Case Study The application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding in the planning of the historic city , Received (in revised form): 5th August 2016

Eko Nursanty is currently a full-time student in the Doctorate Program in Architectural and Urban Engineering at Diponegoro University, , Indonesia. She earned her undergraduate degree in 1998 from the Department of Architecture, University of 17 Agustus 1945 (UNTAG), Semarang, and completed her postgraduate degree from the Department of Architecture, Diponegoro University in 2000. Her doctoral dissertation focuses on the Competitive Advantages of the city of Surakarta. Since 2000 she has been a permanent lecturer at the Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, University of 17 Agustus 1945 (UNTAG), Semarang, Indonesia. The following is a list of some of her research projects: Developing A City’s Competitiveness Using Natural Potential towards Sustainable Branding; Architecture and Its Life as Branding Elements in the City of Cultural Heritage in Solo; Travel by Design as a Part of Lifestyle in Architecture; Accessible Tourism, Tourism without Barriers in Architecture and Tourism Design.

Atik Suprapti is a permanent lecturer and the secretary of the Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, Diponegoro University (UNDIP), Semarang, Indonesia. She earned her undergraduate degree in Architecture in 1991 from Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia. She completed her postgraduate degree in Architectural Engineering and Doctorate in Architecture from Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia. The following is a list of some of her research projects: The Tradition and Changes in the Muslim Settlement in the North Coast of Java and the Spatial Phenomenon of Walisanga Pilgrimage Site as Tourism Assets.

Joesron Alie Syahbana is an Associate Professor and the Chief of the postgraduate program in Urban and Regional Planning, Faculty of Engineering, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia. He earned his undergraduate and postgraduate degree from Bandung Institute of Technology in 1980 and 1992, respectively. A Doctor of Philosophy degree was conferred upon him from Universitas Gadjah Mada in 2003. His research focuses on the following areas: Management of Urban Development, Social Planning, and Spatial Planning. Some of his publications are as follows: The Effectiveness of Spatial Planning in Directing Infrastructure Development; Community Participation in the Provision of Urban Infrastructure through Community Contracts in Pontianak City; Towards Effective Community Empowerment-Based Urban Infrastructure Management.

ABSTRACT Globalization has led to increasingly fierce intercity competition. At the same time, it has motivated these cities to grow and develop by building their own local uniqueness spatially displayed in urban spaces. However, poor understanding of the utilization of local values makes cities in Indonesia compete using identical methods without bringing out their respective uniqueness. As a result, their ongoing city branding efforts often become futile, short lived, and even, sometimes, confusing for the society. This paper attempts to examine the city branding processes of a historic city in which the tourist gaze can be involved directly in the development of

Correspondence: such processes by considering all the elements of society actively. This is a case Eko Nursanty study of Surakarta City, Province, which is better known as Solo City. Department of Architecture, Faculty of Engineering, The research was undertaken in a historic area in Jalan Rajiman and Jalan Slamet University of 17 Agustus 1945 Riyadi. What makes these findings unique is the identification of the three stages of (UNTAG), Semarang, Indonesia the tourist gaze occurring consecutively in each spatial zone. In terms of the E-mail: [email protected]

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy www.palgrave.com/journals Nursanty et al

architecture, the sequence of those three gaze stages can be connected directly to the current urban space and architectural establishment. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy (2016). doi:10.1057/s41254-016-0037-3

Keywords: tourist gaze; city branding; competitive advantages; city heritage

INTRODUCTION batiks with a thousand dancers dressed in batik – According to Ko¨ltringer and Dickinger (2015), an interesting event conducted to build brand research in city branding, place marketing, and Solo and Solo Batik Tourism. destination imaging has gained enormous In the view of Anholt, based on the history of attention among researchers and the industrial the world economy, a great number of small circle. City tours in some aspects have generated countries that seem promising, manage to become added values with regards to the way urban spaces extremely rich. On the other hand, countries are presented, which in turn will provide a with vast and fertile land are unable to develop a meaningful gaze to viewers as well as provide quality city. Various types of city branding which added values as an attempt to improve city exist to date are merely elements of values created branding. Initially, the concept of city branding according to the government’s desire; even in was used only by city marketing professionals. some countries, they simply serve as a symbol This research attempts to discover the relationship applied universally (Anholt, 2005). A brand between the role of urban spaces in city branding should provide an intangible added value to a in improving a city’s competitiveness, both in product in an effort to maintain it. terms of physical and non-physical aspects. Zenker and Martin (2011) state that the new Tourist gaze existing condition of measurable factors may also The Tourist Gaze theory originated from people’s facilitate successful spatial marketing. According need for an atmosphere of having fun, leaving their to Zenker, the success of spatial marketing can be daily activities and going traveling. Such a trip measured using parameters indicating satisfaction usually raises the need for various things, both and fulfillment of the rights of the community, goods and services which they usually do not need which in this case are customer-centered in their daily life. They pay for these things because parameters. Research conducted by Kavaratzis they pursue an experience of happiness which is far (2004) describes city marketing implementation. different from their everyday life. Such different City marketing relies heavily on the construction, experiences include, among other things, the view communication, and management of the of a variety of urban spaces and landscapes and the perceived city image along with the convergence life atmosphere therein which they do not see in of the perceptions and the images of the urban their everyday life. On a visit to a new place, they spaces. The object of city marketing is the city’s may see a new environment enthusiastically and image which begins with building city branding. with great curiosity. This describes the way one According to Kavaritzis, the most important appreciates or at least considers a place to be visited. concept to understand regarding city marketing is The initial concept of ‘gaze’ stems from a purely developing the city brand concept by ways of human perspective. Humans see the world through modification and application in a city. As a sample a filter in forms of ideas, skills, excitement, and case in Solo, they have collected a variety of expectations, all of which are restricted by social unique local community activities (ways of classes, gender, nationality, age, and education modification) that have been carried out for (Berger, 1972). Gazing in certain circumstances generations; one of them is to make batik. They can also be individually conditioned by one’s collected a thousand batik makers and created experience and memory, and restricted by habits

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

and styles just like the circulation of the drawings captured by tourists as well as uniting and and writings on other spaces and places of the same strengthening these adjacent regions (Cai, 2002). kind (Urry, 2002). Thus, this increased brand power will enhance the In fact, a gaze does not only belong to tourists attractiveness of the region in the eyes of investors who come to visit a city. Instead, everyone has (Marzano and Scott, 2009). In the field of tourism, their own gaze (Maoz, 2006). Tourists have their it is necessary to implement a strategy of sustained own gaze of a city and the way its society behaves. understanding accounting for the government’s The city’s inhabitants also have their own gaze of evaluation in attempts to promote tourism (Pastras the visitors who come to their city. Neither of and Bramwell, 2013). Beijing has made efforts to them is more dominant or dominated. Both are improve city branding through the 2008 Olympic interconnected simultaneously (Cheong and event. The city branding concept reveals that the Miller, 2000). Urry (2002) argued that photog- relationship between this identity and the main raphy raises an improvement in taste, especially in value which Beijing convey as a city has is based on terms of sensory perception such as sight, touch, the experience of visitors, not compatibility smell, and hearing. This leads to the location and (Zhang and Zhao, 2009). However, the existence dislocation phenomenon in the feeling of a space of sports events can raise the rating of the activities and the experience of being in the space (Bruno, in a city if such an event is also combined with 2002). According to Mahn (2014), research on recreational activities that are fun and not in haste the stereotypes of the lives of the people of (Xing and Chalip, 2006). A feeling of awe in a city Greece revealed that tourists have had a virtual can arise positively on its own within a community picture of the life in the location they will visit the based on a sense of security experienced simulta- first time they arrive in Greece. It proves true as neously at various levels of the economy of a city many of them brought with them two important (Russell et al, 2009). things while visiting Greece, namely a travel Initially, the city branding concept was an guide book and a pair of glasses to watch opera imagineering description. This sort of thing (Mahn, 2014). Tourist gaze differentiates ‘‘seeing’’ should be fully understood by city managers to from Gaze; for example, the world can see Solo effectively build the brand framework and its city through the gaze of an architect as a historic strategy (Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2005). This city because of the many heritage buildings in imagineering description should truely refer to the Solo. Solo can also show the world a unique significant and potential process of a city’s symbols fashion city through the gaze of batik fashion fans. and apply to the different experiences of com- This Gaze is limited by social class, gender, munities (Ko¨nig, 2011). The field of urban nationality, age, and education (Urry and Larsen, planning demonstrates that city branding can 2011). According to Urry and Larsen, Tourist build unity among the satellite regions around the Gaze is equally the strong forces of uniqueness in major city (Merrilees et al, 2013). To ensure that a general and uniqueness based on the individuals’ city branding effort is fruitful, we need to com- viewpoints. Among these two forces, there is a pare it with other cities around in terms of the distance that limits them, namely social factors core competencies which each of these locations such as class and gender. has (Ja¨rvisalo, 2012). In Torino City, Italy, the city branding is based on the creative culture of this city’s community City branding which has created a city with a creative environ- City branding as a system can enhance a city’s ment using the products of creative industries to ability to compete with the other cities around it. compete with other cities at the international level A number of studies have been conducted, some of (Vanolo, 2008). As part of a city, natural landscapes which discuss consistent brand unification of the can be a city’s brand if they are abundant and outskirts to produce an interregional brand that unique and can become a real resource as a place of brings together regions into a unified perception community gathering (Tobias and Wahlb, 2013).

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Nursanty et al

The green city concept is a sustainable environ- the spaces established, not only visually but also by ment concept with green spaces created creatively, several other elements (Shields, 1991). These either by professionals or the local community include aspects related to symbols which contain producing a brand for the sustainable life of a city similarities to the cities’ components such as roads, (Gulsrud et al, 2013). monuments, and buildings. A sense of community City branding affects tourists in deciding their is also an important aspect, and despite its con- tourist destination. Regional branding requires ceptual basis, affects the image delivered by tour spaces and greater needs with different types of guides, in films and slogans as well locally con- tourists. Meanwhile, to be the brand of a country ducted tourist promotions. requires the emotional parts of the regions to Another important aspect is non-phsyical represent their brand (Caldwell and Freire, 2004). property. All these are a symbolic construction of a Humans as inhabitants of a city can undertake city city’s image that is generally analyzed using two branding using their abilities, both individually and different perspectives, internally and externally in groups, by establishing creative industries in (Lalli, 1992). Internally, the image of the city is the accordance with their original environment and perception held by the local actors of a city that can life (Merrilees et al, 2013). The existing social be identified through the geographic boundaries of forces constitute the power of a tourist destination a space. Externally, the image of the city refers to as perceived by tourists because therein the power the description of a city perceived by the com- processes of the various values of life in the city are munity or an organization which at first is not a described (Marzano and Scott, 2009). Buildings habit but later develops into the local life and local which serve as a city’s icon can contribute through symbol. Externally, a city’s image often constitutes their special meaning to the positive image of the the subtle and abstract part and has a simple form, city as reflected in the good habits and the high such as the assumptions about a city’s positive or level of satisfaction of both the visitors and the local negative values which do not commonly occur. community. These buildings illustrate the unique Most of those perceptions are important as they spaces and activities which significantly affect can be used as a source of information which later human comfort (Riza et al, 2012). will be organized and then structured in terms of their general formulation. Afterward, estimation will be made regarding the most appropriate steps The relationship which can be done, for example, for tourists or between creative economy investors. This is what underlies the importance for and a creative city cities of branding (Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2005). The Quality of Life must be considered when The positive and fascinating image is the main tool making comparisons between different cities. The to raise the number of visitors and investors glob- Quality of Life refers to a feeling of welfare and ally in an attempt to enhance local development satisfaction felt by the majority of the population or (Gold and Ward, 1994). visitors of particular place (Andrews, 2001). There A creative city is believed to play a major role is a positive relationship between the image and the in creating one’s tourist gaze. In accordance with satisfaction of tourists. A strong and clearly iden- several existing literature, there are three stages of tified image will positively affect visitors’ satisfac- Tourist Gaze processes, namely before one arrives tion. Thus, the role of iconic buildings is to in a location for the first time as in the example of identify the image of a city or place (Jencks, 2005). the tourists who visit Greece with guidebooks and The basic theory of creative cities was initially glasses to watch opera (Armstrong, 1893). Urry criticized as it generates a double meaning in the and Larsen (2011) further state that while visiting policy process. However, in some cases, it indeed a location, tourists will be confronted with two becomes a key element in the process of planning contradictory things, i.e., uniqueness of the and marketing of a city (Vanolo, 2008). In general, location in general and their personal experience the image of the city brings a meaning and idea to which is usually influenced by their social class

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

and gender. However, according to Urry, pho- location from Kartasura to Sala Village, a village tography will give further effects after one returns not far from the banks of Bengawan Solo because from the location depicted in photos, which is Kartasura palace had been destroyed by a rebel known as ‘‘growing separation of the sense.’’ invasion. Officially, the new palace of Mataram Reinforced by Garrington (2010), who describes was named the Sunnanate of Surakarta a phenomenon where one’s sensory experience Hadiningrat and began to be occupied on will improve into a new form, which brings February 17, 1745 in Solo Village. This date was together several sensors such as touch, smell, and later defined as the anniversary of the City of various kinesthetic experiences appreciated by Surakarta (Solo). body movements. Currently, Solo or Surakarta City is an autonomous region with city status under Central Java Province, Indonesia. Solo city has an area of SOLO: THE SPIRIT OF JAVA 44 km2 and a density of 13,636/km2. Figure 2 AS AN EFFECTIVE SUSTAINABLE shows the position of Solo city in Java Island, METHOD IN THE DEVELOPMENT Indonesia as a part of Central Java region. PROCESS OF SURAKARTA Tracing the long history behind the inception Solo is one of the cities located in Central Java of Solo City justifies the choice by the Province. Its official name in the government is government of Solo City of a brand using the Surakarta. The name ‘‘Solo’’ itself is a great name designation of ‘Solo: the Spirit of Java.’ This was known by the general public during the launched in 2005. Various attempts were then seventeenth century. This region is part of the made to apply this brand into definite steps Kingdom of Surakarta Sunnanate, based in Solo toward the economic development of Solo City Village. The great name of Solo is considered to and the satellite cities around it, namely Solo still have historic power as a legacy of the largest Raya, consisting of one municipality and six kingdom in the island of Java, i.e., Mataram. regencies which formerly were the Surakarta Figure 1 shows Mataram areas since 1613 until residency: (1) Surakarta (Solo), (2) Boyolali, (3) 1830 which have a long history. Sukoharjo, (4) Karanganyar, (5) Wonogiri, (6) In 1613–1645, the kingdom of Mataram Sragen, and (7) Klaten. covered the entire area of Java Island. However, In an attempt to market and develop regions, as the VOC (Vereenigde Oostindische Compagnie), a regional branding serves as a strategic tool to foster Dutch chartered company monopolizing trading competitiveness. An increasing number of regions activities in Asia, arrived, Mataram areas split into have adopted the concept of building regional smaller areas. Another cause for the fragmentation branding, for example in Australia, Brazil, of Mataram areas was civil war. The winners were Colombia, and Spain by performing the strategy usually supported by the VOC, and in return they of regional branding (Garcia et al, 2012). The gave a prize, namely part of their territory. model for the existing concept and the application In 1757, Mataram was only one third of its process of spatial branding were developed at initial area. Mataram was divided into five different speeds. Several empirical studies have sections through the Treaty of Giyanti: (1) The been conducted; for example, Pike who has Great Country of Surakarta, (2) Haryo Surakarta, identified 33 out of 74 regional brands, focused (3) Haryo , (4) Mangkunegaran, and on a case study taking place between 1998 and (5) VOC. In 1830, the remaining areas of 2007. This research shows briefly that these Mataram shrunk further, covering four areas empirical cases are influenced by the fact that which still exist today: (1) The Sunnanate of regional branding is greatly influenced by Surakarta, (2) The Sultanate of Yogyakarta, (3) stakeholders (Pike, 2009). Based on Berry’s Mangkunegaran, and (4) Pakualaman. findings, the adaptation model of regional In 1745, Sunan Pakubuwono II, the King of branding draws on three aspects of stakeholders, the Sultanate of Mataram, moved the royal namely entrepreneurs, local community, and

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Nursanty et al

Figure 1: Maps illustrating Mataram Areas since 1613 until 1830.

Figure 2: The position of Solo (Surakarta) City in Indonesia.

visitors. The success of a brand can be further effort to attract tourists in various ways. In addi- specified into a form of four pyramid tion to making itself into a tourist destination a constructions (Berry, 2000). city also needs to be a decent place to work and Of the various theories about cities’ do business and be a culturally rich environment competitiveness, the majority of reviews argue that attracts residents, among other things (Kotler that the existing research has always focused just and Gertner, 2002). Kavaratzis (2004) adds a view on the ability to compete in economic terms that the increased competition between cities can (Vanolo, 2008). No one had started to consider be seen as one of the effects of globalization. It is natural resources in a multidimensional manner seen in a variety of forms and types of activities. with regard to a city’s competitiveness, using an Modern cities constantly improve themselves on a indicator, namely either the amount of income or sustainable basis, among other things, by building productivity. It certainly cannot fully explain the a strategy to facilitate such self-development estimated competitiveness (Gardiner et al, 2004). attempts, selling the added value they have, and promoting themselves to the global market. Several studies show that there are three main Discovering the uniqueness approaches to city promotion: (1) cultural events of Solo through the brand ‘Solo: (cultural festivals), (2) restoration, and (3) pro- the Spirit of Java’ motion of the historic district areas and iconic Satisfaction and the quality of life for a city’s building (Hankinson, 2006). population and its visitors are greatly influenced Solo has made many efforts to promote itself, by the image of the city and its spaces created by including through cultural events which have the historic and monumental buildings (Riza et al, taken place over hundreds of years and remain 2012). On the other hand, in its development, a preserved until now. Generally, such cultural city is always striving to discover new efforts to events or festivals become increasingly integrated promote itself. With the rapid growth of tech- with the lives of the local community according nology, a city changes what at first was only a to the development and needs of the community. local environment, into a global environment. Cultural events in Solo City can be said to be Cities start to compete with one another in an sustainable and continuous with the social

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

development of the community. For example, the This research focused on two magnet spaces in Grebeg Maulud ceremony was originally rou- Solo City which result from the existence of two tinely performed to welcome the Islamic New main roads, namely Jalan Rajiman as the road Year; people also regularly held the Sudiro Gre- built in Solo City when Surakarta Palace was beg ceremony to welcome the Chinese New moved from Kartasura to Solo and a road built by Year (see Figure 3). the VOC, namely Jalan Slamet Riyadi. Jalan Rajiman was the first built road in Solo City, serving as an opening road for the center of The spatial planning of Solo City Solo City from its inception. Around Jalan Raji- Kirsch has explored the idea that attention visually man is the area of cultural heritage which has a contributes to the distortion of perception (Kirsch, significant historic value for Solo City, which we 2015). It follows that to plan movement orienta- call The Power of the Past. Jalan Slamet Riyadi built tion will largely determine the direction of one’s under the Dutch colonization provides an access visual center that in turn will determine the final to the new modern urban space, which we call outcome of such movement. It can be concluded The Power of the Present areas, with planning that that by facilitating the visual process in the targeted emphasizes the role of the tourist gaze therein. A locations, the eye movement process can be combination of these two magnets is expected to planned (Dube et al, 1998). In fact, planning action create power that coalesces into The Power of the processes is very closely related to one’s visual Future which will also serve as the power of attention. At the time one’s attention does not competitiveness (competitive advantage) for Solo have any particular orientation, the activities City. In Figure 4 below, The Power of the Past undertaken still have the motor sensor circle. In areas are indicated in blue, The Power of the Present other words, the result of the motor process is areas are indicated in yellow, and The Power of the consistent with what the premotor sensor of the Future areas are indicated in green and located in attention has suggested (Rizzolatti et al, 1994). the upper layer of both the blue and yellow zones.

Figure 3: Grebeg Sudiro in Solo.

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Nursanty et al

Figure 4: Maps illustrating the spatial power hierarchy of Solo City.

Rajiman area and development transactions took place spontaneously. It still plays of creative economy a vital role for activities of the batik trade in Based on Figure 4 above, it can be seen that Indonesia which also serves as a shopping desti- there are two main areas in Solo city center, nation Solo city; (iii) The Great Mosque of Sur- which are separated by Jalan Slamet Riyadi. The akarta Hadiningrat Palace, which was the center area considered to have The Power of the Past is of Islamic learning built by courtiers of the Palace the area of the initial establishment of Solo city who had completed their study in Islamic teach- with Jalan Rajiman situated at the central part of ings in Egypt. They taught and spread religious the area, it has been used to guide the city teachings to society both inside the palace and development since its inception. In the north of outside the palace; and (iv) Kauman Batik JalanSlametRiyadiliestheareaofThe Power of Tourism Village, which is a neighborhood where the Present, which is dominated by modern the families of the Palace courtiers reside. Hus- businesses such as hotels, shopping centers, bands teach Islam and develop Islamic education restaurants, and banks. while wives make batik for the royal family as an Solo’s city branding ‘‘The Spirit of Java’’ is very economic activity that continues until today. The familiar among the population in the area of The current condition of zone A is displayed in Power of the Past. The findings of the field research Figure 6. identified 3 zones with their own characteristics as Zone B is the mixed or transitional zone which illustrated in zones A, B, and C in Figure 5. was formerly an area where artists lived. How- Zone A illustrated in Figure 3 is an area located ever, nowadays this area has changed. The artists very close to the center of Solo Palace. Since the left to live in other areas. The majority of the city of Solo was first established in 1745 until existing buildings have been purchased by inves- now, this area has been designated as the center tors to build hotels, department stores, and so on. for a variety of activities and has supported the The current condition of zone A is displayed in city’s economy to this date. The major units in Figure 7. Zone A include the following: (i) The Palace as Zone C is an area situated the furthest from the the remnants of the Kingdom of Surakarta; (ii) center of Solo Kingdom. However, it still has its Klewer Market which was originally a place next original function as Kauman Batik Tourism Vil- to the Palace where sales and purchase lage. Its ability to survive to the present is

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

Figure 5: A map of Rajiman and creative economy areas.

Figure 6: An image of the unit of area in Zone A.

Figure 7: An image of the unit of area in Zone B. supported by the existence of rivers around this by ordinary people with the ability to utilize area which facilitate batik business and trade natural resources (silk) to create batik with con- through rivers traffics and Jalan Rajiman passing temporary designs. Batik from Laweyan does not through this area. The difference between the rely on traditional motifs but it managed to gen- Kauman Batik Tourism Village around the Palace erate merchants who indeed could provide area and the one in this area lies in the actors. The financial contributions during the critical period Kauman Batik Tourism Village around the Palace of the Surakarta Kingdom providing assistance in area is run by educated and prominent people as the early days of the founding of the Republic of part of the Palace which lacks access to a river. Indonesia in 1945. They are still able to survive Meanwhile, situated furthest from Surakarta even making use of communications technology Palace, the Laweyan Tourism Village is managed to support the development of their designs and

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Nursanty et al

their trading network to foreign countries. The Slamet Riyadi was built by the Dutch current condition of zone A is displayed in government with a view to moving the Center of Figure 8. Solo City, which formerly was located within the palace area (Location 1), to the area around the Vastenberg Fort (Location 2) is displayed in THE CITY BRANDING OF SOLO Figure 9. CITY AND ITS IMPLEMENTATION The moving of Surakarta Palace, which was IN SPATIAL PLANNING originally located in Kartasura, to a new location A city is the center of everything. A variety of in Sala Village was carried out by way of a things happen therein, activities full of talents, purpose-built road, namely Jalan Dr. Rajiman. ideas, and special uniqueness. These all are very Figure 10 shows a variety of typical spaces and important things in life. They give a city a soul activities around Jalan Dr. Rajiman which can be (Mead, 2013). found today, including Surakarta Palace, Alun– Cities making innovations in order to develop Alun Kidul (the South Square), Klewer Market, and offer wealth and jobs to its population should Artists Village of Kemlayan, Batik Village of adapt to space. Therefore, knowledge and Kauman, Sriwedari Park, Sriwedari Stadium, creativity can be developed simultaneously. Sondakan Village, and the Great Mosque of Culture is also often included here. Not only as a Surakarta Palace. condition to attract the creativity of artists, but Figure 11 shows two current magnet areas in also as a key economic sector that is intertwined Solo City. The area indicated using the number 1 is with other economic sectors (Musterd and the area which we call The Power of the Past (TPs) Ostendorf, 2004). containing economic and cultural activities which Surakarta City was founded in 1745 beginning have existed since the establishment of Surakarta with the establishment of the Surakarta Palace to City and the relocation of Kartosura Palace to replace Kartosuro Palace devastated by war and Surakarta or which we now call Solo City. Zone 1, rebellion. The Kartosuro Palace representatives which we call the TPs, passed by the first road built managed to end the war with the rebels with the in Solo City, i.e., Jalan Dr. Rajiman, established in assistance from the VOC, and ultimately they 1745. The Jalan Rajiman is considered as the were bound by the Treaty of Giyanti which abstract symbol of royal power and creates a very divided their region into two, namely the strategic space for the king’s power as this road, Sunnanate of Surakarta and the Sultanate of when it was established, used an axis of worshipping Yogyakarta. Mount Merapi, the most feared mountain in the Surakarta City currently has an area of 44 km2, Island of Java at that time as shown in the macro with a density of 13,636/km2. Its main line is land placement is displayed in Figure 12. Jalan Slamet Riyadi which connects the main axis Later, the VOC tried to change Solo City in a of the city from Purwosari Train Station to the systematic manner by building a new road, the Slamet Riyadi Monument. This new road of Jalan one which is now called Jalan Slamet Riyadi, the

Figure 8: An image of the unit of area in Zone C.

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

Figure 9: The sketch showing the location of Jalan Rajiman and Jalan Slamet Riyadi, Solo.

Figure 10: The point of interest of Jalan Rajiman and Jalan Slamet Riyadi. development process began in the early Palace to VOC’s Fort. For that reason, Solo City nineteenth century. The intention was to move which at first was a kutho raja or a royal city the center of Surakarta City situated in Surakarta changed into a kutho kolonial or colonial city.

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Nursanty et al

Figure 11: Two magnet areas in Solo City.

Figure 12: A map of macro land placement.

Moreover, the construction of Jalan Slamet Riyadi into an area with the brand of having the Riyadi is also aimed at facilitating transportation longest citywalk in South East Asia, 7 km in lines between VOC’s fort in Surakarta and the length. resident head in Semarang City. In 2008, the Thus, the construction of Jalan Slamet Riyadi government of Surakarta City built Jalan Slamet creates a new magnet area, namely the area No. 2,

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

which we call The Power of the Present (TPr) with cities still have to compete with China’s newly- its modern economic activities like other cities in emerging cities, such as Guangzhou and Shanghai Indonesia, such as malls, wholesale, hotels, and (Jiang and Shen, 2010). City marketing has been restaurants. widely used in most cases as an attempt to make changes in economic, political, and social areas (Kavaratzis and Ashworth, 2005). The METHOD organization system of city marketing is crucial. This is a case study of the historic city of To measure it, not only the components of city Surakarta, Indonesia. Surakarta City, in an marketing but also all the important elements attempt to create its branding, prefers to use its which contribute to city branding should be original name ‘Solo’, given upon the city’s considered (Kavaratzis, 2004). establishment. The current branding is ‘Solo: the Surakarta City in this regard attempts to build Spirit of Java’, including its surroundings, 1 its city branding using the potential power of its municipality and 6 regencies which formerly past history, namely Solo the Spirit of Java. Solo is constituted the Residency of Surakarta. the name firstly used at the time the city was The research employed a case study method. It officially designated as the center for the Kingdom used a combination of inductive and deductive of in 1745. The history approaches, a qualitative analysis technique. The describes the changing needs in space influenced data was obtained from in-depth interviews with by the political conditions at that time. The users of the space in Jalan Slamet Riyadi and Jalan Government of the Dutch East Indies built the Rajiman. Mapping was carried out with regard to road of Jalan Slamet Riyadi in the hope that this zones of the space and their role in creating space would get a new function and role to visitors’ perceived gaze before, during, and after replace the function and role of the kingdom- visiting the said space. The mapping process was centered space. Currently, the Slamet Riyadi area focused on the historic road, namely Jl. Rajiman, plays a role as a magnet for The Power of the Present. by placing the points of surviving heritage spaces A great number of activities and modern facilities that are familiar in local and national society and can be found here, even though they are similar even in some cases with an international to those found in the area nearby, i.e., relationship, is displayed in Figure 13 in the Yogyakarta. However, this area has a fairly high facade of building. The points observed were rate of growth, as presented in Table 1. Soloraya analyzed based on what is currently happening accounted for 13.64 % of the total revenue gained and the way the processes therein have developed by Central Java Province and 0.94 % of the so far in an effort to create a creative economy for national revenue. A number of business sectors Solo city. Interviews were conducted at different also contribute to the resulting Gross Regional times and locations thus different answers were Domestic Product, namely agriculture, mining, sometimes generated despite a similar age group. and the processing industry. In relation to the spatial pattern, the findings reveal a tourist gaze pattern influenced by each RESULTS AND DISCUSSION spatial element in the two different zones. In the Nowadays, the existence of a city is not only zone with The Power of the Past, there are five important for the growth of the national economy elements of city branding found, each of which but it also plays a role in the growth of the world can create a gaze into the space users’ minds: (1) economy. Major cities such as New York, Jalan Rajiman as a historic road for the London, and Tokyo focused largely on improving establishment of Solo City, which began with their competitiveness at international level. Other moving the Palace of Surakarta Sunanate from major cities, such as Hong Kong, have managed Kartasura to Solo. (2) The Palace Kasunanan to place themselves globally. Nevertheless, these which formerly was the center of the royal city,

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Nursanty et al

Figure 13: The facade of the buildings in the city area.

Table 1: The gross regional domestic product of Soloraya by sector in 2013

Business fields PDRB Soloraya PDRB DIY Pangsa PDRB ADHB 2013 (Triliun Rp) (Triliun Rp) Soloraya thd Soloraya thd DIY thd Jateng (%) Nasional (%) Nasional (%)

AGROBISNIS 19.59 8.86 17.16 1.49 0.68 MINING 0.66 0.42 11.10 0.06 0.04 PROCESSING INDUSTRY 19.24 8.77 9.47 0.89 0.41 ELECTRICITY, GAS, & WATER 1.39 0.80 21.08 1.98 1.13 COMMERCE, HOTEL, & RESTAURANT 18.86 13.15 14.59 1.45 1.01 FINANCIAL, RENTAL, ETC 4.65 6.54 19.99 0.68 0.96 SERVICES 10.92 12.84 16.42 1.09 1.28 PDRB 85.10 63.69 13.64 0.94 0.70

Source: Indonesian Bank presentation, 2013, made by researcher.

(3)KlewerMarketasahistoricmarketinSolo Sondakan, Kemlayan, and Kauman. Each village City and at the beginning was a place where has its own distinctive and different characters, society around the palace gathered. At first, specifically Laweyan is known as the village of society around this area did simple trade batik merchants. Sondakan is known as a tourist transactions by hanging batik they made for sale. village. Kemlayan is known as the village of (4) Four traditional villages established as the artists and Kauman is known as the village of development and growth of the city began to Muslims. facilitate the population’s needs for settlements, As for the zone with The Power of the Present, namely the Batik Villages of Laweyan, there are also some elements supporting the brand

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

found that can be arranged into a series of city Riyadi, and we found answers that are also unique branding: (1) Jalan Slamet Riyadi which became and different. the longest citywalk in Southeast Asia in 1980, The zone with The Power of the Present is i.e., 8,5 km in length. (2) There are 32 hotels located around Jalan Slamet Riyadi. This area with various classes of service. (3) There are five offers various facilities for its visitors to conduct department stores in this area. (4) Central offices, business activities and entertainment through the Governor’s official residence and banks are modern facilities of its urban space, such as situated along this road. (5) There are a variety of accommodation, business trading, and formal public services such as museums, conference halls, business conference halls. Its citywalk is one of the and various modern services. city’s elements which can provide an overview of The interviews with and observations of the the present Solo City to anyone crossing this city existing spatial actors, revealed that there are on foot along the road of Jalan Slamet Riyadi. several types of areas as presented in Figure 14. The survey was conducted through interviews What makes these findings unique is that the with people aged 13 to 35 years and revealed that tourist gaze consists of three stages of periods they could easily find information about the whose processes occur consecutively, each of locations in Slamet Riyadi area via online media which can be connected directly to the urban such as Facebook, Twitter, and Instagram. Besides space and architecture, as shown in Figure 14 and utilizing the trading facilities they have already explained in detail in Table 2. known through social media and the Internet, In more detail, for the zone with The Power of they also spent much time meeting and the Past located around the area in Jalan Rajiman, interacting with one another in some parts of the a tourist gaze has been formed even before visitors roads in the citywalk. arrive at this location, and they already have their The other zones are areas developed to own perception relating to the historic uniqueness strengthen Solo City’s future competitiveness. its space conveys. The existing space so far is still These areas are the development of Solo City to representing the uniqueness of the past as accommodate the needs for space due to increase displayed in the local architecture that in the number of space users and the supporting accommodates the activities carried out for activities of a modern city. Society tries to solve generations such as making batik and doing problems relating to urban spaces in a creative musical or artistic activities, even undertaking a way, including using various urban spaces in this countryside tour by studying the existing culture area for events such as live music, movie of the tourist village. From a total of 24 local screenings, puppet shows, and umbrella festivals. tourists, coming either from or outside Solo city, This is done to optimize the urban space by even outside Java island, aged 17 to 47 years, who involving public participation. In interviews with participated in an event exploring Solo old town a number of customers of the hotels around this organized by the traveler community of Solo city; location, respondents said that they chose this 92.64 % of them stated that they participated in location as the rate of exclusive hotels in this area the event exploring areas around Rajiman, the is far cheaper than the rate of hotels of the same palace, and the heritage area of the city as they class located downtown. On average, they stayed wanted to view first-hand the historical remnants for more than 5 days so that they decided to stay of the city hundreds of years ago. When seeing here as an alternative. On the other hand, some directly on site many historic buildings which other visitors were large family groups coming were poorly maintained, damaged, and even together. They used many rooms and brought demolished for building new and different their own vehicles. According to them, a deluxe buildings, they said that such conditions did not hotel would create its own impression for the surprise them. family atmosphere which they built together with On a different occasion, the survey was some relatives. They did not mind even though conducted in a different zone, namely Slamet the hotel was located far away from the city

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Nursanty et al

Figure 14: The zone of the tourist gaze stage process.

Table 2: The spatial zone and the tourist gaze power di Kota Solo

Zone Location Strength position of the Activity Space area tourist gaze

Blue (A) The zone of Rajiman area Has the power of history Trade and services, both The existing spaces still and its surroundings which provides a strong formal and informal ones, have a distinctive image before one visits involving local values and character of the life taking this location heritage, such as batik place in accordance with villages, blangkon the historic ritual and centers, traditional lasting for generations markets and centers for traditional dance Green (B) The zone of Rajiman dan Has the power to make one General and modern trade The existing spaces are Slamet Riyadi areas can enjoy a visit to this and services, both formal multifunctional and location through a variety and informal ones, which flexible modern spaces for of modern activities it has, are often similar to and a variety of activities that such as the longest look like those found in exist today and possibly citywalk in Southeast Asia other cities around it in the future Yellow (C) The zone of Solo areas, Has the gaze power which The activities undertaken The spaces established are excluding Rajiman dan visitors will not easily here are varied, not only creative ones created by Slamet Riyadi areas, forget when their visit to trade and services but the community to solve especially the area of this place ends area also educational activities spatial problems such as Solo Baru and its because of the ease of such as the utilizing public spaces as surroundings modern services and understanding and a place to watch movies trade which provide introduction of history outdoors sustainable opportunities through the information technology which it adopts and continues to develop

because they always traveled in groups using their companies competing with each other occurred. own vehicles. Generally, they attempted to beat the competition The concept of ‘‘competitiveness’’ was first by optimizing productivity and profits (Jiang and used in business when the phenomenon of Shen, 2010). For a city, competitiveness may have

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

a different meaning. Cities are merely an reinforce the power of such urban spaces through economic forum. Environment, both the physical the economic activities creatively so as to environment and the social system therein, is compete with other cities in the future. generally derived from existing economic Based on its history, Solo has two magnets activities. However, it is not solely based on the which are regions with their own uniqueness, costs and profits arising from such a process namely a magnet around the city’s area in Jalan (Dahlman, 1979). Initially, the understanding of a Slamet Riyadi and that in Jalan Rajiman. The city’s competitive ability (competitive advantages) uniqueness of these two magnets can be seen, is largely influenced by the growth rate. A both in terms of the types of the spaces, the description relating to the advantages of the activities of the spaces, and people’s perceptions of economic growth is the main promise given. these two areas. The formula for the combination However, the meaning of the term of the tourist gaze and development of city ‘competitiveness’ began to shift. Society began to branding elements in Solo City is expected to demand growth at a different level, i.e., a better raise its competitive ability in the future based on quality life along with a better environment of the the concept of creative city development, both city (Gibbs, 1997). City marketing efforts are with regard to the city population, solutions to defined as a way to design a city with a view to the city’s problems, as well as implementation of fulfilling the needs of the targeted market. Such the attempts to improve the city’s quality. efforts are deemed successful if society and The three tourist gaze stages in Solo City occur business actors in the city feel satisfied with their before, during, and after visiting Solo City. These community and the expectations of the visitors three stages can occur one after another in the urban and those of the investors converge (Gasco´- space as the urban space has unique potential. In a Herna´ndez and Torres-Coronas, 2009). sequential order, the gaze perceived relating to Solo City’s urban space begins before the visitors come to visit an area. Visitors have their own gaze of the area CONCLUSION with The Power of the Past, i.e., the area around Jalan This research attempts to explain that the tourist Rajiman. This area has a gaze, especially relating to gaze theory, formerly a psychological theory, is the great history of Mataram Kingdom, the greatest used by the tourism industry to support city kingdom in Java Island, and its spatial relics which marketing efforts. Nowadays, the tourist gaze still exist today. The relics of the existing space are theory is also used by city planners to build a city’s still considered complete as a royal city which competitive ability through urban space planning represents the element of space as the power center, built entirely using the tourist gaze processes. i.e., the Palace. Moreover, the supporting spatial Such processes begin with introducing the city to element in the form of traditional villages along with tourists online through descriptions of spaces and the supporting public facilities still exists. The urban the life therein, using advertisements and space in this area has already had its gaze built even multimedia. Then, to enjoy the spaces, an before one visits it as in this area, activities which attractive and efficient system of city services is many people have been familiar with have been employed. Ultimately, tourists will be able to carried continuously out for generations. The remember a great number of urban spaces second stage of the tourist gaze processes occurring simultaneously with the activities therein in their in Solo takes place in the area with The Power of the mind even though they might have left the city. Present with the ease of the city’s overview through Solo City has launched its city branding ‘‘Solo: the longest citywalk in Southeast Asia. The ease of the Spirit of Java.’’ This city branding attempts to the spatial overview can be done simply by walking generate opportunities for Solo City regarding along Jalan Slamet Riyadi. Modern city facilities historic uniqueness which strengthens the urban such as accommodation services, services delivery, spaces it has. Starting from the historic power in and trading services can be found easily and use most areas of the city, Solo is expected to sophisticated technology, in this location. As for the

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Nursanty et al

other areas, excludingthose two zones above, are the REFERENCES areas expected to create a gaze in the mind of the Andrews, C. (2001) Analyzing quality-of-place. Planning and visitors after they leave from this Solo City. The Design 28(2): 201–217. activities carried out are creative efforts to use space Anholt, S. (2005) Brand New Justice. How Branding Places and Products Can help the Developing World. Burlington: Elsevier by involving the role and participation of the public. Butterworth-Heinemann. In the urban space with The Power of the Armstrong, I. (1893) Two Roving Englishmen in Greece. London: Past, three different levels are found, in which Samson Low. Berger, J. (1972) Ways of Seeing. Harmondsworth: Penguin. the closer it is to the center of the city’s historic Berry, L. (2000) Culvating service brand equity. Journal of power in the past (the Palace), the stronger it is. Academy of Marketing Science 28(1): 128–137. The further the area is from the Palace, the more Bruno, G. (2002) Atlas of Emotion: Journeys In Art, Architecture and Film. London: Verso. it changes from its original function, even Cai, L.A. (2002) Cooperative branding for rural destinations. changing into a modern economic area (hotels, Annals of Tourism Research 29(3): 720–742. shops, department stores, and the like). The Caldwell, N. and Freire, J.R. (2004) The differences between other areas located the furthest from the Palace branding a country, a region and a city. Journal of Brand Management 12(1): 50–61. managedbyordinarypeoplewhowerenotthe Cheong, S. and Miller, M. (2000) Power and tourism: A royal family in the past is indeed growing foucauldian observation. Annals of Tourism Research 27: increasingly nowadays owing to its natural 371–390. Dahlman, C. (1979) The problem of externality. Journal of Law conditions (the river) and highways passing and Economics 22(1): 141–162. through this area. Dube, H., Schneider, W. and Paprotta, I. (1998) Selective dorsal and ventral processing: Evidence for a common attentional mechanism in reaching and perception. Visual 5: 81–107. Garcia, J.A., Gomez, M. & Molina, A. (2012) A destination- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS branding model: An emirical analysis based on stakeholders. The authors would like to thank the Ministry of Tourism Management 22: 646–661. Gardiner, B., Martin, R. and Tyler, P. (2004) Competitiveness, Research, Technology, and Higher Education of productivity, and economic growth across the European the Republic of Indonesia, particularly the regions. Regional Studies 38: 1045–1067. Directorate General of Higher Education, which Garrington, A. (2010) Touching texts: Tha haptic sense in has given scholarships through the ‘Sandwich modernist literature. Literature Compass 7(9): 810–823. Gasco´-Herna´ndez, M. and Torres-Coronas, T. (2009) Informa- Like’ program to the author to complete the tion Communication Technologies and City Marketing: Digital process of writing this publication in Germany. Opportunities for Cities Around the World. Hershey, NY: We also would like to express our sincere Information Science Reference. Gibbs, D. (1997) Urban sustainability and economic develop- gratitude to the Prof. Dr. Peter Andreas Gotsch ment in the United Kingdom: Exploring the contradictions. from Technische Universita¨t Darmstadt, Cities 14(4): 203–208. Germany who has provided assistance in terms of Gold, J. and Ward, S. (1994) Introduction. In Place Promotion. The Use of Publicity and Marketing to Sell Towns and Regions. research professionals team, room facility, and Chichester: John Wiley & Sons. support as well as assistance in the form of Gulsrud, N.M., Gooding, S. and van den Bosch, C.C. (2013) discussion forums so that this paper can be Green space branding in Denmark in an era of neoliberal finished well. Our appreciation goes to the city governance. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 12(3): 330–337. Hankinson, G. (2006) The management of destination brands: government of Surakarta (Solo) as well as its Five guiding principles based on recent developments in society and communities for their openness to corporate. Brand Mangagement 14(3): 240–254. share data, information, spirit, and expectation for Ja¨rvisalo, S. (2012) How to build successful city brands?-Case Munich, Berlin & Hamburg. Thesis, Haaga-Helia Univer- the purpose of our research. We express our sity of Applied Sciences, pp. 1–111. sincere gratitude to all the authors of artworks in Jencks, C. (2005) The Iconic Building – The Power of Enigma. this paper: Fendy Fawzy Alfiansyah for his London: Frances Lincoln. Jiang, Y. and Shen, J. (2010) Measuring the urban competi- picture, Much Anang Syahroni for his maps, Ir. tiveness of Chinese cities in 2000. Cities 27: 307–314. Ahyani, M.A. from BAPPEDA Surakarta, and Kavaratzis, M. (2004) From city marketing to city branding: Surya Triwijaya from Solo Digital Map for their Towards a theoretical framework for developing city brands. permission in this paper. Place Branding 1(1): 58–73.

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Application of tourist gaze theory to support city branding

Kavaratzis, M. and Ashworth, G. (2005) City branding: An Pastras, P. and Bramwell, B. (2013) A strategic-relational effect assertion of identity or a transitory marketing trick? approach to tourism policy. Annals of Tourism 43: 1–25. Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie 96(5): 506–514. Pike, S. (2009) Destination brand positions of a competitive set Kirsch, W. (2015) Impact of action planning on spatial of near-home destinations. Tourism Management 30(6): perception: Attention matters. Acta Psychologica 156: 22–31. 857–866. Ko¨ltringer, C. and Dickinger, A. (2015) Analyzing destination Riza, M., Doratli, N. and Fasli, M. (2012) City branding and branding and image from online sources: A web content Identity. Social and Behavioral Science 35: 293–300. mining approach. Journal of Business Research 68: 1836–1843. Rizzolatti, G., Riggio, L. and Sheliga, G. (1994) Space and Ko¨nig, C. (2011) City branding of Hong Kong – Imagineering selective attention. In: C. Umilta` and M. Moscovitch (eds.) authenticity. Thesis, Stockholm University School of Busi- Attention and Performance XV. Cambridge: MIT Press, ness, pp. 1–55. pp. 231–265. Kotler, P. and Gertner, D. (2002) Country as a brand, product Russell, D., Mort, G.S. and Hume, M. (2009) Analysis of and beyond: A place marketing and brand management. management narrative to understand social marketing strat- Journal of Brand Management 9: 249–261. egy: The case of ‘Branding Logan City’. Australian Marketing Lalli, M. (1992) Urban related identity: Theory, measurement Journal 17(4): 232–237. and empirical findings. Journal of Environmental Psychology 12: Shields, R. (1991) Places on the Margin. Alternative Geographies of 285–303. Modernity. London: Routledge. Mahn, C. (2014) The virtual tourist gaze in Greece, 1897–1905. Tobias, S. and Wahlb, P.M. (2013) Can place branding support Annals of Tourism Research 48: 193–206. landscape conservation in city-regions? A case study from Maoz, D. (2006). The mutual gaze. Annals of Tourism Research Switzerland. Land Use Policy 30(1): 266–275. 33(1): 221–239. Urry, J. (2002) The Tourist Gaze. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Marzano, G. and Scott, N. (2009) Power in Destination Urry, J. and Larsen, J. (2011) The Tourist Gaze 3.0. London: Branding. Annals of Tourism 36(2): 247–267. Sage. Mead, M. (2013) Creative cities network, http://www.unesco. Vanolo, A. (2008) The image of the creative city: Some org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/ reflections on urban branding in Turin. Cities 25(6): 370–382. UNESCO_CCN_Beijing_Summit_Draft_Concept_Out Xing, X. and Chalip, L. (2006) Effects of hosting a sport event line.pdf, accessed 6 Oct 2015. on destination brand: A test of co-branding and match-up Merrilees, B., Miller, D. and Herington, C. (2013) City models. Sport Management Review 9(1): 49–78. branding: A facilitating framework for stressed satellite. Zenker, S. and Martin, N. (2011) Measuring success in place Journal of Business Research 66(1): 37–44. marketing and branding. Place Branding and Public Diplomacy Musterd, S. and Ostendorf, W. (2004) Creative cultural 7(1): 32–41. knowledge cities: Perspectives and planning strategies. Built Zhang, L. and Zhao, S.X. (2009) City branding and the olympic Environment 30(3): 180–189. effect: A case study of Beijing. Cities 26(5): 245–254.

Ó 2016 Macmillan Publishers Ltd. 1751-8040 Place Branding and Public Diplomacy