JWL 330: Principles of Biodiversity Conservation

1.1.1. Purpose of the Course

This course unit is designed to provide the student with knowledge of basic concepts of biodiversity conservation

1.1.2. Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course the learner should be able to:

1. Identify the variety of biological resources in relation to their various ecological settings including below and above ground. 2. Describe ecological functions and processes determining biodiversity. 3. Identify biodiversity challenges and design simple conservation solutions.

1.1.3. Course Content

Concepts and definitions of biodiversity. Descriptions of biological diversity; genes, species, ecosystems. Distribution of biodiversity. Biodiversity and balance of Nature. Biological resources; water, soil, wildlife, forests, fisheries, and rangelands. Conservation versus preservation versus protection. Biodiversity assessment. Benefits of Biodiversity. Threats and impacts of biodiversity. Conservation and management of biodiversity. Biotechnology in biodiversity. The institutional framework on biodiversity conservation and management (Policy, legal & administration arrangements). Conventions on biodiversity conservation and management.

1.1.4. Mode of Delivery

Lectures, practicals, open learning, distance learning, e-learning, class presentations, independent studies, and field training sites.

1.1.5. Instructional Materials and/or Equipment

Study manuals, course books, reference books, journals, reports and case studies, computers, LCD projectors, white and chalk boards, board markers, video clips and internet resources.

1.1.6. Course Assessment

Continuous assessment tests, assignments, reports, practical and written examinations.

2.26.7 Core Reading and Recommended Reference Materials

John M. Fryxell, Anthony R.E. Sinclair, & Graeme Caughley. 2014. Wildlife Ecology, Conservation, and Management. Wiley Blackwell. 508pp

Krishnamurthy, K. V. 2003. Textbook of Biodiversity. Science Publishers

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Kumar, U., & Asija, M. J. 2007. Biodiversity: Principles and Conservation. Agrobios (India)

Norris K, Pain DJ. 2002. Conserving bird biodiversity: General principles and their applications, 1st Edition. Cambridge University Press. Pp 352.

Paul R. Krausman & James W. Cain. 2013. Wildlife Management and Conservation. Contemporary principles and practices. JHU Press 360 pp.

Singh M. P. 2009. Biodiversity APH Publishing Corporation. New Delhi.

Western, D. et al. 2015. Kenya’s Natural Capital: A biodiversity Atlas. Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources, and Regional Development, Authorities, Kenya. 124 pages.

1.1.7. Journals and E-Resources

1. Conservation Biology 2. Biodiversity Conservation 3. Biodiversity and Conservation 4. Biological Conservation Journal 5. International Journal of Biodiversity 6. Biodiversity Informatics. 7. Endangered Species Research.

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COURSE OVERVIEW Biodiversity is the variety of different forms of life on earth, including the different plants, animals, micro-organisms, the genes they contain and the ecosystem they form. It refers to genetic variation, ecosystem variation, species variation (number of species) within an area, biome or planet. Relative to the range of habitats, biotic communities and ecological processes in the biosphere, biodiversity is vital in a number of ways including promoting the aesthetic value of the natural environment, contribution to our material well-being through utilitarian values by providing food, fodder, fuel, timber and medicine and .

Biodiversity is the life support system. Organisms depend on it for the air to breathe, the food to eat, and the water to drink. Wetlands filter pollutants from water, trees and plants reduce global warming by absorbing carbon, and bacteria and fungi break down organic material and fertilize the soil. It has been empirically shown that native species richness is linked to the health of ecosystems, as is the quality of life for humans. The ecosystem services of biodiversity is maintained through formation and protection of soil, conservation and purification of water, maintaining hydrological cycles, regulation of biochemical cycles, absorption and breakdown of pollutants and waste materials through decomposition, determination and regulation of the natural world climate.

Despite the benefits from biodiversity, today’s threats to species and ecosystems are increasing day by day with alarming rate and virtually all of them are caused by human mismanagement of biological resources often stimulated by imprudent economic policies, pollution and faulty institutions in-addition to climate change. To ensure intra and intergenerational equity, it is important to conserve biodiversity. Some of the existing measures of biodiversity conservation include; reforestation, zoological gardens, botanical gardens, national parks, biosphere reserves, germplasm banks and adoption of breeding techniques, tissue culture techniques, social forestry to minimize stress on the exploitation of forest resources.

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DEFINITIONS OF BIODIVERSITY As defined by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), Biodiversity also known as biological diversity is “the variability among living organisms from all sources including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems” [Convention on Biological Diversity Article 2].

The totality of the inherited variation of all forms of life across all levels of variation, from ecosystem to species to gene. Edward O. Wilson

Biodiversity Can Be Classified Under Three Levels (Types)

1. Species diversity 2. Genetic diversity 3. Ecosystem or ecological diversity.

Species diversity Species diversity refers to biodiversity at the most basic level and is the ‘variety and abundance of different types of individuals of a species in a given area. Species is a basic unit of classification and is defined as a group of similar organisms that interbreed with one another and produce viable offspring. These may include bacteria, viruses, fungi, plants (algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms) and animals (unicellular protozoans, arthropods, mollusks, fish, herps and mammals). The tropical areas support more diverse plant and animal communities than other areas. The regions that are rich in species diversity are called hotspots of biodiversity.

A biodiversity hotspot is a region containing an exceptional concentration of endemic species. These hot spots support nearly 60% of the world’s plant, bird, mammal, reptile, and amphibian species.

Biodiversity hotspots in East Africa

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Genetic diversity Genetic diversity refers to the variation within and between populations range in the heritable genetic resources of the organisms. Every individual member of a plant or animal species differs from other individuals in its genetic constitution. Genetic variation enables both natural evolutionary change and artificial selective breeding to occur. The term ‘gene pool’ has been used to indicate the genetic diversity in the different species. The genetic variability is essential for healthy breeding population. The reduction in genetic variability among breeding individuals leads to inbreeding which in turns can lead to extinction of species.

Ecosystem or ecological diversity An ecosystem is a collection of living components, flora, fauna and microorganisms and non- living components, like climate, matter and energy that are connected by energy flow. Ecosystem diversity can be described for a specific geographical region, or a political entity such as a country, county or region. Ecosystem diversity is often evaluated through measures of the diversity of the component species. This may involve assessment of the relative abundance of different species as well as consideration of the types of species.

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A population is all of the individuals of the same species within an ecological community.

African Elephant Hippopotamus Common Zebra

Oryx Rothschild's Giraffe

Nile crocodile Eastern Bullfrog

Blue Napped mouse birds Great White Pelicans Cyperus Papyrus

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Community: The assemblage of interacting populations (dynamics of species populations) that inhabit the same area (how these populations interact with the environment).

Ecosystem: Comprised of one or more communities and the abiotic environment within an area.

Different groups of populations may not be located in the same area but interact at certain times throughout the year. If this group of populations are the same species and can still interbreed, they are a meta-population. Individuals within a metapopulation may migrate from one population to the other, which can help stabilize the size of the overall population.

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KENYA’S BIOTIC DIVERSITY

About 50-100 million species of plants, animals and micro-organisms exists in the world. Out of these, about 1.4 million species have been described.

Kenya is endowed with an enormous and immense animal biotic capital. Kenya is a mega bio- diverse country and has one of the richest fauna diversity in the world, with around 30,000 species of animal species and 7,000 species of plants have so far been recorded, along with at least 2000 fungi and bacteria presently listed. Kenya’s known fauna biodiversity assets include 25,000 invertebrates (21,575 of which are insects), 1,100 birds, 315 mammals (2/3 of these are small mammals), 191 reptiles, 206 freshwater fish, 692 marine and brackish fish, and 110 amphibians. These resources form the basic source of livelihood for the country's population. 80% of the country's population directly or indirectly relies on biodiversity for survival. The conservation and sustainable utilization of this biodiversity cannot be overemphasized.

KENYA NATURAL CAPITAL-A biodiversity Atlas_Nov2015

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BIODIVERSITY ATTRIBUTES Three primary attributes of biodiversity are composition, structure and function. • Composition is the identity and variety of an ecological system. Descriptors of composition are typically listing of the species resident in an area or an ecosystem and measures of composition include species richness and diversity of species. • Structure is the physical organization or pattern of a system, from habitat complexity as measured within communities to the pattern of habitats (or patches) and other elements at a landscape scale. • Functions are the result of one or more ecological and evolutionary processes, including predation, gene flow, natural disturbances as well as abiotic processes such as soil development and hydrological cycles. Examples of functions include predator- prey systems, water purifications and nutrient cycling. Each of these attributes is multi-scalar and incorporates both spatial and temporal dynamics. As a result, these attributes may also be examined at different scales including regions, landscapes and ecosystems.

MEASURING BIODIVERSITY There are various mathematical ways of measuring biodiversity, which calculate the number of species in different regions, landscapes and ecosystems. The measure of diversity of species is also known as species richness.

Species Richness - is the number of species in a community. Clearly, the number of species we can observe is function of the area of the sample. It also is a function of who is looking. Thus, species richness is sensitive to sampling procedure.

Species Diversity

• Species Diversity is the number of species in the community, and their relative abundances. Species are not equally abundant; some species occur in large percentage of samples; others are poorly represented. Some communities, such as tropical rainforests, are much more diverse than others, such as the desert. Species Diversity is often expressed using Shannon-Weiner Index or Simpson’s diversity index

Shannon-Weiner Index s

H = ∑ - (Pi * ln Pi) i=1 where: H = the Shannon diversity index

Pi = fraction of the entire population made up of species i S = numbers of species encountered

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∑ = sum from species 1 to species S Note: The power to which the base e (e = 2.718281828...... ) must be raised to obtain a number is called the natural logarithm (ln) of the number. To calculate the index: 1. Divide the number of individuals of species you found in your sample by the total number of individuals of all species. This is Pi 2. Multiply the fraction by its natural log (P1 * ln P1) 3. Repeat this for all of the different species that you have. The last species is species “s” 4. Sum all the - (Pi * ln Pi) products to get the value of H

Example:

Birds Ni Pi ln Pi - (Pi * ln Pi) Speckled Pigeon 96 .96 -.041 .039 Robin chat 1 .01 -4.61 .046 Superb Starling 1 .01 -4.61 .046 Pied Crow 1 .01 -4.61 .046 House sparrow 1 .01 -4.61 .046 H = 0.223

High values of H would be representative of more diverse communities. A community with only one species would have an H value of 0 because Pi would equal 1 and be multiplied by ln Pi which would equal zero. If the species are evenly distributed then the H value would be high. So the H value allows us to know not only the number of species but how the abundance of the species is distributed among all the species in the community. Simpson’s diversity index: 2 • D=1-S (pi)

A community contains the following species: Number of Individuals Species Aardvark 104 Species Buffalo 71 Species Cheetah 19 Species Dik’dik 5 Species Elephant 3 What is the Simpson index value for this community? Page 10 of 58

Answer Total Individuals= (104+19+71+5+3) =202 P =104/202=.051 P =19/202=.009 A B P =71/202=0.35 P =5/202=0.03 C D P =3/202=0.02 E 2 2 2 2 2 D=1-{(0.51) + (0.09) + (0.35) + (0.03) + (0.02) } D=1-0.40=0.60

Calculate Shannon-Weiner diversity Index and Simpson’s diversity index.

Measuring Biodiversity has three perspectives;

Alpha (α) Diversity It is the number of species or diversity in species within a particular area, community or ecosystem. It is usually expressed by the number of species in that ecosystem. This can be measured by counting the number of taxa within the ecosystem (e.g. Families, genera and species).

Beta (β) Diversity This is the change in the composition of the species with reference to the changes in the environment. Beta diversity is measured by comparing the species diversity between ecosystems or along environmental gradients. This involves comparing the number of taxa that are unique to each of the ecosystems. It is the rate of change in species composition across habitats or among communities. It gives a quantitative measure of diversity of communities that experience changing environments.

Gamma (γ) Diversity

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This refers to the overall diversity. It refers to the total species richness over a large area. It is a measure of the overall diversity for the different ecosystems within a region. It is a product of alpha diversity of component ecosystems and the beta diversity between component ecosystems. Gamma diversity can be expressed in terms of the species richness of component communities as follows; γ = s1 + s2 – c s1 = the total number of species recorded in the first community s2 = the total number of species recorded in the second community c = the number of species common to both communities

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BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES AND ITS GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION Different regions of the planet receive different amounts of sunlight energy throughout the year. This impacts the length of warm, cold, wet, and dry seasons in these different regions, as well as the temperature, humidity, and other environmental factors (which results in differences in predominant vegetation), that define the region. Regions can be broadly divided into terrestrial biomes and aquatic ecosystems.

Figure #: Distribution of: a. terrestrial biomes; b. aquatic ecosystems.

Terrestrial Biomes The terrestrial biomes can be divided into four broad categories: forest, desert, savanna/grassland, and tundra Forests.

Figure #: Characteristics of terrestrial biomes based on temperature and precipitation

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Forest biomes are dominated by trees. Approximately one-third of Earth’s land area is covered by forests that contain 70% of the carbon present in living things. Forest biomes can be divided into three distinct types based primarily on the types of organisms that populate them and seasonal changes in temperature and/or precipitation. These three types are tropical, temperate, and boreal.

Tropical forests support the highest biodiversity of all biomes. They occur near the equator where 1) day lengths are long and vary little from 12 hours, 2) rainfall is higher than any other biome, and 3) temperatures are high, averaging around 20-25° C, with little seasonal variation.

Savanna & Grassland Vegetation in both savanna and grassland biomes is dominated by perennial grasses and non- woody forbs. Savannas obtain enough rainwater annually to support scattered trees, whereas grasslands do not. Savannas are generally found in more tropical climates where seasonality is characterized not by temperature changes but by precipitation patterns. Grasslands occur in cold climates areas that have deep soil rich in organic matter. The abundant grasses of savannas and grasslands support large herds of herbivores, like the wildebeest found on the African savanna

Deserts Deserts cover about one fifth of the Earth’s land surface and occur where rainfall is less than 50 cm a year. These are the driest landscapes on Earth and support the least amount of life. Biodiversity is lowest in these biomes. Most deserts occur along latitudes of 30○N and 30○S and therefore have generally hot climates. These regions receive little precipitation due to atmospheric circulation patterns. Drought is extending the desert in Northern Africa.

Aquatic Ecosystems Water is the common link among the aquatic ecosystems and it makes up the largest portion of the biosphere. Aquatic ecosystems support highly diverse groups of organisms and are classified into two broad categories: freshwater and saltwater or marine.

Freshwater Ecosystems Freshwater ecosystems are characterized by having a very low salt (NaCl) content (less than 0.5 parts salt per 1,000 parts H20, ppt) and include streams/rivers, groundwater, lakes, ponds, reservoirs, and wetlands (such as fens, marshes, swamps, and bogs). Each presents unique conditions to which different kinds of organisms are adapted. Life in flowing water (called lotic systems), for example, requires different adaptations than life in ponds, lakes, reservoirs, and wetlands (still water or lentic systems). Because climatic conditions vary across different latitudes, the species diversity in freshwater aquatic ecosystems differs geographically. Like terrestrial biomes, aquatic ecosystems in the tropics support many more species than those in latitudes further from the equator. This is particularly true for fish and amphibians. Collectively, approximately 15,000 of the earth’s species of fish, nearly 45% of all fish species, rely on either fresh or brackish water habitats. The other 55% are marine species.

Marine Ecosystems Marine ecosystems contain salt that eroded from land and eventually washed into the oceans. The average ocean salinity is 35 ppt worldwide. Marine ecosystems cover about three-fourths of the Earth’s surface and include oceans, seas, coral reefs, and estuaries. Estuaries are wetlands at the

Page 14 of 58 oceans’ shore that contain a mix of freshwater from rivers and saltwater from the ocean to produce brackish water, characterized by possessing a salinity between 0.5 ppt and 17 ppt. Marine phytoplankton are critical to all life on Earth because they supply much of the world’s atmospheric oxygen and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon dioxide for photosynthesis, acting as a “sink” for the greenhouse gas CO2. There are six distinct marine eco-regions. All of these, like terrestrial biomes, are characterized by specific flora and fauna.

1. Estuaries Estuaries (Figure 17a) are formed at the mouths of freshwater streams or rivers flowing into the ocean. Depending on the elevation gradient of the land and the ratio of water flow from river to ocean versus intrusion from ocean to river, estuaries can range in salinity from 0.5 ppt to 17 ppt. This mixing of waters with such different salt and nutrient concentrations creates a very rich and unique ecosystem at the edge of two very different aquatic systems. The blending of two distinct systems at their border is called ecotone and is often a zone of high biodiversity because it harbors species from both systems. Estuaries have higher diversity and productivity than either the river or stream alone. Microflora like algae, and macroflora, such as seaweeds, marsh grasses, and mangrove trees (only in the tropics), can be found here. Estuaries support a diverse fauna, including a variety of worms, oysters, crabs, and waterfowl, and are often important nursery grounds for fish and important feeding stops for migratory birds.

2. Intertidal & Sub-Tidal Zones Marine ecosystems along the coasts of land masses, but not influenced by infusion of freshwater like estuaries, include the intertidal and sub-tidal zones. Intertidal ecosystems are alternately exposed to the air and submerged as ocean tides wax and wane. Most species that live in this ecosystem are tolerant to and often thrive on periodic exposure to air (Figure 17b), like mussels, crabs, starfish, sea anemones, and seaweeds. Tide pools, small shoreline depressions that retain permanent water, can even support a diversity of fish. Sub-tidal zones occur further offshore and are permanently submerged but still strongly influenced by tidal surges. Dense kelp forests (Figure 17c) or sea-grass beds can grow in these areas, serving as habitat for multitudes of fish, shrimp, and other marine organisms.

3. Coral Reefs, Sea Grass Beds, & Mangroves Coral reefs are truly awe-inspiring natural formations. In the upcoming Biodiversity and Spirituality section you will explore more about this experience of awe in nature. Coral reefs (Figure 17d) are some of the most highly diverse ecosystems on Earth. They are widely distributed in warm shallow ocean waters. They can be found as barriers along continents, fringing islands, and atolls. Naturally, the dominant organisms in coral reefs are corals. Corals are interesting since they consist of a symbiosis between algae (zooxanthellae) and animal polyps housed with a calcareous, shell-like structure (Figure 18). Since coral reef waters tend to be nutritionally poor, the animal coral polyps obtain their nutrients through the algae via photosynthesis (where glucose is produced) and also by extending tentacles to obtain and ingest plankton from the water. The calcareous structure of the coral provides important habitat for a wide diversity of small and very colorful fish species, most of which live only on coral reefs. Coral reefs and adjacent sea-grass beds and mangrove forests (Figure 19) are of high economic and ecological value to tropical countries, but at the same time are very sensitive to environmental changes, both natural and anthropogenic.

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Coral reefs, for example, act as barriers, protecting sea grasses and mangroves from oceanic swell and storms but are vulnerable to harm by tourists diving and collecting coral and by the aquarium industry that collects millions of colorful fish to sell on the market. 4. Pelagic Zone The Pelagic Zone comprises all far off-shore 'open water' habitat extending from the ocean surface to the depth limits of light penetration. This zone supports the massive schools of planktivorous forage fish like anchovies, smelt, and sardines, which serve as the primary diet of salmon, swordfish, tuna, and many other larger fish (Figure 17e). Stocks of many of the large predatory fish are declining due to over fishing of both the forage fish and larger predatory fish themselves. Forage fish are subject to overfishing (Figure 21) in areas where they are used to produce feed for farmed fish or commercial production of pet food. 5. Abyssal Zone The abyssal zone is the deepest region of oceans that lies below the pelagic zone, its upper limit at the depth where sunlight can no longer penetrate (Figure 28). Because these deep waters are in constant darkness, no photosynthetic organisms live there, yet a diversity of unique life still thrives comprising an unusually complex food web with bacteria, rather than microalgae, serving as the food web base. In the complete darkness of the abyssal zone, predators, like the angler fish have developed evolutionary adaptations to allow them to capture prey. The angler fish uses a fluorescent lure extending off its head to attract prey (Figure 23).

The 'base of the food chain' or food that supports abyssal zone life comes from the bacteria that feeds on feces and the bodies of dead organisms raining down from the pelagic zone. In addition to these decomposer bacteria, other sea floor habitats promote life. At locations where molten magna emerges through the sea floor, creating new crust and pushing crustal plates apart, warm and nutrient rich water emerges from hydrothermal vents (Figure 22).

Distribution of Kenya’s Biodiversity Afro-alpine moorland (1.2% of the total land area) occurs above c. 3,000 m, on Mt Kenya, the Aberdare Mountains, the Cheranganis and Mt Elgon. There is little vegetation at the upper levels (above c. 3,800 m), with species of giant Lobelia and Senecio. Below this is grassland and Erica shrubland, often with stands of Hagenia woodland in sheltered spots. Rather few birds live in this high, cold environment. The Scarlet-tufted Malachite Sunbird inhabits the Lobelia zone, while species such as Alpine Chat and Aberdare Cisticola are found in the grassland and shrubland. Mountain Buzzards often patrol overhead. Highland open grassland (just 0.05%) occurs above c. 2,400 m on either side of the central Rift Valley. Other important grassland types include fire-induced grassland (3.1%, e.g. parts of the Masai Mara) and seasonal floodplain and delta grassland (4.7%, e.g. the Tana River Delta). Grassland also occurs on alkaline volcanic ash (0.2%), for example near Mbirikani to the south of the Chyulu Hills. Grasses include species of Hyparrhenia, Digitaria and Themeda, etc

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Digitaria sanguinalis Hyparrhenia hirta Themeda triandra

FORESTS Highland moist forests (2.0%) occur between c. 1,500 m and 3,000 m in areas that receive rainfall of more than 1,200 mm per year. A mosaic of forest and bamboo Arundinaria alpina is often present at the higher levels. Typical montane forest trees include species of Podocarpus, Olea, Juniperus and Newtonia, but the forest type varies greatly according to altitude and rainfall.

Bamboo Arundinaria alpina Podocarpus henkelii Olea africana /

Relicts of Guineo-Congolian rainforest (0.1%) occur in western Kenya, in and around Kakamega Forest. Kakamega is the easternmost outlier of the great tract of tropical rain forest that once extended across equatorial Africa. The North and South Nandi Forests are transitional between the Guineo-Congolian and montane forest types. Several types of coastal forests and woodland (0.1%) occur along the narrow coastal strip. Most of these patches are small, and the kind of vegetation varies greatly according to soil type and rainfall. Highland dry forests (0.4%) occur on hilltops that attract mist and rain (cloudy forests) (e.g. Mt Marsabit, Mt Kulal and the Taita and Chyulu Hills). Riverine forests (e.g. along the Mara River) and groundwater forests (e.g. Kitovu) together make up c. 1.5% of the land area.

Savannah habitats Thorn bushland and woodland are the most extensive vegetation types in Kenya (41.7%), running from Amboseli in the south through the Tsavo parks to north-east and north-west Kenya. Characteristic tree species are Acacia, Commiphora and Combretum spp., while grasses include

Page 17 of 58 species of Hyparrhenia, Digitaria and Themeda. It is often favourable for ranching and pastoral land. This vegetation grades into semi-arid wooded and bushed grassland (0.2%).

Semi-desert The north-central and north-western parts of the country are covered by semi-desert (16.8%). In places, such as the Dida Galgalu and Chalbi Deserts and around Lake Turkana areas of barren land (0.4%) occur, with very little vegetation.

Acacia senegal Commiphora myrrha Combretum collinum

Wetlands and open water Wetlands are an important habitat in Kenya, covering about 14,000 km2 of the country’s land surface (Crafter et al. 1992). The chain of lakes in the Rift Valley, from Turkana in the north to Magadi and Natron in the south, provide varied habitats for huge numbers of waterbirds. Most of the lakes are alkaline and support few large plants. Dense concentrations of microscopic plants. Bodies of freshwater cover 2.1% of Kenya’s surface area, including Lake Victoria, Lake Naivasha and a series of large dams along the upper Tana River. Papyrus swamps are found patchily around the shores of Lake Victoria, mainly along river inflows. Elsewhere this habitat is widely scattered, with notable patches at Lake Naivasha and Lake Jipe. Permanent swamps make up 0.11% of the land area Mangrove swamps (0.2%) occur along parts of the Kenyan shoreline, especially in sheltered creeks and estuaries. Lamu District has the country’s most extensive mangrove swamps. Coral reefs and islands make up some 59,000 ha, or 0.1% of the land area.

Papyrus swamps Mangrove swamps Coral reefs

Non-natural habitats Human-modified habitats, created at the expense of the natural vegetation, occur over a large area throughout the country but especially in the highlands. These include cultivated land under a wide variety of crops (18%), plantations of exotic trees, secondary thicket and scrub, eroded and

Page 18 of 58 de-vegetated woodland and bushland, and overgrazed pastureland. Quite a few bird species survive here, but only those that are especially adaptable.

Each habitat has its own distinctive biodiversity. In general, climate is the major factor determining natural vegetation. Three-quarters of Kenya is arid or semi-arid, and the natural climax vegetation here is bushland, wooded grassland, semi- desert scrub or desert. Woodland occurs as the natural vegetation cover in areas with slightly more rainfall, with bushland in the transition zone between semi-humid and semi-arid zones. Closed canopy forest is restricted to the 12% of the country classified as semi-humid to humid. Most of this area is within the central highlands and Nyanza plateau, and here forest usually occurs only below about 3,000 m. Above this is moorland and alpine vegetation. Forests also occur as ‘islands’ on top of isolated hills and mountains, along rivers, and in the narrow coastal belt where the rainfall is over 1,000 mm.

Biomes East Africa, and especially Kenya, is at the meeting point of a number of biogeographic zones or biomes, each of which has a set of distinctive wildlife. Kenya includes portions of no fewer than six biomes. The most significant are the Somali-Masai biome, the East African Coast biome, the large Afrotropical Highlands biome and the small Lake Victoria Basin biome. The easternmost outliers of the Guinea-Congo Forests biome also occur in Kenya, along with a small portion of the Sudan and Guinea Savannah biome.

Map showing the six avian biomes in Kenya and examples of representative bird species for each (shapefile source: http://www.wri.org/publication/content/9291).

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Endemic Biodiversity Areas in Kenya Areas where large numbers of endemic species are found are of special conservation importance. They are likely to be significant for the origin and/or maintenance of species diversity. BirdLife International recently analyzed the distribution of the world’s birds, focusing on species whose global ranges are less than 50,000 km2 (restricted-range species). Several Endemic Biodiversity Areas and Secondary Areas (with just one endemic wildlife) occur in Kenya. The two most important are the Kenya Mountains EBA and the East African Coastal Forests EBA. Kenya also includes smaller portions of three other EBAs: the Tanzania-Malawi Mountains, the Serengeti Plains, and the Jubba and Shabeelle Valleys; this EBA barely touches Kenya in the extreme north-east of the country). The Taita Hills are geologically the northernmost representatives of the Eastern Arc mountains of Tanzania and Malawi, but have no restricted-range bird species in common with the rest of the EBA.

Secondary areas include the Kakamega and Nandi Forests, the North Kenyan Short-grass Plains and Mt Kulal.

Map of the Endemic (EBA) and secondary bird areas (SA) found in Kenya and the key species found in each (shapefile source: http://www.wri.org/publication/content/9291)

CONSERVATION VERSUS PRESERVATION VERSUS PROTECTION

We should now examine the differences between preservation, conservation, and management because many people mistakenly confuse the three.

CONSERVATION is an effort to maintain and use natural resources wisely in an attempt to ensure that those resources will be available for future generations. Conservation is therefore

Page 20 of 58 sustainable use and management of both renewable and non-renewable natural resources including wildlife, water, air, and earth deposits. Conservationists typically support measures that reduce human use of natural resources, but only when such measures will be beneficial to humans.

PRESERVATION attempts to make sure that natural systems are left alone without human disturbance or manipulation. Preservationists (people who believe in preservation) feel natural resources should be protected, unspoiled, and untouched by humans. The goal of preservation is often maintaining the integrity of the ecosystem as exemplified by nature preserves or wilderness areas. This is due to the concern that mankind is encroaching onto the environment at such a rate that many untamed landscapes are being given over to farming, industry, housing, tourism and other human developments, and that we are losing too much of what is 'natural'.

MANAGEMENT is also a component of conservation that usually means controlling, directing, or manipulating wildlife populations and/or their habitats (active management strategy).

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BALANCE IN NATURE

The balance of nature is a concept in Ecology or a theory that proposes that natural ecological systems are usually in a stable state of equilibrium or homeostasis in most ecosystems of nature. When disturbed, an ecosystem tries to return to a state of balance. In other words, plants and animals interact so as to produce a stable, continuing system of life on earth (modern ecology does not fully accept this idea). Balance of nature is maintained by competition, adaption and other interactions between the members of a community and their nonliving environment. The activities of human beings can disrupt the balance of nature and affect biodiversity.

In general, the interactions and processes in the ecosystem attempt to maintain a balance. Some examples are:

• Food chains and food webs ensure that populations are under control.

• Waste products produced by one species are used by another. • Resources used by some are replenished by others. • Plants produce the oxygen needed by animals, while the waste product of animal respiration, carbon dioxide, is used by plants in photosynthesis. • The water cycle keeps the world's water circulating providing water where and when it is needed.

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VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY Biodiversity is the most precious gift of nature the mankind is blessed with. Values related to biodiversity can be grouped into categories as below: Consumptive Value This is related to natural products that are used directly for food, fodder, timber, fuel wood, etc. Many people around the world still depend on wild species for most of their needs like food, shelter, clothing and fuel.

Productive Use Value This is assigned to the products that are commercially harvested for exchange in formal markets. These include fuel, timber, fish, fodder, skin, fruits, cereals and medicines among others. Biodiversity represents the original stock from which new varieties are being developed. Most of the drugs and medicines used in the present times are extracted from different plant parts.

Indirect use Indirect use of biodiversity is of much significance because this value is related primarily with functions of ecosystem. They may provide indirect benefits as non-consumptive values. Maintenance of ecological balance, conservation of natural resources and prevention of soil erosion may be considered as the examples of indirect use of biodiversity. Environmental Value The diverse group of organisms found in a particular environment together with the physical and biological factors that affect them, constitute an ecosystem. Healthy ecosystems are vital to life. The natural environment is responsible for the production of oxygen, maintenance of water-cycle and other biogeochemical cycles. The more a region is rich in terms of biodiversity, the better are the different cycles regulated.

Ecosystem services Ecosystem services are defined as the processes and conditions of natural systems that support human activity.

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1) Biodiversity plays a major role in mitigating climate change by contributing to long-term sequestration of carbon in a number of biomes. It is through biodiversity that sequential balance of CO2 and O2 is maintained. Due to the accumulation of CO2 in the atmosphere and ozone layer depletion, the earth is becoming warmer and more prone to natural calamities. 2) Regulation of biochemical cycles e.g. Oxygen, Nitrogen, hydrological cycles etc. Biological resources are important media in biochemical cycles, without which the cycles are not complete. 3) Absorption and breakdown of pollutants and waste materials through decomposition, e.g. in food webs and food chains where the flow of energy goes through production consumption and decomposition without which breakdown and absorption of materials will not be complete. 4) Determination and regulation of the natural world climate whether local, regional or micro level through influencing temperature, precipitation and air turbulence. 5) Biodiversity underpins ecosystem resilience and plays a critical role as part of disaster risk reduction and peace-building strategies. Forests, wetlands and mangroves play a critical role in reducing the impacts of extreme events such as droughts, floods and tsunamis. 6) Protective services of biodiversity provide protection of human beings from harmful weather conditions by acting as wind breaks, flood barriers among others. 7) Production of at least one third of the world’s food, including 87 of the 113 leading food crops, depends directly or indirectly on pollination carried out by insects (honey bee), bats and birds.

Social Value The life of the indigenous people in many parts of the world still revolves around the forests and environment, even in the modem times. Many of them still live in the forests and meet their daily requirements from their surroundings. The biodiversity in different parts of the world has been largely preserved by the traditional societies.

Ethical and Moral Values Morality and ethics teach us to preserve all forms of life and not to harm any organism unnecessarily. Each species has its own utility in the world of biodiversity and has every right to live. Aesthetic Value The beauty of our planet is because of biodiversity, which otherwise would have resembled other barren planets dotted around the universe. Biological diversity adds to the quality of life and provides some of the most beautiful aspects of our existence. Biodiversity is responsible for the beauty of a landscape.

Tourism Eco-tourism has now become the major source of foreign currency income.

Optional Value

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This refers to the value of biodiversity that is yet unknown, but needs to be explored for future possibilities and use. We should preserve all the world’s biodiversity that can be used by the future generations.

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BIODIVERSITY ASSESSMENT

Biodiversity is measured as an attribute that has two components — richness and relative abundance. evenness. Richness is the number of groups of genetically or functionally related individuals. In most surveys, richness is expressed as the number of species and is usually called species richness. Relative abundance is the number of organisms each species has.

When scientists assess an area’s biodiversity, they look at species richness (how many different species there are)

Rapid biodiversity assessment This is sometimes called rapid ecological assessments (REAS). It is an important technique for terrestrial, freshwater, marine, and estuarine system management, especially in areas where there is very little published or unpublished information. Rapid assessments of biodiversity require the development of a conceptual framework for the design and implementation of the assessment, and a clear definition of the scope of the assessment.

The five general types of assessment that have been identified by the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) include:

1) Baseline inventory – focuses on overall biological diversity rather than extensive or detailed information about specific taxa or habitats. 2) Species-specific assessment – provides a rapid appraisal of the status of a particular species or taxonomic group in a given area. 3) Change assessment – is undertaken to determine the effects of human activities or natural disturbances on the ecological integrity and associated biodiversity of an area. 4) Indicator assessment – assumes that biological diversity, in terms of species and community diversity can inform us about water quality and overall health of particular ecosystems. 5) Resource assessment – aims to determine the potential for sustainable use of biological resources in a given area.

Compilation of existing data Before determining whether field-based assessment is required, an important first step is to compile and assess as much relevant existing data and information as readily available. This part of the assessment should establish what data and information exists, and whether it is accessible. Data sources can include geographic information systems (GIs) and remote sensing information sources, published and unpublished data, and traditional knowledge and information accessed through the contribution, as appropriate, of local people. Such compilation should be used as a “gap analysis” to determine whether the purpose of the assessment can be satisfied from existing information or whether a new field survey is required.

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The Biodiversity Assessment Method The Biodiversity Assessment Method (BAM) is the assessment manual that outlines how an accredited person assesses impacts on biodiversity at development sites. It is a scientific document that provides:

• a consistent method for the assessment of biodiversity on a proposed development or major project, or clearing site, • guidance on how a proponent can avoid and minimize potential biodiversity impacts, and • the number and class of biodiversity credits that need to be offset to achieve a standard of ‘no net loss’ of biodiversity.

Biodiversity credits The BAM measures two types of credits on both development sites and stewardship sites.

These are:

• Ecosystem credits, which measure the offset requirement for impacts on threatened ecological communities, threatened species habitat for species that can be reliably predicted to occur with a plant community type, and other plant community types generally. • Species credits, which measure the offset requirement for impacts on threatened species individuals or area of habitat.

The Pressure-State-Response Indicator Framework PRESSURE: Habitat change, habitat destruction and fragmentation, habitat degradation, detrimental practices and intensity, Landscape homogenization, Pollution, Pesticides and other products, Climate change, Invasive species, Overexploitation of wild populations, Disease emergence.

BENEFIT: Extensive use, habitat creation and maintenance, habitat restoration, Landscape connectivity, Nutrient cycling, sequestration, Food web maintenance.

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THREATS AND IMPACTS OF BIODIVERSITY At present, loss of specific species, groups of species (extinction) or decrease in number of particular organisms (endangerment) are taking place in different parts of the world at a rapid pace. The main threats are human population growth and resource consumption, human activities, climate change and global warming, loss of habitat, habitat conversion and urbanization, invasive alien species, over-exploitation of natural resources, environmental degradation, chemical toxins & pollution, diseases, introduced predators, etc.

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Endangered and threatened birds in Kenya

Table #: List of threatened bird species in Kenya (IUCN 2016) Common Name Species Category

1 Sokoke Scops-owl Otus ireneae EN 2 Black Crowned-crane Balearica pavonina VU 3 Lappet-faced Vulture Torgos tracheliotos VU 4 White-headed Vulture Trigonoceps occipitalis VU 5 Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga VU 6 Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca VU 7 Madagascar Pond-heron Ardeola idae EN 8 Spotted Ground-thrush Zoothera guttata EN 9 Taita Thrush Turdus helleri CR 10 Chapin's Flycatcher Muscicapa lendu VU 11 Abbott's Starling Cinnyricinclus femoralis VU 12 Blue Swallow Hirundo atrocaerulea VU 13 Aberdare Cisticola Cisticola aberdare EN 14 Taita Apalis Apalis fuscigularis CR 15 White-winged Apalis Apalis chariessa VU 16 Basra Reed-warbler Acrocephalus griseldis EN 17 Papyrus Yellow Warbler Chloropeta gracilirostris VU 18 Turner's Eremomela Eremomela turneri EN 19 Hinde's Pied-babbler Turdoides hindei VU 20 Amani Sunbird Anthreptes pallidigaster EN 21 Sharpe's Longclaw Macronyx sharpei EN 22 Sokoke Pipit Anthus sokokensis EN 23 Clarke's Weaver Ploceus golandi EN 24 Egyptian Vulture Neophron percnopterus EN 25 Hooded Vulture Necrosyrtes monachus EN

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26 White-backed Vulture Gyps africanus EN 27 Rueppell's Vulture Gyps rueppellii EN 28 Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius VU 29 Grey Crowned-crane Balearica regulorum EN 30 Madagascar Pratincole Glareola ocularis VU 31 Southern Ground-hornbill Bucorvus leadbeateri VU 32 Saker Falcon Falco cherrug EN 33 Karamoja Apalis Apalis karamojae VU 34 Grey Parrot Psittacus erithacus VU

Endangered and threatened mammals

Aders' duiker (Cephalophus adersi); Black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis); Hirola (Beatragus hunteri); Eastern red colobus (Procolobus rufomitratus); Tana crested mangabey (Cercocebus galeritus); Roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus); Sable antelope (Hippotragus niger); White rhino (Ceratotherium simum simum); Coalfish whale (Balaenoptera borealis); Blue whale (Balaenoptera musculus); Grevy's zebra (Equus grevyi); African wild dog (Lycaon pictus); Giant thicket rat (Grammomys gigas); Barbour's vlei rat (Otomys barbouri); Mount Elgon vlei rat (Otomys jacksoni); Golden-rumped elephant shrew (Rhynchocyon chrysopygus); Eastern bongo (Tragelaphus eurycerus isaaci); African elephant (Loxodonta Africana); African lion (Panthera leo); Cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus); Striped hyaena (Hyaena Hyaena); Sitatunga (Tragelaphus spekii); Leopard (Panthera pardus); Lelwel hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus); Rothschild’s giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis rothschildi).

Endangered and threatened reptiles and amphibians

Hawksbill turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata) (Critically endangered); Shimba Hills Reed Frog Hyperolius rubrovermicualtus: (Endangered); Forest Spiny Reed Frog Afrixalus sylvaticus: Endangered; Arthroleptides dutoiti: CR; Sagalla caecilian Boulengerula niedeni: (Critically endangered); Irangi Forest Puddle frog Phrynobatrachus irangi: (Endangered), Du toit's torrent frog (Petropedetes dutoiti); Green turtle (Chelonia mydas); Olive ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea); Rock python (Python sebae); Shimba hills banana frog (Afrixalus sylvaticus); Forest frog (Afrixalus sylvaticus); Treefrog (Hyperolius rubrovermiculatus); Mount Kenya frog (Phrynobatrachus irangi); Crevice tortoise (Malacochersus tornieri); Turkana mud turtle (Pelusios broadleyi); Montane toad (Bufo kerinyagae); Montane tree frog (Hyperolius cystocandicans); Mt. Kenya bush viper (Atheris desaixi); Kemp's ridley (Lepidochelys kempii); Black turtle (Chelonia agassizi); Loggerhead (Caretta caretta); Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea); Yellow-bellied hinged terrapin (Pelusios castanoides); Tropical geckos (Hemidactylus modestus); Baobab

Page 30 of 58 gecko (Hemidactylus platycephalus); Writhing skink (Lygosoma tanae); Keel-bellied lizard (Gastropholis prasina); Girdled-lizard (Cordylus tropidosternum); Worm snakes (Leptotyphlops boulengeri); Günther’s centipede-eater (Aparallactus turneri); East African egg eating snakes (Dasypeltis medici); Large brown spitting cobra (Naja ashei); Black necked spotters (Naja nigricollis); Savannah monitor lizard (Varanus albigularis); Speckled bush snake (Philothamnus punctatus); Puff adder (Bitis arietans); Green mamba (Dendroaspis angusticeps); Nairobi toad (Bufo nairobiensis); Silvery tree frog (Leptopelis argenteus); Taita toad (Bufo taitanus); Yellow-spotted tree frog (Leptopelis flavomaculatus); Turkana toad (Bufo turkanae); Delicate spiny reed frog (Afrixalus delicatus); Painted reed frog (Hyperolius marmoratus); Long reed frog (Hyperolius nasutus); Spotted reed frog (Hyperolius puncticulatus); Water lily reed frog (Hyperolius pusillus); Kenya sand boar (Eryx colubrinus); Side-striped chameleon (Chamaeleo bitaeniatus); Flap-neck chameleon (Chamaeleo dilepis); Elliot's chameleon (Chamaeleo ellioti); High casqued chameleon (Chamaeleo Hohnelii); Jackson's chameleon (three-horned chameleon) (Chamaeleo jacksoni); Mount Kenya chameleon (Chamaeleo schubotzi); Gaboon viper (Bitis gabonica gabonica).

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CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF BIODIVERSITY Conservation is the protection, restoration and sustainable management of biodiversity and natural resources such as forests, water and the biological diversity within it. The conservation ethic promotes the management of natural resources for the purpose of sustaining biodiversity in species, ecosystems, evolutionary process, human culture and society (Soule, 1985). However, conservation biology reformed around strategic plans with time to protect regional biodiversity with specific issues in the later time (Margules & Pressey, 2000). At the same time, priority has given to the strategic conservation plans to uses public policy in local, regional and global scales of communities, ecosystems, and cultures (Gascon et al., 2007). Action plans identified the ways of sustaining human well-being, employing natural capital, market capital, and ecosystem services for the survival of mankind as in recent years, while increasing loss of biodiversity has posed a serious threat to the survival of human being (Corlett & Primack, 2008).

Ex-situ conservation Ex-situ conservation refers to the conservation of elements of biodiversity out of the context of their natural habitats. This involves conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild and cultivated/ domesticated plant/animal species, and draws on a diverse body of techniques and facilities. Some of these include: • Gene banks, e.g. seed banks, sperm and ova banks, field banks; • In vitro plant tissue and microbial culture collections; • Captive breeding of animals and artificial propagation of plants, with possible reintroduction into the wild; and • Collecting living organisms for zoos, aquaria, and botanic gardens for research and public awareness. Ex-situ conservation measures can be complementary to in-situ methods as they provide an "insurance policy" against natural calamities and extinction. These measures also have a valuable role to play in recovery programmes for endangered species. Ex-situ conservation provides excellent research opportunities on the components of biological diversity. Some of these institutions also play a central role in public education and awareness raising by bringing members of the public into contact with plants and animals they may not normally come in contact with. It is estimated that worldwide, over 600 million people visit zoos every year (Glowka, Burhenne- Guilmin, & Synge, 1994).

Issues to consider when implementing Ex situ Conservation

Captive management What is the primary role for the ex situ population (e.g. captive breeding for reintroduction, head-starting, research etc.)? How many founder animals are required, where will they come from, and what are the plans if sufficient founder animals cannot be found? What is the current captive population, and the target population? How many organizations will be involved with the captive component? How will the genetics of the captive population be managed?

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Capacity building for ex situ management Are there enough skilled people in the country to manage captive amphibian conservation programs and which organizations are they based at? If not, how will enough people be trained to manage the ex situ programs?

Ex situ research Is ex situ research required, either directly related to understanding or improving husbandry protocols, or for other reasons (e.g. disease testing or management). If so, outline the research and who will be responsible for undertaking it.

Supplementation/translocation Is supplementation or translocation being considered for this species? If so, provide details of the planned actions and who is responsible for managing the actions.

Reintroduction strategy When threats facing the species in the wild have been mitigated, and/or suitable protected habitat is available for animals to be reintroduced to the wild, how will this be managed? Include information about pre-release health and disease checks, individual identification system of animals, who will undertake the releases, how the short and long-term post-release monitoring will be carried out.

Education and awareness Public education and raising awareness Are there any plans to help provide education to local communities, or to the general population about the threats facing amphibians and what actions people might be able to take to help reduce threats and protect amphibians? Public education could be provided via display panels in national parks and forests; in museums, libraries, zoos and aquariums; or by more traditional teaching programs in schools and local communities.

Community and stakeholder engagement Have local communities, national and local governments, field researchers, the ex situ conservation community, private landholders and other stakeholders been involved with the development of the plan? What actions have been developed to ensure that they remain involved, and play their part in achieving the outcomes of the plan?

In-situ conservation In-situ refers to the conservation of habitats, species and ecosystems where they naturally occur, in which elements of biodiversity as well as the natural processes and interactions are conserved. In-situ is considered the most appropriate way of conserving biodiversity. Conserving the areas where populations of species exist naturally is an underlying condition for the conservation of biodiversity. That is why protected areas form a central element of any national strategy to conserve biodiversity. Approximately 8,500 protected areas exist throughout the world in 169 countries. This covers about 750 million hectares of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, which amounts to 5.2 % of the Earth’s land surface, (Grant et al., 1998).

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Map of Kenya showing National Parks and Reserves

Conservation Action for Kenya’s Biodiversity

Wildlife Population Management Solutions a. DNA fingerprinting b. Population viability analysis and metapopulations c. Translocation d. Legal protection e. Captive breeding

Wildlife Habitat Management Solutions a. Preserve design b. Habitat management c. Ecosystem management d. Adaptive management

Preserve Design Because of all the problems that face populations when their habitat shrinks and is fragmented into isolated islands, few species can persist if their habitat is reduced to a single island, especially if that island is small. The key to conserving rare species and vanishing ecological communities is to secure habitat preserve networks that are designed to accomplish long-term protection. We now understand a great deal about how to design these networks so as to minimize the risks rare species face. Single-population modelling help us project the minimum size required to reduce local extinctions to acceptably low levels, and meta-population modelling can help estimate the

Page 34 of 58 extinction probabilities for alternative network configurations. These modelling exercises have resulted in a series of “rules” guiding the design of preserves and preserve networks. The most important of these rules are:

1. Bigger is usually better, because larger preserves contain larger total population sizes, reducing vulnerability to stochastic variation. 2. Round or square is better than long and skinny, because round preserves have the least amount of edge per area. 3. Create multiple preserves whenever possible, as this minimizes the chance that a catastrophe will wipe out an entire population. 4. Ensure at least one large preserve in the network, as this provides a reliable source of dispersers to recolonize smaller patches following local extinctions. 5. Minimize distances among preserves, to facilitate local movements between patches and reduce genetic isolation among them. 6. Add steppingstones and corridors between preserves, as these small pieces of habitat greatly facilitate movement among preserves, thereby allowing a fragmented preserve system to act more as if it were larger and more continuous. 7. A two-dimensional landscape configuration is better than linear, because it promotes opportunities for recolonization among all habitat patches.

Protecting a series of habitat preserves by properly managing “islands” of habitat has become the single most important means for protecting the rarest endangered biodiversity. On continental islands, each habitat patch retains some opportunity for recolonization as long as we can ensure that multiple sources of colonists continue to exist in separate patches.

Habitat management Most species that are endangered today were vulnerable early on, because they have narrowly specialized habitat tolerances. Our principal means for maintaining such species is to protect many separate populations by preserving patches of their required habitat. However, simply setting a habitat patch aside rarely suffices to ensure its long-term preservation. Left unattended, most habitats remain subject to continuing influences from humans, either directly (such as continued introduction of predators) or indirectly (for instance, artificially altered hydro periods). Therefore, most natural preserves require habitat management to remain suitable for the species and ecological systems they are designed to protect.

Mimicking natural disturbances can be the most important and difficult responsibility in modern habitat management. For example, many grasslands support higher species diversity when they are subject to periodic disturbances that mimic the temporary passage of a wild ungulate herd. Thus, in the absence of wild ungulates carefully managed “short-rotation” grazing by cattle can improve grasslands as bird habitat. On the other hand, cattle tend to loaf and forage near streams, causing erosion of stream banks and degradation of the riparian thickets that are so important for breeding bird communities. Proper management of cattle grazing, therefore, requires construction and maintenance of fencing to permit control of stocking rates and exposure periods within each management unit, and to limit the access of cattle to riparian habitats.

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Species diversity in many habitats around the world (such as native grasslands, savannas, scrubs, and numerous types of forests) is maintained by periodic wildfire. Many of the “post-fire specialists” may be more endangered today by fire suppression than by outright habitat loss, in these cases, proper habitat management requires prescribed burning to maintain the ecological conditions under which the species evolved.

Ecosystem Management Ecosystem management means understanding and maintenance of the whole range of natural processes. Over the past half century, ecologists have begun to appreciate the complexity of relationships among species and communities across large landscapes. Because these relationships occur at many scales, protection of a single target species (for example, a declining bird) actually requires protecting a host of ecological processes such as fire, periodic flooding, nutrient cycling, plant succession, and seasonal migrations. Such processes may occur unpredictably (for example, damaging storms), or in cycles that may be daily (such as the activity patterns of insectivorous birds and their prey); annual (for instance, seasonal flooding of vernal pools); regular multi-year (predator-prey cycles, for example); or irregular multi-year (such as floods or fires). Thus, the most important management objective for preserving native species becomes ensuring that these processes continue to exist as they did prior to human impact.

Adaptive Management Many of our biggest challenges in conserving birds and mammals and their habitats occur because we almost always make management decisions without knowing everything we’d like to know about a system. Therefore, effective ecosystem management requires that before we begin we define our target and recognize the gaps in our knowledge. We then proceed using a three-step process: (1) Set goals in terms of desired out comes of management actions (for example, strive to sustain a certain population size or density of a target bird species, or a specified range of abundance values for different species in a habitat); (2) keep learning new details about how the ecosystem works, through experimentation and monitoring, so that we know how our target species respond to different management actions; and (3) modify our management plans so that they better accomplish the goals. As time goes on, therefore, we adapt management techniques to incorporate our new understanding about the system.

Beginning in the I980s this concept was formalized into a new approach to hands-on habitat management called adaptive management.

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The approach stresses the importance of learning as we go by incorporating landscape-scale experiments (such as different burn regimes, grazing frequencies) accompanied by question- driven monitoring of key species and processes (e.g. bird censuses or measurements of nest success in different habitats). Adaptive management also calls for being ready, willing, and able to modify management techniques as we learn new information. Adaptive management represents an important opportunity for public agencies to partner with private conservation groups and research institutions to accomplish the most effective long-term management of the land.

Adaptive approaches to conservation management, a general approach to conservation planning that is valuable in multiple situations

PRIORITY ECOSYSTEMS AND SPECIES An enormous species of birds, Herps and mammals inhabit the country’s varied habitats, from its crowded and colorful coral reefs to icy alpine moorlands. Kenya’s rich biodiversity can be attributed to a number of factors, including a long evolutionary history, the country’s varied and diverse habitat types and ecosystems, diversity of landscapes, variable climatic conditions, and the convergence of at least seven biomes. These unique and biodiversity-rich regions include (1) East African Coast biome including the Indian Ocean Islands of Lamu and Kisite, the coastal forests of Arabuko-Sokoke and the lower Tana River; (2) the Afro-montane forests of Mount Kenya, Aberdare and Mount Elgon; (3) Kakamega’seasternmost outliers of the Guineo-Congolian equatorial forest; and the (4) Somali-Masai biome including the Northern dry lands that form part of the distinct Horn of Africa biodiversity region; (5) the large Afrotropical grassland Highlands

Page 37 of 58 biome; (6) the small Lake Victoria Basin biome and the (7) Sudan and Guinea Savannah biome. These ecosystems collectively contain high levels of animal species diversity and genetic pool variability with some species being endemic or rare, critically endangered, vulnerable or near- threatened. Species Action Plans Species Action Plan assesses the conservation status of species and their habitats, and outlines conservation priorities for the species. ➢ Species: Common and scientific names/synonyms, subspecies, if relevant. ➢ Photo: A photo (if available) of the species ➢ Conservation status: Global and national IUCN Red List categories, CITES, and any other national conservation status. ➢ Distribution, population size and trends ➢ Habitat and ecology: Habitat preferences and general comments on ecology. ➢ Primary threats: Brief outline of the main threats identified as being of immediate and primary concern to the species. ➢ Conservation measures required: Outline of planned short-, medium- and long-term actions ➢ Current protection: is the species and its habitat currently protected? ➢ Current and previous conservation actions: Are any actions currently underway to conserve this species, either in situ or ex situ? ➢ Knowledge gaps: Specific gaps in our knowledge of the species, which are relevant to conserving them. ➢ Challenges and obstacles: That might stand in the way of achieving the goals of this plan ➢ Budget and funding sources: A rough estimate of overall costs over the life of the plan

Multi-Species Action Plans (MSAPs) are designed to coordinate conservation action that seeks to protect groups of threatened species that occur across similar habitats.

Habitats and Ecosystem Action Plan

The extensive network of protected areas gazetted as national parks and reserves offer a greater opportunity for Kenya’s biodiversity conservation.

1. Endangered ecosystems

Mara National Reserve, Mara Conservancy, Siana, Koiyaki, Olare Orok Lemek, Ol Pieyei, Loita hills, plains and forest, Suswa, Nguruman, Maji Moto, Ol Choro Orua, Ol Gulului/ Lolorashi Group Ranch, Mbirikani Group Ranch, Kuku A and B Group Ranches, Selengei Group Ranch, Ol Gulului Trust Land, Kimana Group Ranch, Rombo Group Ranch, West Chyulu National Park,Mashuru, Nairobi National park, Athi-Kitengela & Kaputei Plains, Machakos ranches, Lake Nakuru N.P and its catchment, Mau Forest Complex, Soysambu Ranch, Marula Ranch, Lake Elementaita and its catchment and its basin, Soysambu Ranch,

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Marula ranch, Eburru Forest, Sibiloi National Park, Kerio valley, Lake Turkana, Mt. Kulal, Loima hills, Mt. Nyiro, Central and Southern Islands National Parks, Nairobi Ranch, Kipini, Witu forest, Tana Primate National Primate Reserve, Lango la Simba Ranch, Sheikh Salim Ranch.

2. Areas of environmental significance

Baringo Ecosystem, Boni-Dodori -Kiunga Ecosystem, Malindi- Watamu Ecosystem, Mt. Elgon Ecosystem, Mt. Kenya Ecosystem, Marsabit Ecosystem, Lake Naivasha Ecosystem, Aberdare Ecosystem Ranges, Tsavo Ecosystem, Shimba Hills Ecosystem.

3. Water towers of national importance

Mt. Kenya Ecosystem, Aberdares Ecosystem, Mt. Elgon Ecosystem, Mau Forest Complex Ecosystem, Cherangany Forests, Shimba Hills Ecosystem, Chyulu Hills, Taita Hills, Marsabit Forest, Kibwezi Forest, Ngong Forest, Karura Forest, Mathews Range, Mua Hills, Loita Hills, Kakamega Forest National Reserve, Bonjoge Forest, Ol Donyo Sabuk National Park, Ndundori Hills

Habitats Action Plan Management & conservation of forests, wetlands, grasslands and bushlands. At habitat level, the priority is to establish the ecological processes important in maintaining biodiversity. Management issues: • Effects of fragmentation and degradation • Relationship between intensity of human use and Bird/Herpes/Mammal community structure (what levels of use are ‘sustainable’?) • Higher-level ecological processes such as pollination and seed dispersal, and how these are affected when disturbance alters the bird/mammal/herpes community • Identification of indicator species or guilds that can be used to assess habitat condition or biodiversity value • The value of birds/mammals/herpes in particular habitats and to humankind.

Sites Action Plan The protection offered by national parks and other protected areas, and the identification by NMK & Birdlife International of Important Bird Areas (IBAs) – then Important Biodiversity Areas, provide the basis of strategies of bird and other biodiversity conservation that are site based.

The priorities are Important Bird Areas and potential Important Bird Areas. Among these, targets for research should be based on (1) the priority listing for conservation action (‘critical’ CR,

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‘urgent’ UR or ‘high’ HI) and (2) the information already available for conservation planning. The Important Bird Areas (IBA) programme in Kenya: This programme was started in the 1990s with the function of identifying and protecting a network of sites at a biogeographic scale, critical for the long term viability of naturally occurring bird populations, across the range of those bird species for which a sites-based approach is appropriate (Bennun and Njoroge 1999). Sixty IBAs (see Figure 6) were identified and documented following an internationally agreed criterion in the late 1990s (Bennun and Njoroge 1999). Since then two more sites – Lake Olborossat and Kwenia cliffs have been added onto the list. Since IBAs are key sites for conservation of birds and other biodiversity in Kenya the programme helped set conservation priorities for Kenya.

Figure #: Map of the Important Bird Areas in Kenya

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ECOLOGICAL CONCEPTS Ecological concepts are general understandings (or facts) about ecosystems and ecosystem management and conservation. Concept 1 Levels of biological organization (genes, populations, species, communities, ecosystems, landscapes, regions). Life is dynamic and involves multi-scale ecological patterns and processes that operate from genes, populations, species, communities, ecosystems, landscapes, to regions. Although each scale is important, the interdependence of scales needs to be understood and assessed in order to conserve biodiversity. Each of these scales interacts with their finer/faster and coarser/slower neighbouring scales resulting in hierarchies and adaptive cycles that have been referred to as a panarchy.

Concept 2 Native species are those that naturally exist at a given location or in a particular ecosystem – i.e., they have not been moved there by humans. Invasive alien species have the potential to displace native species and threaten ecosystems or species with economic or environmental harm. Invasive alien species can be particularly damaging since they are not subject to natural predators and diseases that keep populations of native species in check. Some invasive aliens cause a fundamental change in ecosystem composition, structure and function.

Concept 3 A keystone species, ecosystem or process has a disproportionate influence on an ecosystem or landscape • Keystone species have effects on biological communities that are disproportionate to their abundance and biomass. The loss of keystone species results in broader community or ecosystem-level effects. A keystone species interacts with other species through predation, symbiotic dependencies such as plant-pollinator relationships, or ecosystem modification (e.g., cavity nesters, beaver impoundments). • A keystone ecosystem is particularly important because it provides habitat for a large portion or critical elements of an area’s biodiversity. Riparian ecosystems near streams, lakes and wetlands are considered keystone since they cover a relatively small area yet support a disproportionately large number of species. Estuaries are also a keystone ecosystem because of their disproportionately large influence relative to their size and abundance. • A keystone process is fundamental to the maintenance of an ecosystem.

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Concept 4 Population viability/thresholds “Viability” in this context refers to the probability of survival of a population/species in the face of ecological processes such as disturbance. When the amount of habitat available declines below the “extinction threshold”, a population/species will decline and eventually disappear; in addition to habitat for particular populations, a species’ survival depends on maintaining healthy genetic variability. Species-level details about movement, behaviour and life history traits demonstrate that threshold responses vary by species and can be difficult to detect. The concept of minimum viable population refers to the smallest isolated population having a reasonable chance of surviving over time despite the foreseeable effects of demographic, environmental and genetic events and natural disturbances. Therefore, in smaller populations, the reproduction and survival of individuals decreases, leading to a continuing decline in population numbers. This effect may be due to a number of causes such as inbreeding or the ability to find a mate, which may become increasingly difficult as population density decreases.

Concept 5 Ecological resilience is the capacity of an ecosystem to cope with disturbance or stress and return to a stable state. The concept of ecological resilience is consistent with the notion that ecosystems are complex, dynamic and adaptive systems that are rarely at equilibrium; most systems can potentially exist in various states. Moreover, they continually change in unpredictable ways in response to a changing environment. This concept measures the amount of stress or disruption required to transform a system that is maintained by one set of structures and processes to a different set of structures and functions. A resilient ecosystem can better withstand shocks and rebuild itself without collapsing into a different state. Ecosystem change can occur suddenly if the resilience that normally buffers change has been reduced. Such changes become more likely when slow variables erode. Slow variables include the diversity of species and their abundance in the ecosystem, and regional variability in the environment due to factors such as climate. All of these variables are affected by human influence. Both functional diversity and response diversity are important to maintain ecological resilience. Functional diversity is the number of functionally different groups of species and consists of two aspects: one that affects the influence of a function within a scale (see ‘levels of biological organization’ above) and the other that aggregates that influence across scales. Response diversity is the diversity of responses to environmental change among species contributing to the same ecological function and provides adaptive capacity given complex systems, uncertainty and human influence. In a rangeland, for example, functional diversity increases the productivity of a plant community as a whole, bringing together species that take water from different depths, grow at different speeds, and store different amounts of carbon and nutrients. Response diversity enables a community to keep performing in the same way in the face of stresses and disturbances such as grazing and drought.

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Concept 6 Disturbances are individually distinct events, either natural or human-induced, that cause a change in the existing condition of an ecological system. Disturbances can be described in terms of their type, intensity, spatial extent, frequency and other factors. • Natural disturbances include wildfire, flood, freshet, Lake turnover, drought, wind-throw, and insect and disease outbreaks. Some “natural disturbances” may be responding to human-caused climate change – a current example is the mountain pine beetle epidemic in the interior of the province. Extreme natural disturbance events often characterize an ecosystem and ensure the presence of some species. Disturbance is critical to maintaining the richness of systems (e.g., riparian ecosystems) or rejuvenating them. • Human-induced disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems include, for example, timber harvesting, road building, and rural and urban development. Human-caused aquatic disturbances include damming, water extraction from rivers and streams, wetland drainage and pollution. Some of these human related disturbances cause lasting changes that can fundamentally alter ecosystems and modify our approach to ecosystem management. For example, to reduce fire damage on property and in forests, the management response is to reduce the size and intensity of forest fires, which truncates the range of disturbances of ecosystems. • Biological legacies are the elements of a pre-disturbance ecosystem that survive to participate in its recovery. They are a structural consequence of the selective filter that the disturbance process imposes on the ecosystem. Biological legacies are critical elements of ecosystem dynamics across a broad range of ecosystems studied. Examples are standing live and dead trees in forests, which are common within the perimeter of a wildfire and play critical roles in the establishment of new forests and in sustaining biodiversity. The term “natural range of variability” (NRV) is used to describe naturally occurring variation over time of the composition and structure found in a system, resulting in part from sequences of disturbances. Climate change will play an important (though not the only) role in future changes to the NRV. The current rate of rapid climate change has the potential to shift ecosystems out of the range of conditions they experienced historically. As a result, the past will become an increasingly unreliable guide for estimating the current and future NRV for an area. Alternatively, NRV could be estimated using climate models, however, it should be recognized that a time lag would be expected as the composition and structure of an ecosystem shifts due to changes in the NRV.

Concept 7 Connectivity/fragmentation is the degree to which ecosystem structure facilitates or impedes the movement of organisms between resource patches. What constitutes connectivity is scale- dependent and varies for each species depending on its habitat requirements, sensitivity to disturbance and vulnerability to human-caused mortality. Connectivity allows individual organisms to move in response to changing conditions, such as seasonal cycles, a forest fire or climate change. Loss of connectivity results in fragmentation. The degree and characteristics of

Page 43 of 58 natural connectivity vary with differences in landscape type. Humans can impact connectivity and cause fragmentation in ways that can adversely affect biodiversity. Connectivity and fragmentation are both important contributors to ecosystem function and processes. For example, some habitat types (e.g., caves, bogs, cliffs) may be ‘naturally’ fragmented; others (e.g., streams, riparian habitat) are essentially linear; and others are often distributed in large blocks or patches. A key management challenge is how to deal with habitats that existed naturally in large patches but which, as a result of human activity, have been converted into much smaller, sometimes isolated patches. Another challenge is to reduce ‘unnatural’ connectivity to naturally fragmented and isolated habitats so that the unique species they support are not displaced by invading species.

Ecological Principles Ecological principles are basic assumptions (or beliefs) about ecosystems and how they function and are informed by the ecological concepts. Ecological principles build on ecological concepts to draw key conclusions that can then guide human applications aimed at conserving biodiversity.

Principle 1 Protection of species and species’ subdivisions will conserve genetic diversity At the population level, the important processes are ultimately genetic and evolutionary because these maintain the potential for continued existence of species and their adaptation to changing conditions. In most instances managing for genetic diversity directly is impractical and difficult to implement. The most credible surrogate for sustaining genetic variability is maintaining not only species but also the spatial structure of genetic variation within species (such as sub-species and populations). Maintenance of populations distributed across a species’ natural range will assist in conserving genetic variability. This ensures the continuation of locally adapted genetic variants. Retaining a variety of individuals and species permits the adaptability needed to sustain ecosystem productivity in changing environments and can also cause further diversity (future adaptability). This will be particularly important given climate change; for example, the genetic potential of populations at the edge of their range may be particularly important to help facilitate species adaptation to changes. Species that are collapsing towards the edge (versus centre) of their range and disjunct populations (where a local population is disconnected from the continuous range of the species) are also particularly important to consider, given climate change, in order to conserve genetic diversity and enable adaptation.

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Principle 2 Maintaining habitat is fundamental to conserving species A species habitat is the ecosystem conditions that support its life requirements. Our understanding of habitat is based on our knowledge of a species’ ecology and how that determines where a species is known to occur or likely to occur. Habitat can be considered at a range of spatial and temporal scales that include specific microsites (e.g., occupied by certain invertebrates, bryophytes, some lichens), large heterogeneous habitats, or occupancy of habitat during certain time periods (e.g., breeding sites, winter range areas). Therefore, conserving habitat requires a multi-scale approach from regions to landscapes to ecosystems to critical habitat elements, features and structures.

Principle 3 Large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar habitat The theory of island biogeography illustrates a basic principle that large areas usually contain more species than smaller areas with similar habitat because they can support larger and more viable populations. The theory holds that the number of species on an island is determined by two factors: the distance from the mainland and island size. These would affect the rate of extinction on the islands and the level of immigration. Other factors being similar (including distance to the mainland), on smaller islands the chance of extinction is greater than on larger ones. This is one reason why larger islands can hold more species than smaller ones. In the context of applying the theory more broadly, the “island” can be any area of habitat surrounded by areas unsuitable for the species on the island. Therefore, a system of areas conserved for biodiversity that includes large areas can effectively support more viable populations.

Principle 4 All things are connected but the nature and strength of those connections vary Species play many different roles in communities and ecosystems and are connected by those roles to other species in different ways and with varying degrees of strength. It is important to understand key interactions. Some species (e.g., keystone species) have a more profound effect

Page 45 of 58 on ecosystems than others. Particular species and networks of interacting species have key, broad-scale ecosystem-level effects while others do not. The ways in which species interact vary in addition to the strengths of those interactions. Species can be predator and/or prey, mutualist or synergist. Mutualist species provide a mutually beneficial association for each other such as fungi that colonize plant roots and aid in the uptake of soil mineral nutrients. Synergistic species create an effect greater than that predicted by the sum of effects each is able to create independently. The key issue is that it is important to determine which among the many interactions the strong ones are because those are the ones toward which attention need to be directed.

Principle 5 Disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities, and ecosystems The type, intensity, frequency and duration of disturbances shape the characteristics of populations, communities and ecosystems including their size, shape and spatial relationships. Natural disturbances have played a key role in forming and maintaining natural ecosystems by influencing their structure including the size, shape and distribution of patches. The more regions, landscapes, ecosystems and local habitat elements resemble those that were established from natural disturbances, the greater the probability that native species and ecological processes will be maintained. This approach can be strengthened by developing an improved understanding of how ecosystems respond to both natural and human disturbances, thus creating opportunities to build resilience in the system. For example, high frequency, low intensity fires have shaped some forest ecosystems while low frequency, high intensity fires have shaped grassland ecosystems. Since ecosystems can change dramatically at the site level due to natural disturbances, considering their composition and structure of habitats at the landscape-level may be more useful. For terrestrial ecosystems, this means taking into account: a. Species composition; b. The amount and patch size distribution; c. The variety and proportion of consecutive stages of terrestrial habitat from young to old; and d. The diversity of within community structure.

It is important to recognize that for some less mobile species, distribution of habitat is potentially as influential as amount of habitat (i.e., patch size; connectivity).

Principle 6 Climate influences terrestrial, freshwater and marine ecosystems Climate is usually defined as all of the states of the atmosphere seen at a place over many years. Climate has a dominant effect on biodiversity as it influences meteorological variables like

Page 46 of 58 temperature, precipitation and wind with consequences for many ecological and physical processes, such as photosynthesis and fire behaviour. For example, major temperature fluctuations in surface waters in the Ocean due to El Nino climatic events can influence weather and significantly warm temperatures. This in turn can increase some wildlife populations or impact the migration timing of some migratory bird populations. Because of the key role of climate, rapid climate change profoundly changes ecosystems. For example, climate change enables population outbreaks in some species. Alterations to stream flow and timing of freshet resulting from climate change affects fish and waterfowl.

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BIOTECHNOLOGY IN BIODIVERSITY One of the tools used to enhance biodiversity is biotechnology. Biotechnology is generally considered to be “any technique that uses living organisms to make or modify a product, to improve plants or animals, or to develop microorganisms for specific uses”. Modern biotechnologies offer vast potential for improving the quality and increasing the productivity of agriculture, forestry and fisheries.

Biotechnology already assists the conservation of plant and animal genetic resources through: 1. new methods for collecting and storing genes (as seed and tissue culture). 2. detection and elimination of diseases in gene bank collections. 3. identification of useful genes. 4. improved techniques for long-term storage. 5. safer and more efficient distribution of germplasm to users.

DNA Banks More plant conservationists are turning to DNA technologies to have effective conservation strategies. The DNA bank is an efficient, simple and long-term method used in conserving genetic resource for biodiversity. Compared to traditional seed or field gene banks, DNA banks lessen the risk of exposing genetic information in natural surroundings. It only requires small sample size for storage and keeps the stable nature of DNA in cold storage. Since whole plants cannot be obtained from DNA, the stored genetic material must be introduced through genetic techniques. Gene bank documentation has been enhanced with the advances in information technology, geographical information systems (GIS), and DNA marker.

In vitro techniques are also valuable for conserving plant biodiversity. Such techniques involve three basic steps: culture initiation, culture maintenance and multiplication, and storage. For medium-term storage (few months to few years), slow growth strategies are applied. For undefined time of storage, cryopreservation is applied. In cryopreservation, plant tissues are processed to become artificial seeds and stored at very low temperatures to impede growth. Cryopreservation allows 20 percent increase in regeneration process compared to other conservation methods.

Germplasm refers to living tissues from which new plants can form. It can be a whole plant, or part of a plant such as leaf, stem, pollen, or even just a number of cells. A germplasm holds information on the genetic makeup of the species. Scientists evaluate the diversity of plant germplasms to find ways on how to develop new better yielding and high-quality varieties that can resist diseases, constantly evolving pests, and environmental stresses. Germplasm evaluation involves screening of germplasm in terms of physical, genetic, economic, biochemical, physiological, pathological, and entomological attributes.

Molecular markers are used to map out the genetic base of crops and select favorable traits to come up with a better germplasm for growers. Molecular markers are short strings or sequence of nucleic acid which composes a DNA segment that are closely linked to specific genes in a chromosome. Thus, if the markers are present, then the specific gene of interest is also present. Marker-assisted selection (MAS) such as single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), is widely used in different

Page 48 of 58 agricultural research centers to design genotyping arrays with thousands of markers spread over the entire genome of the crops.

After observing the desired traits in selected plants, these are then incorporated through modern or conventional breeding methods in existing crop varieties. Generated plants with the desired trait may be tested in the field for agronomic assessment and resistance screening against pests and diseases. Selected plants plants will be multiplied through tissue culture and other techniques.

DNA and Protein Profiling To come up with effective conservation management programs for endangered crop varieties, it is important to evaluate their genetic relatedness and distances from other relatives. Such information could be derived through DNA profiling commonly conducted through electrophoresis.

Through this method, an individual organism is identified using unique characteristics of its DNA. DNA profiling depends on sections of the DNA that do not code for a protein. These areas contain repetitive sections of a sequence called short tandem repeats (STRs). Organisms inherit different numbers of repeated sequences from each parent and the variation in the number of repeats within an STR lead to DNA of different lengths. The targeted STR regions on the DNA are multiplied through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and then separated by electrophoresis in a genetic analyzer. The analyzer is composed of a gel-filled capillary tube where DNA travels. When electric current is passed through the tube, the DNA fragments move through the gel tube by size (smallest travels first). The digital output of the analyzer is read and interpreted through a genotyping software.16

Proteins are involved in different important processes within the cell. The entire set of proteins in a cell is referred to as proteome, and the study concerned with how proteins work and assembled is called proteomics.17 Proteomics is based on the end-products of gene activity: the protein patterns formed from unique genetic activities. Through two-dimensional acrylamide gel electrophoresis (2DE), complex mix of proteins is sorted in based on each protein’s specific combination of charge and molecular weight. These patterns are standard for protein discovery because the same proteins would migrate at the same points on the gel. The protein bands are developed in digital images and then analyzed in mass spectrometers.18

Biotech for Biodiversity Utilization Most cultivated plant species have lost their inherent traits that came from their wild ancestors. These traits include resistance to harsh environmental conditions, adaptation to various soil and climate conditions, and resistance to pests and pathogens.19 To utilize these important traits in cultivated varieties, scientists search for the genes that confer such important traits. They use conventional and modern biotechnology to create improved genetic variations of crops.

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One of the most widely used traditional technique in plant breeding is hybridization or the crossing of parent lines (pure breeds of the same species) with desirable traits to come up with an improved line called hybrid. It takes advantage of heterosis or hybrid vigor, a phenomenon that brings out the superior qualities of the pure breeds through breeding. Desired traits can also be employed in plants through modern genetic modification techniques such as particle bombardment and Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation.20

Development of biotechnologies raised fears on loss of genetic resources on the part of farmers and developing countries. This called for public policy interventions that promote provision of public goods associated with agricultural biodiversity conservation and direct biotechnology development to meet the needs of the developing world. One of the policies formed to answer this need is the Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity which was adopted at the 10th meeting of the Conference of Parties on October 29, 2010 in Nagoya, Japan. Through the Protocol, a legal framework is set for the biotechnology industry to manage access to genetic resources and provide fair and equal sharing of benefits.21 The Protocol was acknowledged by the Biotechnology Industry Organization (BIO) as a helpful guideline to meet the common goal of conserving and sustaining biological diversity in all levels.

A wide range of biotech products have shown that biotechnology has been highly profitable for farmers and the society especially in the fields of agriculture and medicine. Biotechnology applications offer opportunities to make substantial advances in our knowledge of the diversity of some of the most important crops.23 Together with the traditional techniques, these applications lead us to more impact in plant genetic resources and biodiversity in general and in return meet the needs of the massively growing population and sustain life under rapidly changing climate.

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THE INSTITUTIONAL FRAMEWORK ON BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT (POLICY, LEGAL & ADMINISTRATION ARRANGEMENTS) IN KENYA The following key institutions relate to wildlife governance structures in Kenya: • The Ministry of environment, natural resources and regional development authorities (MENR&RDA). • Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS). • Kenya Forestry Service. • National Environment Management Authority (NEMA). • National Museums of Kenya. • State Department of Fisheries (FiD) and Blue Economy. • Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI). • Kenya Marine and Fisheries Research Institute (KEMFRI). • Department of Resource Surveys and Remote Sensing (DRSRS). • Kenya National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (KNBSAP). • Universities (UoN, UoE, KARU, etc.). • Community Conservation Groups / Associations. • Kenya Wildlife Conservancies Association (KWCA). • Local and international non-governmental organizations (NGOs). • Mpala Research Centre (MRC). • Wildlife Clubs of Kenya Centre for Tourism Training and Research. • Nature Kenya. • African Conservation Centre (ACC). • International Organizations (AEWA, AWF, WWF, IUCN, Birdlife International, UNESCO, UNEP). • Africa Wildlife Foundation (AWF). • World Wildlife Fund (WWF): Eastern Africa Regional Programme Office. • Conservancy and the Conservation Development Center (CDC). • International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). • International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). • Earthwatch Institute. • Wildlife Conservation International (WCI).

The Ministry of environment, natural resources and regional development authorities The Ministry of environment, natural resources and regional development authorities has its fundamental goal and purpose of managing, conserving, and protecting wildlife resources in Kenya. The Ministry of Environment, Natural Resources and Regional Development Authorities was established by Executive Order No. 2/2013 of May 2013 following the merge of the Ministries of Environment and Mineral Resources, Forestry and Wildlife and Regional Development. The Ministry is mandated to undertake protection, conservation and development of environment and natural resources for sustainable development. The mission of the Ministry is to facilitate good governance in the protection, restoration, conservation, development and management of environment, and natural resources for equitable and sustainable development.

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NATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORKS a) WILDLIFE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT ACT, 2013 (NO. 47).

Wildlife resources in Kenya are managed by the Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS) through the Wildlife Conservation and Management Act, 2013 (No. 47). The Wildlife Act came into force on January 10th 2014, having received Presidential assent on 24th December 2013. This Act provides for protection, conservation and management of wildlife in Kenya and related matters. The Act shall apply to all wildlife resources on public, community and private land, and Kenya territorial waters. The Wildlife Conservation and Management Act, 2013 has a total of 23 regulations. These subsidiary regulations include Bio-Prospecting; Regulations on Compensation; Regulation of effective management of Wetlands; Wildlife Research; Access, Incentives and Benefit Sharing and Wildlife Security Operations. The 119 sections of this Act are divided into 15 Parts: Preliminary (I); Establishment of the Service (II); Financial provisions (III); The wildlife regulation mechanisms (IV); Establishment of Wildlife Endowment Fund (V); Conservation, protection and management (VI); Establishment. This new law is aimed at improving the protection, conservation, sustainable use and management of the country’s wildlife resources. Consequently, the law was drafted with a view to addressing the loss of wildlife, which had exacerbated despite high profile conservation efforts, by various institutions. This loss in wildlife resources was attributed in varying proportions to a combination of policy, institutional and market failures. This new law provides for restructured governance of wildlife resources by separating the regulation and management functions from those of research. Furthermore, new structures have been established at the County level in accordance with the Constitution of Kenya 2010. The Act also sets out important principles that include:

1. Effective public participation in the management of wildlife resources, thereby setting a basis for the strengthening of community based natural resources management. 2. Use of the ecosystem approach in the management of wildlife 3. Equitable sharing of benefits accruing from wildlife resources by Kenyans 4. Sustainable utilization 5. Recognition and encouragement of wildlife conservation and management as a form of land use on public, community and private land. It further gives every person the right to practice wildlife conservation as a land use and states that benefits of wildlife conservation shall be derived by the land users in order to offset cost and to ensure the value and management of wildlife do not decline. 6. The perennial challenge of poaching and wildlife habitat destruction has been looked into with this law setting out stiffer fines and punishments for offenders (a move that is expected to discourage would be offenders). Communities living with wildlife or those that live adjacent to protected areas will be a happier lot as this law provides for a significant increase in the awards for injury and death resulting from wild animals. 7. The increase of wildlife related human fatalities has stimulated the discussion around defining compensation procedures as well as enhancing wildlife security by increasing the number of rangers, organized patrols, and modern security equipment. It has been put forward that pastoral grazing in the parks and reserves as well as the number of wildlife conservancies should be regulated.

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b) ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT AND COORDINATION ACT (EMCA) 1999 (Amendment) Act, 2015

EMCA provides for an appropriate legal and institutional framework for the management of Kenya’s environment and matters connected to the protection of the environment. Main section deals with Air pollution, Emissions, Environment, Environmental auditing, Environmental management systems (EMS), Government/Policy, Hazardous/Dangerous Substances/Materials, Pollution, Waste, Water pollution. Section 7 (1) established National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) as the principal instrument of government in the implementation of all policies relating to the environment. NEMA became operational in 2002. The National Environment Council (NEC) was established by Section 4(1) of EMCA. The NEC’s primary function is policy formulation and direction for the purposes of EMCA. Section 55, of EMCA acknowledges the central role of ICZM in the protection of marine and coastal systems. Section 71(d) of the Act stipulates that the Standards and Enforcement Review Committee, in consultation with relevant lead agencies, shall prepare and recommend to the Director-General guidelines or regulations for the preservation of fishing areas, aquatic areas, water sources and reservoirs and other areas where water may need special protection. The environmental management and coordination act (EMCA) 1999 (amendment) act, 2015 came in force (since Jun 17, 2015). This Act amends the Environmental Management and Co- ordination Act, 1999 with respect to a wide variety of matters including: access any information that relates to the implementation of this Act; administration; duties of the National Environment Management Authority; constitution a County Environment Committee in every County; composition, functions etc. of County Environment Committees; the National Environmental Complaints Committee; the adoption of a National Environmental Action Plan. The principal Act is amended by including new structures that the Constitution of Kenya 2010 created particularly entrenchment of county government in environment and natural resource management and by inserting the following new section immediately after section (3)- . 3A. (1) Subject to the law relating to access to information, every person has the right to access to any information that relates to the implementation of this Act that is in the possession of the Authority, lead agencies or any other person. (2) A person desiring the information referred to in subsection (1) shall apply to the Authority or a lead agency and may be granted access to such information on payment of the prescribed fee.

c) FISHERIES MANAGEMENT AND DEVELOPMENT ACT, 2016 This Act provides with respect to a wide range of matters concerning the fisheries sector including fisheries management and conservation, aquaculture and fish processing and marketing. It establishes the: 1. Kenya Fisheries Advisory Council (“Council”), 2. The Kenya Fisheries Service (“Service”), 3. The Fish Marketing Authority (“Authority”), 4. The Fisheries Research and Development Fund and 5. The Fish Levy Trust Fund.

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The Act also implements obligations under international law concerning fisheries. The objective of this Act is to protect, manage, use and develop the aquatic resources in a manner which is consistent with ecologically sustainable development, to uplift the living standards of the fishing communities and to introduce fishing to traditionally non-fishing communities and to enhance food security. Guiding principles of the Act include, among other things, conservation and protection of fisheries habitats, ensuring the effective application of the ecosystem approach to fisheries management and that biodiversity and genetic diversity in the marine environment is maintained and enhanced, encouraging the participation of users of the fisheries resources, and the general community, in the management of fisheries, application of the precautionary approach to the management and development of the fisheries at no less standard than is set out in any international agreement.

d) THE CLIMATE CHANGE ACT, 2016 An ACT of Parliament provide for a regulatory framework for enhanced response to climate change. This Act shall be applied for the objects and development, management, implementation and regulation purposes. The act provides mechanisms to enhance climate change resilience and low carbon development for the sustainable development of Kenya. Without prejudice to subsection (1), this Act shall be applied in all sectors of the economy by the national and county governments to mainstream climate change responses into development planning, decision making and implementation; build resilience and enhance adaptive capacity to the impacts of climate change; formulate programmes and plans to enhance the resilience and adaptive capacity of human and ecological systems to the impacts of climate change; mainstream and reinforce climate change disaster risk reduction into strategies and actions of public and private entities; mainstream intergenerational and gender equity in all aspects of climate change responses; provide incentives and obligations for private sector contribution in achieving low carbon climate resilient development; promote low carbon technologies, improve efficiency and reduce emissions intensity by facilitating approaches and uptake of technologies that support low carbon, and climate resilient development; facilitate capacity development for public participation in climate change responses through awareness creation, consultation, representation and access to information; mobilize and transparently manage public and other financial resources for climate change response; provide mechanisms for, and facilitate climate change research and development, training and capacity building; mainstream the principle of sustainable development into the planning for and decision making on climate change response; and (1) integrate climate change into the exercise of power and functions of all levels of governance, and to enhance cooperative climate change governance between the national government and county governments.

e) NATIONAL MUSEUMS AND HERITAGE ACT, 2006. The act of Parliament to consolidate the law relating to national museums and heritage ; to provide for the establishment, control, management and development of national museums and the identification, protection, conservation and transmission of the cultural and natural heritage of Kenya ; to repeal the Antiquities and Monuments Act and the National Museums Act

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; and for connected purposes. The Heritage Bill which was passed by parliament in 2006 facilitated NMK to effectively address the enforcement of laws concerning Heritage management in Kenya. The Museums and Heritage Act 2006 is a noble attempt to ensure protection of Kenya’s rich and diverse heritage. It is also aimed at establishing new legal framework for Heritage Management that will domesticate some of the international conventions and protocols on heritage for which Kenya has ratified.

f) FOREST CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT ACT, 2016 (NO. 34 OF 2016). An Act of Parliament to give effect to Article 69 of the Constitution with regard to forest resources; to provide for the development and sustainable management, including conservation and rational utilization of all forest resources for the socioeconomic development of the country and for connected purposes. This Act makes provision for the conservation and management of public, community and private forests and areas of forest land that require special protection, defines the rights in forests and prescribes rules for the use of forest land. It also makes provision for community participation of forest lands by community forest association, the trade in forest products, the protection of indigenous forests and the protection of water resources. The act is arranged in 11 Parts (77 sections) namely Preliminary, Administration, Financial Provisions, Conservation and Management of Forests, Community Participation, Incentives for Increasing Forest and Tree Cover, Licensing and Trade in Forest Products, Enforcement and Compliance, Offences and Penalties, Miscellaneous, Transitional Provisions, First Schedule, Second Schedule, Third Schedule [Section 77(A).

g) DRAFT NATIONAL WETLANDS CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT POLICY 2013 The Government is committed to the implementation of this Policy, and acknowledges that development of implementation plan(s) and mechanisms for cross-sectoral coordination will be critical in ensuring the usefulness of the policy in wetland conservation and management. The policy spells out clearly eight objectives to achieve its aim. These are; i. Establish an effective and efficient institutional and legal framework for integrated management and wise use of wetlands which will provide an enabling environment for the participation of all stakeholders. ii. Enhance and maintain functions and values derived from wetlands, protect biological diversity and improve essential processes and life-support systems of wetlands. iii. Promote communication, education and public awareness among stakeholders to enhance their participation in wetland conservation. iv. Carry out demand driven research and monitoring on wetlands to improve scientific information and knowledge base. v. Enhance capacity building within relevant institutions and for personnel involved in conservation and management of wetlands. vi. Establish a national wetlands information management system and database including tools and packages to targeted groups.

Page 55 of 58 vii. Promote innovative planning and integrated management approaches towards wetlands conservation and management in Kenya. viii. Promote partnership and cooperation at regional and international levels for the management of transboundary wetlands and migratory species.

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CONVENTIONS ON BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT.

INTERNATIONAL LEGAL FRAMEWORKS a) THE CONVENTION ON BIOLOGICAL DIVERSITY (CBD) 1992 The Convention on Biological Diversity was opened for signature at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on 5 June 1992 and entered into force on 29 December 1993. The Convention (and its Cartagena Protocol on Biodiversity) provides the main global framework for the protection of all types of biodiversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international legally-binding treaty with three main goals: conservation of biodiversity; sustainable use of biodiversity; and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. Its overall objective is to encourage actions which will lead to a sustainable future. The CBD covers biodiversity at all levels: Ecosystems, species (animals, plants, fungi, microorganisms) and genetic resources. It also covers biotechnology through the Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety. In fact, it covers all possible domains that are directly or indirectly related to biodiversity and its role in development, ranging from science, politics and education to agriculture, business, culture and much more. The governing body of the CBD is the Conference of the Parties (COP). This ultimate authority of all governments (or Parties) that have ratified the treaty meets every two years to review progress, set priorities and commit to work plans. In 2010, Parties to the CBD adopted the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011–2020, a ten-year framework for action by all countries and stakeholders to safeguard biodiversity and the benefits it provides to people. The Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (SCBD) is based in Montreal, Canada. Its main function is to assist governments in the implementation of the CBD and its programmes of work, to organize meetings, draft documents, and coordinate with other international organizations and collect and spread information. The Executive Secretary is the head of the Secretariat.

b) THE CONVENTION ON MIGRATORY SPECIES (CMS/BONN CONVENTION). The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS/Bonn Convention): Intergovernmental treaty which aims to conserve terrestrial, marine and avian migratory species throughout their range, on a global scale, Appendix I of CMS lists migratory species threatened with extinction: Parties strive towards strict protection of the species, their habitats and conservation/restoration/mitigation actions. Appendix II lists migratory species that need or would significantly benefit from international co-operation: Ranges states encouraged to conclude global/regional agreements (legally binding) or less formal instruments like MoUs (The main tools of the Convention). Currently there are 7 Agreements and 18 MoUs. 114 Contracting Parties (with 41 from Africa). The African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) The African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbird Agreement (AEWA) was negotiated under the provisions of Article IV of CMS. It was concluded on 16 June 1995 in the Hague, the Netherlands and entered into force on 1 November 1999. The aim of AEWA is to create a legal basis for concerted conservation and management policy by the Range States for migratory waterbird species. Its mission is to maintain migratory waterbird species and their populations at a favorable conservation status or to restore them to such a status throughout their flyways, over a range of 118 countries. The Technical Committee (TC) provides scientific and technical

Page 57 of 58 advice and information, to the Meeting of the Parties (MOP) and to the AEWA Contracting Parties (through the Agreement Secretariat) and makes recommendations to the MOP regarding the AEWA Action Plan, implementation of the Agreement and further research to be carried out as well as any other tasks requested by the MOP. Secretariats of both CMS and AEWA is based in Bonn and both are administered by UNEP.

c) INTERNATIONAL UNION FOR CONSERVATION OF NATURE (IUCN)

The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), with its headquarters are in Gland, Switzerland, is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. It is involved in data gathering and analysis, research, field projects, advocacy, and education. IUCN's mission is to "influence, encourage and assist societies throughout the world to conserve nature and to ensure that any use of natural resources is equitable and ecologically sustainable". It plays a role in the implementation of several international conventions on nature conservation and biodiversity. IUCN is the world's main authority on the conservation status of species. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species (also known as the IUCN Red List or Red Data List), Established in 1964, has evolved to become the world's most comprehensive information source on the global conservation status of animal, fungi and plant species. It is a critical indicator of the health of the world's biodiversity. It uses a set of criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies. These criteria are relevant to all species and all regions of the world. Far more than a list of species and their status, it is a powerful tool to inform and catalyze action for biodiversity conservation and policy change, critical to protecting the natural resources we need to survive. It provides information about range, population size, habitat and ecology, use and/or trade, threats, and conservation actions that will help inform necessary conservation decisions. The IUCN Red List is produced by the Red List Partnership: BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens Conservation International; Conservation International; International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN); NatureServe; Microsoft; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of Rome; IUCN Species Survival Commission; Texas A&M University; Wildscreen; and Zoological Society of London. More than 28,000 species are threatened with extinction

That is 27% of all assessed species.

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