean County's pioneer era, documented one unusually early growing season: "In the spring of 1827, by the middle of March, the grass was ankle high in the marshes, and the prairies had a greenish tinge, but not enough grass for cattle, except near the sloughs." 13 The growing season of 1830-immediately before the Deep Snow-was especially long: "... frost was not severe enough to kill the tobacco sprouts until the second of December." 13 EASTERNER WALTER KARR arrived in McLean County on March 11, 1834: On the day of his arrival the weather was so warm that he killed a snake, one of the jointed kind, • which flew to pieces when struck. On the fourteenth of March, two men, Hopping and Torrence, gathered spring flowers, and the weather was indeed beautiful. But on the fourteenth of Maya severe frost came and cut the buds on the trees, turned the leaves completely brown and froze a crust on the ground. 13 THE PREPARERS OF AN 1878 history of Woodford County experienced such a mild winter that they proposed to dub the winter of 1877-8 as "the Winter of the 'deep mud. '" 41 An author of an 1879 history of McLean County may have been of the same opinion: The winter of 1877 and 1878, will long be remembered on account of its extreme mildness. At no time was the ice in the vicinity of Bloomington over • The jointed snake was a glass lizard. 4-66 three inches in thickness. The entire winter was about as mild as average April weather. Rains were frequent, often very heavy, and, before the 1st of Janu ary, the roads were impassable, and remained so from about January 1 to the middle of March. Business of all kinds was nearly suspended, and a general gloom pervaded the community. 26 ACCORDING TO OBSERVATIONS made in Peoria by Frederick Brendel between 1855 and 1885, the shortest winter season was 143 days, commencing with a frost on November 3, 1877, and ending with the last frost on March 25, 1878. 8 In records kept from 1877 through 1890, David Kindig of Washington recorded the highest temperature as 106 degrees on August 10, 1881. ·37 Drought THE CENTENNIAL HISTORY OF 'fREMONT relates, "In the summer of 1837, a great drouth prevailed. " For seven weeks not a drop of rain fell, and for a previous period of nearly twice that length of time, the few showers that had fallen were barely sufficient to lay the dust. There were no dews. ... There were but three or four wells in the city that furnished any water - the well back of the present city hall being the finest and best of any. 7 JACKSON ROUNTREE WAS A PIONEER who settled in the vicinity of San Jose. When he wrote a history of Allen Grove Township, Mr. Rountree recounted, The year 1851 was a wet year; 1852 was a dry year, and the year 1854 was the driest of all. In a trip which I made back to Indiana in 1854, there were not six bushels of corn to the acre raised on all cultivated land. All this country was new; therefore, the crop failure was not due to lack of fertility. 34 THE 1879 "History of McLean County" asserts that the summer of 1854 will long be remembered as the "dry season." The author noted that Sugar Creek (south of Bloom~ ington) went entirely dry. "People traveling through the country often suffered with their teams before they could obtain water, and cattle ran wild with thirst, rushing to the Mackinaw and other streams that were not exhausted, like droves of demons. " 26 Excessive Precipitation THE 1879 History of Tazewell County states, "It is claimed that the greatest rain-fall that has ever occurred in this country was in 1835. . .. There have been, perhaps, other • The History of McLean County by Wm. Le Baron, Jr., & Co. (1879) provides many other records of extreme and unseasonable temperatures at Bloomington. The same information is in Burnham (1879). 4-67 ------ seasons just as wet, but the streams were never so high at any other time." And "The years 1842, 1844, and 1858, are also notable as years of great rain-fall." 10 GENERAL JAMES RUGGLES reviewed a series of wet years and their consequences: The year of 1844 was a flood year. In the month of June, there was more water upon the face of the earth, in the Western country, than ever known since the days of Noah's flood. The seasons then ran along in their usual course until the year 1851, when much water fell. The next wet spell was in about seven, or possibly eight, years. The years 1867 and 1868, ending in the spring of 1869, were very wet years in this region of country, piling up the waters on the lowlands so that the muskrats had to build high houses to keep above water. The last wet spell began in July, 1876. Being the centennial year, there was a high old time, drowning out all the corn on the lowlands, and keeping up the spree for two long years! The valleys and sand hills were all filled with water, and the seepage from the higher to the lower lands caused lakes of water to be formed, and whole neighborhoods to be inundated in some parts of the county where water was never seen before. The sand hills take in the water-unlike clay hills, that run it off-and when the water gets down to hard pan, or clay strata, it flows out to the lowest ground it can find. 33 The sandy lowlands that Ruggles described ,as being flooded lay near the mouth of the Mackinaw River and farther south in Mason County. THE LANDSCAPE WAS GENERALLY FLOODED in 1831, following the winter of the Deep Snow. The abundance of standing water may have fostered a boom in mosquitoes, which might have increased the incidence of malaria. This appears to have been the case although malaria was then thought to result from breathing an unhealthy atmosphere, not from being bitten by a mosquito. Dr. Duis of Bloomington reflected the prevailing theory: "The year 1831 was particularly celebrated for the fever and ague. A great deal of rich soil was turned over for the first time, and the vapors and exhalations made the climate unhealthy. Mr. Esek Greenman says that out of twenty-four persons belonging to three families, twenty-three had the ague. ", 13 ACCORDING TO The Good Old Times in McLean County, In about the year 1843 or '44 a great hail storm visited the West. It was the severest ever known. A green cloud came up from the south, and when the • Although heavy precipitation can be implicated for an increase in malaria in 1831, a great drought in 1837 coincided with an outbreak of malaria or some other fever in Tazewell County. According to Blue (1935), "Sickness which had begun early in the summer in various parts of the county, increased in malignity. Disease and death stalked abroad. The pestilence claimed its victims in every home, in some whole families being prostrated. The fever took the most malignant and fatal form in the bottom lands, those bordering on the streams. One riding through those regions frequently found homes in which every member of the family was ill." 4-68 storm burst the hail stones came down with terrific force. They split the shingles on the roofs of houses, killed the prairie chickens and snipe on the prairie, and broke the back of a hog in Havens' Grove, a half a mile west of Hudson. These hail stones were of great size; one of them measured seven inches in circumference. When the storm was over, a Mr. Rinehart took a basket and collected it full of prairie chickens and snipe, which had been killed by the hail stones. 13 THE 1908 History ofMcLean County recounts two memorable ice storms: A great sleet storm occurred on the 13th of January, 1871, at which time ornamental trees in the towns and villages and large forest trees ... were greatly injured.. ,. Another sleet storm in February, 1883, caused even more damage, as the sleet was heavier and broke down larger trees . . . . 3 Writing three years after the 1871 storm, Professor Duis related, "... the great sleet storm . . . weighed down the timber with ice, and broke down many tress. Mackinaw timber still shows the effect very plainly." Eight years after the 1871 storm, a McLean County history book stated that the effects could still be seen: "Telegraph poles were broken, and in many cases all the large limbs broke from trees. Nearly one-third of the foliage-bearing branches were thus crushed; whole trees fell down and the damage to our fruit and shade trees is still plainly visible." 26 Windstorms HIGH WINDS CAN BE A POTENT FORCE in shaping the ecology of an area. The Mackinaw valley has been visited by uncounted tornadoes and other windstorms. Early residents often made a record ofthe destruction-especially loss oflives and buildings. The follow ing accounts have been gleaned from history books because they provide evidence of the impact that windstorms have had on the natural landscape. THE EARLIEST RECORDED TORNADO to pass through the region hit Blooming Grove and the Old Town Timber, south of the Mackinaw valley. According to The Good Old Times in McLean County, The great hurricane, which passed through Blooming Grove, • came late in the afternoon of the nineteenth of June, 1827. Mr. Orendorff returned soon after, and when he saw the destruction it caused and the trees in the timber piled up twenty feet high, he declared that he would sell out everything for $200, if he could get it, and move away. This great hurricane covered seven acres of land, • The city of Bloomington is where Blooming Grove once stood. The Old Town Timber extended eastward from Bloomington along the Bloomington Moraine through Old Town and Dawson Townships. 4-69 ---,------ -_._--_. -- which William Evans had planted in com, with limbs and brush and it was considered utterly ruined. . . . The trees were broken and twisted and tom. . .. The width of the hurri cane was about half a mile and its length no one knows. 13 . THE 1908 History ofMeLeOll COUJIty offers a longer-term historical perspective on this storm: The great hurricane, as the early settlers called it, occurred about dusk on the evening of June 19, 1827.... Its path of greatest destruction was about half a mile in width. ... It does not appear to have traversed in great force the entire length of the Old Town Timber. Its course is described as almost on an east and west line. All of the trees, large and small, in its path, were leveled to the ground at the western end, or, more correctly, at the northwest comer of Old Town Timber. Forty years ago the only growth of wood in that region was the young second growth, which showed plainly that it could not have been over forty years old. Some acres of these young trees may yet be seen near Gillum on the Big Four Railroad, where there is an even growth of young white or black oak timber, but no veteran saw logs. A little over a mile south of Gillum may be found, in Bishop's timber, some of the largest white and burr oak trees to be met with in McLean County, and at this point it is very evident the hurricane did little or no damage. The wind partly leveled the forest at the eastern side of Blooming Grove and unroofed the houses of William Walker and William Evans. Mr. William Orendorffs timber suffered very severely, it being on the eastern edge of Blooming Grove. 3 A BIOGRAPIDCAL SKETCH relates the following of the Jonathan Coon family, who lived along the Mackinaw River northeast of Bloomington: On the 13th of May, 1858, occurred a great wind storm, which tore down timber along the Mackinaw, and unroofed and tore down many houses. It was not a whirling tornado, which passes along in a moment, but a steady blow, which lasted for two hours and had a track seven miles wide. It blew in a northeasterly direction. The Coons lived in about the middle of the track of the storm, and the rain was so great that the creek by their house rose to their door step, and the mud from the field above was washed down over their door-yard, covering it in some-places six inches in depth. 13 An 1879 history of McLean County noted of this storm, "The track of the storm's path through Mackinaw timber was nearly seven miles wide, and is yet diseernable." 26 ON MAY 26, 1859, Spring Lake Township in Tazewell County experienced a tornado in which "trees were twisted down and flower gardens and shrubs made a desolation. " 10 4-70 THE 1910 History ofWoodford County 28 recounts three great windstorms. The first swept across the north side of the Mackinaw valley on May 13, 1858: "It was not a tornado but a strong wind blowing with unexampled fury. It was widespread in its destruction and all parts of the county suffered from its ravages. Trees were uprooted or broken off. . . ." • The next great storm to visit Woodford County came on October 19th, 1875: "At Thomas Marshall's ... a great stone ... was moved several feet. ... The storm was not wide, the main track of it being little over a hundred feet in width. . .. The storm was of short duration and did not cover a great extent of territory, but wrought complete havoc wherever it went." t 28 And in June 1899 a tornado crossed the north part of the Mackinaw valley: "Southeast of Eureka it wrought havoc in the midst of timbers. Great trees were uprooted in large numbers ...." A TORNADO STRUCK NORTH OF SAN JOSE on July 30, 1897. One side of an orchard was left with "but a few parts of trees" at one farm, and "Great limbs were tom off the trees quite close to the house ...." At a neighboring farm, "... great osage hedge bushes or trees were tom out by the roots." A planted grove of maples or walnuts (some trees more than two feet in diameter) was tom up: "barked, twisted off, tom out by the roots." 34 The tornado was characterized in 1916 as "the most destructive and death-dealing storm that'has ever visited Tazewell County." According to this report, "Among the unpre cedented features of this tornado was the driving of wheat straws, like nails, into trees; stripping feathers from chickens; tearing eyes out of horses; lifting a drove of sheep, which were carried to 'parts unknown. '" 4 LAMENTS AND PLEAS FOR NATURE PRESERVATION IN 1878 THE PUBLISHING HOUSE of William I.e Baron, JI. prepared a tribute to Walnut Grove - the forest along Walnut Creek, which flows through Eureka and enters the Mackinaw River in southern Woodford County: "The Grove," as it is still called, was a grand old forest, mostly walnut, whose friendly shelter seemed to lure the pioneers to the spot. • The 1908 Hisrory ofMcLean County provides more details of this storm: "Trees were broken down along the Mackinaw, creeks were remarkably high, and several buildings were injured at Gridley, though Chenoa was the worst sufferer." t Chapman's History of Woodford County recounts this storm in Roanoke Township: "In the Fall of 1875, this township was visited by one of the most violent tornadoes that has ever been known in this section of country. Though confined to a narrow belt - in some places not exceeding fifty yards in width-the destruction of all within its compass was complete. Houses, barns, trees, cattle and horses were literally swept out of existence. . .. Large stones, partly imbedded in the earth, were scooped up and carried long distances from their beds." The tornado passed northward into Clayton Township, where «. • • trees were blown away as though they had been so many feathers." 4-71 · .. Walnut Grove-the very paradise of Woodford County. The gentle slopes and sweeping valleys, through which winds Walnut Creek, like a "tangled ribbon," crowned with groves of giant trees that had stood the storms and tempests for hundreds of years, appeared to the new comers a haven of rest. On the confines of this mighty forest or within its borders, "whose deep, dark shades" they almost feared to enter, soon developed a prosperous settlement, and the petition - "woodman, spare that tree" -was forgotten or disregarded, as the huge "monarchs of the wood" began to fall. "The century living crow, Whose birth was in their tops, grew old and died Among their branches," and still they had flourished in all their transcendental glory for ages, until the coming tide of immigration rolled in that direction, and its waves were checked against "these fair ranks of trees." 41 BELLE HARLAN, WHO CAME TO TAZEWELL County in 1834, asserted the following in 1901: Some one has said Illinois was the garden spot of the United States, and Tazewell county the flower bed. I have often thought it was not an exaggera tion. The prairies were one vast sea of luxuriant grass and flowers, and did indeed present the appearance of flower gardens. But, alas, with the march of civilization, nature's fair face becomes sadly marred. The flowers have, the greater part, been destroyed, and our forests are fast disappearing before the woodman's axe. The wild animals, most of them, have become extinct. Comparatively but few of any species remain. Our birds of all kinds, songsters along with all others, have served so long as a target for the cruel sportsman's gun that a large proportion of the species have become entirely extinct-not one bird now where there used to be a hundred. 'Tis a sad commentary on man; progressiveness. 37 IN THE 1908 History ojMcLean County, Captain John H. Burnham made an extensive plea for preserving native woodlands and grasslands. Excerpts from his essay are on the pages that follow. Within the present limits of McLean County there were about eighty-seven thousand acres-of forestgrowth,-which-gave value to the whole county, and which, in fact, gave the county itself its early organization and boundaries. It was considered important in those days, whenever a county was organized, that there should be in it enough of timber territory to be capable of furnishing fuel and timber for the prairie land within its limits. 4-72 . . . Some of the original groves have already lost their once familiar outlines and, in a few instances, such wide spaces have been cleared that there are left scarcely any evidences of their once familiar timber growths. It is a little over eighty years since the axe was laid at the roots of the trees our first settlers valued so highly, and at the rate our groves have been decimated in the last eighty years, it is to be feared that, at the end of eighty more years, none of our once beautiful groves will deserve to be called groves. Their lovely forest outlines will not be traceable, and the plainest evidences of their existence will be seen in the different color of soil often so noticeable in timber land. Even this evidence, which is the light color of the soil, is not an unfailing sign of timber land, as there are many acres of very black soil where sugar or black walnut trees once grew, which are as black as the blackest prairie. This fact may be of historical interest at some future time, because wherever this black soil is found in the original timber land, it is considered to be much richer and more lasting than the best prairie soils. The color of the prairie soil in some cases, especially on the high land, is often as light as much of the light colored soil of the timber, and as years go on the washing rains will cause this soil to grow still lighter, so that the color of soils in the future will not be an unfailing means of tracing the outlines of our groves and prairies. 3 Captain Burnham listed the names and acreages of 28 isolated groves and stands of timber along streams in McLean County, plus l6 small, unnamed groves. These 44 areas were estimated to have once covered 87,950 acres. Of this total, 20,960 acres were along the Mackinaw River, and 3,960 acreswere on Money Creek, which is the biggest tributary to the Mackinaw in McLean County. Burnham's discussion continues. . . . ... in a few cases the trees have been entirely cut away, so that the beginning has already been made of the final destruction of our wonderful groves. The early settlers tell us that, before any clearings had been made in the groves and before any of the prairies had been fenced, when everything was in the state of nature, the scenery of the groves and prairies was most wonderously beautiful. • I Careful observers of landscape effects can readily believe these traditions concerning the beauties of our groves. The growth of trees in some of these groves was always said by the pioneers to be finer in respect to size than could be found anywhere else in the State. This was particularly said to have been the case in Blooming Grove and Funk's Grove, though people who have traveled in Tazewell, Menard, Sangamon and some other counties, tell us that the pioneers in these counties are delighted to tell the same stories concerning their favorite groves. Burnham then provided a list of trees indigenous to McLean County, derived from an article by Peter Folsom (page 4-l0). This statement concerning our native trees is believed to be tolerably near correct, but our list of flowers and grasses can not well be made as near perfect 4-73 ... as the list of trees. We will make no attempt to specify the aquatic plants found by our first settlers in the extensive sloughs on the prairie. Those plants have become nearly, if not quite, extinct by the draining of the sloughs. . . . While lamenting the disappearance of forest growths from the groves of McLean County, we must not forget that there is still time to preserve, in almost every township in the county, specimen tracts of our beautiful groves. If our people will insist on preserving these groves, a way can be found for their preservation. Some of our wealthy citizens have already set a good example. The text then describes the preservation of two wooded tracts in McLean County. Simeon West donated 20 acres of woodland in section 6 of West Township as a county park, "on the condition that the trees shall be kept forever in their natural condition." • D.M. Funk donated "twelve acres of noble timber" to the Funk's Grove Cemetery Association. The essay continues, There are noble tree specimens, still left in Downs, Randolph, Cheney's Grove, Lexington, Money Creek, Hudson, Dry Grove, Danvers and other townships and it is sincerely to be hoped that some of the wealthy residents of these townships will have the good taste and liberality to follow the good examples already cited. John Burnham called for enactment of a State law that would allow county governments to "purchase wooded or prairie, or other tracts, for park purposes, and by careful selection of suitable places, furnish the people with at least one such park for each pair of townships in the county." Captain Burnham's essay continues, We can scarcely expect here to furnish a scientific and botanical list of the trees and flora of our groves, and the flora of our prairies, and the time has now passed for ever making such a list as we desire ...... It would not be possible, now that so many wild plants have become extinct, for any living botanist to give an accurate list of our native plants, and we probably must forever regret the absence of such a scientific botanical list as would meet the demands of botanical students who have a local interest in such matters. • In its discussion of West Township, the 1908 History of McLean County provides further commentary: "At the rate at which our forests have disappeared in the last seventy-five years, by the end of another century there will be few specimens of native tree growths left anywhere in McLean County. It is to be hoped, therefore, that before the present generation passes off the stage, Mr. West's example will be followed by other wealthy land-owners, and that every prominent grove in McLean County will have its park devoted to the preservation and growth of our native forest trees. If these forest reservations, or forest parks, are started and preserved, it will give McLean County a reputation which will cooperate with its reputation for rich soil, in giving it a more leading position in the Slate than it has ever yet occupied. " 4-74 Any description of the groves of McLean County which leaves out of the statement some account of the shrubs, bushes and wild flowers or other under .growth, will be decidedly imperfect. The deer, wild hogs, and browsing cattle left, in many places at a very early day, but few evidences of the undergrowth. A horse and carriage could easily have been driven through many of these groves when first seen by the whites, owing to the absence of undergrowth, but as the deer grew scarce, quite a number of their favorite foods began to be plentiful, and young trees of several varieties, which had been scarce before, made themselves evident. Such wild flowers as cattle, deer and hogs would not eat, grew luxuriantly in such haunts as were their native homes. Had any of these groves then been fenced off from all kinds of stock and kept in that condition to the present, it would yet be possible for an expert botanist to gather specimens of plants which would be rare indeed, as can be proven by an examination of the forest flora still to be found in the Bloomington cemetery, or in a few wooded or protected tracts in different parts of the country. These comprise some of our most beautiful early spring flowers, together with a large number of summer and fall varieties. In Twin Grove, about five miles west of Bloomington, by the town line road between Dale and Dry Grove, in a few small woodlots, perhaps five acre tracts, which are owned by persons living a few miles away, may yet be found the best collections of wild wood flowers to be seen in McLean County. From early spring until late autumn may there be seen an exceedingly rich woodland flora, richer and more lovely probably than our first settlers ever discovered, as neither fires nor cattle now overrun some of these small tracts. The specimens of flowers there to be found may be duplicated in several other groves in this county, where like conditions prevail; but unless some of these rare tracts are soon rescued from the hands of the land improver, future genera tions will be compelled to imagine from reading such dry articles as this, what glorious beauties nature once prepared for the residents of this greatly blessed region. The author then turned his attention to prairie grasses - remarking that the settlers had come from timbered regions, and very few had ever lived on a prairie. Mr. Burnham observed, "The preservation of our prairie's richness may be the one thing least under stood by those men who may be expecting this fertility to prove inexhaustible. " This, however, is simply an introduction to the fact that our early settlers did not understand the grasses or prairie growths which met them on every hand. Neither did they- realize -that eventually our exceedingly profitable blue grass was destined to take the place of all kinds of wild prairie grass, to prove its superiority to the native growths, and to become of itself almost a native growth. How many of our young people are there who realize that our blue grass is not native to Mclean County? 4-75 John Burnham provided a 700-word exposition about the foreign origin of Kentucky blue grass, and how it first became established at Indian villages (see pages 4-33 to 4-35). Mr. Burnham's discourse continues, This explanation is scarcely needed for our older or adult population, but to some of our young people it will be local history just learned for the first time, and it seems therefore best to show, under the head of natural vegetation and prairie grasses, that our valuable blue grass is scarcely a part of our natural vegetation, and yet as it now grows so luxuriantly and spontaneously, being at home equally on the groves and prairies, there may, after all, be some doubt as to its proper historical classification. Like many of our weeds which grow so spontaneously, blue grass certainly now appears to be a specimen of our natural vegetation. Our prairies were generally a blackened waste after the disappearance of the winter's snow, as they were usually burned over soon after the autumn frost had killed the vegetation. They did not tum green until long after the sun's warmth had swollen the buds on our forest trees. The stock could not pick up a living on our native upland prairies until some weeks after a blue grass pasture of modern times would furnish good grazing. The earliest grasses to start were some of the coarsest herbage around the edges of the wet places called sloughs, and these coarse grasses continued to grow until they were often as tall as a man on horseback. On the best upland prairies, grasses of finer texture grew later in the season, grasses which became so sweet and rich, the stock would desert the lowlands as soon as possible. Between these two extremes of short, wiry, fine, rich grass on the upland, • and the tall, coarse, sedgy, reedy-like herbage of the sloughs, grew a variety of other grasses. The variety of these grasses was generally not very great, but it was sufficiently large to determine the character of the different grades of soils, and our settlers grew so expert in judging land by the kind of grass, and other herbage it produced, that they rarely made a mistake of judgment, unless compelled to judge after the grass had been burned off in the fall, or before being well started in the spring. It is contended by some that better judgment could be formed from the natural prairie growth before the sod was broken, than can be made now from an examination of the soil itself. It is stated as a fact that some of this upland prairie grass never matured any seed, and that it has vanished utterly from our prairies. It has almost seemed a mystery why this should be the case. Of certain species of natural prairie grasses it is .positively·asserted ·that no man .has· ever seen a specimen of the seed. Very few wild plants fail to mature their seeds, and yet it is not possible anywhere in McLean County to find growing anywhere in cultivation a single specimen of some of the most approved varieties of upland prairie grasses. Some of the grasses of the swampy lands have been known to grow from the • This description fits prairie dropseed (Sporobolus heterolepis). 4-76 ------seed-at least it is so asserted -and one variety, the Blue Stem, a tall, rich grass, greatly favored by cattle, will grow from the seed, and it is occasionally found in the county. Nearly all of our native grasses, as well as the native flowers, have left us almost as completely as the buffalo, the deer and the Indian. The essay points out that the Illinois Central Railroad obtained a large grant ofpublic land to help finance construction of its rail lines. The grant included a 200-foot strip of land that became the railroad's right-of-way: Nearly all of the prairie along the line of this road in McLean County, except ing through the settlements along the timber, was then Government land, and through all of these tracts the road obtained its two hundred feet. It has so remained to this day, and wherever this strip happens to be of prairie sod, in many cases it has remained unbroken. There will be found specimens of our native grasses and native flowers in greater perfection than at any other places in McLean County. These strips of unbroken native prairie may be seen just south of Heyworth, again on a larger scale between Heyworth and Blooming ton, still the best places to study prairie grasses and prairie flowers are between Normal and Hudson. There are a few narrow strips by the side of the Chicago & Alton Railroad, and a very few corners or patches of unbroken prairie may be found in the possession of private individuals. Cultivation and pasturage, however, and the encroachments of blue grass, sweet clover, and other vegetation will very soon destroy all of our present beautiful prairie specimens, excepting along the Illinois Central, and even in these rare botanical gardens, in a score or two of years, there will probably be left no record of our once rich, varied and beautiful prairie Flora. When that time arrives future lovers of nature will sincerely lament that those of us who have foreseen whatwas to happen should be content, when writing history on this delightful topic, to furnish such a meager and unfinished description. Captain John Burnham then quoted from a lecture that he had delivered in Normal on Arbor Day 1905, titled "Our Duty to Future Generations": The original prairie, with its great wealth of flowers and natural grasses, was in reality Nature unadorned. Here, from early spring until the arrival of autumn's frost, could be witnessed an ever changing panorama of brilliant flowers mingled with grasses of wondrous beauty. When seen in the months of July and August these-prairies presented pictures such ·as very few of the younger persons in this audience are able to conceive, pictures which the art of man can never reproduce. Very few of those grasses will bear cultivation and some, as I am told, have never been artificially grown, while the same may be said of some of the wildest of the prairie flowers. Both flowers and grasses have long since disappeared before the onward march of civilization which, in this case, means cultivation. It is said that, in all of this great county of McLean, there is 4-77 ------ not a large field or pasture existing where these prairie flowers still bloom in all their original purity. . A few patches of virgin prairie may still be found in fields where cattle do not roam or in fence corners, or along unfrequented highways, and still more may be seen on the prairie as yet untouched, along the Illinois Central Railroad, which was granted by Congress a right of way two hundred feet wide. Wher ever this railroad crosses unbroken prairies may be found strips, occasionally uncultivated, where the prairie flowers still exist. Both north and south of Normal, as the members of the botany classes well know, may be found these flowers, and still more of them can be seen along the Illinois Central tracks from Centralia to Chicago. Few except botanists realize the vast destruction which has befallen our prairie flora in the last fifty years, and botanical students will soon be unable to discover any of these beautiful specimens. An effort was made, a little more than a dozen years ago, to interest the faculties of the lllinois and State Normal Universities in a movement for a request to the officers of the Illinois Central Railroad to set apart a few strips of their natural prairie in McLean and Cham paign Counties, for the preservation of the prairie flora for the benefit of future botanical students, but nothing came of the movement. When I come to look back to that period I believe that if I had possessed the enthusiasm then shown by Prof. Colton and a few others, in all probability the effort would have been crowned with success; and it is quite possible that, if the proper effort can be made even now, the Illinois Central Railroad Company, with its well known liberality, could be induced to establish a few prairie reservations of the character desired. One of the most pleasant features of the decorations at Normal at its twenty fifth anniversary in 1882, was a very fine collection of natural prairie flowers, as then found in McLean County; and, in my opinion, the display ought to be repeated if found possible when the fiftieth anniversary is celebrated. Exchang ing the wild prairie flowers for a half century's growth of trees and productive corn crops, may be a paying transaction, as the corn crop, plus some magnifi cent tree specimens, ought certainly, all things considered, to be a good trade; but as an off-set to these advantages, let us not forget the lamented departure of our virgin prairie flowers, the lovely black-eyed Susans and the other attractive flowers of early days .... Enough has been said, therefore, to prove that, if we will make proper efforts, we can convert our prairies into beautiful forests and parks, and furnish future generations with tree specimens fully equal in size and beauty to the finest ever seen by our first settlers. Furthermore, while the art of man can, in a measure, supply artificial parks for the use of future generations, no art and no effort can ever furnish those who come after us with specimens of that wonderful prairie 4-78 ------~----_. __._--- -- Flora. With the exception of the above mentioned strips of natural prairie sod by the sides of the Illinois Central Railroad and a few other localities, already fast disappearing by the encroachment of grazing and cultivation, no natural prairie sod can be found for preservation, and we must reluctantly confess that neither botanists nor capitalists have every devised any plans for the artificial cultivation of the growths peculiarly Western, and they have vanished as completely as the poor Indian. There is yet time, however, to preserve large areas of our native groves and forests, if the public so demands. REFERENCES CITED 1. Bannister, H.M. 1870. Geology of Tazewell, McLean, Logan and Mason Coun ties. Pages 176-189 in A.H. Worthen, H.M. Bannister, F.R. Bradley, and H.A. Green. Geological Survey of Illinois. Volume IV. Geology. [State of Illinois, Springfield.] 2. Bateman, N., P. Selby, and B.C. Allensworth (editors). 1905. Historical Ency clopedia ofIllinois and History of Tazewell County. Munsell Publishing Company, Chicago. 2 volumes. 3. Bateman,N., P. Selby, E.M. Prince, and I.H. Burnham (editors). 1908. Historical Encyclopedia. ofIllinois and History ofMcLean County. Munsell Publishing Company, Chicago. 2 volumes. 4. Bates, W.H. 1916. Historical Souvenir to Commemorate the Dedication ofthe New Tazewell County Court House, at the County Seat, Pekin, Illinois, Wednesday, June 21st, 1916. William H. Bates, Pekin, Illinois. 31 p. 5. Bi-Centennial Committee. 1976. History ofLawndale, Martin, and Anchor Townships and the Villages of Colfax and Anchor, McLean County, Illinois. . Cornbelt Press, Fairbury, Illinois. 164 p. 6. Biographical Publishing Co. 1894. Portrait and Biographical Record of Taze well and Mason Counties, Illinois. Containing Biographical Sketches of Prominent and Representative Citizens ofthe Counties, together with Biographies and Portraits ofAll ofthe Governors ofthe State and the Presidents ofthe United States. Chicago. 711 p. 7. Blue, H.M. (editor). 1935. Historical Program Commemorating the One Hun dredth Anniversary of Tremont, Illinois, County Seat of Tazewell County, 1835. 16 p. 8. Brendel, F. 1887. Flora Peoriana: The Vegetation in the Climate of Middle Illinois. I.W. Franks & Sons, Peoria, Illinois. 89 p. 9. Burnham, I.H. 1879. History ofBloomington and Normal, in McLean County, Illinois. I.H. Burnham, Bloomington. 144 p. 4-79 ------_. ------_. 10. Chas. C. Chapman & Co. 1879. History of Tazewell County, Illirwis; Together with Sketches of its Cities, Villages and Townships; Educational, Reli gious, Civil, Military, and Political History; Portraits ofProminent Persons and Biographies ofRepresentative Citizens. History ofIllirwis. Embracing Accounts ofthe Pre-Historic Races, Aborigines, French, English and American Conquests, and a General Review of its Civil, Political and Military History. Digest ofState Laws. Chicago. 794 p. 11. Cochrane, 1. 1876. Centennial History of Mason County, Including a Sketch of the Early History· of Illirwis, Its Physical Peculiarities, Soils, Climate, ProductiOns, Etc. Rokker's Steam Printing House, Springfield, Illinois. 352 p. 12. Dalbey, D.S. 1901. A summer's work on the Sibley Farms. Illirwis Agricul turalist 5:47-55. 13. Duis, E. 1874. The Good Old Times in McLean County, Illirwis, Containing Two Hundred and Sixty-one Sketches of Old Settlers. A Complete His torical Sketch ofthe BlackHawk War, and Descriptions ofAll Matters of Interest Relating to McLean County. Leader Publishing and Printing House, Bloomington, l11inois. 865 p. 14. Edwards, N.W. 1870. History of Illirwis,from 1778 to 1833; and Life and Times of Ninian Edwards. Illinois State Journal Company, Springfield. 549 p. 15. Farnham, E.W. 1988. Life in Prairie Land. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Illinois. 269 p. 16. Faye, S. (editor). 1945. A search for copper on the Illinois River: The journal of Legardeur Delisle, 1722. Journal ofthe Illirwis State Historical Society 38:38-57. 17. Folsom, P. 1903. The natural groves of McLean County. Transactions ofthe McLean County Historical Society 2:321-323. 18. Game and Fish Conservation Commission of Illinois. 1914. Annual Report of the Game and Fish Conservation Commission of Illirwis for the Fiscal Year 1913-1914. Springfield. 149 p. 19. Garst, G. (editor). 1977. Mackinaw Remembers, 1827-1977. 87 p. 20. Graber, E.1. (editor). 1967. The History of Minier, Illirwis. 21. Green, H.A. 1870. Geology of Woodford County. Pages 334-342 in A.H. Worthen, H.M. Bannister, F.H. Bradley, and H.A. Green. Geological Survey ofIllirwis. Volume IV. Geology. [State of illinois, Springfield.] 22. Hamm, R.B. 1976. The Hudson Colony. Hudson Bicentennial Commission, Hudson, l11inois. 341 p. 23. Herre, A.W. 1940. An early Illinois prairie. American Botanist 46:39-44. 4-80 24. Hutchins, T., and F.C. Hicks (editor). 1904. A Topographical Description of Virginia, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Nonh Carolina. Reprinted from the Original Edition of1778. Burrows Brothers Company, Cleveland. 143 p. 25. Lake City Publishing Co. 1892. Ponrait and Biographical Record of Ford County, Illinois, Containing Biographical Sketches of Prominent and Representative Citizens, Together with Biographies ofAll the Governors ofthe State, and Presidents ofthe United States. Chicago. 812 p. 26. Merriman, C.P. 1879. History of McLean County. Pages 189-760 in Wm. Le Baron, Jr., & Co. 1879. The History of McLean County, Illinois, Containing a History ofthe County-Its Cities, Towns, &c.; a Directory ofEarly Settlers and Prominent Men; General Statistics; Map ofMcLean County; History ofIllinois, Illustrated; History ofthe Nonhwest, Illus trated; Constitution ofthe United States, Miscellaneous Matters, &c., &c. Chicago. 1078 p. 27. Minier, G.W. 1903. Groves of McLean County. Transactions ofthe McLean County Historical Society 2:316-320. 28. Moore, R.L. 1910. History of Woodford County. A Concise History ofthe Settlement and Growth of Woodford County. Woodford County Repub lican, Eureka, Illinois. 248 p. 29. Packard, M.W. 1903a. Game birds and animals of McLean County. Trans actions ofthe McLean County Historical Society 2:289-301. 30. Packard, M.W. 1903b. Sniping. Transactions ofthe McLean County Historical Society 2:324-331. 31. Radford, RJ. 1877. History ofWoodford County. Giving a BriefAccount ofIts Settlement, Organization, Physical Characteristics and Progress. W.T. Dowdall, Printer, Peoria, Illinois. 78 p. 32. Rodgers, C.S. 1978. The Presettlement Vegetation ofMcLean and Mason Coun ties, Illinois. Master's thesis, Illinois State University. 110 p. 33. Ruggles, LM. 1879. History of Mason County. Pages 391-871 in O.L. Baskin & Co. The History of Menard and Mason Counties, Illinois, Containing a History ofthe Counties-Their Cities, Towns, &c.; Ponraits ofEarly Settlers and Prominent Men; General Statistics; Map ofMenard and Mason Counties; History of Illinois, .Illustrated; History ofthe Nonhwest, Illustrated; Constitution ofthe United States, Miscellaneous Matters, &c., &c., &c. Chicago. 34. San Jose Women's Club. 1952. San Jose Centennial Book. San Jose, lllinois. 261 p. 4-81 35. Sibley Area Centennial History Committee. 1977. A Centennial Salute to the Village ofSibley, Illinois, and Sullivant Township in Ford County, 1877 1977. Ford County Press, Melvin. 36. Steele, Mrs. 1841. Summer Journey in the West. John S. Taylor, and Com pany, New York. 278 p. 37. Tazewell County Reporter. 1929. Early History of Washington, Illinois and Vicinity. Washington, Illinois. 148 p. 38. Thurston, J.G: 1971. A Journal ofa Trip to Illinois in 1836. John Cumming, Mount Pleasant, Michigan. 39. White, J. [1994.] How the terms savanna, barrens, and oak openings were used in early Illinois. Pages 25-63 in 1.S. Fralish, R.C. Anderson, J.E. Ebin ger, and R. Szafoni (editors). Living in the Edge: Proceedings ofthe North American Conference on Barrens and Savannas at Illinois State University, Normal, Illinois, October 15-16, 1994. Environmental Protec tion Agency, Great Lakes Program Office. 40. Whitney, E.M. (editor). 1975. The Black Hawk War, 1831-1832. Volume II. Letters and Papers. Part II. June 24, 1832-0ctober 14, 1834. Collec tions of the Illinois State Historical Library 36. Illinois State Historical Library, Springfield. 1358 p. 41. Wm. Le Baron, Jr., & Co. 1878. The Past and Present of Woodford County, Illinois, Containing a History of the County-Its Cities, Towns, &c.; a Directory of its Tax-Payers, War Record of its Volunteers in the Late Rebellion; Portraits of Early Settlers and Prominent Men; General and Local Statistics; Map of Woodford County,' History of Illinois, Illustrated; History ofthe Northwest, Illustrated; Constitution ofthe United States, Miscellaneous Matters, &c., &c. Chicago. 670 p. 4-82 The Illinois Department ofNatural Resources receives federal financial assistance and therefore must comply with federal anti-discrimination laws. In compliance with the Illinois Human Rights Act, the Illinois Constitution;Title VI of the 1964 Civil Rights Act, Section 504 ofthe Rehabilitation Act of 1973 as amended, and the U.S. Constitution, the Illinois Department of Natural Resources does not discriminate on the basis of race, color, sex, national origin, age or disability. lfyou believe you have been discriminated against in any program, activity or facility please contact the Equal Employment Opportunity Officer, Department ofNatural Resources, 524 S. Second SI., Springfield, IL 62701-1787, (217) 782-7616, or the Office ofHuman Rights, U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. 20240. All public meetings conducted by the Department ofNatural Resources will be accessible to handicapped individuals in compliance with Executive Order No.5 and pertinent state and federal laws, upon notification of the anticipated attendance. Handicapped persons planning to attend and needing special accommodations should inform the Department ofNatural Resources at least five days prior to the meeting by telephoning or writing the Equal Employment Opportunity Officer, Department of Natural Resources, 514 S. Second SI., Springfield, IL 62701'-1787, phone (217) 782-7616. Department of Natural Resources information is available to the hearing impaired by callingDNR's Telecommunications Device for the Deaf: (217) 782-9175. The Ameritech Relay Number is (800) 526 0844. \ t