KWAME NKRUMAH UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, KUMASI,
GHANA
THE EXTENT OF INVOLVEMENT OF PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES IN
COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE AMANSIE WEST DISTRICT:
A CASE STUDY OF PWDs OF THE MANSO ATWERE ZONE
BY
JOSEPH STANLEY MWINI
A THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITY HEALTH
COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MSc.
DISABILITY AND REHABILITATION STUDIES.
NOVEMBER, 2014 DECLARATION I declare that, this thesis has been the result of my own field research and has neither been submitted, nor being submitted concurrently, for any other degree.
Joseph Stanley Mwini ……………………… ……………………….. (20127228) Signature Date Candidate
Dr .Anthony K.Edusei ……………………. ……………………….. Supervisor Signature Date
Dr. Anthony K. Edusei …………………….. …………………… Head of Department Signature Date
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DEDICATION This study is dedicated to my wife, Gina who has always sat by me and given the needed support for me to be able to bring pieces together and also to all my brothers and sisters who supported me responsibly throughout the course of my study.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT In diverse ways, many people have helped in making it possible for me to write this research work.I am particularly grateful to Dr. Anthony K. Edusei, my supervisor, for his valuable comments, suggestions and advice. I am also grateful to Dr. and Mrs. Hooko and Beatrice Mwini for their encouragement and financial support. My thanks also go to my siblings who have inspired me throughout my life and given me the needed support.
Again, my thanks go to the Ashanti regional branch of the Ghana Federation of the Disabled and the local people from Manso Atwere, Manso Nkwanta, Kwaakyeabo, Asaaman, Brofoyeduro and Yawkrom, who assisted me during the identification process of persons with disability. My thanks go to individual PWDs and stakeholders who patiently answered the questionnaires. I would also like to acknowledge the contribution of my course mates and friends towards the successful completion of the work, including Mr. David N. Botwey of Samuel Wellington
Botwey (SWEB) Foundation whose compassion ignited my interest in PWDs.
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ABSTRACT Persons with disabilities (PWDs) despite being disproportionate users of support services in health, social care and education settings, continue to face significant barriers and challenges to participate in decision making and programmes in the community. The current study, therefore, seeks to investigate the extent of PWDs participation in community development in the Amansie
West District. The study predominantly adopted a descriptive field survey to collect principally primary data from PWDs, Chiefs and other opinion leaders in the Amansie West District. These
100 respondents were sampled through a multistage sampling procedure. The selection methods involved both simple random and non-probabilistic purposive sampling. From the study, only a limited number of PWDs are involved in development initiatives in the Manso Atwere zone of the Amansie West District. The low level of involvement could probably be attributed to the absence of mechanism for including PWDs in decision making. The level of PWDs participation in the community development activities in the district is challenged by their low level of education, health, unemployment and social exclusion. The predominant form of participation by the PWDs in the communities is in the form of group. The nature of PWDs involvement in community development is largely managerial participation. The male gender dominates in all aspects of PWDs participation in community development in the studied district. The major factors found to influence PWDs involvement in development activities in the district were personal health or impairment, level of literacy or education, economic well-being or livelihood and socio-cultural factors. On this basis, the current study recommends to community members and stakeholders the need to increase PWDs participation in community development, provide mechanism for PWDs inclusion in decision making, and gender equality in PWDs involvement.
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TABLE OF CONTENT
DECLARATION ...... ii DEDICATION ...... iii ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ...... iv ABSTRACT ...... v TABLE OF CONTENT ...... vi LIST OF TABLE ...... ix LIST OF FIGURES ...... x
CHAPTER ONE ...... 1 1.0 INTRODUCTION...... 1 1.1 Background of the Study ...... 1 1.2 Problem Statement ...... 5 1.3 Justification for the Study ...... 6 1.4 Research Question ...... 7 1.5 General Objectives ...... 7 1.6 Specific Objectives ...... 7 1.7 Scope of the Study...... 8 1.8 Organization of the Study ...... 8 1.9.0 PROFILE OF THE AMANSIE WEST DISTRICT ...... 8 1.9.1 Introduction ...... 8 1.9.2 Location and Size ...... 12 1.9.3. Relief and Drainage ...... 12 1.9.4 Vegetation and Climate ...... 13 1.9.5 Soils and Agricultural Land Use ...... 15 1.9.6. Demographic Characteristics and the Built Environment ...... 16 1.10.0. Human Resource Development and Basic Social Services ...... 19 1.10.1. Education and Literacy ...... 19 1.10.2 Health Care ...... 21 1.10.3 General Health Situation ...... 22 1.10.4 Water and Sanitation ...... 23 1.10.5 Electricity...... 25
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1.10.6 Transportation and Communication Services ...... 25 1.10.7 Economic Activities ...... 26
CHAPTER TWO ...... 30 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 30 2.1 Participation ...... 30 2.1.1 Review of Theories of Participation ...... 35 2.1.2 Dimensions of Participation ...... 37 2.1.3 Levels of People's Participation ...... 39 2.2 Community Participation ...... 41 2.2.1 Barriers to Community Participation ...... 43 2.3 The International Classification of Function (ICF) ...... 44 2.3.1 The International Classification of Function (ICF) ...... 45 2.3.2 Disability Policy and the Millennium Development Goals ...... 46 2.4 Gender Influences on Involvement of PWDs in Community Development ...... 47
CHAPTER THREE ...... 49 3.0 METHODS ...... 49 3.1 Introduction ...... 49 3.2 Research Design ...... 49 3.3 The Study Population ...... 50 3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique ...... 51 3.5 Source of Data ...... 52 3.6 Data Collection Instruments ...... 53 3.6.1 Questionnaire ...... 53 3.7 Method of Data Analysis ...... 54 3.8 Quality of the Research Design ...... 55 3.8.1 Validity of the Study...... 55 3.8.2 Reliability of the Study ...... 56 3.8.3 Degree of Generalization ...... 57
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CHAPTER FOUR ...... 58 4.0 RESULTS ...... 58 4.1 Socio Demographic Characteristics of Respondents ...... 58 4.2 The Nature and Level of Inclusion of PWDs in Community Development Initiatives ...... 60 4.3 Gender Influence on the Extent of Involvement of PWDs in Community Development... 63 4.4 Factors that Influence the Involvement of PWDs in Community Development ...... 66 4.5 Barriers to PWDs Participation in Community Development ...... 67
CHAPTER FIVE ...... 69 5.0 DISCUSSION ...... 69 5.1 The Extent and Level of Involvement of PWDs in Community Development ...... 69 5.2 Gender Influence on the Extent of Involvement of PWDs in Community Development... 70 5.3 Factors Influencing the Involvement of PWDs in Community Development ...... 71 5.4 Barriers to Community Participation ...... 71
CHAPTER SIX ...... 72 6.1 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION ...... 72 6.1 Conclusions ...... 72 6.1.1 Nature and Level of Inclusion of PWDs in Community Development Initiatives ...... 72 6.1.2 Gender influence on the Extent of Involvement PWDs in Community Development 72 6.1.3 Factors that Influencethe Involvement of PWDs in Community Development ...... 73 6.1.4 Barriers to PWDs Involvement in Community Development ...... 73 6.2 Recommendation ...... 73 6.2.1 The need to Increase PWDs Participation in Community Development ...... 73 6.2.2 Provision of Mechanism to Include PWDs in Decision Making...... 74 6.2.3 Gender Equality in PWDs Involvement in Community Participation ...... 74 6.2.4 Limitation and Areas for Further Studies ...... 74
REFERENCES ...... 75 APPENDIX ...... 78
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LIST OF TABLE
Table 2.1: Practice of community participation ...... 42
Table 4.1.Sample Size Distribution ...... 52
Table 5.1: Socio Demographic Information of Respondents...... 59
Table 5.2: The Nature and Level of PWDs Involvement in Community Development ...... 62
Table 5.3: Gender Comparison of PWDs Participation in Community Development ...... 64
Table 5.4: Distribution of Responses from PWDs Regarding Factors Influencing their Involvement in Community Development ...... 66
Table 5.5: Barriers to PWDs Involvement in Community Development ...... 68
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LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1: Participation viewed as a spider gram...... 32
Figure 2.2: Depth of Participation as a Continuum ...... 38
Figure 3.1: Location of the Amansie West District in National and Regional Context ...... 10
Figure 3.2: Map of the Amansie West District Indicating Study Villages ...... 11
Figure 5.1: Involvement of PWDs in Community Development Initiatives ...... 61
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CHAPTER ONE 1.0 INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background of the Study
The needs and the rights of persons with disabilities are often inadequately showed in national development strategies. Moreover, their aspiration to get involved in community activities is denied by cultural and socio-economic barriers. Persons with disabilities are commonly associated with poverty due to negative attitudes and unfriendly environment for development
(United Nations Enable, 2013).
In developing countries like Ghana, persons with disabilities are often faced with circumstances that limit their involvement in the day today„s life activities. These circumstances have caused persons with disabilities to continue to lobby governments for change and increase public awareness about their abilities, and the need to deal with barriers. Without continuous advocacy for sound policies, disability issues will continue to remain missing in policy documents.
Activities and roles that people engage in are influenced by personal and environmental factors such as individual abilities and external resources. Two existing conceptual models in the literature indicate a general interaction between personal and environmental factors, and the activities and roles that individuals engage in. These conceptual include the International
Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF) modeland the human development model of the disability creation process,(World Health Organization, 2011) which itself arose out of the conceptual model of the handicap creation process (Fougeyrollas et al., 1998). All these models rather broadly illustrate interactions between environmental and personal factors and activities and participation. In other words, many scales presume that the activities and roles
1 included in the scoring system are important to all individuals. However, people have individual preferences, and the activities that are important to one person may not be important to another.
What is required is a better understanding of what matters to persons with disabilities, who may be impacted by a variety of factors. Whiteneck (1996) indicated that “success is in the eye of the beholder” and “subjective reality is every bit as important as objective reality”.
Since the 1970s, with the rise of the independent living movement (Boschen & Gargaro, 1998), new approaches, including self-help and peer support, led to new processes of service delivery for people with disabilities. Health professionals recognized the importance of working together in collaboration with persons with disabilities towards their goals. Historically, the independent living movement led to increased awareness of the physical and social barriers in the environment and encouraged new research directions (Dunn, 1990).DeJong and Hughes (1982) suggested that research should focus on determiningthe external, as well as internal influences on independent living. Other schools of thought have suggested that it would be interesting to analyse the relationship between environmental factors and participation to understand howexternal factors impact function (Voorman & Dallmeijer, 2006).
Included in environmental factors are all external, physical and social elements that can either aid or obstruct achievement of personal goals, and may include “family support, geographical location, terrain, economic situation, political climate, educational opportunities, architectural accessibility, support services, and cultural values”, (Nosek & Fuhrer, 1992). One term frequently used in the literature is “community integration.” This term refers to aspects of being part of mainstream community and family life, living independently, assuming age, gender, and
2 culturally appropriate roles and responsibilities, and contributing to society as a whole (Dijkers,
1998). It is a correlate of community participation.
Since a goal of rehabilitation is to maximize a person‟s abilities to engage in activities and roles of choice in life, an important part of rehabilitation is to understand which factors impact upon the activities and roles of persons with disability. In recent years, two prominent models have emerged to depict the interactions that exist between personal and environmental factors and the activities of people within the home or in the community. They are the International
Classification of Functioning (ICF), Disability and Health, (World Health Organization, 2001) and the Disability Creation Process (Fougeyrollas et al., 2002). These models are the first to clearly propose interactions between such personal or environmental factors and activities of people, reflecting understanding that determinants of health are not solely related to the medical state of a person, but is related to bio-psychosocial factors.
Today, most countries have followed international guidelines such as the standard rules on the equalization of opportunities for persons with disabilities, the Declaration of Rights of Persons with Disability and the United Nations Convention. Notwithstanding these efforts which aimed at fundamental freedom and equal recognition, persons with disabilities are often excluded in community participation at all levels.
The inclusion of persons with disabilities in community participation process is an issue that crosscuts development, and is essential to the achievement of the Millennium Development
Goals, and the eradication of poverty. Persons with disabilities, particularly women and girls
3 with disabilities, consistently rank among the poorest of the poor (Long, Carolyn, 2001), yet continue to be overlooked. Up to fifteen percent of the world‟s population consists of persons with disabilities, and more than two-thirds of those individuals live in developing countries, yet their inclusion in development programs has been limited(World Health Organization,2011).
Recently, there has been little research or consensus on how to include persons with disabilities in community development programmes.
A growing number of organizations have improved outreach to and inclusion of persons with disabilities. There is also a growing body of legislation, policy directives and guidance notes generated by donor countries and development networks that focus on ensuring that women, men and children with disabilities are included in the development process.
Community development
"Community development is a skilled process and part of its approach is the belief that communities cannot be helped unless they themselves agree to this process. Community development has to look both ways: not only at how the community is working, but also at how responsive key institutions are to the needs of local communities” (Cary, 1970). The first priority of the Community Development process is the empowering and enabling of those who are traditionally deprived of power and control over their common affairs. It claims as important the ability of people to act together to influence the social, economic, political and environmental issues which affect them. Community Development aims to encourage sharing, and to create structures which give genuine participation and involvement.
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Community Development is about developing the power, skills, knowledge and experience of people as individuals and in groups, thus enabling them to undertake initiatives of their own to combat social, economic, political and environmental problems, and enabling them to fully participate in a truly democratic process.Community Development must take the lead in confronting the attitudes of individuals and the practices of institutions and society as a whole which discriminates unfairly against women, people with disabilities and different abilities, religious groups and other groups who are disadvantaged by society.
Ghana, for over a decade now, has been implementing political and administrative decentralization. This is to ensure grassroots participation in decisions that affect their well-being and development. However after implementing the decentralization policy for all these years, one would expect that development beneficiaries including persons with disabilities would be involved throughout, but the situation on the ground leaves much to be desired.
1.2 Problem Statement
Opportunities for people to participate in decisions and issues that affect them have increased significantly. However, this is not the case for persons with disabilities, despite PWDs being disproportionate users of support services in health, social care and education settings.Persons with Disabilities have the right as everyone else to participate in decisions and issues that affect them. This is outlined in both the United Nation Convention on the Rights of the Child
(UNCRC) and in the United Nation Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities
(UNCRPD).
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In order to effectively embed disabled people‟s participation in programmes and activities of their communities, information needs to be fully accessible. The social model of disability provides a framework for inclusive participation: namely focusing on changing attitudes and removing or minimizing barriers that prevent persons with disability from accessing the same opportunities as people without Disability.
During an attachment programme with the Samuel Wellington Botwey(SWEB) Foundation, a disability-focused Non - Governmental Organization based in Accra-Ghana which has been collaborating with the Centre for Rehabilitation Studies (CEDRES),of the Kwame Nkrumah
University of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, in the implementation of empowerment training programme, it was noticed that persons with disabilities in various communities were dependent on other people for their livelihood and that the economic activity in the area is predominantly farming and galamsey activities. The study was therefore driven by the desire to investigate the extent and levels of participation of persons with disabilities in the selected communities in the Amansie West district of the Ashanti Region. The means has to be created to rebuild broad base participation in policy making, planning and management.
1.3 Justification for the Study
A study of this nature is important as the Government of Ghana and the private sector may use the findings to address issues of participation of people with disabilities in an informed and systematic way. This would ensure that the contributions of people with disabilities are reflected in all development strategies and policy documents in the future. The findings will not only provide additional knowledge, but also new research-based evidence that will inform stakeholders to deliberately create a policy environment that encourages the participation of 6 disabled people in government and other programme. The Ghana Federation of theDisabled could utilize the findings to stimulate participation of their member organizations in community development programme. This would also ensure self-representation of people with disabilities in fulfillment of development programmes at all levels.
1.4 Research Question
1. To what extent are Persons with Disability involved in community development?
1.5 General Objectives
To explore from stakeholders and PWDs the extent to which Persons with Disabilities are involved in the community development process in the Manso Atwere zone of the Amansie West
District and examine the factors influencing their participation in development programmes of the District.
1.6 Specific Objectives
1. To examine stakeholders and PWDs the extent and levels of involvement of Person with
Disability in Community development in the Manso Atwere Zone of the Amansie West District.
2. To identify factors that influence the involvement of persons with disabilities in community development process in the Manso Atwere Zone of the Amansie West District.
3. To determine gender influences in the involvement of PWDs in Community Development in the Manso Atwere Zone of the Amansie West District.
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1.7 Scope of the Study
Geographically, the study will cover randomly selected communities in the Amansie West
District of the Ashanti Region. The study will review literature on the following concepts: forms of community participation, levels of community participation, barriers to community participation, nature of inclusion of persons with disability in community development and comparing male and female with disability involvement in community development.
1.8 Organization of the Study
The report is made up of five chapters. The first chapter forms the introduction. This consists of a general background to the study, the problem statement, and justification of the study, goals and objectives, research questions, scope of the study, limitation and organization of the study. In the second chapter, literature on concepts appropriate to the study such as levels of community participation and barriers to community participation, the nature of inclusion of disability in the context of development initiatives and to determine gender influences on the involvement of
PWDs in community development .Chapter three focuses on the profile of the study
District/Zone while chapter four discusses the methodology of the study.The result of the study is presented in chapter five. Chapter sixis a discussion of the findings of the research. Chapter seven offers conclusion and recommendations.
1.9.0 PROFILE OF THE AMANSIE WEST DISTRICT 1.9.1 Introduction
This chapter examines the geographical features in the District which interact to define the present situation of the study area. It further unearths the socio-economic and institutional arrangements as situated in the District to help appreciate the potentials and constraints to
8 development in that geographical setting chosen for the study. The main source of data for this chapter was secondary material from the District Administration and other relevant materials on the background and prevailing circumstances of the Amansie West District. Figure 1 shows the location of the Amansie West District in the national and regional context, and figure 2 shows the map of the District indicating study villages chosen for the survey.
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Figure 3.1: Location of the Amansie West District in National and Regional Context
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Figure3.2: Map of the Amansie West District Indicating Study Villages
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1.9.2 Location and Size
The Amansie West District is located in the south-western part of Ashanti Region. The District was carved out of the Amansie East District in 1989 as part of the then government„s decentralization policy. It shares boundaries with the Amansie East District in the west, Atwima
Mponua District in the east, Atwima Nwabiagya District in the north and Amansie Central in the
South. The Amansie West District falls within latitudes 6º 35 and 6º 51 North and Longitudes 1º
40 and 2º 05 West (AWDP, 2004). The District covers an area of about 1,364 sq. km. and forms about 5.4 percent of the total land area of the Ashanti Region (AWDP, 2005). The entire District comprises 160 communities with Manso Nkwanta as the District capital. It is divided into 12 local councils, 21 area councils and subdivided into 48 electoral areas. The major towns which serve as growth poles include Manso Nkwanta, Mpatuam, Manso Mem, Manso Atwere, Edubia,
Watreso, Abore, Keniago, Essuowin, Ahwerewa and Datano.
1.9.3. Relief and Drainage
The topography of the Amansie West District is generally undulating with an elevation of about
210m above sea level (AWDP, 2004). The most prominent feature in the District is the range of hills which stretches across the north-western part of the District, most especially around Manso
Nkwanta, Abore, Esaase, and Mpatuam. The District is drained in the north by the Offin and the south by Oda Rivers and their tributaries such as Gyeni, Nwene, Adubia, Subin, Pumpin and
Emuna. However, the usefulness of the rivers to the District is limited due to the higher level of pollution from various sources most especially through mining activities in the District. The pollution of the water bodies in the District poses a great threat to the health of communities that use the rivers as source of drinking water and for other domestic purposes. Water related diseases
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are more likely to be prevalent within the District especially in areas where there is shortage of pipe borne water. The topography of the District makes it possible for the people to cultivate variety of crops. It thus presents an opportunity for farmers in the District to increase their income levels through commercial farming to reduce poverty among households in the District.
However, lack of credit facilities for farm implements and agrochemicals, and overdependence on rainfall for farming, make it impossible for farmers in the District to embark on large-scale farming activities in their communities. This makes it impossible for farmers in the District to raise adequate income from their farming activities to satisfy their basic needs.
1.9.4 Vegetation and Climate
The District lies entirely in the rain forest belt and exhibits moist, semi-deciduous characteristics.
It is much resourced with timber, herbs of medicinal values and fuel wood. However, the virgin forest cover has been degraded in several areas in the District. Factors such as increased population, excessive and reckless logging for export and unscientific and environmentally unfriendly mining activities are responsible for the alarming rate of deforestation in the Amansie
West District. As a result, the typical forest cover of the District has been destroyed and replaced by a mosaic of secondary forest, shrub covered land and agricultural holdings. It is only in a few areas, particularly those immediately outside the forest reserves in the District that traces of virgin forest are found. Four main forest reserves are found in the Amansie West district; the
Oda river forest reserve, Apamprama forest reserve, Gyeni river forest reserve and Jimira forest reserve.
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The District lies within the wet semi equatorial climatic region. The hottest period of the year with a mean monthly temperature of about 27.40ºC, occurs during February to March prior to the commencement of the rainy season. Maximum daily temperature of the District during the hot months of the year does not exceed 35ºC. From July to August the weather is relatively cold with a mean daily temperature of about 24.1ºC (AWDP, 2004). The rainfall pattern of the District is not different from that of the Ashanti Region except the hilly areas of the District that experience relief rainfall occasionally. The District falls within the higher rainfall belt of Ghana, hence, has double maxima rainfall pattern. The rainfall period begins as early as March through June and
July when it attains its apex and begins to subside. In October and November it rains again at a relatively minor scale to pave way for the dry season. The average annual rainfall for the District is about 1200mm (AWDP, 2005). Rainfall is evenly distributed in the District and supports most of the rain forest crops grown in the District. Almost all the farming activities that take place in the District highly depend on the rain because there is no well-developed irrigation schemes to support agriculture in the District. Rainfall is indispensable in the District when it comes to the development of agriculture. The climatic condition within the District offers an opportunity for the people to intensify agriculture as a way out of poverty to improve the quality of their life.
However, when it is out of crop-harvesting season, farmers in the District are saddled with acute income poverty. As a result, farmers adopt coping strategies such as felling of trees for charcoal and firewood, clearing of vegetation for illegal mining operations and hunting for game which are economically less viable and can degrade the environment. Consequently, poverty among the rural farmers is intensified with adverse health effects as a result of the degradation of their environment.
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1.9.5 Soils and Agricultural Land Use
The soils found in the Amansie West District can be grouped under the geological formation from which they were developed. They include soils developed over granite rocks which comprise the Nyanako-Tinkong Association; soils developed over birimian rocks comprising of
Bekwai-Oda Compound Association, Mim-Oda Compound Association, Kobeda-Esciem-
Sobenso-Oda Complex and, soils developed over alluvium which comprises of Awaham,
Kakum, Chichiwere Association (AWDP, 2005). The Bekwai- Oda Compound Association has relatively good agricultural value. They are suitable for a number of crops. Such food crops as plantain, cocoyam, cassava, maize, legumes and vegetables thrive well on them. Cash crops such as oil palm, cocoa, coffee, citrus and pear are also cultivated on them. It is also imperative to mention that with proper water management, the valley bottom soils can significantly support rice, vegetables and sugar cane cultivation (AWDP, 2005).
For the purpose of crop cultivation, Kobeda series of the Mim-Oda compound Association are relatively limited because of their shallow depth and susceptibility to drought. The middle slopes are, however, very fertile due to the basic rocks from which they were developed. But their extent, location and inaccessibility make them agriculturally unimportant. They are rather useful for forestry purposes. The lower slopes and valley bottom are however, suitable for rice, sugarcane and vegetable cultivation (AWDP, 2005). Awaham and Chichiwere series are not extensively used because of the pebbly character of the former and the loose sandy nature of the latter which make them easily susceptible to erosion and drought. Nutrient holding capacity of
Awaham and Chichiwere series is very low. Kakum series can be useful for rice cultivation, sugarcane and vegetable production under good water management. Generally, however, the soil
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formation in the District supports most of the cash and food crops produced in the country. With constant supply of water through irrigation schemes, the economy of the District could be improved through agricultural activities. Through improved agriculture both communal and individual poverty would reduce. With poverty reduction, access to basic facilities such as health care and educational facilities would improve.
1.9.6. Demographic Characteristics and the Built Environment
The number of people, their composition by sex and age are vital in assessing the manpower requirements and subsequent planning of various services and their spatial distribution. Based on the 2000 national population census, the District population was estimated at 108,273 and the density estimated at 79 persons per sq. km. at a growth rate of 1.5 per cent between 1984 and
2000. The District‟s population of 108,273 represents 2.9 per cent of the regional population of
3,612,950 (AWD, 2004). Using projection rate of 2.5 per cent, the projected population for the
District for the year 2004 was estimated at 119,573. Though the population density is comparatively lower than that of the region and national estimate of 127 and 212 persons per sq. km. respectively, the dispersed nature of settlements with low population density makes access to basic services difficult and expensive (AWD, 2004).
The population growth rate of 1.5 per cent for the District is far on the lower side compared to the regional growth rate of 3.4 per cent. However, the average size of a household in the District is relatively larger (about 6) hence the possible explanation to the low population size of the
District could be attributed to migration of some of the inhabitants to the urban centres like
Kumasi and Accra as means out of poverty. Considering the population density, the
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AmansieWest District can be classified as predominantly rural. Only 25.6 per cent of the 160 communities have population of over 1000 and 24 per cent of the remaining communities have population between 101-1000. The rest of the communities have a population of less than 100.
About 51.3 per cent of the total population is estimated to be females and 49.7 per cent are males. The estimation of the average household size in the district is six (6), ranging from minimum of about three (3) to as many as eighteen (18) household size. Most of the inhabitants belong to the Christian faith. About 80 per cent of the population is Christians. Adherents of
Islamic and traditional religions constitute 10 per cent and 3 per cent respectively; whereas 7 per cent do not belong to any of the types of the religious groups (AWD, 2005). The 0-14 age cohort constitutes 41.9 per cent of the total population whereas the aged group 65 and above make up only 5.3 per cent. Thus the dependent population consisting of the total of the two age cohorts constitutes about 47.2 per cent of the total population in the District. The economically active population which falls between the ages 15 and 64 constitutes 52.8 per cent of the total population of the District. The dependency ratio which represents the ratio of the elderly (aged
65 or above) and children (under 15 years of age) to the population in the economically active group in the District is estimated at 1:0.90 (AWDP, 2004). The implication is that every 100 economically active persons cater for 90 people. Though this may be considered low as compared to that of the region‟s dependency ratio of 1:1.0, the high rate of unemployment and urban migration makes this very significant. The settlement pattern in the District is the dispersed type hence making access to the communities which are distant away from the District capital very difficult.
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The demographic characteristics of the District have major implications on poverty and health in the District. The relatively higher proportion of the population in the labour force could be a potential for increasing productivity in the District which can affect household income levels positively. Once household income is improved, people can meet their basic needs to improve the quality of their health. However, the low level of development in the District inhibits the expansion of job opportunities for the increasing labour force. Unemployment rate and poverty incidence are thus high in the District which affect their health status significantly. The recent socio-economic and reconnaissance survey conducted in the District revealed that, about 90 per cent of the houses are compound houses with more than two households living in them. There are, however, few detached and semi-detached houses in the relatively bigger towns such as
Manso Nkwanta, the District capital, Moseaso, Atwere, Mpatuam, Abore, Datano, and Pakyi No.
2. Most of the buildings in the District are built with landcrete with few having their outer walls completed with cement. Thus most of the buildings in the District are of poor quality. The buildings are mostly roofed with iron sheets with few in thatch. As a result of persistent erosion and weathering, the foundations of most of the houses are exposed, making them risky for human life.
It is significant to note that generally most of the houses in the District have inbuilt kitchen and bathrooms. However, latrine facilities and well-constructed gutters are rarely found in the individual houses. Due to poor drainage system, waste water disposal is very poor, making the people susceptible to poor health. The poor drainage system and the housing conditions of the people influence the spread of diseases such as malaria, diarrhea diseases and skin diseases associated with poor housing and environmental conditions.
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1.10.0. Human Resource Development and Basic Social Services
1.10.1. Education and Literacy
Access to education in the Amansie West District is very difficult. The District has (98) Primary
Schools, (50) Junior Secondary Schools and three (3) Senior High Schools (AWD, 2004).
Considering the population density of the District, it can be asserted that the District has adequate primary schools; however, there is the need to expand facilities at the Junior and Senior
High School levels and to re-examine the spatial distribution of the educational facilities available in the District to ensure easy access by all children of school-going age from the various segments of the District. There is relatively low school enrolment from the primary level to the Senior High School level, with females being less favoured. The enrolment at the primary level including pre-school was 20,703 in 2002 out of which 9,792 were females. The gross primary school enrolment rate in the District is 66 per cent which is below the national average of 77 per cent. The gross primary school enrolment for girls in the District is 60 per cent as against the national average of 72 per cent. Enrolment at the Junior Secondary School level in
2002 was 4910 out of which 2818 were males and 2092 were females (AWD Profile, 2004).
However, over 80 per cent of the Junior Secondary Schools have no workshops due to the inability of the communities to finance the construction of workshops when the JSS concept was initiated. With the introduction of the capitation grant policy in 2003, enrolment at the basic level has increased but not so significantly. This is, however, attributed to the use of children as source of labour by parents on their farms and ignorance of some parents about the importance of education in general.
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Poor staffing and lack of library facilities are some major problems in the schools at all levels.
Almost all the schools at the first cycle are poorly staffed mainly due to lack of decent accommodation in the communities for teachers posted to the District. There are about 455 trained and 235 untrained teachers serving the entire District. The pupil- teacher ratio as of 2002 was 32:1. From hindsight this ratio reveals a relatively appreciable comparison; however, this relationship is as a result of poor enrolment of pupils at the basic level of education. The poor staffing situation in the District with regard to trained teachers contributes tremendously to the lowering of educational standards in the District. A survey conducted in the District by the
Ministry of Education on the performance of pupils in some selected subjects revealed that the mean scores in English and Mathematics were 16.79 per cent and 28.78 per cent respectively
(MOE Baseline survey cited in AWDP, 2004). Another contributory factor to the poor standard of education in most communities in the District is the malfunctioning of School Management
Committees. The dropout rate is very high especially for girls. This increases exponentially with rising levels of education. The dropout rates at the primary and junior secondary schools are about 35 per cent and 10 per cent respectively. This is relatively higher compared to the national average of 24.5 per cent at the primary level. The main causes of the relatively higher dropout rate are economic and low level of education of heads of household. The attractive gains from
„galamsey operations‟ in the mining areas have pushed some children out of school whilst extreme poverty has also rendered some parents incapable of financing their wards‟ schooling.
The dropout rate of girls at the primary level is 38 per cent as against the national average of
29.50 per cent. Some children are made to drop out of school to enter into employment to contribute to the financial upkeep of the family. Some of the girls in the District are also forced into marriage as early as 12 and 13 years not only because of cultural practices but economic
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reasons since the parents are not able to cater adequately for the financial needs of the family
(AWD, 2003).
Other factors that have also contributed to low school enrolment in the Districts include lack of physical structures, inadequate teachers, and low priority given to rural people‟s education by planners and policy makers. It has been identified that about 50 per cent of primary schools in the District do not have permanent buildings and 45 per cent have no kindergartens (AWD,
2004). As a result of the low enrolment rate and high school dropout, the literacy level in the
District is very low, which is seriously affecting development in the District. The supply of furniture at the first cycle schools is very poor. It is evidenced that close to 65 per cent of the schools do not have adequate furniture. This is basically due to the inability of parents and the
District Assembly to provide the required furniture for the schools. The three secondary schools in the District are Mansoman Secondary School located at Manso Atwere, Esaase Bontefufuo
Secondary Technical at Esaase Bontefufuo and Adubia Secondary School at Manso Adubia. As of 2002, the total enrolment for the three second cycle schools stood at 625; of which 198 (32 per cent) were girls and 427 (68 per cent) were boys (GES cited in AWD Profile, 2004).
1.10.2 Health Care
There are fourteen health facilities in the District comprising one hospital located within the frontiers of the District specifically at Agroyesum. In addition, there are five health centres, four clinics and four maternity homes which are unevenly distributed within the District. According to the District Health Administration, these facilities are manned by relatively few medical personnel. The doctor-population ratio is 1: 144,197 whilst the nurse population ratio stands at 1:
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5,452. This situation prevailing in the District adversely impacts the efficient and effective health care delivery in the District (DHMT cited in AWD Profile, 2004). There are 69 trained and 101 untrained Traditional Birth Attendants in the District who also attend to the health needs of majority of the people in the District. There are few registered chemical sellers in the District‟s bigger communities such as Atwere, Manso Nkwanta, Pakyi No. 1and No. 2, as well as
Antoakrom.
It is important to highlight that majority of the people particularly in the hinterland do not have access to the existing health care facilities hence, mostly rely on quack drug peddlers and traditional medicine. This may be due to the bad nature of roads, irregular flow of transport, poverty and existing cultural beliefs. The resultant effects are high mortality rates especially among children and women in the District. The health status of the people most often deteriorates before seeking medical attention from orthodox health care. The health systems and health problems in the District reveal the level of development of the District. The conditions of some of the structures are rather poor and need renovation. Most of the clinics lack facilities such as laboratories, staff and office accommodation. This affects coordination and communication, hence impacts the performance of the District Health Management Team adversely (AWD
Profile, 2004).
1.10.3 General Health Situation
Diseases such as malaria, upper respiratory track infections (URTI), malnutrition, and high infant mortality as well as risk to women during childbirth are some major problems affecting the health of the people in the District. Buruli ulcer also continues to remain a major health problem
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in the District. The number of Buruli ulcer cases continues to rise every year. The HIV/AIDS pandemic is equally hitting hard on the District. Available data indicate a prevalence rate of 5 per cent. The five top causes of Out Patients‟ Department attendance as of 2001 were malaria, diarrhoeal diseases, URTI, skin diseases and accidents. Unfortunately there is inadequate staff to address the numerous health problems facing the District. Lack of social amenities in the District makes the District unattractive to most medical personnel.
There is only one doctor serving the entire District with no pharmacist, and woefully inadequate nurses in the District. The doctor: population ratio of 1:144,197 and the nurse: population ratio of
1: 5,452 are relatively higher than the regional ratios of 1: 31,477 and 1: 3,082 respectively
(AWDP, 2005). This has been having serious effects on health care delivery in the District. The focus of the District has, however, been on reorientation and relocation of community health nurses to remote areas to provide quality health care at the doorsteps of community members with local people‟s full participation. However, lack of appropriate structures to house the officers and the trainees is hampering the progress of this strategy.
1.10.4 Water and Sanitation
In spite of the efforts made by government and some NGO‟S in providing potable water for rural communities, access to potable water is a major problem for several communities in the District.
The major sources of water for majority of the people in the District are rivers and streams, hand dug wells, boreholes and pipe borne water. There are 86 communities with a total of 200 boreholes and 37 hand-dug wells. It is significant to note that, out of the 160 communities in the
District, only three communities in the District; namely Manso Nkwanta, Atwere and Esaase
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enjoy pipe borne water. It is estimated that, given the distribution of boreholes, hand dug wells and mechanized boreholes in the District, about 40 per cent have access to potable water. This is far below the national average of 61 per cent. The remaining 60 per cent of communities in the
District continues to rely on streams and ponds as their major sources of water supply (AWDP,
2004). Most of these communities are found in the rural communities in the District. The prevalence of water borne diseases continues to be high in the District as some of the communities such as Muawano under the Mim local council rely on unsafe water source for their supply. Since most of the streams and ponds dry up during dry seasons, women and children in the communities saddled with water problems in the District spend most of their time looking for water. This situation has the tendency of encouraging absenteeism, lateness and other poor attitudes to school. The informal and agricultural sectors are also affected adversely during the dry seasons as the women who are actively involved in those sectors divert their attention looking for water.
The District has generally poor sanitation. Facilities for both liquid and solid waste disposal are woefully inadequate. It is important to mention that over 95 per cent of the communities in the
District do not have well-constructed gutters within and around their buildings for proper liquid waste disposal. It is also estimated that more than 80 per cent of the communities use uncovered pit latrine. The only communities with KVIP toilets are Manso Nkwanta, Agroyesum, Atwere,
Adubia, Manso Nkran, Keniago, Moseaso and Ahwerewa. However, most of these facilities are malfunctioning due to over utilization. The sanitation situation in the District is a source of concern as it makes most of the communities susceptible to the spread of diseases.
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1.10.5 Electricity
A great disparity exists between the District and other Districts in Ashanti region in particular and the entire nation as a whole in the area of electricity distribution. Only about 33 per cent of the population in the District has access to electricity (AWDP, 2004). It is significant to note that even within the District; the provision of electricity is unevenly distributed. The facility is highly concentrated in the southern sector of the District and even where the people have access to electricity supply; there is the problem of constant interrupted power supply.
This situation is likely to have adverse effects on development and poverty reduction strategies in the District. Investors cannot take advantage of the abundant resources such as cocoa, forest products, labour, mineral deposits among other food crops in the District to establish cottage, mining and small scale agro-based industries to create employment for the people in the District.
Significantly too, the poor electricity supply in the District makes commercial activities in the
District almost always stagnant. For example, due to the constant power interruption most of the cold stores in the District have folded up. Thus people divert attention from trade and industrial activities to agriculture. This leads to pressure on agricultural land use and also compound the unemployment problem in the District; situations that result in poor quality of life for some communities in the District.
1.10.6 Transportation and Communication Services
The District has only one trunk road and a number of feeder roads linking almost all the communities. The trunk road is the Anwia nkwanta-Manso Nkwanta-Abore highway which is about 49.6km. Generally existing roads are in very deplorable condition which is one major
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challenge to development in the District. Majority of farmers particularly in the hinterlands find it extremely difficult to transport their farm produce to the nearest market center for sale due to the deplorable nature of the roads and the unwillingness of vehicle owners to ply such roads.
Even when they do, the exorbitant fares they charge leave high percentage of food stuffs rotten on the farms as farmers are not able to afford transporting them to nearby market for sale.
The District lacks access to telephone facilities. The only communication centre which serves the entire District is a private one located at Manso Nkwanta. This facility is not even reliable due to its frequent breakdown and power cuts. The District has only one post office and a number of postal agencies and the District Assembly continues to rely on its Motorola communication system for message transmission. The unavailability of telephone facilities in the District coupled with inadequate postal services, lack of internet services and poor road network have adverse effects on information flow in the District. In most cases information either gets to the people in the District rather late or does not get to them at all. As a result the District is almost always put behind development within the modern information technological advancement as a tool for development and poverty reduction. It has thus become a cost to individuals, corporate bodies and the general public as the District is unable to move forward at the same pace in the development process as other Districts with relatively easy access to information.
1.10.7 Economic Activities
The availability of fertile lands that support the cultivation of variety of crops for both the local market and for export has made agriculture an important sector in the economy of the Amansie
West District in terms of employment creation and income generation.
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The agricultural sector employs about 70 per cent of the economically active population in the
District. Women constitute about 60 per cent of the labour force in the sector (AWDP, 2002).
The male components of the labour force are mostly found in the mining sector which looks more lucrative. However, due to their low level of education, the indigenous people in the
District are offered menial jobs in this sector. Another reason for female dominance in the agricultural sector is the general out-migration of the energetic male youth to Kumasi, Accra and other urban centres in the country to search for greener pastures. Mining, which is the second contributor to the District economy, is an activity which dates back to the pre-colonial era. The
District served as an important source of gold to the Ashanti kingdom. The sector currently employs about 22 per cent of the labour force in the District, mainly the male population who are found in both large scale and illegal mining activities. Industrial activity in the District is very poor. Major activities in the industrial sector are palm oil extraction, akpeteshie distilling, and gari processing on a relatively small scale. The sector is however, not expanding basically due to absence of electricity in many communities and poor quality of accessible roads to facilitate marketing of these products.
Lumbering concessions have been given out to timber firms, and are carried out in many places in the District. However, the activities of those engaged in the timber trade are not controlled and managed properly (AWDP, 2004). As a result, forest reserves in the District have been encroached upon leading to the depletion of many of the valuable species both in the reserves and off-reserve areas. The service sector in the District is not well developed in the District, and employs just about 2 per cent of the labour force.
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Income generation from activities in the District for its development is discouraging. It is estimated that the average annual income of people in the District is about $200 (AWD, 2003).
The District Assembly depends largely on the mineral royalties from the mining sector. About 80 per cent of the District‟s revenue comes from the mineral and timber royalties. Since September
2001, mineral royalties have not been paid to the District by the government (AWD Profile,
2004). Due to the unreliable nature of the District Assembly‟s major source of revenue, implementation of major development projects in the District is hampered. Productivity in the agricultural sector is completely dependent on the availability of rain. Majority of the farmers are into subsistence farming and quite a few of the farmers are into commercial farming, cultivating crops such as maize, rice, cassava, coffee, cocoa, and oil palm trees which are limited to few areas in the District.
Usually productivity at this sector in the District is low compared to that of the region.
Consequently farmers in the District usually earn very low income from their seasonal production. This problem is even compounded by the poor nature of roads linking farming communities to marketing centres and the absence of storage facilities in the District.
Commerce is a very important economic activity in the District. There are several small scale market centres in the District. The major ones include Antoakrom, Datano, and Keniago markets.
Pakyi No.2 and Manso Nkwanta markets are yet to be used. Marketing is done on daily bases.
There is no periodic large scale marketing activity in the District. Marketing activities are not brisk in the District unlike the Ejura-Sekyedumasi Municipal. This may be as a result of a number of reasons of which poor nature of roads is the major factor. Articles of trade that flow
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from outside into the District‟s market centres include second hand cloths and kerosene; whilst foodstuffs also move out of the District to other areas. Due to the bad nature of the roads, numerous varieties of goods and services do not flow into the District markets, making the few brought into the District for sale expensive and cost of living relatively high. However, much of the foodstuffs get rotten on the farms whereas the middlemen who visit the District to purchase the few farm produce brought into the markets offer unattractive prices to the farmers, thereby aggravating their poor living conditions.
The low income earned from the economic activities makes access to some basic needs such as food, quality education, housing and health care very difficult for most people in the District.
The District boasts of four (4) Banks established to ensure the growth of the private sector by giving credit to people engaged in economic activities (AWDP, 2005). But lack of collateral and high interest rates make it difficult for the people to access credit to expand their economic activities to reduce poverty in the District.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter reviews concepts of community participation for a better understanding of the research topic. Concepts and terms such as community participation, types of community participation, levels of community participation, barriers to community participation, nature of inclusion of PWDs in community development and determining gender influences on involvement of PWDs in community development are among the terminology reviewed.
2.1 Participation
The word” participation” has diverse interpretations. Participation as a concept of development means getting the populace involved in taking decisions that affect their well-being. It seeks to give local people the responsibility to manage their own affairs. Participation should therefore lead to the improvement of the quality of life of the people and this improvement should be sustainable.
The World Health Organization (WHO) has recently focused attention on participation with the development of the new International Classification of Functioning (ICF), Disability and Health
(WHO, 2001). The WHO, (2001) defines participation as involvement in a life situation. In the
ICF, participation is categorized into domains: learning and applying knowledge; general task and demands; communication; mobility; self-care; domestic life; interpersonal interactions and relationships; major life areas such as work or school; and community, social, and civic life
(WHO, 2001).The development of the ICF involved several countries and has important implications. The ICF provides a common language to describe how people live with a health
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condition, and it will be used in the measurement of health outcomes. The increasing emphasis on participation by the WHO, governments, and health and social systems makes it all the more important that we understand participation, what it means, how we measure it, and what facilitates it. Such an understanding needs to focus across the whole spectrum of human populations, not solely on those with disabilities. For some, it is simply having decisions, being consulted, providing resources or providing information. For most analysts, participation emphasises the decision making role of the community (Fleming, 1991 cited by Brohman,2002).
Participation is vital in building local capacity and self-reliance as well as ensuring effectiveness and sustainability of development projects. It is for this reason that the development paradigm which has emerged placed much emphasis on bottom-up approach to development planning, where there is full involvement of development beneficiaries in all decision making affecting their well-being and development. (Mikkelsen, 2005).Arnstien (1969), about 31 years ago wrote about this situation. She offered an analytical visualisation called ladder of participation„. The bottom step is that of informing people, while the top step is citizen control. Mid-way,where partnership begins to develop, the degree of participation moves from mere tokenism to degrees of citizen power (Arnstein, 1969). A more recent visualisation that stresses the same point is that of the spider gram presented in Figure 2.1. The spider gram is a tool that allows planners to see participation as a process and assesses the changes and progress of a programme over time. Here, it is possible to describe changes in the process by plotting the situation along five (5) continuums. Each is a critical factor in participation and all are joined in the middle to give a holistic view of the programme. The five factors are needs assessment, leadership, organisation, management and resource mobilization, (Rifkin et al 1988).
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Figure 2.1: Participation viewed as a spider gram.
Source: Rifkin et al. (1988)
By placing a mark corresponding with the width of participation in the programmme on each continuum, over time, it is possible to record the changes in participation. The World Bank‟s
Learning Group on Participatory Development defined participatory development as: a process through which stakeholders influence and share control over development initiatives, and the decisions and resources which affect them. The Swedish International Development Cooperation
Authority (SIDA) also viewed popular development as 'a basic democratic right that should be promoted in all development projects. It is also considered a means of increasing efficiency, effectiveness and sustainability in development projects (Forster, 1998 in Long, 2001). USAID 32
also perceived participation as 'The active engagement of partners and customers in sharing ideas, committing time and resources, making decision and taking action to bring about a desired development objective, (USAID, 1995 in Long, 2001). The term has to be understood as a socio- political process concerning the relationship between different stakeholders in a society, such as social groups, community, policy level and service delivery institutions. By this meaning,
„participation aims at an increase in self-determination and a re-adjustment of control over development initiatives and resource‟, (Forster, 1998 cited in Long, 2001). According to the
United Nations Economic Commission for Africa, (UNECA), popular participation as a concept may be considered as the active and meaningful involvement of the masses in decision making process for the determination of social goals and the allocation of resources to achieve those goals. It may be direct as when views are expressed openly to those empowered to hear them, indirect as through mass demonstrations against particular policies, or expressed through boycotts of goods and services that are not acceptable, or in elections. Effective participation must of necessity relate to those sections of the masses who are directly affected, such as communities or groups e.g. persons with disabilities, artisans, associations, villages, among others. In recent years, there has been increasing number of analysis of development projects showing that participation is one of the critical components of success (Montgomery, 1983;
Kottak, 1991).
All the evidence points towards long term economic and environmental success coming about when people„s ideas and knowledge are valued and power is given to them to make decisions independently of external agencies (NGOs, government departments) but which invariably refers to the same ideas inherent is the term participation. Therefore, participation whether “people” or
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“popular” as a development strategy is a very potent tool. It makes development programmes and projects relevant to the society affected facilitate project acceptability and promote speedy programme implementation at low cost levels. These dimensions of relevance, speed, acceptability and cost are of crucial importance to the donor community as they strive to assist the continent of Africa and developing countries at large to overcome the economic crisis it is currently going through expenditure of personal resources, time and even physical efforts. It however requires behavioural and operational change in people, whatever their situation in life and function in society may be. Furthermore, for popular participation to be effective, it requires that the active participation of the poor at the grassroots level be protected by the government against the intimidation of the local rich and politically powerful, (UNECA, 1992).Reviewing participation from 'human nature' Kuna (1991) views participation as people involvement in decision making, planning, implementation and evaluation of programmes and project that affect their lives.
There are two main categories of participation, instrumental participation (participation as a means) and transformational participation (participation as an end in itself), (Long,
Carolyn,2001). Instrumental participation is used to improve development activities, making development interventions more effective and sustainable by involving the beneficiaries.
Transformational participation on the other hand ensures people's influence on their own situation as empowerment, (Oakley & Marsden, 1991, cited in Mikkelsen, 2005). Community participation therefore fosters effective project implementation and sustainable development, empowers communities and builds their capacity to be self-reliant and take charge of their own development. In conclusion, participation is indispensable in sustainable community
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development. Beneficiaries of development projects need to be involved in their own development by contributing their knowledge, resources and skills. Popular participation as a development tool also entails the empowerment, by the government of the people to take part in the decision making on societal issues of importance and acceptance of those decisions for the promotion of change. It thrives in an atmosphere that is legally, politically and financially supportive and does not stifle the expression of new ideas, however controversial or unreasonable.
2.1.1 Review of Theories of Participation
There are as yet no universally accepted theories of community participation in the development programmes. However scholars have come up with a set of propositions stating the conditions under which people do or do not participate. These propositions are given in the theory of collective action as developed by Oslon (1971) and Buchanan and Tullock (1965).
a. Theory by Oslon (1971), is based on analyzing the benefits and costs of collective goods.
Oslon observed that benefits derived from most Common Pool Resource (CPRs) are collective goods that, once produced are available to all the members of the organisation. Oslon, intimates that groups of individuals having common interest do not necessarily work together to achieve them. Oslon argues that unless the number of individuals in a group is quite small or unless there is coercion or some other special device to make individuals act in their common interest, rational, self-interested individuals will not act to achieve their common or group interest. Oslon
(1971) adds that some mechanisms must be found to cause the members to pay for the collective goods provided them or institute some incentive that will motivate the members to contribute to
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the organization. In addition, the individual is too small to have any significant effect on his organization either by contributing or not contributing. However the individual can share in the benefits generated even if he has not contributed – free rider problem. This is particularly evident in large groups where the actions and dealings of individual members are less noticeable and the cost of bringing the members together is also high. This creates conditions necessary for free riding. Oslon thus suggests that the group should be small enough so that individual action of any one or more members is noticeable to any other individuals in the group.
b. Theory propounded by Buchanan and Tullock(1965) emphasises the individual behaviour based on the understanding that collective action is composed of individual actions. The theory explores the conditions under which a group comprising free and rational utility maximizing individual chooses to formulate or abide by a rule or a set of rule of retained use of CPRs. They argue that a group chooses a collective mode of action when each of its individual members finds it profitable to act collectively rather than individually, for instance, when his perceived costs are less than his perceived benefits from the collective action. Therefore they argue that what determines the optimal rule or choice is the cost (external and internal). Singh (1991) summed
Oslon and Buchanan and Tullock theories by reiterating that people will participate in collective action when; they are organized in small groups the expected private benefits from collective action exceeds the expected private cost of participation there is an assurance that the expected benefits would in fact accrue to the means that all individuals, social groups and nations play their part in matters of concern to them at the local level, regional and internal levels.
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c. Breadths: Fowler (2000) defines breadth in participation as a measure of the range of stakeholders involved. That is the range of interested parties that are involved or whose views and actions must be taken into account in local government. These include both men and women on equal footing. This issue of who should be involved is very relevant in this case and the Food and Agricultural Organization (Fowler 2000), stresses the fact that participation is a basic human right. The participation of the people is clearly the basic condition of the people forming part of the operational aspects of development in any human society. Participation only has a meaning when the principle of equality and individual liberty is admitted. In a similar way, (Koko 2001) asserts that the emphasis on participation is on District Assemblies or local authorities facilitating the participation of citizens not as consumers or clients but as policy makers and managers at the local levels.
2.1.2 Dimensions of Participation
According to Fowler, (2000) participation can be looked at from three different perspectives, which are Depth, Breath, and Timing. The concept of participation used in this work would be defined in line with these perspectives.
Depth: Fowler (2000) defines depth of participation as a measure of stakeholder„s influence on decision making. It can also be understood as a continuum of stakeholders‟ involvement shown from zero to substantial control. Tri (1986) cited in Fowler also describes this level as taking part in the active and positive sense of exercising a share of responsibility in the carrying out of some process. This emphasises the central priority of maximising participation of all stakeholders in
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decision making from the crucial stage of information gathering/sharing to the final stage of joint control.
Figure 2.2: Depth of Participation as a Continuum Depth of Shallow Deep
Participation
Concept of Information consultation Shared Joint
Participation gathering/sharing influence control
Source: Fowler (2000)
The Virtuous Spiral; this involves taking decisions about the setting of targets, the application of resource and the management of operations. In such a case, everybody without exception takes part in all stages of effort to achieve development and on the enjoyment of its benefits. This design participatory processes that are time sensitive and do not create any imbalance between depth and breadth in the process of governance. It is never too late to participate but it is better to start earlier. The timing of participation should therefore start from the level of consultation, all phases of project cycle, that is, from needs assessment through appraisal, implementation to monitoring and evaluation. This will enhance ownership and commitment to the course of development since right timing enhances better understanding of the decision making process.
Timing: In participation, this relates to the stage of the process at which different stakeholders are engaged. According to Fowler, (2000), timing has both practical and symbolic importance.
He explains that in practical terms, the timing of who is involved influence the quality and
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soundness of participation. Involvement of stakeholders from the beginning is ideal since poor timing could lead to destruction in the decision making process. When timing is incorrect, people feel railroaded, oppressed or disrespected. Timing is therefore necessary to participants.
2.1.3 Levels of People's Participation
Mikkelsen, (2005) identified different levels of participation. The ladder of participation ranges from passive participation which is the least desirable to self- mobilization, which is the most desirable level of participation. It should however be noted that, it is not easy to choose between the ideal types. This is because in real life situation there are a number of constraints on who participates and on what type of participation is possible.
The conceptual framework diagram shows some levels of participation and the role of beneficiaries and development agencies. At each level there is an expected degree of participation that would yield an anticipated result. Some levels of participation are less desirable and there is the need for strategies to increase participation at those levels to make them more desirable.
A. Passive/Tokenism Participation: In passive participation, people participate by being told what is going to happen or has already happened. It is a unilateral announcement by an administration or project management without listening to people's responses. The information being shared belongs only to outside professionals.
B. Participation in Information Giving: This is the situation where people participate by responding to questions posed by extractive project team using interview guide,
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questionnaires/surveys or similar approaches. People do not have the opportunity to influence proceedings as the findings of the survey are neither shared nor checked for accuracy.
C. Participation by Consultation: People participate by being consulted and external people listen to views. The external professionals define both problems and solutions and may modify these in the light of people's responses. Such a consultative process does not concede any share in decision making and professionals are under no obligation to take on board people's views.
D. Participation for Material Incentives: People participate by providing resources, for example labour in return for cash, food or other material incentives. Much on-farm research falls in this category as farmers provide the fields but are not involved in the experimentation or the process of learning. It is very common to see this called participation, yet people have no stake in prolonging activities when the incentives end.
E. Functional Participation: People participate by forming groups to meet pre-determined objectives related to the project, which can involve the development or promotion of externally initiated social organisation. Such involvement does not tend to be in the early stages of planning but rather after major decisions have been made. These institutions tend to be dependent on external initiators and facilitators but may become self-dependent.
F. Interactive Participation: People participate in joint analysis which leads to action plans and the formation of new local institutions or strengthening of existing ones. It tends to involve interdisciplinary methodologies that seek multiple perspectives and make use of systematic and
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structured learning processes. These groups take control over local decisions and so people have a stake in maintaining structures or practices.
G.Self-Mobilization: People participate by taking initiatives independent of external institutions to change systems. They develop contacts with external institutions for resources and technical advice they need but retain control over how resources are used. Such self-initiatedmobilization and collective action may or may not challenge existing inequitable distributions of wealth and power. Participation has been seen as a means to ensuring the more efficient implementation of preconceived plans, often through existing government or external structure.
It is worth noting that, the typology of participation can function as a useful analytical tool as long as it is taken for no more than a description of ideal types. The 7-state 'scale' of participation has been criticized for attaching values to the different types of participation, with self- mobilisation indicating the best level of participation. In real life situation however, there are a number of constraints on who participates and on what type of participation is possible. It is not always possible to choose between such ideal types (Mikkelsen, 2005).
2.2 Community Participation
Although many people agree that community participation is critical in development programmes, very few agree on its definition. According to (Oakley, 1989), community participation is an active process where intended beneficiaries influence programme outcomes and gain personal growth.
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These three views correspond with frameworks drawn from those involved in rural development thinking.
Table 2.1: Practice of community participation Approach Model Process Medical Compliance Marginal participation Health planning Contribution/collaboration Substantial participation Community Development Community control Structural participation Source: Rifkin et al.(1988)
The table above illustrates the different approaches to participation which should not be seen as
mutually exclusive, but perhaps a continuum that at one end, has information sharing and at the
other, empowerment. While there is no one definition of the concept, the continuum presents a
framework which allows a range of views to be accommodated. People have always participated
in the development of their own livelihood strategies and cultures. Whether through formal or
informal organisations, autocratic or democratic means, a variety of structures and procedures
have evolved to define and address collective needs, to make plans and to take steps necessary to
implement them, (Dalal-Clayton et al., 2003). Abbot (1996) views community participation as
being the key to sustainability, security, peace, social justice and democracy, and that
Community participation are assumed to contribute to enhanced efficiency and effectiveness of
investment and to promote processes of democratization and empowerment.
The study therefore perceives community participation as a process through which people who
live within a specified geographical area and have legitimate interest in PWDs, communally
influence decisions and development initiatives that affect their well-being.
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2.2.1 Barriers to Community Participation
Participation in development initiatives is paramount in ensuring sustainability of development projects. However there are some constraints which tend to obstruct the realisation of the essentials of its practice. Fakade (1994) identified two broad categories of barriers to participation. These are structural barriers which comprise socio-cultural, economic, political and administrative barriers and non-structural barriers emanating from project planning and implementation problems.
Socio-Cultural Barriers: Beliefs and norms have considerable influence on development processes. Differences in ethnicity, religion, gender and status may result in varied responses and initiatives even when opportunities for participation exist. A male dominated culture where women are preferred to be seen and not heard, as pertains to most African communities, poses difficulties to participation by women folk. Participatory development therefore had to consider the contextual barriers which perpetuate people's isolation from the development process.
Economic Barriers: Participation cannot be possible for people who have been dispossessed and do not have access to natural, economic and financial resources.
Political Barriers: This provides the framework for participation and therefore an appraisal of the nature of devolution of power in the state. In highly centralised systems, the state is hostile to participatory processes and least accountable to its citizenry. There is therefore little prospect for participation in development.
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In conclusion, community participation in their own development promotes dignity and self- reliance in the beneficiary community. The beneficiary becomes more convinced of his contribution to the development of his community.
Community participation therefore brings about community empowerment. The individual and the community at large become empowered to influence and manage the outcome of development processes. This strengthens the community's sense of responsibility and confidence to take on further responsibilities.
2.3 The International Classification of Function (ICF)
In the world‟s affluent countries, segregated institutional systems have evolved over time, initially to care for people with disabilities, then to rehabilitate and educate them. In due course, these systems have raised the functional capabilities of people with disabilities to levels where significant numbers have become capable of mainstream social and economic participation.
However, the compartmentalization of disabled people in segregated institutional systems, together with the limited expectations on which these systems are based (WHO, 2001), have worked against the social and economic inclusion of people with disabilities by perpetuating their isolation and reinforcing longstanding negative stereotypes that to this day significantly impair their ability to make social and economic contributions.
These types of expensive disability systems have tended to be beyond the reach of developing countries because of their limited resources for social programs. As a result, most people with disabilities in developing countries have tended to die, care for themselves, or be cared for by their families and friends. A select few have become clients of charity-based versions of the
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expensive, segregated institutions developed in the economically advantaged countries, but due to the limited resources typically available through such charities, some have never achieved the coverage required to have a significant impact.
2.3.1 The International Classification of Function (ICF)
The International Classification of Function (ICF) is a recent innovation of the World Health
Organization, which attempts to table a middle path between medical and social models of disability, suggesting that both have validity. In the ICF, individuals are characterized as being disabled if they have impairments, if they experience activity limitations, and/or if they experience restrictions in community participation. The ICF identifies a number of interactive component parts that have an impact on the development of disability. These components include: Health conditions – diseases and disorders that may be associated with development of disability, Body functions and structures – these may be physiological or psychological in nature.
Personal factors are another aspect of context, and include individual characteristics such as age, gender and education.
Strategies to provide assistive technology and personal assistance services: Because disabilities involve functional limitations, it is often difficult or impossible for people with disabilities to interact with their communities and societies without assistive technology. This technology can be highly technical and disability specific. Often, however, the provision of access for people with disabilities to a mainstream technological innovation is more cost-effective than creating a specialized technology. For example, e-mail has revolutionized the communicative abilities of people with hearing impairments at a fraction of the cost of the highly specialized
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communication equipment previously developed for their use; and personal computers, the
Internet and e-mail have increased the social and economic access of people with impaired verbal capabilities in a similarly cost-effective way. Whether they be specially designed to meet the needs of people with disabilities (e.g. Braille writers, prosthetic devices, wheelchairs and hearing aids) or innovative adaptations of mainstream technological innovations (e.g. e-mail, the
Internet and personal computers), assistive technologies are vital to the process of providing social and environmental access to a significant cross-section of people with disabilities.
2.3.2 Disability Policy and the Millennium Development Goals
Though the rights and needs of people with disabilities are not specifically addressed in the
Millennium Development Goals, at least three of them are directly relevant,
• Eradicating extreme poverty and hunger,
• Achieving universal primary education and
• Developing a global partnership for development.
Eradicating Extreme Poverty and Hunger: There is strong evidence to suggest that disabled people are typically among the poorest of the poor in developing countries. The World Health
Organiation (WHO), for example, estimates that disabled people make up from 15% to 20% of the poor in developing countries though they typically represent only 10% of the general population (WHO, 2001). The United Nations (UN) estimates that 82% of disabled people live below the poverty line in developing countries (UN, 2013). The links between disability and poverty are strong, and there is evidence that these links run in both directions. Disability fosters poverty by decreasing the functional capabilities of people with disabilities and limiting their
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access to healthcare, nutrition and social and economic opportunities, particularly education and employment.
Achieving Universal Primary Education: At present, it is estimated that fewer than 2% of children with disabilities participate in the formal education system .To achieve universal primary education, therefore, disabled children must be included.
Developing a Global Partnership for Development:Target 12, which is related to this Millennium
Development Goal, is to develop further an open, rule-based, predictable, non-discriminatory trading and financial system. This includes a commitment to good governance, development and poverty reduction-both nationally and internationally. People with disabilities experience discrimination and elevated rates of poverty. It appears that the poverty rates for people with disabilities are so high, in fact, that the Millennium poverty reduction targets cannot be met without their reduction. Efforts to hit target 12, therefore, necessarily require international and national efforts to reduce poverty amongst disabled people, which is most efficiently accomplished through development oriented disability strategies.
2.4 Gender Influences on Involvement of PWDs in Community Development
Gender factor is one of the imperatives to consider in redressing male participation. Gender is defined as a social construct of females and males. The different roles that women and men play in society and the benefits that come with the roles differ tremendously from culture to culture and have different values attached to them. Such constructs shape gender practices, symbols, representation norms and social values. Gender systems define attributes, ways of relating,
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hierarchies of decision-making, privileges, sanctions and space in which women and men are organized. According to existing studies in most communities in Africa, women are dominated by men through patriarchal power, which has been a traditional and historical privilege for men
(Meekosha, 2004).This also means that by perpetuating male-dominated society, women and men have a relationship which is unequal. According to the UNAIDS' understanding of gender issues, Gender refers to widely shared ideas and expectations (norms) about women and men: ideas about typically feminine and masculine characteristics and abilities and expectations about how women and men should behave in various situations. These ideas and expectations are learned from families, friends, opinion leaders, religious and cultural institutions, schools, workplace and the media. They reflect and influence the different roles, social status, economic and political power of women and men in society (UNESCO, 2000).
Women and men with disabilities however, have different life experiences due to biological, psychological, economic, social, political and cultural attributes associated with being female and male. Patterns of disadvantage are often associated with the differences in the social position of women and men. These gendered differences are reflected in the life experiences of women with disabilities and men with disabilities. Women with disabilities face multiple discriminations and are often more disadvantaged than men with disabilities in similar circumstances. Women with disabilities are often denied equal enjoyment of their human rights, in particular by virtue of the lesser status ascribed to them by tradition and custom, or as a result of overt or covert discrimination(Meekosha,2004) . Women with disabilities face particular disadvantages in the areas of education, work and employment, family and reproductive rights, health, violence and abuse.
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CHAPTER THREE 3.0 METHODS 3.1 Introduction
This section of the thesis discusses the design of the research, population and sample of the study, sampling technique, data type and collection instruments, field work challenges and the suitable method of analyzing the data. It also discussed the quality of the collected data by looking at the validity, reliability and the degree of generalization of the data and the study in general.
3.2 Research Design
A study design, according to Opoku (2000) is a structural perspective that guides a researcher in data collection and analysis. The research design adopted for this study is the descriptive research. Descriptive research involves gathering data that describe events and then organizes, tabulates, depicts, and describes the data collection (Hyde, 2000). It often uses visual aids such as graphs and charts to aid the reader in understanding the data distribution. Because the human mind cannot extract the full import of a large mass of raw data, descriptive statistics are very important in reducing the data to manageable form (Myers, 2008). When in-depth, narrative descriptions of small numbers of cases are involved, the research uses description as a tool to organize data into patterns that emerge during analysis. Those patterns aid the mind in comprehending a qualitative study and its implications.
The study also employed a case study approach. A case study is „an empirical enquiry that investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context, especially when the
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boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident‟ and it „relies on multiples sources of evidence‟ (Yin, 1994, p.13). Case study research investigates pre-defined phenomena but does not involve explicit control or manipulation of variables: the focus is on in-depth understanding of a phenomenon and its context (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Case studies typically combine data collection techniques such as interviews, observations, questionnaires, and document and text analysis. Eisenhardt (1989) posits that Case study strategy focuses on understanding the dynamics present within a single settings. The case study is commonly applied in a field-based research to describe and develop knowledge based on data from the real world conditions, aiming to bridge the gap between management theory and practice (Flynn et al.,
1990; McCutcheon & Meredith, 1993).
3.3 The Study Population
A population is a group of individuals, persons, objects, or items from which samples are taken for measurement (Saunders et al., 2009:101). Target population is the entire group of individuals about whom one wants to gather information. To design a useful research project, there is the need to be specific about the size and location of your target population. Based on this, the targeted population of the current study is the chiefs and leaders of community development projects in the selected communities, and the PWDs in the numerous towns in the Manso Atwere zone of the Amansie West District. To acquire the appropriate primary data from the Chiefs and the Community Development Leaders, a questionnaire was designed to capture the factors influencing PWDs participation in society, and the nature of PWDs inclusion in the context of development initiatives. However, the questionnaire designed for the PWDs was meant to capture the factors that impede PWDs involvement in community development strategy
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initiatives, and the nature of PWDs inclusion in the development initiatives. This therefore implies that the respondents were assessed on similar subjects and divergent subjects.
3.4 Sample and Sampling Technique
A sample is a sub-group of the population which is an ideal representative of the entire population (Kumar, 2008). Researchers usually cannot make direct observations of every individual in the population they are studying. Instead, they collect data from a subset of individuals (a sample) and use those observations to make inferences about the entire population
(Zickmund, 2003).
The study utilized a total sample size of 100 respondents of both PWDs and chiefs/community development leaders from the Manso Atwere zone in the Amansie West District. The sample chosen for the study is structured as shown in Table 4.1. A multi-stage sampling procedure was adopted to select the suitable sample size. The first stage involved the selection of six communities in the Manso Atwere zone in the Amansie West District through a simple random sampling by balloting procedure. The second stage involved the adoption of a purposive sampling procedure to select fifteen (15) chiefs and fifteen (15) leaders of community development projects in the selected communities. A snowballing sampling procedure was also adopted to sample seventy (70) PWDs in the selected communities in the Manso Atwere zone in the Amansie West District. The office of the Ghana Federation of the Disabled, Kumasi assisted the researcher to locate a few PWDs who intended helped to identify the others. The structure of the sample size is shown in Table 3.1. Within each community, some PWDs were identified in consultation with the traditional leaders of the sampled communities. To have access to more of
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the PWDs, information was further obtained from the PWDs as to the residents of other PWDs.
The PWDs the researcher accessed in each of the 6 sampled communities is illustrated in Table
3.1.
Table 3.1.Sample Size Distribution Community PWDs Chiefs/Project Leaders Questionnaire Manso Nkwanta 12 7 19 Manso Atwere 21 5 26 Yawkrom 10 4 14 Kwaakyeabo 10 5 15 Brofoyedu 10 5 15 Asaaman 7 4 11 Total 70 30 100 Author’s Construct, 2012
3.5 Source of Data
Data have been defined as factual information (as measurements or statistics) used as a basis for reasoning, discussion, or calculation (Gleason, 1955). The study principally depended on both primary and secondary data. Basically, the study collated qualitative data in the form of primary data from the PWDs, the chiefs and leaders of community development projects in the sampled communities. Primary data were collected from the field survey through the administration of structured questionnaire, whilst secondary data comprised works that had already been done in the field of involvement or participation in community development. Therefore, journals, internet sources, published and unpublished dissertations as well as empirical literature formed the secondary data used for the study.
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3.6 Data Collection Instruments
There are various methods used for collecting empirical data for case study such as interviews, archives, questionnaires, and observations (Eisenhardt, 1989; Yin, 1994). The data collection tools employed in the current research included the use of semi-structured questionnaire and observation. These tools aided in the collection of principally qualitative data for the study.
For this research, questionnaire and observation were employed as the main data collection tools, as they are claimed to be the most effective technique that helps gather valid and reliable data
(Easterby-Smith et al., 2002). According to Voss et al. (2002), an underlying principle of data collection in case research is triangulation; meaning the use of different methods to study the same phenomenon. It was noted that the combination of methods and sources in collecting data can enhance the reliability and validity of evidence (Jick, 1979; Voss et al., 2002).
3.6.1 Questionnaire
The aim of this research was to investigate the extent of involvement of persons with disabilities in community development in the Amansie West District. The questionnaire survey was the main form of data collection. The questionnaire was developed including both closed and open-ended questions, depending on the group of respondents. The questionnaire was particularly employed in the sense of capturing all the objectives of the study. The questionnaire was self-administered.
Two separate semi-structured questionnaires were developed for two distinct respondents. The questionnaire developed for the chiefs and the leaders of community development projects was structured into five sections. The sections included socio demographic characteristics, factors
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influencing PWDs participation in community development, the nature and extent of PWDs involvement in community development, gender comparison of PWDs involvement in community development and barriers to PWDs participation in community development. The survey instrument developed in this study consisted of three major sections. The instrument used is a five-point Likert scales, representing a range of attitudes from 1 – strongly disagree to 5 – strongly agree to measure responses of respondents.
The questionnaire was pretested on 10 “willing respondents” who were selected on a conveniently and who were defined as PWDs and chiefs in the selected communities. These respondents were asked to fill up the questionnaireand inform the researcher for further improvement if there was any kind of problem with regards to wording, expressions and clarity of the questions. This pilot study resulted in the deletion of no item.
3.7 Method of Data Analysis
Most of the questionnaires were pre-coded before administration to facilitate easy tabulation and analysis. Open ended questionnaire were coded after the data collection exercise. Responses were cross-checked on the field as a quality check on the data. Zikmund (2003: 73) suggests that data processing begins with the editing and coding of the data. Coded data on responses were fed into the computer based programme, statistical package for social sciences (SPSS), version 17 for display and analysis. One of the strong points of SPSS is that it can perform almost any statistical analysis, thus making this package extremely suitable for the analysis of the survey result (Huizingh, 1994).
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The programme generated frequencies, percentages and tables to show results of the data analysis. The techniques used during the data analysis included non-parametric tool like
Kendall‟s rank test that was utilized to rank the barriers of PWDs involvement in community development. The questionnaire was basically designed using the „Likert Scaling type‟.
3.8 Quality of the Research Design
The quality of the research design that can be checked by considering the validity of the study, reliability of the data and instruments of data collection as well as the generalization ability of the study are described below.
3.8.1 Validity of the Study
Research design is often divided into three broad categories, according to “the amount of control the research maintains over the conduct of the research study”. These three broad categories namely: “Experimental, field and observational research. They vary on two important characteristics: Internal and External validity. The External research concerns the overall validity of the research study (Watt & Van Den Berg, 1995, p.186-194). In an Experimental research, the researcher controls the setting in which the research is been conducted and may influence the variable(s), while observing the changes or no change in the variables. Thus, due to the ability to control and eliminate certain variables and conditions that may have a profound effect on the outcomes of the research, would likely improve the validity of the research.
In a field research, the researcher retains control over the independent variable(s), but conducts the research in a natural setting without any control over environmental influences. On the other
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hand, in an observational research, the researcher can neither control the variable(s), or the research setting. This kind of research usually takes place sometime after the actual process being researched (Watt & Van Den Berg, 1995, p.193-195) Internal Validity describes or accounts for all factors, including those, which are not directly specified in the theory being tested, but might affect the outcome of the study. In other words, it usually concerns the soundness of the research being carried out. External validity conclusions cover the specific environment in which the research study is conducted to similar real world situations (Watt &
Den Berg.1995, p.198-199). In this case, a research which has a generalised conclusion could be more valuable than one whose conclusions cannot be applied outside the research environment.
The current study is as a field research as it is carried out among people who happen to constitute a body of opinion and development leaders, and whose responses cannot be influenced in any significant manner. Furthermore, to ensure both internal and external validity, the researcher believes to have used the most accurate and up-to-date literature. The right and relevant questions asked in the survey, the most feasible data collection method used, and the tools used to analyse the data are also considered to be accurate and produced valid results; the overall validity of this thesis is considered to be high. Though the researcher concludes that the internal validity of this study is relatively high, the same cannot be said of its external validity. The reason for this position is therefore discussed under the reliable headings.
3.8.2 Reliability of the Study
The aim of any research is to use a given procedure and reach a conclusion that will be applicable in any given environment (Lehmann, 2009: 8). The primary objective should be that if
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a later investigation followed exactly the same procedures as described by an earlier investigator and conducted the same study all over again; this later investigator should be able to arrive at the same results and conclusions. Thus the study is considered to be highly reliable. However, due to the very nature of human beings 100% reliability cannot be considered for this study, as individual perceptions are central in this study. In other words because we are different as individuals and that our individual wants and preferences are different, future investigations may not produce exactly the same results as reported in this thesis.
3.8.3 Degree of Generalization
For a research to be able to generalise the results obtained from the sample surveyed to the total population depends on how well the sample represents the total population and how accurately data was collected and analysed. This generalized conclusion would possibly make the research work more valuable and appreciated.
Furthermore, the larger the number of observations, the more trustworthy the generalised the conclusion might be. In this study, the target population was chiefs, leaders of community development and PWDs of which 100 were sampled for the study. This sample is evidently not large enough to be applying the results to the total population or generalise the result. However, the results of this study could be used as a starting point for local authorities and community developmental leaders.
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CHAPTER FOUR 4.0 RESULTS This chapter presents the result of the study, and is arranged to address the specific objectives the study set to achieve. This chapter elaborates on the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents, the nature and level of involvement/inclusion of PWDs in community development initiatives, gender influence in the involvement of PWDs in community development and the factors that influence the involvement of PWDs in Community Development. The chapter also presents the identified and ranked barriers to PWDs participation in community development.
4.1 Socio Demographic Characteristics of Respondents
This section of the study discusses the various socio demographic characteristics of the opinion leaders such as chiefs, and development leaders in the communities selected for the study. The major socio demographic variables discussed included gender, age, marital status, educational level, occupation and years of working and living in the community. The result is presented in
Table 4.1.
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Table 4.1: Socio Demographic Information of Respondents Socio Demographic Variables Opinion Leaders PWDs Frequency (n=30) Percent (%) Frequency (n=70) Percent (%) Gender Male 20 66.7 50 71.4 Female 10 33.3 20 28.6 Age of Respondents 18-37 years 4 13.3 35 50.0 38-47 years 16 53.4 25 35.7 48 years + 10 33.3 10 14.3 Marital Status Married 21 70.0 16 22.86 Single 4 13.3 50 71.43 Others 5 16.7 4 5.71 Highest level of education No formal education 3 10.0 18 25.71 Basic 6 20.0 32 45.72 Secondary/vocational 12 40.0 12 17.14 Tertiary 9 30.0 8 11.43 Occupation Public sector 8 26.7 21 30.0 Private sector 19 63.3 27 38.6 Unemployed 3 10.0 22 31.4 Years of living/ working in the community Less than a year 1-5 years 2 6.7 24 34.28 6-10 years 5 16.7 37 52.86 10+ 23 76.7 9 12.86 Any form of disability Yes 3 10.0 70 100.0 No 27 90.0 0 0.0 Source: Field Survey, 2013
From Table 4.1, out of the total number of opinion leaders in the communities who were interviewed, majority (66.7%) were males. The majority (53.4%) of the respondents were predominantly between the ages of 38 and 47 years. A significant percentage (33.4%) of the respondents was also 48 years and above. A greater percentage (70.0%) of the interviewed respondents was also found to be married. The highest level of education of the majority (40.0%) 59
of the interviewed respondents was secondary or vocational. The majority (63.3%) of the interviewed respondents work in the private sector. The majority (76.7%) of the interviewed respondents have lived and worked in the communities sampled for more than 10 years. The minority (10.0%) of the interviewed opinion leaders in the communities had some form of disability.
From Table 4.1, out of the total surveyed PWDs, the majority (71.4%) were males whereas
28.6% were also females. The age category of the majority of the surveyed PWDs was 18-37 years, whereas 35.7% were also within the age category of 38-47 years. With regard to the highest level of education of the PWDs that participated in the study, 25.7% have no formal education, 45.7% have basic education, 17.1% have secondary or vocational education, and
11.4% have tertiary education. The marital status of the majority (71.4%) of the PWDs that participated in the study was single, however 22.9% were married. Also, 30.0% of the surveyed
PWDs were in the public sector, 38.6% were in the private sector, and 31.4% were unemployed.
Evidently, the majority of the surveyed PWDs are employed. The majority of the surveyed
PWDs have been working or living in the community for 6 to 10 years, whereas 34.3% have been living or working in the community for 1 to 5 years.
4.2 The Nature and Level of Inclusion of PWDs in Community Development Initiatives
This section of the study presents the nature and level of inclusion of PWDs in community development initiatives. The result is graphically presented by Figure 5.1 and Table 5.2.
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Figure 5.1: Involvement of PWDs in Community Development Initiatives
Yes
No
0.00% 10.00% 20.00% 30.00% 40.00% 50.00% 60.00% 70.00% 80.00% No Yes Are PWDs involved in community development 73.30% 26.70% initiatives
Source: Field Survey, 2013
From Figure 4.1, it is evident that out of the total interviewed PWDs (n=70), the majority
(73.3%) indicated that they are not in any way involved the development initiatives of the studied communities. However, 26.7% were of the opinion that they are involved in the community development initiatives. The minority of PWDs involvement in community development initiatives could be attributed to the absence of mechanism for involving PWDs in decision making as indicated by Table 4.2. From Table 4.2, out of the total PWD surveyed that participate in community development activities (n=18), the majority (61.1%) participate in development initiatives or projects in the studied communities at the management level. The majority (61.1%) of the PWDs are believed to have contributed or participated in the development progress of the studied communities through the forming of groups.
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Table 4.2: The Nature and Level of PWDs Involvement in Community Development Frequency Percent (n=30) (%) Form of participation of PWDs in the community development Consultation 8 11.4 Resource provision 19 27.1 Forming groups 43 61.4 Others Presence of mechanism for involving PWDs in decision making Yes 2 2.9 No 68 97.1 Presence of disability specific activities/projects in the community Yes 19 27.1 No 51 72.9 PWDs involvement in planning and implementing the projects Yes 20 28.6 No 50 71.4 Nature of PWDs participation in community development Management participation 43 61.4 Non-management participation 27 38.6 Knowledge of agencies that have PWDs as leaders Yes 12 17.1 No 58 82.9 Assignment of roles to PWDs by the agencies Yes 19 27.1 No 51 72.9 Source: Field Survey, 2013
From Table 4.2, out of the total surveyed chiefs and development leaders, 11.4% believe the form of participation of PWDs in the community development is through consultation, 27.1% believe it is done through resource provision, and the majority of 61.4% believe it is through group formation. The majority (97.1%) of the surveyed chiefs and development leaders were of the opinion that there no mechanism for involving PWDs in decision making in the communities surveyed, whereas 2.9% believed otherwise. there is no disability specific activities or projects in the community studied as indicated by 72.9% of the surveyed chiefs and development leaders.
PWDs are predominantly not involved in the planning and implementation of projects in the 62
studied communities as opined by the majority (71.4%) of the surveyed chiefs and development leaders. The majority (61.4%) of the surveyed chiefs and development leaders were of the opinion that the nature of PWDs participation in community development is predominantly management participation, whereas 38.9% believed it is in the non-management participation.
The majority (82.9%) of the chiefs and development leaders surveyed have no knowledge of agencies that have PWDs as leaders in the surveyed communities. The agencies in the surveyed communities rarely assign roles to PWDs as indicated by 72.9% of the chiefs and development leaders that participated in the study.
4.3 Gender Influence on the Extent of Involvement of PWDs in Community Development
This section of the study compares the extent of the involvement of female and male PWDs in the development of the studied communities. It seeks to establish the importance of the gender of
PWDs in the extent of their involvement in community development initiatives in the studied area. The result is presented in Table 4.3.
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Table 4.3: Gender Comparison of PWDs Participation in Community Development Males Female Frequency Percent Frequency Percent Total (%) (%) Form of disability Sight 5 9.8 3 15.1 8 Deaf 10 19.6 4 21.1 14 Physical disability 30 58.8 12 63.2 42 Mental 6 11.8 0 0 6 Live/work in the community Yes 21 41.2 6 31.6 27 No 30 58.8 13 68.4 53 Form of work Public work 6 11.8 2 10.5 8 Private work 35 68.6 17 89.5 52 Involvement in disability specific activity Yes 15 29.4 3 15.8 18 No 36 70.6 16 84.2 42 Involvement in the planning and implementation Yes 10 19.6 1 5.3 11 No 41 80.4 18 94.7 59 Part of any agency in the community Yes 15 29.4 3 15.8 18 No 36 70.6 16 84.2 52 Are you a leader in the agency Yes 3 20.0 1 33.3 4 No 12 80.0 2 66.7 14 Assigned any role in the agency Yes 7 58.3 4 80.0 11 No 5 41.7 1 20.0 6 Source: Field Survey, 2013
From Table 4.3, out of the total surveyed male PWDs, 9.8% have sight disability, 19.6% have deaf disability, 58.8% have physical disability, and 11.8% have mental disability. Also, out of the total surveyed female PWDs, 15.1% have sight disability, 21.1% have deaf disability, 63.2% have physical disability and none had mental disability. From the total surveyed male PWDs,
41.2% live or work in the surveyed communities, whereas 58.8% do not live or work in the 64
surveyed communities. Also, out of the female PWDs that participated in the study, 31.6% live or work in the surveyed communities, whereas the majority (68.4%) don not. The form of work of 11.8% of the male PWDs surveyed was public work, and that of 68.6% of them was private work. Also, 10.5% of the female PWDs that participated in the study worked in the public services, whereas 89.5% worked in the private sector. Out of the total PWD males that participated in the study, the majority (70.6%) are not involved in disability specific activities.
Out of the total surveyed females that participated in the study, the majority (84.2%) are also not involved in the disability specific activities in the communities surveyed. The majority (80.4%) of the surveyed male PWDs indicated that they are not involved in the planning and implementation of projects in the surveyed communities, whereas 19.6% indicated otherwise. also, 94.7% out of the total surveyed female PWDs believed that they are not involved in the planning and the implementation of project works in the communities‟ surveyed. The majority
(70.6%) of the surveyed male PWD participants of the study were not part of any agency in the surveyed communities. out of the total female PWDs that participated in the study, the majority
(84.2%) were part of agencies in the communities surveyed, whereas 29.4% were not part of any agency. The majority (80.0%) of the surveyed male PWDs that were part of agencies in the surveyed communities were not in leadership positions. In similar vein, the majority (66.7%) of the female PWDs surveyed were also not in leadership positions in the agencies in the communities surveyed. Furthermore, out of the total surveyed male PWD participants of the study that were part of agencies in the surveyed communities, the majority (58.3%) were assigned roles in the agencies. In a similar vein, the majority (80.0%) of the female PWD participants of the study that were part of agencies in the communities surveyed, the majority were assigned roles in the agencies.
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4.4 Factors that Influence the Involvement of PWDs in Community Development
This section of the study assesses the various factors influencing the involvement of the PWDs in community development activities. The PWD respondents were asked to indicate their agreement level to the factors in Table 5.4 with the aid of a „Likert Scaling‟ as to how they influence PWDs involvement in community development. The factors were ranked with the aid of the non-parametric statistical tool called Kendall‟s rank test. The mean ranks and by extension the ranks of the factors are presented in Table 4.4.
Table 4.4: Distribution of Responses from PWDs Regarding Factors Influencing Their Involvement in Community Development Factors Mean Rank Rank Personal health or impairment (Health) 4.98 1 Level of literacy (education) 4.56 2 Economic well-being (Livelihoods) 4.53 3 Support from families and social members (Social) 4.33 4 Attitudes of the wider community members (socio-cultural) 3.67 5 Access to information (Empowerment) 3.52 6 Test Statistics N 70 Kendall's Wa 0.754 Chi-Square (χ2) 22.61 Degree Of Freedom 5 P-Value 0.000 Rank: [SD-Strongly Disagree, D-Disagree, U-don‟t know, A-Agree, SA-Strongly Agree] Percentages are in parentheses Source: Field survey, 2013
From Table 4.4, the Kendall‟s rank test revealed as the highest ranked (1st) factor influencing
PWDs involvement community development was personal health or impairment with mean rank of 4.98. The second highest ranked factor influencing PWDs involvement level in community development activities was their level of illiteracy with a mean rank of 4.56. The 3rd, 4th and 5th
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ranked factors influencing PWDs involvement in community development activities were economic well-being of PWDs, support from families and social members, and the attitude of the wider community members respectively. However, access to information was ranked as the least factor influencing PWDs involvement in community development activities in the surveyed communities.
The test statistics (chi-square) indicates that the respondents agreed to the ranking order of the listed reasons in Table 4.4. This is because the significance of the chi-square test at 1% indicates the rejection of the null hypothesis of „no agreement‟ between the judges or respondents. The level of agreement as indicated by the Kendall‟s coefficient of concordance value of 0.754 is approximately about 75%.
4.5 Barriers to PWDs Participation in Community Development
This section of the study identifies and ranks the various challenges that confront PWDs participation in development activities in the studied communities. The PWD respondents were asked to choose from strongly disagree to strongly agree with respect to the militating nature of the factors mentioned in Table 4.5 against their involvement in community development initiatives or projects. The responses were analyzed with the non-parametric statistical tool called
Kendall rank test since the judges or respondents were more than three. The result of the judges or respondents is presented in Table 4.5.
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Table 4.5: Barriers to PWDs Involvement in Community Development Barriers to PWDs participation in community Dev’t. Mean Rank Rank Education 5.44 1 Health 5.02 2 Unemployment 4.43 3 Social exclusion 3.32 4 Wealth 2.11 5 Cultural beliefs 1.23 6 Source: Field Survey, 2013
The respondents (chiefs/project leaders) therefore ranked the PWDs level of education as the highest barrier to their involvement in development initiatives in the studied communities. Other factors like the health or level of impairment of PWDs, the unemployment status of PWDs, the social exclusion of PWDs and the wealth of PWDs were ranked 2nd, 3rd, and 4th respectively in terms of their militating nature against their involvement in development initiatives in the studied communities. The least ranked factor however was the cultural beliefs of the PWDs in the studied communities.
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CHAPTER FIVE
5.0 DISCUSSION
This section of the study discusses the various findings of the study in sub-sections on the basis of the specific objectives set to achieve.
5.1 The Extent and Level of Involvement of PWDs in Community Development
Community participation is viewed as key to sustainability, security, peace, social justice and democracy and also contributes immensely to enhanced efficiency and effectiveness in community development (Abbot, 1996). According to Olson (1971), there is the need to provide mechanism for all citizenry to participate in different areas of community development.
However, this was found to be absent in the studied communities. This notwithstanding, there is some level of PWDs participation in the development initiatives of the studied communities.
This finding is consistent with a study by Fowler (2000) that emphasizes the fact that participation is a basic human right and therefore should be granted to all groups of people.
Fowler (2000) further indicates that participation is a basic condition of the people forming part of the operational aspects of development in any human society. The nature of the PWDs participation was more of managerial. Some PWDs served in leadership positions whiles others were assigned different roles. This possibly could be attributed to their disability that often impairs their movement and involvement in vigorous activities. The form of participation of the
PWDs was found to be predominantly in group formation. Singh (1991) asserted that people will participate in collective action when they are organized in groups. This provides evidence to support the need for disability specific activities or projects in the studied communities. The
PWDs were not often involved in the planning and the implementation processes of the disability
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specific projects or activities. The major factors influencing PWDs participation such as personal health, level of literacy, economic well-being and socio-cultural factors are very much within
Fakade‟s (1994) structural category of barriers to participation in community development.
Generally, in many Ghanaian communities good health and educational standing are major considerations of people‟s involvement in developmental activities, and PWDs are no exception.
5.2 Gender Influence on the Extent of Involvement of PWDs in Community Development
There are ranges of parties that are involved or whose views and actions must be taken into account in local government. These include men and women, Persons with Disability and many others. The issue of who should be involved in the development processes of a community is very relevant to its progress (Fowler, 2000). Fowler (2000) argued that involvement or participation only has a meaning when the principle of equality and individual liberty is admitted. In a similar manner, Sarpong (2004) asserts that participation at the local level should be in the area of policy making and management. The different roles that women and men play in society and the benefits that come with the roles differ tremendously from culture to culture and have different values attached to them. From the current study, the male gender is dominant in most areas of PWDs participation such as involvement in specific disability activities, involvement in planning and implementation process, and leadership roles in agencies in the communities. The current study is therefore consistent with many studies in Africa. According to existing studies in most communities in Africa, women are dominated by men through patriarchal power, which has been a traditional and historical privilege for men (Meekosha,
2004).
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5.3 Factors Influencing the Involvement of PWDs in Community Development The major factors found by the study to influence PWDs involvement in community development were personal health or impairment, level of literacy or education, economic well- being or livelihood of PWDs, and socio-cultural factors. These finding are consistent with
Fakades (1994) enumeration of them as barriers to community involvement or participation.
From observation, the educated PWDs were relatively employed and hence more involved in community development activities. Moreover, socio cultural factors like ethnicity, gender and family status influenced the involvement of PWDs in community development. For instance, the
PWDs of high status and males were relatively more active participants of community development activities.
5.4 Barriers to Community Participation
The major five barriers to PWDs involvement in community development activities in the studied communities in their order of ranking are education, health, unemployment, social exclusion and wealth. The finding of education, health and unemployment as major barriers to community participation is consistent with Fakade (1994) who indicates that participation cannot be possible for people who have been dispossessed and do not have access to natural, economic and financial resources. PWDs in the studied area with high level of education, good health and employed were found to be relatively more involved in community development. Generally,
PWDs are relatively marginalized and hence excluded from community developmental activities.
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CHAPTER SIX 6.1 CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION This chapter of the study provides the conclusion and the recommendations emanating from the study.
6.1 Conclusions
The major findings of the study are summarized in sections below based on the objectives of the study.
6.1.1 Nature and Level of Inclusion of PWDs in Community Development Initiatives
From the study, it was found that only few of the PWDs are involved in the community development initiatives of the studied communities which could be attributed to the absence of mechanism for involving PWDs in decision making. The form of participation is predominantly in group. Disability specific activities or projects in the studied communities are virtually absent.
The nature of PWDs participation in community development was found to be predominantly management. Some PWDs were also found to be leaders of agencies in the studied communities.
6.1.2 Gender influence on the Extent of Involvement PWDs in Community Development
The study discovered that the male gender is comparatively dominant in the area of PWDs participation in community development initiatives. The dominance was evident in areas such as
PWDs involvement in disability specific activities, involvement in the planning and implementation of the activities, participation in agencies in the communities, leadership in the agencies and assignment of roles in the agencies.
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6.1.3 Factors that Influencethe Involvement of PWDs in Community Development
The major factors found by the study to influence PWDs involvement in community development were personal health or impairment, level of literacy or education, economic well- being or livelihood of PWDs, and socio-cultural factors.
6.1.4 Barriers to PWDs Involvement in Community Development
The five major barriers to PWDs involvement in community development activities in the studied communities in their order of ranking are education, health, unemployment, social exclusion and wealth.
6.2 Recommendation
In the light of the discussions, findings and the conclusions, the following recommendations are hereby made:
6.2.1 The need to Increase PWDs Participation in Community Development
Involvement in community development is key to sustainability, security, peace, social justice and democracy. Therefore, there is the need to increase PWDs participation in community development, especially in the area of disability specific activities. PWDs should be involved in the planning and implementation processes to ensure that their major concerns are taken into consideration.
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6.2.2 Provision of Mechanism to Include PWDs in Decision Making
The district authorities including the chiefs should provide an appropriate mechanism to include
PWDs in decision making in the district. This will encourage PWD participation in the form of consultation and information sharing. This will also eliminate all forms of feeling of alienation and social seclusion and enhance feeling of community participation.
6.2.3 Gender Equality in PWDs Involvement in Community Participation
The patriarchal societal system seems to have eaten into every part of the African society including PWDs participation in community development. It is therefore imperative that appropriate mechanism be put in place to ensure equal participation by all genders.
6.2.4 Limitation and Areas for Further Studies
The current study was limited to only the Manso Atwere zone in the Amansie West District. It was further limited to a PWD sample of seventy, and 30 chiefs and developmental leaders. This limitation reduces the validity, reliability and generalizability of the study findings. It is therefore recommended that any further studies in this area should include other communities in other districts to enhance the generalizability of the study.
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Arnstein, S. (1969).„A ladder of citizen participation‟ American Institute of Planners Journal July, pp. 216-24. Asamoah-Gyimah and Duodu, K. F. (2006): Introduction to Research Methods in Education, Institute of Educational Development and Extension.
Buchanan and Tullock (1965): People's Participation In Natural Resources Management - Workshop Report.
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Delal-Clayton Barry, Deut David and Oliver Dudois (2003): Rural Planning in Developing Countries. Supporting Natural Resource Management and Sustainable Livelihoods. Earthscan publications Ltd. USA.
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Emmanuel Sarpong (2004): Community participation in the development and management of Basic Schools (Unpublished).
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Fougeyrollas, P., Noreau, L., &Boschen, K. A. (2002).Interaction of environment with individual characteristics and social participation: Theoretical perspectives and applications in persons with spinal cord injury. Topics in Spinal Cord Injury Rehabilitation, 7(3), 1-16.
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Montgomery, J. D. (1983). “When local participation helps”.Journal Policy Analysis and Management pp 90.
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APPENDIX 1
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF MEDICAL SCIENCES, COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITY HEALTH
This questionnaire is aimed at collecting data for study “THE EXTENT OF INVOLVEMENT BY PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE AMANSIE WEST DISTRICT: A CASE STUDY IN THE MANSO ATWERE ZONE”.
This data are for academic reason and would be conducted in confidential manner. Respondents are therefore assured that no part of the information will be used for any other purpose.
1. To identify factors that facilitates or impedes the involvement of persons with disabilities in community development strategy initiatives.
a. Are you a member of any social group or organization? Yes No
If yes, what role do you play? ......
b. What work do you do? Government employed self employed not employed
c. what is your level of agreement as to how the factors in the table affect your participation in the society or group?
SA A U D SD
Personal health or impairment (Health)
Level of literacy (education)
Economic well-being (Livelihoods)
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Support from families and social members (Social)
Attitudes of the wider community members (Cultural/Social)
Access to information (Empowerment)
Rank: [SA-Strongly Agree, A-Agree, U-Uncertain, D-Disagree, SD-Strongly Disagree]
d. If you have a disability what do you feel has been the biggest barrier to your participation in community development? Wealth Social exclusion Education Unemployment Gender Cultural beliefs e. If you have a disability what do you feel has been the most positive aspect to your participation in community development?
Wealth Social inclusion Education Employment Gender Cultural beliefs
2. To examine the nature of inclusion of disability in the context of development initiatives. a. How long have you been living in this community? Specify in years...... b. Is there any mechanism for involving PWDs in decision making? Yes No c. Are there disability-specific or disability-relevant activities/projects in the community? Yes No 79
If yes, are you involved in planning and implementation? Yes No d. Do you know of agencies that have PWDs as leaders? Yes No e. How regular does the community organise meetings? ...... f. Are you assigned any role(s) in the community? Yes No
3. To compare male and female participation in community development a. What disability do you have? (Tick the nature of your disability) Blind/partially sighted Physical disability Deaf/hearing loss Mental health difficulty Other, specify...... b. Sex: Male Female c .Age bracket: (18-37) (38-47) (48 and above) d. Married? Yes No e. Level of education: secondary/Vocational Tertiary Basic Middle school Not at all others, specify...... f. Has this questionnaire missed any important issue(s) or topic(s) with regards to the experience and participation of persons with disability? If so, indicate......
Thank you
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APPENDIX 2
KWAME NKRUMAH UNIERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY SCHOOL OF MEDICAL SCIENCES, COLLEGE OF HEALTH SCIENCES DEPARTMENT OF COMMUNITY HEALTH QUESTIONAIRE CHIEFS AND PROJECT LEADERS This questionnaire is aimed at collecting data for study “THE EXTENT OF INVOLVEMENT BY PERSONS WITH DISABILITIES IN COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT IN THE AMANSIE WEST DISTRICT: A CASE STUDY IN THE MANSO ATWERE ZONE”. This data are purely for academic reason and would be conducted in confidential manner. Respondents are therefore assured that no part of the information will be used for any other purpose. 1. To identify factors that facilitates or impedes the involvement of persons with disabilities in community development strategy initiatives. a. Are you Aware of persons with disability in the community? Yes NO b. What work do you do? Government employed self employed not employed c. How do you feel the following affect the participation of persons with disability in the society or group?
SA A U D SD
Personal health or impairment (Health)
Level of literacy (education)
Economic well-being (Livelihoods)
Support from families and social members(Social)
Attitudes of the wider community members (Cultural/Social)
Access to information (Empowerment)
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Rank: [SA-Strongly Agree, A-Agree, U-Uncertain, D-Disagree, SD-Strongly Disagree] d. What do you feel has been the biggest barrier to PWDs participation in community development? (Rank 1 – 6, with 1 being the least) Wealth Social exclusion Education Unemployment Gender Cultural beliefs
e. What do you feel has been the most positive aspect to PWDs participation in community development? (Rank 1 – 6, with 1 being the least) Wealth Social inclusion Education Employment Gender Cultural beliefs 2. To examine the nature of inclusion of disability in the context of development initiatives. a. How long have you been living/working in this community? Specify in years...... b. Is there any mechanism for involving PWDs in decision making? Yes No c. Are there disability-specific or disability-relevant activities/projects in the community? Yes No If yes, are they involved in planning and implementation? Yes No d. Do you know of agencies that have PWDs as leaders? Yes No e. How regular does the community organise meetings? ...... f. Are PWDs assigned any role(s) in the community? Yes No
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3. To compare male and female involvement in community development a. Do you have a disability? Yes No b. If yes to question 3a above, tick the nature of your disability Blind/partially sighted Physical disability Deaf/hearing loss Mental health difficulty Other, specify...... C .Age bracket: (18-37) (38-47) (48 and above) d. Sex: Male Female e. Married? Yes No f. Level of education: Basic secondary/Vocational Tertiary others, specify...... g. Has this questionnaire missed any important issue(s) or topic(s) with regards to the experience and participation of persons with disability? If so, indicate......
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