The Reconstructionist Volume 67, Number 2, Spring 2003 Table of Contents 2 From the Editor Reconstructing the Jewish Community 4 Carl A. Sheingold, Understanding the Moving Target of Jewish Organizational Life in America 13 David Teutsch, Identity and Community: Current Organizing Concerns of the Jewish Community 21 Adina Newberg, The Synagogue: Family, Workplace or Community? 35 Hayim Herring, Peering Into the Future: Considerations for Reconstructing the Synagogue

Viewpoint 48 Seth Goldstein, Reading Toevah: Biblical Scholarship and Difficult Texts

Book Reviews 61 Allen Glicksman, The New Rabbi and the New Rabbinate, a review of The New Rabbi: A Congregation Searches for Its Leader by Stephen Fried 69 Mel Scult, Reconstructionist Liturgy: A Window Into an Evolving Ideology, a review of From Ideology to Liturgy — Reconstructionist Worshp and American Liberal Judaism by Eric Caplan 76 Neil Gillman, Musings of the Master, a review of Communings of the Spirit, The Journals of Mordecai M. Kaplan, Volume I, 1913-1914 edited by Mel Scult 82 Peter S. Knobel, Perspectives on Prayer, a review of Major Philosophers of Jewish Prayer in the Twentieth Century by Jack J. Cohen 87 Neil Amswych, Pluralism Limited, a review of Dignity of Difference by Jonathan Sacks 91 Marsha Pik-Nathan, Mapping the Spiritual Journey, a review of The Journey Home: Discovering the Deep Spiritual Wisdom of the Jewish Tradition by Lawrence A. Hoffman FROM THE EDITOR

One of the less well-known pieces of Mordecai Kaplan’s vision of a recon- structed Jewish community was his hope that American Jewish life could be recreated through a series of local, organic Jewish communities organized under the heading “Judaism as a civilization.” In Kaplan’s vision (or “fan- tasy,” as many of his early followers admitted), instead of having Jews pay dues to a synagogue, fees to a JCC, tuition to a Talmud Torah or religious school and honoraria to clergy for life-cycle officiation, Jews would pay one yearly “membership” in the local Jewish community. In return, this demo- cratically governed community, through its administrative apparatus, would fund the range of services needed by the community, and each member would have access to whatever programs, services, classes or ritual needs might arise. Needless to say, nearly seventy years after the publication of Kaplan’s Ju- daism As A Civilization (1934), few large or small Jewish communities re- semble anything like an organic Jewish community. The ongoing disarray at the United Jewish Communities (UJC) as it attempts to define its mission and develop a model of governance, representation and decision-making is perhaps the most current evidence of the American Jewish community’s in- ability to evolve a model of efficient and effective organization. The issues that once comprised the communal debate are fading. The tri- angulated relationship of Federation-synagogue-Jewish community center, in which each claimed primacy, has shifted to a more centralized agenda in which Jewish “continuity” (the term of the 1990s) or Jewish “renaissance” (the current appellation) drives dollars and decisions. Concern about dimin- ishing identification as Jews by Gen X’ers and those coming up behind them, the “Millenials,” has engendered an atmosphere of anxiety. The current eco- nomic downturn, coupled with rapidly changing patterns of giving by Jews in their ’40s, ’50s and ’60s, affects the level of support upon which agencies, Federations, synagogues and schools can rely. In what is often referred to as a “culture of scarcity,” thoughtfully anticipating trends and planning for them seem a luxury. At the same time, organizations that reflected the needs and interests, as well as the social and economic realities, of second-, third- and fourth-gen- eration American Jews are facing a decline. Avenues of association that stirred earlier generations — the “defense” agencies (AJ Committee, AJ Congress, the ADL); the Zionist organizations (Hadassah, ZOA); the “fraternal” asso- ciations (B’nai Brith) — are not growing, and are finding it difficult to re- plenish their aging membership ranks. If we measured Jewish identification, affiliation and engagement by the ability of the network of organizations of the American Jewish community

2 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist to maintain their agendas and retain their members, we might well despair about the future. In this issue, however, we offer several extended and thoughtful analyses of general as well as specific areas where the reconstruction of the American Jewish community might yet occur. A common thread in these provocative pieces is the need for agencies, federations, synagogues and other institu- tions of the Jewish community to face honestly their challenges. Rather than lament what has been, we are challenged to face boldly the demands — and opportunities — that the new generations of Jews present. Responding to their needs, on their terms, in language that speaks to them, is central. A second common point in these discussions is the absence of agreement about what comprises identity, how it is measured, and what strategies can be effective in strengthening Jewish identity. Visionary synagogues, federa- tions and organizations have retooled their mission, program and purpose to respond to the increasingly evident reality that Jewish identity is charac- terized by two non-negotiables: a sense of “journey,” and an assumption of the right to make personal choices as to how, when and with whom one’s Jewishness will be acted out. Whatever directions emerge for the 21st century American Jewish com- munity, the reconstruction of the institutions that embody that community will inevitably have to occur. As our writers indicate, adaptation is the gov- erning principle of evolution. And after all, if Judaism is the evolving reli- gious civilization of the Jewish people, then we can at least have the faith that our generation — one blessed with almost unlimited Jewish resources, living under freedom — will find its way to a model of community that can embody the new ways that Judaism and Jewishness will emerge. We wish our readers a relaxing summer.

— Richard Hirsh

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 3

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 11 The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 11 The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 11 Identity and Community: Current Organizing Concerns of the Jewish Community

BY DAVID A. TEUTSCH

n recent years, we have watched the sure.1 Several telling metaphors can be organized American Jewish com- used to describe identity. In one of I munity turn its attention from Eu- these, identity is like an onion — a se- ropean Jewish refugees, to the defense ries of layers, each of which can be and survival of the State of Israel, to peeled away until there is no identity responding to the rapidly rising inter- left. In another metaphor, identity is marriage rate, to “Jewish Continuity,” like a peach — there is a soft outer part, to “Jewish Renaissance.” and then there is a solid and almost As we have moved through these impenetrable core. In a third, identity changes in Jewish communal attention is more like an orange — there is an and terminology, we have seen a gradual apparently strong exterior, but a highly but steady increase in concern with the segmented interior, with each aspect of intensification of North American Jew- identity remaining relatively separate ish life on the part of such Jewish institu- from the rest. tions as Federations, Jewish community Given the highly interactive nature centers, Jewish family-service agencies of the different aspects of identity, it and others. Today, the emphasis heard seems to me that these metaphors are most often is on strengthening Jewish extremely flawed. The different parts identity and intensifying Jewish commu- of ourselves are interrelated and diffi- nity. What, precisely, do these terms cult to separate. Strengthening any par- mean, and what would it mean to suc- ticular aspect of identity is, therefore, ceed at these goals? a daunting task because of the com- plex nature and multiple dimensions Defining And Measuring of identity. We respond to individuals and to issues not because of a single Identity is a concept elusive to de- aspect of identity but because of fine and even more difficult to mea- many.

Dr. David A. Teutsch is Director of the Levin-Lieber Program in Jewish Ethics and Chair of the Department of Contemporary Jewish Civilization at the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College.

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 13 Primary and Secondary Identities the upper middle class and a person of middle age, to name but a few major as- Leaders in the Jewish community of- pects. Which aspect of one’s identity is ten assume that it is a reasonable com- primary at any given moment reflects the munal goal for American Jews to make particular activity in which one is en- their Jewish identity primary. Several gaged, as well as the social context. When years ago, at a commission meeting of attending a sports event, for example, I the Council of Jewish Federations (now think of myself as an American. the United Jewish Communities), I In some situations more than one suggested that Jewish identity is, in fact, aspect of one’s identity emerges. For ex- a secondary identity for most Ameri- ample, in discussing life in Israel, I re- can Jews, who after all speak English, act as an American deeply rooted in work in the secular economy, and en- democratic and liberal values, while joy the cultural and leisure-time activi- reacting simultaneously as a Jew deeply ties shared by most other Americans. concerned with Zion, and also as some- Many of the leaders in the room re- one who has spent time in Israel and sponded with anger and consternation, has friends and colleagues there. I also as if that statement were prescriptive or think about the painful situation of Is- a self-fulfilling prophecy, but it is hardly raeli soldiers, sympathize with their a fresh insight. As Mordecai Kaplan put situation, and remember my relief when it in 1934: I learned that I had a high enough draft number to exempt me from conscrip- Since the civilization that can sat- tion during the Vietnam War. isfy the primary interests of the From minute to minute, it is difficult Jew must necessarily be the civi- to have the extraordinary self-awareness lization of the country he lives in, required to recognize all the parts of our the Jew in America will be first compound identities that come up in and foremost an American and various situations. Complex interactions only secondarily a Jew.2 among different parts of each person’s identity are typical of the modern and But identity in our time is not so post-modern situation, because having a simple as Kaplan suggests. Shedding compound identity is the basic condition our illusions is a necessary step in for- of living in post-modern society. mulating good policy. Measuring Behavior or Identity? Multiple Dimensions We might be able to make reason- My identity, for example, includes able guesses about which aspects of being a man, a Jew, an American, a de- identity would be primary in a particu- scendent of refugees, a rabbi, a profes- lar workplace or social group. We could sor, a husband, a father, a heterosexual, probably do that in a women’s con- a white ethnic, a bicyclist, a member of sciousness-raising group or a Hebrew

14 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist class. But in many situations, it is diffi- strengthen Jewish identity is difficult cult to predict. That difficulty is com- to measure. What indicators might we pounded if one is trying to measure use? We might look to see with whom identity in an abstract way. people associate. We might look at what One of the reasons why the 1990 and they are doing in terms of educational as yet unreleased 2000 National Jewish and programmatic activities. We might Population Study undertaken by the look at their volunteer commitments. United Jewish Communities have placed If, over time, these show increasing Jew- such an emphasis on indicators such as ish activity, it may be reasonable to claim lighting Hanukah candles, attending that identity is becoming strengthened. Shabbat services, fasting on Yom Kip- But that will be impossible to know pur, and reading Jewish periodicals is unless there are carefully constructed that measuring behavior is much easier control groups not part of these pro- than measuring identity. The assump- grams so that changes can be isolated tion underlying such surveys is that Jew- from non-programmatic influences. ish behavior and Jewish identity corre- Self-reporting on feelings and attitudes late with each other. can be misleading, because people do However, the degree to which behav- not necessarily keep good track of their ior is produced by a single aspect of internal changes and often report what identity is unclear at best. After all, our they think the listener wants to hear. choices regarding activities in which to Control groups can help with this as participate reflect opportunity, social well. groupings, family background, career advancement, ease of access, quality of Affirmative Activities offerings, personal aesthetic taste, cost, and a host of other factors. Only one Increased social contacts and friend- of these factors is Jewish identity. Slight ships with Jews may strengthen Jewish changes in the mix might have a major identity. Thus, outreach programs and impact on the Jewish activity level. programs designed to increase interper- Therefore, it is tricky to assume that sonal connections may help with Jew- we understand the level of Jewish iden- ish identity. Opportunities for study tity from studies based on activity. Most that increase knowledge of Jewish his- sociological studies of American Jewry tory and practice may strengthen Jew- reflect this difficulty. ish identification through increased fa- miliarity. Aesthetically pleasing worship Entry Point for experiences may attract more people Strengthening Identity? and provide more of a sense of Jewish belonging and, perhaps, a greater sense Since the nature of identity is com- of Jewish spirituality. Reading Jewish plex, what can be undertaken effectively books that are engaging, having pow- to strengthen one aspect of it is uncer- erful experiences like trips to Israel, and tain, and the impact of efforts to Jewish summer camping all show signs

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 15 that they strengthen Jewish identity. Even the Jewish community of most How, exactly, this happens, how long large cities — the Philadelphia Jewish the effects last, and how we measure community for example — is actually them remain matters of conjecture. not a single Jewish community. It is a Control-group longitudinal studies loose association of partly intercon- alone can provide greater certainty. nected groups of Jews. When confronted with anti-Semit- Included in the count of Jews in ev- ism, Jews often spend more time ery such American city are many who around Jews. Their awareness of their are part of no organized Jewish group. Jewish identity increases. Does this Are they really part of the community? strengthen identity or only increase Many such Jews do not experience them- Jewish activity? Is it the basis for posi- selves as active members of the Jewish tive identity formation or some more community even if they in some way ambivalent form? When someone be- identify as Jews. Some are not active comes active on the board of the local members of any other community, art museum and therefore spends less either. So how should the Jewish com- time doing volunteer work for Jewish munity’s boundaries be defined? If we organizations, does this reflect a weak- have smaller interconnected Jewish ened Jewish identity? communities in metropolitan areas, is Can attending a Jewish day school it these that should be strengthened? weaken Jewish identity if the experience Which Jews should we attempt to in- for a particular child is a negative one? clude? If someone works at a second job in order to make it easier for his/her chil- Synagogues and Agencies dren to go to colleges of their choice and s/he therefore decides to pull back Many Jewish leaders posit that from Jewish volunteering, does that strengthening synagogue communities is reflect a lessening of Jewish identity or one way to strengthen Jewish identity and commitment? Clearly, it is easy to mis- community. In the United States, syna- interpret behavioral data. gogues remain the single most powerful force for Jewish acculturation. Both in Connected But Not Unified terms of social relationships and of re- ligious and educational activity, the If we cannot be altogether certain synagogue plays a central role. For about how Jewish identity works, we many Jews, it is also the first place to should not be surprised at the impreci- turn for cultural activities and a sense sion surrounding our understanding of of community. Jewish community. The American Jew- Strengthening the quality and quan- ish community is closer to a group with tity of the religious, educational, cul- shared interests than it is to a functional tural and social programming of syna- community where the members know gogues may therefore be one way to each other and share substantial loyalty. strengthen Jewish communities. Inten-

16 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist sifying the involvement of those affiliated cult to measure. Indeed, how one de- with congregations through better pro- fines community may well determine gramming can be undertaken simulta- the measures used. Should we look at neously with reaching out to encourage the level of activity? At financial sound- others not already engaged in synagogue ness? At the level of average Jewish edu- life to come to these programs. cation? Do we count the number of Jewish Community Centers, Jewish people involved, or evaluate the inten- family-service agencies, policy-oriented sity of the programming for those al- agencies such as the American Jewish ready at the core of the community? Committee, Israel-oriented organiza- Each measure will yield a different re- tions such as Peace Now and Hadassah, sult. and others all have some role to play in Perhaps all of these together may creating the web of organizational yield some valuable information; how- structures that support the feeling and ever, it is not clear that strengthening reality of Jewish community. Jewish the level of Jewish activity, intensifying country clubs provide an important the level of education, and increasing peer group for many Jews. Jewish day the quality of Jewish life together will schools can play a major role in creat- strengthen the American Jewish com- ing a community not only of students munity sufficiently to increase its in- and teachers, but of whole families as tensity and numbers in the coming de- well. cades. Establishing achievable goals will require careful consideration. Building Organizations, Building Identity? Identity as Choice

Strengthening Jewish identity can It may be a matter of semantics as to also occur through efforts to meet the whether we describe our efforts to needs of the organizations themselves. strengthen Jewish life as outreach, re- Commitment very often is deepened as naissance, identity intensification or a result of giving time and money — something else. What is clear is that in commitment is not only what causes a society as open as ours, identifying the financial gift or personal participa- Jewishly is a choice; becoming active tion. Making the gift and investing the in Jewish living is a choice; public en- time are ways of increasing commit- gagement in the Jewish community is ment, as well. We do not normally a choice. Those choices will be shaped think of working to create volunteers significantly by how attractive the Jew- as a form of strengthening Jewish iden- ish options are compared to other pos- tity and commitment, but indeed it is. sibilities. So is good leadership-development pro- The quality of what we do can be gramming. measured in aesthetic terms or by us- How strong the resulting Jewish ing other parameters. It is clear, how- community becomes will remain diffi- ever, that the people in America who

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 17 identify as Jews face a huge array of this area be? enticing choices about how to spend Evaluation is made much simpler their time, energy and money. If their when measurable outcomes are speci- Jewish identities are to be in the fore- fied in advance. Some measures include front of their thoughts, and Jewish ac- the number of participants, the satis- tivities in the forefront of their sched- faction they feel as recorded in survey ules, Jewish organizations need effec- instruments and reflected by regular tively to market high-quality program- attendance, how much they have ming that attracts Jews to substantial learned, and their reports on changes Jewish engagement. in their relationships to each other, the For those concerned with the future sponsoring institution, and the com- of the Jewish community, substantial munity more generally. Changes in be- investments in programming that are havior can, of course, also be tracked aimed at strengthening Jewish commu- by using suitable instruments before, nity and deepening Jewish identity are during and after programs. This is par- welcome developments. Of course, it ticularly sensible when programs are is tzedakah money that is supporting intense and extended over a consider- those programs, and we have an obli- able length of time. gation to spend it with care in order to Most such evaluation, however, does honor the donor’s intentions, as well as not use control groups. The degree of to serve the needs of the community. success is consequently hard to gauge. Therefore, in addition to using our best Whether we are really getting maxi- abilities to design programs for maxi- mum effectiveness and efficiency from mum efficiency and effectiveness, we most programs is a matter of specula- must also evaluate and assess whether tion. Thus, for example, survey data it is worthwhile to continue them, and indicates that Birthright Israel pro- if so, how they are to be modified or grams, particularly when accompanied altered in order to maximize future ben- by suitable learning before the trip and efits. by good follow-up, are excellent at sig- nificantly increasing Jewish identity. Measurable Outcomes How to Read Responses? All program evaluation has its pitfalls, but it is considerably easier to measure But we do not know whether the how well someone’s Hebrew improves, results would be the same if we took a or how much someone knows about similar group of young adults and kept Pesah,. than it is to discern accurately them together in an intensive atmo- the degree to which their Jewish iden- sphere while we gave them tours of Jew- tity has been strengthened or their com- ish institutions in Eastern Europe or of mitment to the Jewish community has Holocaust sites. Nor do we know been deepened. What might some of whether the trip would be just as effec- our criteria for evaluating programs in tive if we had a Jewish immersion ex-

18 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist perience of equal length at a retreat site ties are the most effective at accomplish- in the United States where the partici- ing our goals. The case can be made pants were completely removed from that teaching spirituality and mitzvot their ordinary experience. We do not — theology, ritual and ethical action actually know what makes the Birth- — might be more effective than many right Israel trips work the way they do. of the cultural programs we see around And so we do not know whether we us. have the best designed trips possible, and we do not know whether there are Intersecting Paths less expensive alternatives that would work equally well. There are many paths into Judaism, These kinds of issues make evalua- and the broad variety of Jewish activi- tion and decisions about program de- ties all reinforce each other, so it is help- sign and funding quite challenging. We ful if the paths cross as often as pos- know, for example, that early childhood sible. While there is an enormous is a key part of the life cycle in terms of amount of anecdotal evidence that sup- Jewish identity formation. And we ports this approach, we lack the social- know that an immersion experience in scientific evidence to demonstrate that excellent Jewish early-childhood pro- one combination of activities is the grams is important, as are home expe- most effective investment. riences. But we don’t actually know Furthermore, we do not necessarily what is causative and what is only cor- understand the full impact of life-cycle relative here. events, political events and social con- nections, many of which are in any case Focus of Investment beyond our control. As these change, the impact of programs, experiences Are we better off investing in the and social events will change as well. Jewish acculturation of new parents? Or Thus, program evaluation and longi- should we be investing in family edu- tudinal reviews of program effectiveness cation with young people? Or is that should be an ongoing part of program program investment better spent once design. the children are older? Of course, some of these questions can be answered by Evidence in Hand developmental psychology, but others require forms of control-group studies Do all of these issues indicate that and evaluations that have not yet been we are unable to make any meaningful done. statements about efficient and effective It might be argued that the cost of programming and its impact on iden- doing such an evaluation is so high that tity and community? I think not. We it is an inefficient investment. But with- know that people become personally out credible evaluation, we will never engaged by the charisma, passion and really be able to identify which activi- example of leaders. We know that once

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 19 we induce people to come to some pro- create appropriate methods for Jewish grams, it is possible to move them to identity development, which is critical come to others. to the future of American Jewish life. We know that we obtain much bet- No less, the reality that Jewish commu- ter results when we design welcoming nity rootedness in America exists institutions and when there are events through interactive, local subcommu- that people can come to without need- nities must shape our program invest- ing substantial previous backgrounds in ments if they are to be effective for com- order to enjoy and participate in them. munity building. We know that creating both light But most important of all, we need and heat at the core of communities to remember at each turn that stronger through increased learning, participa- Jewish identity and stronger Jewish tion and practice is critical for commu- community are not answers in them- nities that wish to spark others into selves. They are only meaningful if the substantial engagement in Jewish life. result is more ethical and spiritual lives, Our challenge is to take seriously the the furtherance of justice, truth and need for evaluation and to do it as well peace, and ongoing engagement by as we can, while not allowing ourselves more people in efforts to improve our to be deterred by those situations where world and draw closer to the divine. full evaluation is impossible.

Set Realistic Goals 1. See, for example, Sherry Rosen, Jewish The American Jewish community Identity Development (American Jewish needs to become much more sophisti- Committee, 1995). cated in its understanding of the com- 2. Mordecai Kaplan, Judaism As A Civili- plexities of personal identity in an open zation (New York: Macmillan Press, 1934), society if it is to set realistic goals and 216.

20 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist The Synagogue: Family, Workplace, or Community?

BY ADINA NEWBERG

ynagogues in North America, and needs that such relationships involve) the rabbis who serve them, have as well as their own personal needs, rich, multifaceted relationships. desires and expectations. All these cre- SRabbis serve synagogues through their ate a rich and complex tapestry of in- knowledge and leadership.They are tertwined functions and relationships. ritual leaders and also the managers of Beyond any relationship with con- complex organizations with staffs, gregants, synagogues, family and self, buildings and budgets. The synagogue’s rabbis have a spiritual life, a relation- primary purpose — serving the com- ship with God achieved through prayer, munal, educational, religious and so- study and meditation. This relationship cial needs of its congregants — is nec- requires time as well as attention. It is a essarily intertwined with administrative crucial aspect of work for those who and business concerns. attend to matters of the spirit. It is the This complex grouping of needs in source of inspiration, strength and pur- turn leads to equally complex relation- pose for most rabbis. Yet in some ways ships between the rabbi and his/her it is an invisible element of the rabbi’s congregants. work, one that may compete with syna- gogue matters, such as leading services, Relationships and Systems teaching, counseling congregants and managing the budget; or with personal Adding to this complexity is the fact matters, such as a child’s soccer game that rabbis are not only leaders of syna- or an evening with friends. gogues, they are also employees. They are accountable and responsible to lay Complex Images leaders who are, in turn, recipients of the rabbis’ guidance and leadership. As in all social systems, synagogue Rabbis participate in more systems, members construct a composite of com- however, than that of the workplace plex images that informs their experience alone. Their personal system includes within the organization. These images, their own families and close friendships which are often projected onto syna- (with the expectations, demands and gogues and reflected back, are based upon

Dr. Adina Newberg is Associate Professor of Hebrew Language at the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College.

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 21 our experiences in the past and our ex- gogue through the lens of organiza- pectations in the present. tional theory — particularly social sys- For example, many of us remember tems theory. Organizations are evolv- the synagogue of our childhood, which ing social systems; when we examine we either liked or disliked; these memo- them, it is important to understand ries often inform our adult wishes and patterns of relationships and behaviors expectations of what a synagogue (and, that go beyond the specific details of by extension, Jewish organizations in any particular example. general) should be. As members of syn- I will attempt, therefore, to focus on agogues in contemporary North Amer- the patterns, interactions and relation- ica, many of us hold onto a mental ships that the various rabbinic roles model of our ideal synagogue, based on present vis-à-vis the synagogue system. the composite images that mirror our The discussion will analyze the expectations. Some of these images are strengths and challenges each role pre- conscious, others are not, but all play a sents, especially in light of the com- role in the way we act as part of the plexities created by the multiplicity of social system that is the synagogue. roles in synagogue life. The paper con- Congregants’ images and expecta- cludes by offering an alternative, inte- tions of their rabbis evolve from an grative image, calling for a different set equally complex system. In Living with of roles and relationships based on Paradox: Religious Leadership and the thinking in relation to communities. Genius of Double Vision, H. Newton Malony identifies an inherent paradox in Synagogue Structure the role of the clergy and the expecta- tions congregants have of the person fill- Contemporary North American syn- ing that role.1 Paradox, he argues, is a agogues are non-profit organizations central attribute of any type of leadership, that attempt to carry out many of the especially in religious organizational life. roles filled by many other Jewish insti- Maloney maintains that religious orga- tutions in previous centuries. Not only nizations may be viewed through orga- places for prayer and Jewish ritual, syna- nizational and sociological lenses, but also gogues house Jewish learning for adults need to be examined through the lenses and children alike, since most members of religious mission and purpose, thus do not study Judaic subjects indepen- revealing paradoxical dimensions in an dently in their homes. Synagogues strive already complex organization. to be the model Jewish entity, promot- ing the ideal Jewish life. As the head of Organizational Theory the synagogue, the rabbi is expected (ex- and the Synagogue plicitly or implicitly) to be the role model for Jewish life and values, and to ensure This paper will address these various the continuity of its members’ Jewish lives aspects of the synagogue system and the from one generation to the next. rabbi’s work in relation to the syna- Jack Bloom calls this expected role

22 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist being a “symbolic exemplar.”2 Syna- “symbolic exemplar” dimension it in- gogues are the extended families in herently carries. which Jewish celebration occurs and in which community ties are forged. Con- Synagogue as Family gregations also have fiscal and legal obligations, staffs, contracts, deadlines, There are many ways in which syna- bills to pay and goals to achieve. In gogues can be viewed as families. When order to accomplish these tasks, syna- we mention the word “family,” the con- gogues are structured formally and in- notations and associations are of car- formally, like corporations. ing, loving, unconditional love, with At the same time, they function as intergenerational participation and re- volunteer organizations; they rely on lationship. Many organizations attempt presidents and executive boards to set to emulate the image of family as their policies and make key decisions, and own because of these associations and on committees staffed by unpaid syna- connotations. gogue members who work alongside Likewise, individuals seek many of the paid staff to accomplish the objec- these attributes when they join syna- tives of the organization as a whole. gogues. They are seeking unconditional love and caring by other congregants Synagogue as Community as well as by the staff, especially by the rabbi. Complementing this strong de- A synagogue community, especially a sire for belonging and caring, the struc- Reconstructionist community, assumes a ture of synagogues helps promote the sense of caring and commitment to notion of family. shared values and ideals, as well as to As in the traditional image of fami- study, prayer and tikkun olam (repair of lies, synagogues are headed by an au- the world). While not all members can thority figure who is more knowledge- or should be equally committed to a par- able and more experienced and who ticular course of action or idea, the pres- guides and teaches. As in families, syn- sure to fulfill the expectation of selfless agogues are composed of multiple gen- commitment to the community is strong. erations that are engaged in narratives The resulting tension between the that unite. There are past generations communal and the personal, between that have left a legacy, there are various the perceived needs of the whole and age groups within it, and there is a hope the personal need for autonomy and and a desire that the “family” will con- independence, constantly pulls con- tinue into the future. gregants in a variety of directions. The Both families and synagogues are the rabbi as the leader of the community conduit of family stories and traditions and as an individual may be equally from one generation to the other.3 Both strained. The tension for him/her may are the vehicles for inculcating and be more accentuated, given the central- transferring values and ideals from past ity of the professional role and the generations to future generations. As we

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 23 will see later, the image of family car- business, the rabbi often plays the role ries with it expectations and projections of a CEO with administrative respon- that greatly influence the rabbinic role sibilities. S/he supervises staff, makes in relation to the congregation. decisions and initiates planning for the overall system. The rabbi is often re- Rabbinic Roles sponsible for fundraising and for rep- resenting the synagogue to outside in- David Teutsch describes distinct rab- stitutions (whether Jewish or not). The binic roles and the conflict that can synagogue’s success or failure as an or- ensue when they are present all at once ganization that accomplishes its mul- in the rabbi-congregant system: Pastor- tiple missions is frequently attributed Priest, Administrator-Facilitator, to the rabbi’s ability to carry out her/ Scholar-Adjudicator, Magid-Teacher- his vision for the synagogue as a whole.6 Prophet and, finally, Beneficiary-Super- But at the same time that the rabbi visee.4 Jewish tradition, coupled with is a decision-maker, s/he is also an em- the evolving culture of the 21st century, ployee who is supervised by a board of evokes additional, alternative roles: directors and by its representative, the Guide, Healer, Parent, Partner/Spouse synagogue president. In some cases, this or CEO. Synagogue members and their image mirrors the corporate relation- leaders must co-exist within this system ship of stockholder/customer to CEO.7 where rabbis are in multiple roles. The If a congregation thinks of its rabbi leader upon whom these expected roles in metaphoric terms of the “market” or or images are projected must find a way “fair return on investments,” it places to address them at the same time that the rabbi in the paradoxical role de- he/she carries his/her own images and scribed by Malony: s/he is both an au- expectations, all while trying to address thority figure and an employee who his/her own personal, spiritual and fa- takes orders and is supervised by the milial needs.5 president and board. According to the All these roles are based on job de- business model, the rabbi’s main func- scriptions and expectations that have tion is to make the congregants happy evolved over the years in relation to rab- — just as employees must respond to binic work in congregational life. How- the stockholders’ mandates. ever, none of these are free of psycho- logical projections. The following de- “Fair Return?” scription of roles presents a stronger dy- namic of unconscious projections that In order to succeed, the rabbi’s sec- accompany the more “rational” func- ondary task is to create and market an tions and expected accomplishments. attractive product. As “stockholders,” congregants are “entitled to a fair re- Rabbi as Administrator turn on their investment.” What does “fair return” mean in this context? Feel- If we think of the synagogue as a ing like part of a “family” in which the

24 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist rabbi is the parent? Obtaining a “satis- nancial bottom line is crucial for their factory” education for their children? well-being, and that there is nothing Hearing a good sermon on a particular shameful in viewing the congregation holiday? Being “inspired” by the rabbi’s as a business interested in making prophetic vision? money for the sake of achieving its ob- Alternatively, does “fair return” mean jectives with clarity and without resent- being part of a well-run organization ment. If we were to follow Rediger’s where the teachers, cantor, principal advice, rabbis would not feel conflict and other players are supervised care- between service to the community and fully within as conservative a budget as service to the “corporation” of the syna- possible? What happens when the gogue. Serving the business needs of the rabbi, who is supposed to deliver the congregation would be understood as fair return for the congregants’ invest- integral to serving its religious and spiri- ments, has a different vision of what tual needs. that fair return should be? Having Authority Employee or Leader? To the degree that the rabbi is most These questions are compounded often more Jewishly knowledgeable when the business paradigm calls for than others in the synagogue system, performance evaluations and contracts, and the one paid to lead it, s/he is an when budgets become a primary con- authority in the synagogue and there- sideration and when “marketing plans” fore has the power to make decisions become an essential aspect of the rabbi’s in many areas of the synagogue’s life. work. The rabbi who feels the call to While Reconstructionist rabbis and the serve the Jewish people finds him/her- synagogues they serve espouse demo- self essentially serving a particular “cor- cratic decision-making, we cannot ig- poration” with all the associated busi- nore the fact that rabbis have authority ness structures intended to ascertain the and bear responsibility for religious success of the congregational invest- matters as well as other related areas. ment. The rabbi is challenged to dis- How rabbis and congregations ne- tinguish between the need and desire gotiate authority and power is an im- to serve a synagogue community on the portant element in the organization of one hand, and the needs of the corpo- all synagogues. The rabbi is thus, bor- ration, with its own history, culture and rowing Teutsch’s terms, a scholar-adju- vision of success on the other dicator, an administrator, a Magid- G. Lloyd Rediger, in Clergy Killers: Scholar,9 a CEO and a guide — all at Guidance for Pastors and Congregations once. The paradox of a community Under Attack,8 asserts that the distinc- committed to democratic processes and tion between “business” and “service” one that pays an employee to perform is unnecessary and ultimately harmful. leadership functions with hierarchical Congregations must accept that the fi- responsibilities is a paradox that needs

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 25 to be acknowledged, even if doing so ing. This scenario illustrates the com- does not provide an easy solution for plexity of the rabbi’s simultaneous im- the situation. age as parent, spiritual guide and ad- ministrator. Rabbi as Parent “Parents” and “Children” As mentioned above, there are many facets of a rabbi’s work in which the Congregations are complex systems rabbi can be seen as an authority. This with subsystems organized according to authoritative role may be interpreted by categories that are often determined by many as “parental,” not only because a interest or age. Usually, each group parent is the most basic image of au- wants the rabbi’s blessing for its own thority, but because many congregants particular stance or need. Like siblings, unconsciously project their image of a they fight for the parent’s approval. family onto the synagogue. Thus, the Members who feel a lack of recogni- image of a rabbi as a parental figure can tion for their ideas, work or other con- be fraught with confusion: Are we talk- tributions may find themselves in con- ing about the rabbi’s construction of flict with the rabbi, or with those whom parental authority, or the members’ they interpret as being the rabbi’s al- construction of that image? lies. As a spiritual guide, the rabbi pro- Like parents in nuclear families, rab- vides advice and solace, as would a par- bis represent a connection to the past ent. S/he may also teach the children in and bear responsibility for preserving preparation for bar or bat mitzvah. At the its traditional values for the succeeding same time, s/he may have to decide on a generations. Parents, however, expect particular expenditure, or may give a children eventually to start a new home, d’var torah about the importance of hopefully carrying the lessons they participating in an upcoming political learned from the parents into their new rally. It is easy to imagine a scenario in family. which, after teaching a boy for his bar In a synagogue, there is a very deli- mitzvah, the rabbi meets with his cate balance between tradition and in- mother in the social action committee novation. When the “parent” is the and argues with her over plans for a rabbi, the dynamic is somewhat differ- rally. The debate and/or decision made ent. In synagogues, the rabbi/parent fig- at the meeting may create tension for ure sometimes introduces innovations, the mother, who might also seek the and the congregants/children are the rabbi’s advice about the bar mitzvah, ones who resist. For example, a rabbi’s or need the rabbi’s comfort for her own call for openness to gay and lesbian illness, while simultaneously dealing members, or the use of feminine lan- with her sense of “betrayal” and disap- guage in the prayers, or of spiritual pointment by the “parental” figure over terms different from those familiar to the difference of opinions at the meet- the congregants, often provokes resis-

26 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist tance and even dissension. The rabbi’s Even in synagogues that encourage a innovation may be seen in these cases democratic relationship between rabbi as breaking away from tradition and and lay leaders, the board — and the thus as a betrayal of it, and of the con- president as its ultimate representative gregation, as well. — are in a hierarchically different po- sition from the rabbi. The power that Rabbi as Child this position necessarily confers on the lay leaders accords them the role of pa- In terms of the structure and func- rental figures in the synagogue “fam- tion of synagogues, the president and ily.” the board are the ultimate decision- The inherent structure of the syna- makers. Rabbis are employees of the gogue — as employer of a rabbi who is board, which hires the rabbi, drafts the an authority in Jewish matters with a contract and decides upon the job de- mandate to lead the congregation — scription. If there is supervision at all, creates the inescapable paradox in it comes from board members, which which the rabbi is the subordinate child means that under certain circumstances in certain matters and the parental au- they can tell a rabbi what to do, and thority or CEO in others. How this is even take action against her/him if s/he handled in the day-to-day life of the acts in ways that are unacceptable to synagogue depends on the degree to them. which the synagogue is willing to rec- Whether the rabbi and her/his su- ognize this paradox and to confront it periors have an ideological argument through its espoused values. about Shabbat activities in the build- ing, or whether the rabbi acts in a man- Rabbi as Spouse/Partner ner that the “superiors” deem inappro- priate for a rabbi, the result is the same: At a recent installation of a rabbi in The board and the president can step his new synagogue, the theme of the into a parental, authoritative role and evening was “the wonderful shiddukh” treat the rabbi as a subordinate child. (marriage-match). All the speeches re- peated in different ways how fortunate Paradox of the Subordinate Child the congregation felt, and expressed the hope that the synagogue would be the As representative of the board, the rabbi’s “home” for many years to come. president may act as parent not only in At the conclusion of the formal part of extreme cases, but also when the rabbi the evening, when refreshments were is young (and the president is gener- served, a cake was brought out featur- ally older) or when the rabbi is new to ing a hupah as its centerpiece. the community. The president and the Congregants use words such as members of the executive committee “love,” “loyalty” and “partnership” to may act as coaches to the rabbi, taking describe the espoused commitment on the guiding aspect of parenting. among members to one another and to

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 27 the synagogue as a whole; there is a munity. sense of shared fate and of partnership, As we have seen with the other rela- as in marriages, which are entered into tionships, this too is a complex one. On with a hope of a permanent relation- one level, circumstances place the rabbi ship.10 That love, loyalty and commit- and congregant on the same level in ment are extended to the rabbi, and relation to the group, community or expected from the rabbi toward the friend; they are thus siblings or peers congregation, regardless of salary and within that framework. On the other other work conditions. hand, when one aspect of the rabbi’s In this paradigm, it is often easy to work intervenes, the relationship nec- lose sight of the fact that the rabbi is an essarily becomes less linear. The rabbi employee of the synagogue, and that may be that “peer’s” counselor in a dif- the rabbi’s commitment cannot be as ficult marital relationship. The peer unconditional as a familial commit- may need to negotiate the rabbi’s con- ment. The synagogue as an employer tract. Sometimes these two scenarios has the obligation to bring up contrac- may be happening simultaneously, with tual matters when necessary, expecta- the possible complication that the tions of (familial) love and commitment rabbi’s child and the peer’s child are to- notwithstanding. gether in the car-pool and have become Moreover, if the rabbi as employee close friends. raises contractual or financial issues s/he can be seen as betraying the (familial) love Rabbi as Individual extended by the congregants. By asking for a raise in salary s/he may be seen as As we have seen, the roles of CEO/ sullying that love and commitment. administrator, parent/child and spouse/ And if the rabbi should decide to leave partner all represent dimensions of the this job for another, especially for an- relationship between the rabbi and the other congregational job, s/he may be synagogue system, and between the considered to be “divorcing” the syna- rabbi and individuals within that sys- gogue. tem. There is a third crucial relation- ship in that system that must be ad- Rabbi as Colleague/Sibling dressed: the rabbi as s/he relates to her/ himself — the rabbi’s own emotions, Rabbis are regarded as peers by many spiritual life and body. congregants. Their ages, educational These multiple relationships occur and professional achievements and life simultaneously, each demanding and at style make this at times a natural rela- times pulling in different directions. tionship. It is possible for example, for The rabbi might feel the need for a the rabbi and congregants to have chil- quiet, meditative Shabbat tefilah, yet dren in the same school or even the the congregation might be celebrating same class, to have shared friends and an important community occasion, to belong to the same groups or com- during which the rabbi must try to put

28 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist her/his own feelings and needs aside. ervoirs and not on the congregation for These relationships are intertwined: The emotional and spiritual fulfillment. rabbi’s emotional and spiritual life does This approach will also help the rabbi not take place in a vacuum. On the to avoid inappropriate emotional en- contrary, it is influenced by what hap- tanglement with congregational issues pens within and alongside the congre- and conflicts. gation. At times, the rabbi will be up- lifted by the celebratory feelings in the Rabbi as Priest-Pastor-Healer synagogue, despite his/her initial reti- cence. At others, if the synagogue as a The ancient priest, (the Kohen in our system is going through a time of ten- tradition) is today’s pastor/healer.11 In sion due to the members’ personal more contemporary terms, the rabbi is problems, the rabbi may carry some of counselor and healer for synagogue those tensions into her/his own per- members suffering from illness, be- sonal life. reavement or confusion. The rabbi is responsible for helping to rekindle faith Spiritual Journey among congregants, and for providing a spiritual direction for those who per- While it is important for rabbis to haps never had one, or who have be- be genuine about their own emotions come distanced from their spirituality. and spiritual paths, they must not for- The rabbi is expected to bring comfort get that their personal life cannot be at to all members of the congregation, re- the center of the congregation’s life. gardless of their level of involvement Similarly, while the rabbi’s spiritual or status in the synagogue, and regard- journey and search can inspire and guide less of any spiritual confusion or doubts the congregation, ultimately the mem- s/he may experience. bers, individually and communally, must The rabbi must console and com- find their own paths. While individuals fort the president during the period of in the synagogue will always relate to the mourning, whether the two of them rabbi as an individual, albeit a “symbolic” have argued previously over policy, or individual, the rabbi must always balance whether, for example, the president the individual and institutional needs and criticized the rabbi at last week’s edu- aspects of her/his interaction with those cation committee meeting. The pastor/ of the congregants. healer aspect is constantly present in the A strong spiritual life and practice daily work of a rabbi and, as such, it not only provides a source of strength permeates all the other roles s/he per- for the rabbi and for the entire congre- forms in the organizational structure. gation, but also affords the rabbi the Ironically, appraising the rabbi’s perfor- integrity and ability to keep her/his per- mance reflects the business model of the sonal needs separate from those of the synagogue organization; yet the content congregation. In this manner, the rabbi of the evaluation inevitably relates to may rely on her/his own spiritual res- the role of healer/pastor/priest, blurring

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 29 the two organizational constructs. congregants to become involved with poor inner-city residents when the Rabbi as Prophet- congregation’s president complains of Teacher-Magid a shortage of volunteers in the syna- gogue? As important as social action In addition to the role of priest-pas- may be, it might not be deemed ap- tor-healer, the rabbi is often expected propriate if it threatens to deplete the be a prophet. The biblical prophet who organization’s volunteer force. The pursued justice at the risk of fighting rabbi will eventually be evaluated not kings provides inspiration for the mod- only by how well the prophetic role was ern-day understanding of prophetic carried out, but also by other issues: work, reminding the congregation of the how well s/he performed her/his ad- values that inspire social justice. One of ministrative role, and did or did not the rabbi’s tasks, especially in Recon- recruit members for the synagogue’s structionist synagogues, is to inspire the everyday functioning. congregation to take action in the di- rection of social justice, as interpreted Rabbi as Role Model by particular circumstances and con- texts. The particulars can be many — As a teacher and prophet, the rabbi supporting the peace movement in the is a role model. Though s/he may have Middle East, fighting poverty and so little ultimate influence on the personal on. While the lay leaders in a synagogue decisions of members, congregants tend may be able social activists who can take to magnify and scrutinize the rabbi’s life leadership roles in the synagogue, the choices and actions. The rabbi is often rabbi’s strong involvement, teaching and viewed as the conscience of the syna- connection to Jewish values are crucial gogue, and as such is expected to lead for the success of such work. an exemplary life that the congregants The role of prophet involves teach- may or may not choose to emulate. Phil ing roles; by guiding and leading her/ Zuckerman’s Strife in the Sanctuary12 de- his congregants, the rabbi can encour- scribes the challenges of this paradigm age their personal actions.To the degree as they were played out in an Oregon that the prophetic role evokes a sense synagogue where members were satis- of authority and teaching, it might echo fied with the image of their rabbi as a a sense of parental function. Yet it is in political and Jewish conscience and felt the realm of communal or institutional little need to take action themselves. action where the rabbi has the most As a teacher, the rabbi fulfills the influence. This role can be an awkward American-Jewish expectation that the one for the rabbi, especially in light of synagogue serve as the transmitter of other roles played in the synagogue sys- Jewish traditions and values. Here, the tem, particularly those of healer and role of teacher is modeled on the im- subordinate supervisee. age of a parent invested in transmitting How can a rabbi consistently push the traditions and values of past gen-

30 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist erations to the present one. Once more, as community building and the as in other aspects of the prophetic role, strengthening of Jewish identity. the rabbi is the “model Jew,” the com- munity’s conscience, the one who is, in Needs, Mission and Values loco parentis, ultimately concerned with the “children’s” Jewish knowledge. The image of community as a guid- ing principle for a synagogue is one that Rabbi as Community Member emphasizes the needs, mission and val- ues of the community as compasses for The rabbi and staff are hired profes- its members’ actions. A religious Jew- sionals, knowledgeable not only in Jew- ish community strives for and struggles ish matters but also in communal and to find a balance between personal au- educational work. While there is an tonomy and communal values and ide- inherent difference between the status als. It takes seriously the idea of mitzvot of lay leaders, who choose to be part of as a communal imperative. a community, and the professional staff The ideal of a synagogue modeled that is paid to lead that community, after the image of community is attrac- there is a sense of shared purpose guid- tive because it strives toward intimacy ing all the members of the synagogue and fellowship. The strong communal system. need for fellowship, shared vision and Two prominent social-systems action in religious and communal set- thinkers, Fred Emery and Eric Trist, tings is powerfully described by schol- believe that social systems are purpose- ars who have examined the issue of ful and ideal-seeking.13 These systems communities, and especially religious are guided by ideals and values, even if communities and their effect on soci- they do not always utilize the most ap- ety.14 propriate strategies and goals to reach The rabbi is a member of the com- those ideals, and even if other human munity in the sense that he/she partici- and social forces intervene and move pates in building a communal sense of them off course. sharing, caring and mutual responsibil- Accordingly, human beings strive to ity and responsiveness. The rabbi, like pursue ideals even if they are not al- other community members, will par- ways aware of how this pursuit takes ticipate in life-cycle and other commu- place within their social systems. If so- nity-building events, but, as mentioned cial systems in general are purposeful earlier, there is a conceptual difference and ideal-seeking, synagogues are espe- in the quality of involvement when the cially so. The ideals of a spiritual com- rabbi’s participation is predicated upon munity will guide the synagogue and his/her being a paid community mem- provide direction for that community ber. The board can tell the rabbi that as a social system. Among these ideals his/her participation in the life of the one may find democracy, tikkun olam community is no longer desired, or that and study for people of all ages, as well his/her vision for the community and

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 31 its life needs to change. On the other edged, respected and fully debated. In hand, the rabbi may engage in com- this manner, the community will be munity-building activities such as dis- more ready to accept potentially divi- cussions about particular individuals, sive issues. When decisions are made groups or issues of import to the com- on the basis of study and communal munity as a whole. The rabbi is neces- discussion, a sense of sharing and open- sarily both a part of the community and ness develops as a result. This outcome apart from it. may soften the disappointment for those who were opposed to the deci- Rabbi as Community Leader sion. The rabbi as the leader not only facilitates the discussion and guides it, The intertwining of the roles of “su- but more importantly teaches and steers per community member” and commu- the process of learning relevant mate- nity leader carries with it high expecta- rial. tions. Synagogues do not expect their members to participate in every social Balancing Individual event or to sit on every committee, but and Group Needs the leader’s participation is expected to be total, and members often interpret Some of the interactions that take the rabbi’s participation or lack of par- place in the synagogue are individual, ticipation as personal recognition or especially when it comes to counseling rejection. and pastoral work. Yet many synagogue In a synagogue that strives to be a functions take place in groups, such as community based on democratic par- prayer, educational classes and commit- ticipation, the rabbi and the congrega- tee work. Some of the rabbi’s functions tion members are faced with the task are geared toward the entire synagogue of continually refining these guiding program: planning, prioritizing, teach- and defining values. The rabbi and ing classes, leading tefilot and so forth. other staff members have a different set The rabbi as the synagogue leader con- of responsibilities and expectations, stantly struggles to find a balance be- even if they strive to achieve the same tween honoring each individual and goals and dreams as the rest of the vol- considering the needs of the entire syna- unteer members of the community. gogue. Sometimes, the needs of a par- Even if a synagogue is based on shared ticular individual are addressed over the values, and even if those values include whole. In other situations, the desires a celebration of diversity and mutual of one group are stressed and preferred respect among the different players, it over the desires of another group. There is still not free of conflict and differ- is no way to avoid this situation, nor ences, nor should it be. As William should there be. Blake remarks, “without contraries However, it is important to remem- there is no progression.”15 ber that these actions, even when nec- Differences need to be acknowl- essary, can undermine the feelings of

32 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist cohesiveness and mutuality intended in administrator, employee and commu- the image of community. Here, too, we nity leader. The synagogue as a work- see that the rabbi is continuously cog- place that employs the rabbi and other nizant of the tensions between the in- staff provides a sense of “family” inti- dividual and the whole, between a per- macy for its members and requires fa- sonal vision of community and the milial loyalty and commitment from its larger vision; between the role of teacher employees, especially its rabbi. and prophet and the one of parent, CEO or administrator. Matching Metaphors Familial Images “Family” or “workplace” are meta- phors that help us frame our thoughts Synagogues, like all organizations, about synagogues as complex and mul- define their structures and processes by tifaceted organizations. The exploration drawing on the images most familiar of a new metaphor that elicits new to their members. In this analysis, we kinds of relationships, processes and have seen how images of families and structures offers the opportunity for family relations find an echo in syna- fresh thinking and creative solutions to gogue life. Business and workplace cul- some of the challenges presented by the tures are also reflected in the relation- other paradigms. ships, structures and processes of syna- Synagogue as “community” elicits gogues. Examining synagogues as sys- the kind of relationships and processes tems has shown us that synagogues are that are closer to the Reconstructionist not merely families; neither are they thinking. The synagogue as community merely workplaces. could offer a fresh, less problematic Not only are there additional images model of synagogue/rabbi/congregant of social constructs that are reflected in relationships. Synagogues as commu- synagogues, but the images of family nities can provide opportunities for car- and workplaces each carry, as we have ing and commitment, but do not nec- seen, challenging and difficult conno- essarily contain in them the strong ex- tations in the context of a synagogue. pectations of unconditional and unend- This is true from an organizational per- ing commitment that is implied in the spective as well as from the perspective image of a family. of the interactions and relationships between individuals, particularly the Opportunity and Challenge rabbis and their congregants. The rabbi/synagogue relationship Communities are more like work- can be viewed systemically as a series places than like families because they of concentric, interlocking circles: the are voluntary. There is no compulsion rabbi’s own spiritual and personal life; or obligation to join them and partici- family; his/her work as a teacher and pate in their lives. They are more like spiritual guide; his/her work as CEO/ families than workplaces, however, be-

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 33 cause they do address the needs of their 4. David Teutsch, “The Rabbinic Role in members for belonging, purpose and Organizational Decision Making,” in The commitment. Reconstructionist (Vol. 64, No. 1), Fall, 1999. Unlike families and workplaces, the 5. These roles and images of religious leaders inner structure of synagogues does not pertain to non-Orthodox synagogues in which the roles and functions of the rabbis have defined hierarchies and authority have been changing and moving away from lines. Therein rests the opportunity as the tradition role of “scholar-adjudicator.” well as the challenge: Its images and 6. Teutsch, op. cit. expectations are more open to the ini- 7. G. Lloyd Rediger, Clergy Killers: Guidance tiative, imagination and joint decision- for Pastors and Congregations Under Attack making of the system as a whole. (Louisville, KY: Westminster John Knox This openness is also a challenge. It Press, 1997). requires responsible and careful plan- 8. Ibid. ning and decision-making processes, 9. Teutsch, op. cit. and respectful relationships in order to 10. Chris Argyris, Increasing Leadership Ef- succeed. These are new attitudes and fectiveness (New York, Wiley Series in Behav- behaviors. They are not always intui- ior, 1976). 11. H. Newton Maloney, op. cit. tive or natural, but the rewards they of- 12. Phillip Zuckerman, Strife in the Sanctu- fer for the individuals, the profession- ary: Religious Schism in a Jewish Community als and the Jewish community in gen- (Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press, 1999). eral make the engagement and invest- 13. Fred Emery and Eric Trist, Towards a ments in them a worthwhile endeavor. Social Ecology (London: Tavistock, 1973). 14. Robert Bellah, Richard Madsen, Will- iam Sullivan, Ann Swidler and Steven Tipton, 1. H. Newton Maloney, Living with Para- in Habits of the Heart: Individualism and dox: Religious Leadership and the Genius of Commitment in American Life (Berkeley, CA: Double Vision (San Francisco: Jossey Bass University of California Press, 1985), and Publishers, 1998). Maloney describes eight Arnold Eisen, “Reimagining Jewish Commu- paradoxes along the delineation of four cat- nity in America,” in The Reconstructionist egories: role, perspective, structure and (Vol. 60, No. 1), Spring, 1995, and Robert mission. Woothnow in I Come Away Stronger: How 2. Jack Bloom, “The Special Tensions of Small Groups Are Shaping American Religion Being a Rabbi,” in Sh’ma (20/386), Janu- (Grand Rapids, MI, Eerdmans, 1994). ary 9, 1990. 15. William Blake, “The Marriage of Heaven 3. Edwin Friedman, From Generation to and Hell,” in David B. Erdman, ed., The Generation. Family Process in Church and Poetry and Prose of William Blake (Garden Synagogue (New York: Guilford Press, 1985). City, NY: Doubleday and Co., 1970).

34 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist Peering Into the Future: Considerations for Reconstructing the Synagogue

BY HAYIM HERRING

hile I appreciate the invita- rabbinic statement about prophecy post tion to think about the fu- hurban. ha-bayit (destruction of the W ture of the synagogue, I am Temple) belonging either to children mindful of all of the prognostications or fools. Not wishing to be in either that so radically missed the mark. Item:1 category, I find it daunting to peer too far out, especially in our age. For espe- • “The phonograph . . . is not of any cially today, who can say with certainty commercial value.” (Thomas Edi- what the future will bring? son, remarking on his own inven- With these reservations, I will describe tion to this assistant, Sam Insull, what some trends suggest about the fu- 1880) ture of the synagogue. Some of these • “Sensible and responsible women trends are disturbing, but the data are do not want to vote.” (Grover Cleve- there, and I believe that we become a land, 1905) more dynamic community by struggling • “[Babe] Ruth made a big mistake with them. when he gave up pitching.” (Tris In particular, I want to pay close at- Speaker, 1921) tention to two younger cohorts of Jews, • “Who the hell wants to hear ac- Gen X’ers and Millenials, the two gen- tors talk?” (Harry Warner, Warner erations that chronologically follow the Brothers Pictures, 1927) Boomer generation. If synagogues do • “There is no reason for any indi- not learn how to adapt to them, we are vidual to have a computer in their likely to see a steep decline in synagogue home.” (Ken Olsen, president of membership and participation in the Digital Equipment Corporation, years ahead. We have reason to be con- 1977) cerned that the base of support for syna- gogues will erode because of their lack Moreover, I am also cognizant of the of involvement, and the quality of syna-

Rabbi Hayim Herring is the Executive Director of STAR (Synagogues: Trans- formation and Renewal).The author would like to thank Judge Norman Krivosha, Terri Krivosha and Sandy Cardin for reviewing this manuscript.

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 35 gogue life that we count on today may the unprecedented phenomenon of not be here much longer in the future. having significant numbers of four gen- erations of people alive. These four gen- Conceptual Framework erations are described as the “Veteran/ Silent Generation,” “Baby Boomers,” In considering what shapes synagogues “Gen X’ers” and “Millenials.” While re- will take, it may be helpful to create some searchers demarcate these generations rubrics into which we can pour our somewhat differently, Veterans are de- imagination. The four that I will use are fined as those born from 1922-1943, people, purpose, process/organizational Baby Boomers from 1943-1960, Gen- models and professionals. eration X from 1960-1980 and Mil- First, we want to understand the de- lenials from 1980-2000. mographic profile of upcoming genera- Each generation is influenced by dif- tions that will hopefully inhabit the syna- ferent historical forces. As a result, “It gogue (the people). Then, we need to is further assumed that the cultural defi- look at the repertoire of values embod- nitions of reality forged by a genera- ied by the synagogue (the purpose) and tion in its formative years are carried, consider how to align those values with to a greater or lesser degree, through- the needs and desires of these upcoming out the lives of its members.”2 There is generations. We can then ask questions a range of tremendously significant about the organizational structure of the implications in this assumption. For synagogue and imagine the kind of pro- our purposes, the primary importance cesses and models that will support the of understanding the impact of genera- mission of the synagogue and allow it to tional experience is that it helps us ap- express and fulfill the needs of new gen- preciate that each generation brings erations. Finally, we can consider the kind different values, attitudes and expecta- of rabbi that is needed to function in a tions to all facets of life and the institu- new internal and external environment. tions they inhabit, including work, edu- This essay takes the perspective of cation, family, relationships and civic the potential user of the synagogue into and religious involvement. account. Applying an end-user orien- tation reminds us that the synagogue Paradigms Change has been and continues to be an evolv- ing institution that has responded to As this essay is focused on recon- varied historical conditions. This per- structing the synagogue, I would like spective suggests that all aspects of the to spend some time on the upcoming synagogue must be open to a rethink- millennial generation. I feel compelled ing of essential purposes and functions. to do so because the American Jewish community tends to react slowly to fun- Generational Layers damental changes that happen over a long period of time. (That may be true With advances in medicine, we have of other faith communities, but I can

36 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist only speak for the one that I know and dren, metal detectors in schools and love.) We are second to none when it increased security in public places. comes to mobilizing for a crisis, but, in If we were Millenials, we would also ordinary times, we are very comfort- be influenced by other major trends in able operating on autopilot. technology, the media and entertain- Currently, there are a number of lo- ment. Having witnessed the trial of O.J. cal and national synagogue “transfor- Simpson and the impeachment hear- mation” efforts underway. This is posi- ings of President Clinton, we might be tive and we need more of them. How- naturally suspicious of celebrities and ever, it is typically Baby Boomers who political leaders. We would also have are leading these change efforts and, as been raised on a digital demand-feed- Boomers are accustomed to do, they ap- ing schedule. Think about how many pear to be able to concentrate on their screens our generation is exposed to: the needs but may be neglectful of the needs hundred-channel cable television of generations that will follow them. The screen, the personal desktop assistant ancient sage Hillel’s ethic of Jewish lead- screen, the Cineplex movie screen, the ership — “If I am only for myself, what cell phone screen and the computer am I?”— also requires us to be oriented screen. We would begin to witness the toward others. We Boomers must also convergence of these technologies so reach out to Gen X’ers and Millenials, that we could send and receive images extend a hand to them, and bring them on our cell phones and access e-mail into our communities. from the television. We have redefined multitasking, and can easily manage Thinking Like a Millenial Jew watching television, talking on-line and doing homework. Based on research from outside of the Jewish community,3 let us try to No Brand Loyalty imagine what it would be like to expe- rience growing up in the world as a We are tired of being marketed to Millenial. A key change that makes our all of the time. We do not like the experience of growing up different from brands that appeal to our parents in that of prior generations is a feeling of clothing, beverages, movies or music. vulnerability close to home—on many We are not loyal to any brand, but if levels. Unlike our Boomer parents, who someone wants our attention, they will had to worry about “the enemy” in far- need to market to us with a humorous, away lands, “the enemy” has struck lo- ironic edge. cally. We will remember violent epi- MTV is our favorite music station. sodes like the Columbine shooting, the We need rapid edits, booming sounds Oklahoma City terrorist attack, the and graphic images that, unlike our collapse of the Twin Towers of the parents, do not make us nauseous or World Trade Center, anthrax scares in give us a headache. We would create the mail, Catholic priests abusing chil- CD’s with the music that we want to

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 37 hear. For entertainment, we would also make money doing something that is not only watch the movies that we like also socially meaningful. Despite the but make the movies that we want. We current problems, we think that we will would probably have our own website make the world better because we see a and might decide to publish our thoughts future with unlimited creative possibili- on-line. We would also pay a subscrip- ties. tion to an on-line gaming service and assume a virtual identity that might be New Modes of Jewish Expression totally different from the way we live our lives in real time. According to some es- The several studies on Jewish Mil- timates, we may spend as much as up to lenials and their predecessors Jewish a third of our lives on-line. Gen X’ers,4 paint a picture that is con- sistent with the research from the gen- At Home With Pluralism eral community. The way Millenials express their Judaism is different from Diversity and multiculturalism (and some might say inferior to) prior would not be adult phrases over which generations. Yet, Millenials do express there was debate but an ordinary, un- pride in being Jewish. noticed part of our daily reality. Like Jewish Millenials are generally un- Tiger Woods, who is both a real person satisfied with the Jewish education they and a symbol of multiculturalism, we received and therefore find serious would also dismiss the significance of study of Judaism appealing, while spiri- the exclusion of women from the Au- tuality, an interest of Boomers, is not a gusta National, believing that women category that resonates with them. — and indeed, all people — have Those from unaffiliated and interfaith achieved full access to all careers. We families are especially interested in the would also not harbor prejudices to- cultural and artistic expression of Ju- ward what older people refer to as “al- daism. ternative family structures” and, to the Typically, young women are more ac- contrary, might be offended by refer- tive in organized Jewish activities than ences to “intact” or “normative” fami- their male counterparts. These same lies. We understand that our culture is studies indicate that Jews of this gen- not the only one in the world and are eration value academic achievement at home with people our own age from and attach a high priority to financial many different countries. well-being. It is therefore not surpris- Because of the Internet and other ing to find that they spend a consider- technologies, we would know how to able amount of time working for pay retrieve and manipulate the informa- already as teenagers, often at jobs that tion that we need to determine our they do not find meaningful. goals. We would recognize that we have Millenials are interested in learning to be socially involved to solve the prob- about Israel and the Holocaust and in- lems around us, and would want to dicate interest in raising their children

38 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist as Jews. While celebrating holidays with an edge to it; their families is enjoyable to them, for- • They need to be reached through mul- mal affiliation with Jewish institutions tiple media channels; is unimportant, as is the practice of • They need to have their loyalty earned ritual behavior and attendance at syna- and maintained on a regular basis; gogue services. • They value a community that provides Millenials are universalists in their them physical and emotional safety; worldview, value cultural diversity and • They expect to see a diversity of people are unconcerned about dating non- within their midst; Jews. They do not like labeling other • They want to be respected as indi- groups and, in a related vein, dislike viduals capable of contributing to their barriers that separate people from one community. another, both within and outside of the Today, synagogues are structured as Jewish community. Interest in volun- venues for community-building through teerism and making the world a better expressing scripted ritual behavior and place is of great importance to them. sharing the objective wisdom of the Jewish tradition, with rabbis often serv- Implications for Synagogue Life ing as the authorities in both areas. In other words, synagogues are currently What implications for future syna- organized to be in conflict with the val- gogue life can we tease out of findings ues of upcoming generations. Syna- from within and outside of the Jewish gogues now have the challenge of adapt- community? They suggest that: ing to Jewish Millenials, or they will • Although their Jewish behaviors may risk alienating them. That means that be different from ours, upcoming gen- all aspects of synagogue life need to be erations are proud of being Jewish; informed by the research that is emerg- • These generations have fewer memo- ing on future generations while still ries of Jewish family celebrations and tending to the needs of older genera- fewer experiences of being in the syna- tions. gogue with their families; • They are less interested in Jewish ritu- Midrashim on Modernity als; • They are accustomed to self-direct- Three of the religious movements ing their life choices; (Reform, Orthodox and Conservative) • They celebrate religious, cultural and can be viewed broadly as a midrash on ethnic diversity and have weaker feel- modernity as understood in a European ings of Jewish ethnic solidarity; context. Reconstructionist Judaism can • They value subjective experiences as be viewed as a midrash on late moder- a way of knowing the world over tradi- nity in America. And it appears that we tional propositional truths; are seeing the emergence of a post-mod- • While they value education, they also ern midrash in what is broadly described value entertainment, especially if it has as the Jewish Renewal movement.

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 39 By “midrash,” I mean these move- on the American Jewish scene, does Re- ments captured the zeitgeist of their newal have an advantage of being more times. They responded to the burning in tune with the zeitgeist of our times? issues of their day and developed broad Will it play the functional equivalent strategies and approaches to deal with that Reconstructionism played in an them, by highlighting those aspects of earlier time, having an influence far the Jewish tradition that resonated with greater than its numbers would suggest? the times and minimizing others that From an organizational perspective, will struck a dissonant note. it ultimately take the shape of a mod- Scholars of modern Jewish history ern denomination? Or will it evolve have described how Reform, Orthodox into a different kind of organization, and Conservative Judaism were re- one that has minimal structure but is sponses to the challenges of emancipa- able to move more nimbly on the tion and enlightenment. Reconstruc- grassroots level by influencing individu- tionist Judaism can similarly be viewed als and congregations of all denomina- as a methodology for answering ques- tions with its ideas, religious messages tions about the unprecedented chal- and innovative practices? lenge to American Jews of living simul- taneously in two civilizations and un- Two Options derstanding Judaism from the rational and pragmatic perspective of the inter- What is clear is that each movement war period. appears to be fundamentally assessing its direction — evaluating, creating or Post-Modern Jewish Renewal recreating its midrash on Judaism. Each movement appears to understand that Jewish Renewal is responding to a dif- the issues and questions that gave birth ferent set of questions, opportunities and to them have changed. This kind of self- challenges. It values tikkun olam (repair assessment is positive, for it is what of the world), combined with tikkun ha- healthy organizations do. What will be lev (personal spiritual development), re- most interesting to observe over the flecting its dual emphasis on healing the next decade is the option that the re- external world through the pursuit of spective movements will choose. There social, political and environmental jus- appear to be two basic choices, each one tice, while developing individual spiri- posing a different set of challenges and tuality. The blending of mystical and opportunities. hasidic traditions, along with openness Option one is to bring the theology toward other religions and spiritual and practice of each movement into practices, are meant to foster a subjec- greater alignment with the postmodern tive experience of the Divine. In sum, temperament of America. Broadly, that it has the feel of a thoroughly post- means creating space within each move- modern movement. ment for individual experimentation, As one of the most recent entrants acceptance, autonomy, adaptation and

40 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist subjective experience, while still main- liberal movements and between the lib- taining clear values and a clear denomi- eral movements and Orthodoxy. How- national mission — no easy feat! ever, for the everyday Jew in the pew, it is The second option is to run counter- becoming increasingly difficult to find as culture and offer a differentiated alter- many bright lines of separation between native to the zeitgeist of today. While I the movements today. would expect to see both alternatives, it is not at all clear to me which move- Implications for Synagogues ment will select which path, or if we will see a realignment of movements What are the implications for syna- along these lines. Of course, it is equally gogues of this merging of denomina- possible that neither of these sugges- tional worldview and practice? In an tions will prove true and that that some environment in which synagogues may unimagined alternatives will emerge. become less differentiated by denomi- national practice, variables that pull Increasing Similarities people to synagogues will become more important. Cost, quality of educational In any scenario, we would expect to programming, proximity, rabbinic lead- see increasing similarities among the ership, community and personal rel- different movements as they attempt to evance may take on greater importance adapt to the times. Those similarities in retaining and attracting members. are already abundant in denomina- Ideology, while becoming more de- tional synagogues and are only increas- veloped within each movement, will ing. Hebrew language and Jewish ritual continue to play an important role — have found a comfortable home within but for a decreasingly small elite. The many synagogues of all movements. space for non-denominational syna- The use of instrumentation in tefilot in gogues, about which we currently know many liberal synagogues is common. little, and for havurot, is likely to be- More recently, the popularity of Carle- come broader and may become increas- bach-style minyanim in all of the dif- ingly attractive options for an eclectic ferent movements illustrates their at- community of people who have little tempt to offer a religious experience taste for labels that suggest uniformity. that speaks to the spiritual tempera- Many organizational issues require ment of contemporary Jews. examination in reconstructing the syna- Feminism has now had an impact on gogue of the future. The people who all of the denominations, including Or- will inhabit the synagogue of the fu- thodoxy. The acceptance of gay and les- ture need to influence the processes bian Jews in the various movements is used within the synagogue to achieve becoming more normative. The value of its mission, and the organizational Jewish learning is now celebrated within shape that will best allow it to express each movement. Fundamental differ- its purposes. I will only reflect on a few ences certainly still exist, both within the such issues in this paper and will elabo-

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 41 rate at greater length in a forthcoming tural presenters, synagogues and such publication. organizations can each benefit. Syna- gogues gain by bringing younger genera- Reexamining Synagogue Models tions and new ideas through their doors, and grassroots organizations are able to Synagogue business models require fulfill basic organizational needs. When reexamination. More specifically, I am synagogues and agencies fail to fulfill these suggesting that there is something fun- needs, they fail to reach their full poten- damentally wrong with a business tial. model that invests huge amounts of Synagogue governance models also capital in a facility whose worship space, require reexamination and change. New which consumes a significant amount ideas and initiatives are difficult to of square footage of most synagogues, implement because of cumbersome or- is vastly underutilized except for sev- ganizational barriers and inefficiencies. eral days each year. Large, underutilized Additionally, synagogues often do not facilities are a drag on already stressed give enough latitude to volunteers to synagogue budgets. They are one rea- take responsibility for their own Jew- son why synagogue dues are perceived ish needs. These are realities that need as high barriers to entry, especially for to change if younger generations are to younger generations who do not bring be engaged meaningfully in synagogue special feelings of loyalty to synagogues. life. This will be increasingly important Could congregations downsize their as the fruits of Jewish experiences, like building and work with Jewish Commu- day schools, and adult Jewish learning nity Centers or other local facilities to programs, like the Wexner Heritage meet extra-capacity services and events Program, Me’ah and the Florence on the few occasions a year when they Melton Mini-School for Adults, be- are needed? Would that enable them to come available for harvest. offer memberships that are more afford- able and more appealing programmati- Engagement and Networking cally? Congregations that are consider- ing building expansions or are thinking Synagogues need to develop organi- of new buildings should especially think zational partnerships with institutions seriously about these kinds of questions. inside and outside of the Jewish com- Alternatively, synagogues can be- munity in order to serve successfully a come incubators for innovative pro- diverse, multigenerational community. grams, services and organizations that Elsewhere,5 I have written about the are in need of space and administrative need for synagogues to network with and custodial support. These are the very other institutions, allowing them to programs often originated by the younger expand their ability to offer services to people that synagogues have trouble members through collaborations with reaching. By housing grassroots minya- other institutions and, at the same time, nim, social-justice organizations and cul- focus on areas of program and service that

42 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist they are uniquely situated to provide. bis in both a local and national capacity, Given the diverse, multigenerational and having served in a congregation, I composition of the Jewish community am aware of the challenges and complexi- today, no Jewish institution can be con- ties of the congregational rabbinate. sidered Jewishly self-sufficient, so syna- Knowing these realities makes it more gogues must create these partnerships. difficult for me to state a bold truth: Equally important, they must engage Many congregational rabbis are playing with the broader community, where an increasingly marginal role in the lives they practice acts of hesed. for the broad- of individual Jews and in the Jewish com- er community with people of other munity, and risk becoming even more out faith communities. Younger genera- of touch with upcoming generations. tions in particular do not like bound- This claim can be supported by ask- aries erected between their Jewish lives ing a few simple questions. How many and other dimensions of their lives. hours does the average American Jew Therefore, experiences that express a spend in the synagogue each year? While particular Jewish message and that hap- we lack scientific data, an educated guess pen in more universal settings will have would suggest probably somewhere be- special appeal to younger generations. tween twelve and twenty hours. What Networking, as Barry Shrage points percentage of dues-paying households out, also has global implications for the attends Shabbat services regularly (at least synagogue of the future.5 Synagogues twice a month)? Again, an unscientific will have an opportunity to create an yet educated estimate would be between expansive feeling of klal yisrael by us- 5 and 10 percent. ing communications technology to link These estimates speak for themselves themselves with communities in Israel about the perceived value and relevance and the former Soviet Union and in Eu- of synagogues today, and they are pain- ropean Jewish communities. These vir- ful to accept for those who are “planted tual meetings will complement real- in the house of the Lord.” In fact, when time visits already made possible by glo- looking out at an unusually full con- bal transportation. In an age of dimin- gregation on a Shabbat morning, it is ished Jewish ethnicity, this networking easy to be lulled into denial. with Jewish communities around the globe will add programmatic dyna- Limited Impact mism while also strengthening attenu- ated feelings of Jewish peoplehood. Why is it the case that rabbis so in- frequently touch the lives of their con- Decline of Rabbinic Influence gregants? In the space of a brief essay, I can suggest only a few factors. For most Here, I limit my thoughts to con- synagogue-goers outside of the Ortho- gregational rabbis. However, a rethink- dox world, rabbis are not called upon ing of all synagogue staff positions and as halakhic decision-makers. Our unique functions is in order. Working with rab- expertise and training are not on the

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 43 agenda of most synagogue members, ex- Additionally, rabbis tend to play a cept on an “as-needed” basis, typically marginal community leadership role. around life-cycle events and holidays. Proactive community leadership more Another fundamental reason is that often comes from outside the congre- real-time and on-line options for gain- gation — from Jewish philanthropists, ing information about Jewish subjects federations, community centers, com- unrelated to halakha are available from munity relations councils — but not many different sources, and younger usually from rabbis. They may play a generations are especially adept at find- reactive or a consultative role on com- ing the information they seek. For ex- munity events but generally do not set ample, in many Jewish communities the community agenda. In this envi- today, there are members of congrega- ronment of democratized leadership tions or community members with vast and learning, where upcoming genera- areas of expertise in Hebrew language, tions will play a greater role in creating Jewish literature, Holocaust studies, their personal, institutional and com- synagogue skills and even more esoteric munal Jewish destiny (as some already subjects like Kabbalah. do), what roles are left for rabbis?

Direct Access to Resources Is There a Rabbi in the House?

A number of venerable Jewish pub- Congregational rabbis potentially lishers, including the Jewish Publication have very significant, privileged and Society, newer spirituality publishers critical roles to play on the interpersonal like Jewish Lights, or mainstream pub- and communal level. In thinking of a lishers like Random House or Harper reconstructed role for the congrega- Collins (to name but a few) offers a tional rabbi, I will draw two analogies stunning array of Jewish books. A new, from the field of medical practice6 be- comprehensive Jewish educational cause it offers some applicable insights.7 website, MyJewishLearning.com, has Perhaps that ought not to come as a almost completed its goal of providing surprise, for rabbis, by virtue of their an on-line library of topics that will ritual and pastoral roles, are given ac- surpass the many existing sites that can cess to intimate times in people’s lives, be found, many of which are them- just as doctors are. As with all analo- selves very helpful. Talmud, classical gies, this one should not be pressed too codes of Jewish law, targumim and mys- far, but may be useful in helping us to tical treatises—works that used to be conceptualize new ways of thinking the province of rabbinical scholars, are about the congregational rabbinate. now open to the Jewish and general public. The democratizing impulse of Partners in Decision-Making the classical rabbis to make Jewish learning available to all is well on the A cursory look at how the physician- way to being realized. patient paradigm has evolved may of-

44 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist fer some directions for congregational proactive promotion of wellness. When rabbis. In medical practice today, the doctors meet with their patients for approach of shared or participatory de- wellness visits, they take a comprehen- cision-making is in vogue. Doctors ac- sive look at their lifestyles and suggest cept patient autonomy as a given, and ways in which they can improve their know that their patients frequently overall health. They provide articles and come armed with the latest information information to promote a vision of a about innovative medical tests and pro- healthy person. They also give seminars cedures, new drugs and cutting-edge targeted to segmented populations therapies they have learned about based on life stages or specific diseases. through electronic and print media. Good doctors today actively involve their However, patients do not have the patients in creating and maintaining a training and experience to filter all of healthy lifestyle. They understand that this information and arrive at correct through the proactive promotion of good medical choices. That is where the doc- health, they have a better chance of tor plays a critical role. Doctors take achieving desired patient outcomes. careful medical histories, perform rel- Medical practice today is both reac- evant physical examinations and judi- tive and proactive and, in both modes, ciously order lab tests. Based on their involves patients in its processes. The analysis, they create a treatment plan state of medical practice offers some with the involvement of the patient. clear insights for rabbinic practice in Of course, this is an idealized descrip- the congregation. Congregational rab- tion of the shared decision-making model bis can use the shared decision-making of medical practice. Patient variables, in- model, one that is much more in keep- cluding age, education and socio-eco- ing with the temperament of Boomers, nomic status, may either limit or enhance Gen X’ers and Millenials, to help in- a shared decision-making process. For fluence them at critical life junctures. example, older patients who have been The current structuring of rabbinic socialized under a more paternalistic time allows for sickness visits, crisis care medical model may still want the doctor and triage. A restructuring could also to make medical choices for them. Addi- create time for spiritual wellness check- tionally, there are variables among doc- ups. Through different media and fo- tors that have an impact on the success- rums (teaching, preaching, writing, ful implementation of this model, as well. home visits, panel discussions, etc.), Nonetheless, this model of shared deci- rabbis can take their vision of a healthy sion-making is worthy of consideration Jewish life and promote it. when re-envisioning rabbinic roles.8 Providing Alternative Values Promoting Spiritual Wellness In a democratic, non-authoritarian A second enriching analogy from the fashion, rabbis have a unique opportu- field of medical practice relates to the nity and privilege to throw a counter

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 45 weight to secular and sometimes dehu- ment in existing rabbinical roles. But manizing influences and trends in our there are some gifted rabbis who model society. They can offer an alternative set this kind of compassionate, relevant, liv- of values, a different lens through which ing Torah. If ever a discussion of lay lead- to evaluate the most important life ers, rabbis and rabbinical school admin- choices and a different life agenda for istrators was needed, now is the time to members of the Jewish community. engage in strategic thinking and acting They can do so on an individual level in redefining the unique roles that rabbis through meetings with congregants, and can especially play in the Jewish commu- on a congregational level through the nity. Absent such a discussion, it is likely various media and forums that a congre- that ongoing marginalization of the rab- gation provides. They can also take their binate will continue unchecked. vision to a broader Jewish public if they will make the time to remain consistently The Use of Creative Tension involved in key communal institutions and not just appear when a particular For some, change and innovation are item of interest of theirs is a hot commu- exhilarating. People who are wired for nity topic. I believe that these kinds of change thrive on the recombination of roles are special privileges of a congre- new ideas and believe in a world of in- gational rabbi and that this work is finite possibilities. For many more, avodat kodesh (sacred service) at the change lies along a spectrum between highest level. difficult and terrifying. While America However, in order to work at this, in particular has a bias in favor of in- in addition to talking about ritual mat- novation, tradition is also an honored ters that are of concern to us (Shabbat category within Judaism. observance, kashrut and tefilah), we also Synagogues, regardless of denomina- have to speak more frequently about tional affiliation, are charged with con- issues that are of concern to congregants serving, preserving, adapting and trans- and community members. We need to mitting the tradition. Innovation, when learn better how to integrate an under- it comes, occurs most often through a standing of human developmental process of evolutionary reinterpreta- stages into programming, teaching and tion, which is what gives continuity to spiritual counseling. We have to craft the Jewish tradition. Therefore, as the differentiated interpersonal approaches future unfolds, we should expect to feel to a multigenerational congregation. continued tension between the great And all of this must be done with love need for reconstruction of the syna- and empathy. gogue and for continuity of the syna- Rabbinical schools are likely to be gogue as we know it today. The con- slow to incorporate this kind of ap- tinued relevance of the synagogue will proach into a curriculum and program, be determined by those who use the as are many rabbis, because of our spiri- tension as a force for creativity and tual, emotional and personal invest- growth.

46 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist Center for Modern Jewish Studies, Brandeis 1. All of these items are taken from J. University, 2000); Barry Kosmin, “Com- Barker, Paradigms. The Business of Discov- ing of Age in the Conservative Synagogue: ering the Future (New York, HarperBusi- The Bar/Bat Mitzvah Class of 5755,” in J. ness, 1993), 89. Wertheimer, ed., Jews in the Center: Con- 2. J. Caroll and W. Roof Carroll, Bridging servative Synagogues and Their Members Divided Worlds. Generational Cultures in (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Congregations (San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Press, 2000), 232-268; L. Sax, America’s 2002), 6. Jewish Freshman: Current Characteristics and 3. E. Neuborne and K. Kerwin, “Genera- Recent Trends among Students Entering Col- tion Y” (February 15, 1999, online). Avail- lege (Los Angeles: Higher Education Re- able: http://www.businessweek.com/ search Institute/University of California, @@0QC1pocQo1GWHBEA/1999/ 2002). 99_07/b3616001.htm; R. Zemke, C. 5. H. Herring and B. Shrage, Jewish Net- Raines, and B. Filipczak, Generations at working: Linking People, Institutions, Com- Work (New York: Amacom, 2000); P. Paul, munity (Boston: Wilstein Institute of Jew- “Inside Generation Y: Understanding ish Policy Studies, 2001). America’s Vast New Market” (August 30, 6. I wish to thank Dr. Hanna Bloomfield 2001, online). Available: at www.inside. Rubins, Professor of Medicine at the Uni- com/product/product.asp?pf_id= versity of Minnesota, for her assistance with {D4D64B67-881C-4E54-A5BD-35E. this section. 4. Amy Sales, Jewish Youth Databook: Re- 7. Other disciplines also offer insights that search on adolescence and its implications for are instructive for the rabbinate. For exam- Jewish teen programs ( Boston: Cohen Cen- ple, in high-quality service organizations, ter for Modern Jewish Studies/Brandeis service providers will meet with clients on University, 1996); Nancy Leffert and Hay- a regular basis to anticipate emerging needs im Herring, Shema: Listening to Jewish Youth and to suggest new services that may be of (Search Institute: Minneapolis, MN, help to them as they evolve. 1997); Steven Cohen, Religious Stability and 8. The Reconstructionist movement has Ethnic Decline: Emerging Patterns of Jewish made a concerted effort to explore the rab- Identity in the United States ( New York: bi-congregant relationship. See The Rabbi- The Jewish Community Centers Associa- Congregation Relationship: A Vision for the tion,1998); Charles Kadushin, Shaul Kel- 21st Century (Philadelphia: The Recon- ner and Leonard Saxe, Being a JewishTeenager structionist Commission on the Role of the in America: Trying to Make It (Boston: Cohen Rabbi, 2001).

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 47 Reading Toevah: Biblical Scholarship and Difficult Texts 1

BY SETH GOLDSTEIN

ne of the hallmarks of contem- redirect the stream of traditional inter- porary Reconstructionist Juda- pretation, but to take another look at O ism is the acceptance and cel- its source, the Tanakh itself. ebration of gays and lesbians as full members of the Jewish community. Yet Fluid Texts one of the major obstacles to complete integration is that, while our moral at- The development of biblical texts titudes may develop over time, leading was fluid, and texts can be read as reac- to different decisions regarding status tions to and adaptations of other texts. and ritual access, our primary sacred The narrative texts, the legal codes, the texts remain the same. It is then up to historical accounts, the prophetic books the reader-text interaction — the in- and the wisdom literature all reflect terpretation — to redeem and recon- each other, some in their original cre- struct these texts whose actual words ation and others in their final redac- are immutable. New reading strategies tion. are necessary to deal with and under- It is sometimes possible to see this stand these texts. fluidity in action, and the meaning of The core difficult texts regarding the word toevah is a good example. gays and lesbians in the Jewish com- Through a close examination of this munity are in the Torah, in Leviticus: term (usually translated as “abomina- Homosexual sex is labeled a toevah — tion” or “abhorrence”2) throughout bib- an “abomination.” This has lead to a lical literature, one can see continual chain of interpretive tradition that has reinterpretation, evidence of textual banned gay and lesbian coupling and interaction and of the complexity of the relationships and, by extension, full par- biblical redaction. To understand fully ticipation by gays and lesbians in the the word toevah, it is necessary to look Jewish community. But perhaps the at its usage throughout the entirety of way to reexamine these texts is not to biblical literature. look forward but to look back; not to Toevah appears in scattered refer-

Seth Goldstein is the rabbi of (JRF) Temple Beth Hatefiloh in Olympia, Washington.

48 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist ences throughout the Bible, but pre- A false witness testifying lies, dominantly in three books: Deuter- And one who incites brothers onomy, Ezekiel and Proverbs. Outside to quarrel. (6:16-19) of the two instances where toevah ap- pears as a ban on male coupling, the In addition to referring to morality, word appears only in two other places toevah in Proverbs has a universal tone. in Leviticus. Looking beyond Leviticus The abominations listed are not cultic to the entirety of uses in biblical litera- nor are they Israel-specific. As Jacob ture reveals nuances about the word’s Milgrom writes, “In Proverbs . . . the meaning that have implications for how setting is exclusively ethical and univer- it can be understood today. sal but never ritual or national.”4 That which is inappropriate for all people is The Book of Proverbs considered an abomination. The uni- versal moral nature of the word is fur- While found toward the end of the ther evidenced by the fact that, as point- Hebrew Bible, Proverbs contains some ed out by R. E. Clements and Jean of the oldest biblical material, and the L’Hour, toevah has an antonym in the case of toevah is no exception. Toevah is word ratzon (“desire”).5 An example of prevalent in Proverbs and is found most this parallelism is in the aforementioned often in those sections that have been verse against lying, Proverbs 12:22: –“Ly- deemed by scholars to be from the pe- ing speech is an abomination to the riod before the exile (586 BCE, i.e., LORD, but those who act faithfully early in the scope of biblical literature).3 please Him (retzono).” Lying is an abomi- In Proverbs, toevah has a universal nation to God, while telling the truth is moral definition. It is used to define im- God’s will. moral behaviors, such as lying (12:22), This verse is also evidence of the way haughtiness (16:5), acquitting the toevah is used in Proverbs — the word guilty and convicting the innocent sometimes appears on its own but is (17:15), using false weights and mea- sometimes qualified as part of a smichut sures (i.e. immoral business dealings) (conjunctive) phrase construction. Prov- (20:10) and general wickedness (15:9). erbs 12:22 says that lying is not just an The following passage is representa- abomination (toevah), it is an abomina- tive of the usage of toevah in Proverbs: tion to God (toevat-YHVH). Thus, an action deemed immoral is labeled also as Six things the LORD hates an affront to God: “The social sanction Seven are an abomination (toevah) present in human feelings of abhorrence to Him: and the sense of grievance at the suf- A haughty bearing, fering of moral injury are feelings also A lying tongue, shared by the deity.”6 Indeed, it can be Hands that shed innocent blood, said that this specific association with A mind that hatches evil plots, the disapproval of God is what gives an Feet quick to run to evil, action its moral significance.7

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 49 The Book of Deuteronomy tice. Idolatry is non-Israelite, so is there- fore a toevah.10 By using the term, the The second biblical book that con- Deuteronomic author is drawing a tains many uses of toevah is Deuter- boundary between Israel and other na- onomy. The prevalent use of toevah in tions. That boundary is in a sense jus- both Proverbs and Deuteronomy sug- tified because the foreign practice is la- gests a relationship between the two lit- beled a toevat-YHVH, an abomination erary traditions, a relationship that most to God. While in Proverbs a moral scholars agree involves the Deuterono- wrong is identified as being a toevat- mist borrowing the term from the au- YHVH, in Deuteronomy toevah is the thor of Proverbs.8 signifier of a non-Israelite practice. In Proverbs, what was a toevah or a toevat-YHVH was considered a univer- Additional Dimensions of Toevah sal moral statement; in Deuteronomy, toevah is a referent of national identity. Toevah in Deuteronomy is also used The usage in Deuteronomy is most to proscribe other culturally specific commonly associated with practices practices, such as sorcery and soothsay- that would distinguish Israel from other ing (18:9-14), the interdiction against nations — that which the other nations which is accompanied by an exhorta- do is deemed an abomination. tion “not to be like the other nations.” The offense that is most often labeled Other objects and practices that are la- toevah in Deuteronomy is idolatry. For beled as a toevah include forbidden ani- example: mals (14:3), the use of blemished ani- mals in sacrifice (17:1), transvestitism You shall consign the images of (22:5) and prostitution (23:19). While their gods to the fire; you shall not some scholars have attempted to link covet the silver and gold on them these “abominations,” either through and keep it for yourselves, lest you labeling them all as idolatrous cultic be ensnared thereby; for that is ab- practices or as all representing “the two- horrent (toevah) to the Lord your faced or hypocritical attitude of the God. You must not bring an abhor- malefactor,”11 the reason why these are rent thing into your house, or you listed as toevot is beside the point. (Just will be proscribed like it; you must because several practices are labeled a reject it as abominable (sheketz) and toevah does not necessarily mean those abhorrent (toevah) for it is pro- practices are related.) scribed. (7:25-6)9 What is important is that these prac- tices are cultural. They do not address Idolatry is not labeled as abhorrent fundamental issues such as justice, ly- or an abomination because it is a moral ing, haughtiness or evil. Rather, they violation, or even because it constitutes address issues such as diet, fashion and a rejection of YHWH. It is labeled as worship. The sense of the word toevah abhorrent because it is a foreign prac- has shifted in emphasis from the uni-

50 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist versally moral to the particularly national. ate “Otherness.” That is, the word is Thus, what was intimated in Proverbs now used to create cultural group is made clear in Deuteronomy — a boundaries, delineating between those toevah, while identified by YHVH, is who are “in,” or part of the group, and from a human perspective a socially con- those who are “out,” or Other. This is structed boundary. This is made even the essence of the semantic shift made clearer by examining a specific toevah that in Deuteronomy.13 is cited in both Proverbs and Deuter- What was once a moral wrong, or a onomy, that of unfair weights and mea- sin against God, is now a cultural sures. The verse in Proverbs reads, “False wrong, or a sin against Israel. As Will- weights and false measures, both are an iam McKane notes, “If a direct literary abomination to the Lord.” (20:22) The relationship is assumed between Deu- concept is expanded in Deuteronomy: teronomy and Proverbs in respect of this formula, the dependence is prob- You shall not have in your pouch ably on the side of Deuteronomy, alternate weights, larger and which, however, has pressed it into the smaller. You shall not have in your service of a new cause and has put it to house alternate measures, a larger work in the interests of the exclusive- and a smaller. You must have com- ness of the cult of Yahweh.”14 pletely honest weights and com- We can take this argument one step pletely honest measures, if you are further. The appropriation of toevah by to endure long on the soil that the the Deuteronomist from a general Lord your God is giving you. For moral category to a specific national everyone who does those things, meaning effects a two-way transfer of everyone who deals dishonestly, is meaning. By using toevah, the Deuter- abhorrent to the Lord your God. onomist is at once changing the mean- (25:13-16) ing of a word, while at the same time retaining its prior association. So while From Universal to Particular the Deuteronomist uses toevah to ap- ply to a violation of a national bound- This is an example in which the Deu- ary, something that is not Israelite but teronomic author takes a general moral Canaanite, not Us but Other, the use rule and makes it nationally specific. of that word applies a veil of universal Having honest weights is no longer “the morality across that national bound- right thing to do;” it is an act upon which ary.15 Evidence that a word can move the national sovereignty of Israel de- away from but never truly shed its se- pends. As Jean L’Hour notes, this is an mantic past will be seen as toevah is example of a wisdom tradition, in picked up by the prophet Ezekiel. which Israel needs to distinguish itself from other national groups, making its The Book of Ezekiel moral laws into national ones.12 What was once universal is now used to cre- Toevah is also common in Ezekiel.

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 51 Again, based on this alone, a link be- made their images and their detestable tween Deuteronomy and Ezekiel can abominations (toavotam).” (7:20) Here, be assumed. This link, however, is not the word toevah is used to describe as direct as that between Proverbs and idolatry, as it was in Deuteronomy. Deuteronomy; this link has multiple steps. Ezekiel has been associated by Visionary Tour scholars with the Priestly School (P) re- sponsible for the Holiness Code (H), Chapter 8 also makes this point clear. which some scholars now believe to be In this chapter, the narrative portrays a response to Deuteronomy.16 If this is God taking Ezekiel on a tour of the the case, then the biblical authors asso- Jerusalem Temple to show him all of ciated with part of the Holiness school, the evildoings of the Israelites. These including Ezekiel, had access to the evildoings are idolatrous practices, la- Deuteronomic material. Like the Deu- beled by the author as toevot: teronomic author (D) before him, Ezekiel altered the word’s meaning to And he said to me, “O mortal, turn fit his purpose. your eyes northward.” I turned my Toevah is used forty-three times by eyes northward and there, north of Ezekiel. Certain chapters — 7, 8 and the gate of the altar, was that infu- 16 — use the term several times, and riating image on the approach. And these uses are exemplary. In chapter 7, He said to me, “Mortal, do you see Ezekiel receives a prophecy of doom what they are doing, the terrible from God because of the “arrogance,” abominations (toevot) that the “lawlessness” and “wickedness” perpe- House of Israel is practicing here, trated by the Israelites. They are to be to drive me far from My Sanctu- doomed because of their abominations: ary: You shall yet see even greater abominations (toevot)!” (8:5-6) Now doom is upon you! I will let loose My anger against you and Several other descriptions of idola- judge you according to your ways; I trous practices occurring on the Temple will requite you for all your abomi- grounds follow, and it is clear that nations (toavotaikh). I will show you toevah in Ezekiel is not used to indi- no pity and no compassion; but I cate moral offenses, but rather specific will requite you for your ways and cultic ones. The “abomination” of the for the abominations (toavotaikh) in Israelites that will eventually bring their your midst. And you shall know that downfall is the turning away from God I am the Lord. (7:3-4) toward idols, a practice undertaken even in God’s holy place, the Temple. What is specifically meant by abomi- nations is mentioned later in the chap- Turning Away From God ter: “for out of their beautiful adorn- ments, in which they took pride, they There is a semantic difference in the

52 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist use of the word, however, between that since Ezekiel and his Priestly Deuteronomy and Ezekiel. Both refer School are reacting to Deuteronomy to idolatry, but while in Deuteronomy that toevah would be a word that is em- the practice of idolatry is defined as phasized. Ezekiel retains the meaning turning toward other nations, in Ezekiel of toevah as the violation of a cultural it is defined as turning away from God. boundary; it is a pivotal word represent- Explicit reference to other nations is not ing violations of the Israelite order. Yet made in Ezekiel. This is a subtle yet sig- while this is clearly spelled out in nificant shift. As Paul Humbert writes, Deuteronomy through explicit refer- “reaction against Canaanism in Deu- ence to other nations, the social boun- teronomy, violation of the sacred in dary meaning is assumed in Ezekiel: To Ezekiel; opposition of Yahweh and commit a toevah is to go against God Canaanite paganism in Deuteronomy, and the cult, and therefore not to act opposition of the profane and the sa- in a proper Israelite fashion. In addi- cred in Ezekiel.”17 tion, while the phrase toevat-YHVH is The focus in Ezekiel is internal, not found in Deuteronomy, it is absent in external. This is in line with what we Ezekiel, where toevah stands on its own. understand to be the relationship be- We can assume that the specific quali- tween P/H and D. For if P is a reaction fication is no longer needed, the word to D, then the authors of that school having assumed a culturally specific already accept the centralization of the meaning. cult. There is no need to distinguish Israel as a nation, because that distinc- Marriage Metaphor tion has already been made. From Ezekiel’s perspective, idolatry is a threat A key use in Ezekiel is in chapter 16, to internal order, not necessarily to na- in which the prophet puts forth a mar- tional security. Indeed, Ezekiel is as- riage metaphor. Jerusalem is depicted sumed to have been active during the as a female orphan whom God raises exile, and his words were addressed to to maturity. God then marries her, but an exilic community, a historical situa- she “plays the harlot.” God threatens tion in which there was no sovereign to bring all her lovers against her in vio- nation to keep secure, and in which lent revenge. The metaphor is meant to maintaining communal identity was represent in a sexually explicit manner the paramount. This contrasts with Deu- charges brought against the people by teronomy, which was written during Ezekiel: A woman who is adulterous rep- the pre-exilic time of the monarchy and resents a nation that strays from its God. national sovereignty. The meaning of the metaphor is sig- It is interesting to note, as Humbert naled as well by the use of the word does, that there are not many strong toevah, which is used to describe the ac- linguistic parallels between Deuterono- tions of the woman. Chapter 16 opens my and Ezekiel outside of the use of with God telling Ezekiel, “O mortal, toevah. However, it is not surprising proclaim Jerusalem’s abominations to

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 53 her (toavoteha)” (16:2), and later, “In ited to a few instances, and those are all your abominations (toavotaikh) and contained solely in the Holiness Code harlotries, you did not remember the (Lev. 17-26). Scholars assume there days of your youth, when you were exists a connection between the book naked and bare, and lay wallowing in of Ezekiel and the Holiness School. your blood.” (16:22) Toevah is indica- The word toevah is used primarily tive of non-Israelite idolatrous practices, in Leviticus 18 and 20 to refer only to the performance of which constitute a specifically sexual offenses. The two rejection of God. By calling the sexual chapters have similar structures: A se- practices of the woman in the metaphor ries of mostly sexual offenses is named, a toevah, it is a signal to the reader that followed by a concluding paragraph idolatrous practices are being refer- exhorting the Israelites not to follow the enced.18 practices of the people who preceded But that is only half of the issue. In them in the land. It was these offenses the context of the marriage metaphor, that caused the land to expel those toevah becomes instantly nuanced — people, and if the Israelites engage in beyond “idolatry,” toevah is now sexual- them, they, too, will be expelled. ized. While toevah still serves as a cultic None of the other specific offenses reference in this context, it also takes listed in chapters 18 or 20 (except for on the meaning of harlotry, associated the prohibition against homosexual with sexual impropriety. conduct) is called a toevah. Saul Olyan In different contexts, toevah under- notes that all of the other sexual prohi- goes a semantic shift. The move from bitions have parallels in other biblical Proverbs to Deuteronomy resulted in a legal traditions, save for the ban on ho- shift from the universal-moral to the mosexuality. He concludes, therefore, particular-national, a move resulting in “there is no reason to assume any nec- the toevah practices of the non-Israel- essary association between the prohi- ite nations also now having the tone of bitions of male couplings found in Lev. immorality. The semantic shift in 18:22 and 20:13 and the various in- Ezekiel sees toevah referring to idola- cest, adultery, and bestiality interdic- trous, non-Israelite practices — viola- tions present in the same legal contexts. tions of the social construction that is If there is a link, it must be the result of the Israelite cult — and this sense of transmission and/or redactorial inten- “violations of the social construction” tion.”19 This link is not only made by is interpreted in terms of sexual impro- the placement of the prohibition priety. This semantic shift is important against male coupling next to the other in understanding how toevah operates sexual offenses, but also by the use of in Leviticus. the word toevah in the conclusion to chapter 18. The conclusion calls the The Book of Leviticus sexual offenses toevot, but they are not labeled toevot in the body of the laws. The use of toevah in Leviticus is lim- This appears to be an attempt by a later

54 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist redactor to link a pre-existing body of mediately apparent.22 sexual offenses with the word toevah, The use of toevah is not indigenous, despite it not being indigenous to the nor is it a common word in, the Holi- original list of sexual improprieties.20 ness Code. Its association with the list This connection could have been of sexual offenses is the result of a made because of the use of toevah in redactor’s effort to label all of the of- Ezekiel 16: Because it is sexualized fenses as violations of the socially con- there, it can then be applied to sexual structed boundary, a status that previ- improprieties. At the same time, toevah ously was reserved primarily for idola- still maintains the meaning assumed try. The association of the word with when it meant solely idolatrous prac- sexual offenses labels those offenders not tices — that of a violation of a socially merely “bad” but “Other.” This under- constructed boundary. This is also evi- standing of the word and its provenance denced by the surrounding verses in the can give us new insight into our contem- conclusion of chapter 18, which at- porary view of the text in Leviticus. tribute the abhorrent practices to “the other nations.” As noted by E. Gersten- Contemporary Implications berger, this is a Deuteronomic concept imported into the Holiness Code, since Our analysis suggests that in the nowhere else in P does the law refer to transmission and shifts in the meaning others as it does in the conclusion of of toevah, what has often been trans- chapter 18.21 This insertion could have lated as “abomination” or “abhorrent” been made by a redactor from the Ho- actually refers to a socially constructed liness School who had familiarity with boundary. Even from its earliest uses in the texts of Deuteronomy and was in- Proverbs, toevah meant something that fluenced by the sexualization of the was not socially acceptable. Something word in Ezekiel. What is important to that was “immoral,” such as lying or note for the later association of homo- haughtiness, crossed “God’s boundary.” sexuality with toevah is that the redac- When adapted by the Deuteronomist, tor is labeling all of the proscribed sex- toevah took on the meaning of specific ual acts as violations of a socially con- practices that were not socially accept- structed boundary. able, such as idolatry. It was used to Because male coupling is the only describe something that was of the for- practice specifically labeled a toevah, eign nations. and because the word appears out of When it was adopted by Ezekiel, toe- place with the other sexual offenses, vah retained the meaning of idolatry (a male coupling could have had another practice that was not socially accept- meaning aside from being a sexual vio- able) but the focus shifted to something lation prior to being grouped in Leviti- that was not in line with proper Israel- cus 18 and 20. By toevah, male cou- ite practice. Through its association pling is labeled a societal boundary vio- with the marriage metaphor in Ezekiel, lation, but the reason for this is not im- toevah became sexualized and thus ap-

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 55 pears in Leviticus completely divorced do we approach and understand Levi- from its earlier cultic context to refer ticus 18:22 and 20:13? While the Re- to socially unacceptable sexual prac- constructionist movement addressed tices. The word toevah never meant this in its 1993 report, Homosexuality something that was in and of itself bad, and Judaism: The Reconstructionist Po- but something that was bad because it sition, I wish to propose an additional was offensive to a population.23 approach. In addition, its use in Leviticus, The Reconstructionist report never where it is not a common word nor challenges the attachment of the word used in a systematic way, is tangential toevah to male coupling, but only the to the overall picture of the place of descriptive clause in the Leviticus verse toevah in biblical literature. The tying — “lie with a male as one lies with a of the word to male coupling seems in- woman.” This phrase is reinterpreted congruous with its other uses in a moral in light of changing cultural definitions (Proverbs) or cultic/national (Deuter- of homosexual sex and relationships. onomy, Ezekiel) context. This is a legitimate reading strategy. How does biblical scholarship affect If we take the biblical text in its con- our modern day decision-making as text, we can argue that since cultural Reconstructionist Jews? The Recon- norms are different today than when structionist approach is to view Juda- the text was written, references to spe- ism as a continuously evolving religious cific cultural practices may differ in civilization. The literary output of each meaning. A clear example of this is an- successive stage of that civilization, in- other prohibition labeled toevah: the cluding the Bible, with its attributed prohibition against transvestitism in human authorship, must be viewed in Deuteronomy 22:5. Since the prohibi- context. Understanding of the Bible in tion does not describe specific articles its context, through historical and lit- of clothing, what qualifies as “men’s erary analysis, would help formulate a clothing” and “woman’s clothing” must Reconstructionist approach to the text. be culturally bound and interpreted by Modern tools of biblical scholarship a community in a specific time and inform our contemporary decisions place. By definition, this prohibition is about Judaism. subject to interpretation and adjust- ment. Gay and Lesbian Jews But focusing solely on the descrip- tive clause is akin to never taking sod- This is the situation in approaching omy laws off the books (as they still exist the issue of gay and lesbian Jews. A pri- in some American states), but merely mary value of Reconstructionism is in- redefining what sodomy is. The report clusivity and therefore no level of ac- of the Reconstructionist Commission tivity within the Jewish community, on Homosexuality, in its examination including the rabbinate, is restricted be- of biblical texts, neglects to take a com- cause of sexual orientation. How then, prehensive view of the word toevah.

56 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist Perhaps it is not the first part of Leviti- made by considering the text along with cus 18:22 and 20:13 that should be sub- one’s current cultural norms, since, by ject to reinterpretation, but the second. definition, a culturally determined The report says, “why sexuality was a boundary violation can change as one’s core issue for the elaboration of the culture changes. We are continually toevot is subject to speculation.”24 drawing and redrawing boundaries. As shown in this study, however, this In consideration of current thinking, statement is erroneous — sexuality was and looking at the texts in front of us, never a core issue for toevot. Sexuality we can draw new conclusions. Judaism’s is a tangential issue for the elaboration commitment to monotheism and the of toevot — the link was the result of a unity of God as expressed in the Shema late, incongruous redaction. Seen in the is unchanged. Practicing idolatry and context of biblical literature, the core worshiping other gods is inherently concern of toevah was idolatry and for- dangerous to identity as an Israelite. It eign cultic practices. This is its mean- threatens Judaism and Jewish practice, ing in both Deuteronomy and Ezekiel, and therefore its status as toevah must after having adopted a moral term from be upheld. Proverbs. Using this understanding, we On the other hand, general cultural can examine the biblical ban on homo- attitudes toward gays and lesbians have sexuality by focusing not on the first changed. While complete civil equality half of the phrase, the description of has yet to be attained, in the minds of the act, but on the second, the attribu- many, sexual orientation has proven not tion of toevah status. to be a deterrent to one’s ability to de- Toevah is what is unacceptable to the velop and maintain relationships, to be community — i.e., what is inherently members of and create families or to be dangerous to one’s identity as an Isra- full participants in communities and elite. Using this understanding (re- their leadership. Judaism has and must vealed through a critical biblical analy- continue to meet these changing norms sis), we can reinterpret biblical text, by opening up the synagogue doors and maintaining some notions but discard- the pulpit to gay, lesbian, bisexual and ing others. transgendered Jews. Being gay is not in- herently dangerous to one’s identity as No Longer an “Abomination” an Israelite and does not threaten Juda- ism or Jewish practice, and therefore its What threatens Judaism and Jewish status as toevah must be abrogated.25 practice can be maintained as an “abomi- nation,” but what does not threaten Ju- daism and Jewish practice can no longer 1. This essay was originally written while I be considered an “abomination.” The was a student at the Reconstructionist Rab- general category of toevah is useful and binical College, and special thanks are due should be maintained; what constitutes to my instructor in Bible, S. Tamar Kamion- toevah can change. These decisions are kowski, who paved the way for meaningful

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 57 critical inquiry, and my colleague Hugh opment or the reverse, based on the work Seid Valencia, whose own work informed of Moshe Weinfeld, Jean L’Hour and Jacob mine. I also wish to acknowledge Rabbi Milgrom, among others, it is assumed that Richard Hirsh and Rabbi David Teutsch, the usage in Proverbs is older. “We have as well as the members of the RRC Family seen, therefore, that in all instances, in Values Study Group (2000-2001), for their which deuteronomic [sic] passages have insights and comments. clear and literal parallels in wisdom litera- 2. The etymology of the word has been the ture, the wisdom prescriptions prove to be source of debate for scholars, and is beyond in a more natural and original context.” [M. the scope of this examination. For a sum- Weinfeld, Deuteronomy and the Deutero- mary of the debate, see E. Gerstenberger, nomic School (Oxford: Clarendon Press, Theological Lexicon of the Old Testament. 1972) 274.] Also see Stephen A. Geller “Fi- eds. Ernst Jenni and Claus Westermann ery Wisdom: Logos and Lexis in Deuter- (Peabody, Mass.: Hendrickson Publishers, onomy 4,” Prooftexts 14 (1994): 103-139 1997), 1431. All English translations in this on Deuteronomy adopting and adapting paper are taken from the JPS translation, tropes of Wisdom literature. though this is a traditional translation with 9. The word sheketz is a synonym to toevah. which this essay takes issue. See Milgrom, E.J. and Weinfeld, Deuterono- 3. See, for example, Norman Gottwald, The my. Hebrew Bible: A Socio-Literary Introduction 10. The earliest appearance of toevah in (Philadelphia: Fortress Press, 1985), 571. Deuteronomy, 32:16, reflects idolatry. It Jacob Milgrom also notes this. (Jacob Mil- should also be noted that the word is used grom, “Abomination,” Encyclopaedia Juda- several times in the Deuteronomic history ica, 1971 ed.) (I Kings, II Kings) to refer to idolatry. 4. Milgrom, ibid., 97. 11. Weinfeld, op. cit., 268. 5. R. E. Clements, “The Concept of Abom- 12. L’Hour, op. cit., 500. ination in the Book of Proverbs,” in Texts, 13. Perhaps the linguistic groundwork for Temples and Traditions, ed. M. Fox et al. this reading of the word was already laid in (Winona Lake, Ind.: Eisenbraun, 1996), Proverbs by the use of the smikhut. An im- 217. Jean L’Hour, “Les Interdits To’eba dans moral act is a toevat-YHVH. While the in- le Deutéronome,” Revue Biblique 71 (1964), tention is universality, this can be read sub- 481-503. jectively. Other examples in Proverbs of un- 6. Clements, ibid., 215. iversal messages placed in subjective lan- 7. This construction in Proverbs parallels guage include: “The unjust man is an abom- its apparent source, the Egyptian wisdom ination to the righteous, and he whose way literature, specifically, the text “The Wis- is straight is an abomination to the wicked” dom of Amenemope.” This text classifies (29:27) and “To turn away from evil is ab- taboos as an abomination of specific dei- horrent to the stupid” (13:19) and “wicked ties, using a smichut-type form. William deeds are an abomination to kings” (16:12). Hallo notes cognates in Sumerian literature 14. William McKane, Proverbs, Old Testa- as well. [William Hallo, “Biblical Abomi- ment Library (Philadelphia: Westminster nations and Sumerian Taboos,” Jewish Press, 1970), 301-2. Quarterly Review 76/1 (July 1985), 38.] 15. A modern example of this type of lin- 8. While some scholars such as Clements guistic fluidity is in the current American and Hallo argue for either a parallel devel- policy debate of the use of the death pen-

58 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist alty. Anti-death-penalty advocates will use examination reveals that there are strata the phrase “cruel and unusual” to describe within this chapter, and that it probably the practice, which labels the death pen- was not an originally independent unit. alty as bad and wrong while at the same [Olyan, op. cit., 188 n. 25]. Indeed, toevah time implies its alleged unconstitutional- appears to be tangential to the rest of the ity. One phrase imparts the sense of both text. This can be seen through a compari- morality and legality. son of chapters 18 and 20. Both address 16. For example, Israel Knohl, The Sanctu- similar topics; however, the language is dif- ary of Silence (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, ferent. Chapter 18 uses the word toevah. 1995); R. E. Clements, “The Ezekiel Tra- Chapter 20 uses the word hok. , or practice. dition: Prophecy in a Time of Crisis,” in Indeed, the conclusion in chapter 18 dif- Israel’s Prophetic Tradition: Essays in Honor fers from its prologue. There, the author of Peter Ackroyd, ed. Richard Coggins et al. uses the words hok. and ma’aseh, deed. The (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, fact that the language is different among 1982); B. Levine, “The Epilogue to the three paragraphs that have the same theme Holiness Code: A Priestly Statement of the and function points to the fact that the con- Destiny of Israel,” in Judaic Perspectives on clusion in chapter 18 may have a different Ancient Israel, ed. J. Neusner et al. (Phila- redactor than these paragraphs and, indeed, delphia: Fortress Press, 1987); S. R. Driver, from the rest of the chapter [Olyan, ibid., An Introduction to the Literature of the Old 180 n. 3]. It is possible that the prologue Testament (New York: Charles Scribner’s of chapter 18 and the conclusion of chap- Sons, 1928). ter 20 are from the same redactor. Chapter 17. Paul Humbert, “Le substantif to’eba et 20 does not have a general introduction. le verbe t’b dans L’Ancien Testament” This prohibition, mentioned twice (18:22 Zeitschrift f. d. altestamentliche Wissenschaft and 20:13) may have come from a differ- 72 (1960),231 (translation mine). ent source than the rest of the sexual im- 18. The word toevah is also used in Ezekiel proprieties, and possibly the same source 23, another place where a sexual metaphor as the conclusion of Leviticus 18. is used to describe Israel’s idolatrous con- 21. E. Gerstenberger, Leviticus, Old Testa- duct: “Then the Lord said to me: O mor- ment Library (Louisville: Westminster John tal, arraign Oholah and Oholibah, and Knox Press, 1993.), 256. charge them with their abominations 22. The question of why this specific act is (toavoteihen). For they have committed labeled a toevah is beyond the scope of this adultery, and blood is on their hands, truly study, but one suggestion can be made. If they have committed adultery with their Ezekiel 16 is not merely about idolatrous fetishes, and have even offered to them as practices but also about violating traditional food the children they bore to Me.” (23:36) gender boundaries, as S. Tamar Kamion- 19. Saul M. Olyan, “And With a Male You kowski has recently suggested, then the as- Shall Not Lie the Lying Down of a Woman: sociation of gender reversal with the word On the Meaning and Significance of toevah would then make it appropriate for Leviticus 18:22 and 20:13,” Journal of the that word to be associated with male cou- History of Sexuality 5/2 (1994),182-3. pling, which can also be seen as a violation 20. Knohl assigns the entirety of chapter of traditional gender norms. The marriage 18 to the Holiness School [Knohl, op. cit., metaphor in Ezekiel and the prohibition 113], and while this may be the case, a close against male coupling are linked through

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 59 the word toevah. [S. Tamar Kamionkowski, l’mitzrayim].” (Gen. 43:32) Later in the Gender Reversal and Cosmic Chaos narrative, when Jacob comes to Egypt, Jo- (Sheffield: Sheffield University Press, seph has them settle in Goshen because “all 2003).] shepherds are abhorrent to Egyptians 23. This aspect is also evidenced in the few [toevat mitzrayim].” (Gen. 46:34) And in times the word is found in Genesis and Exodus, Moses asks for a leave for the Isra- Exodus. These uses describe practices that elites so they could sacrifice in the desert are an abomination to Egyptians, specifi- “for what we sacrifice to the Lord our God cally. The first is when Joseph, reunited with is untouchable to the Egyptians [toevat his brothers, sits to dine with them: “They mitzrayim].” (Ex. 8:22) served him by himself, and them by them- 24. Reconstructionist Commission on Ho- selves, and the Egyptians who ate with him mosexuality, Homosexuality and Judaism: by themselves; for the Egyptians could not The Reconstructionist Position (Wyncote, dine with the Hebrews, since that would PA: Federation of Reconstructionist Con- be abhorrent to the Egyptians [toevah he gregations and Havurot, 1992), 19.

60 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist The New Rabbi and the New Rabbinate

The New Rabbi: A Congregation Searches for Its Leader by Stephen Fried New York, New York: Bantam Books, 2000

REVIEW-ESSAY BY ALLEN GLICKSMAN

o be an active American Jew the agenda of the organizations, prima- is to be an organized Ameri- rily the federations that sponsor much T can Jew. Few Jewish commu- of the research on the American Jewish nities of the past or present could boast community. These organizations want to of the number of possible organizational understand more about the reasons affiliations available to someone with the American Jews choose to (or choose not interest (and, not unimportantly, the to) affiliate with the Jewish community. funds) to affiliate. For many American The method of choice to accomplish Jews, their list of affiliations is, indeed, this goal has been the community (or their only expression of their Jewishness. national) population survey. Nonetheless, given the way most so- These studies, conducted through cial scientists study Jewish life in the phone interviews, allow planners and United States, one might never guess researchers to estimate the size of the the critical role of organizational affili- Jewish community in a given geo- ation. The focus of most research on graphic area and to identify some of American Jewry has been on the im- the social, economic and religious char- pact of “identity,” that is, the influence acteristics of that population. One of values and beliefs of American Jews drawback, however, is that in a short on various behaviors, including ritual phone interview, a person can be asked behavior, denominational affiliation about organizational membership but (independent of synagogue member- not the personal meaning of that mem- ship), visiting Israel and, most impor- bership. tant, one’s choice of marriage partner. The lack of research on the day-to- day experience of being active in an Focus on Identity American Jewish institution is unfor- tunate, because it is in those experiences This focus on identity emerges from that most of daily American Jewish life

Allen Glicksman is Director of Research and Evaluation at the Philadelphia Corpora- tion for Aging and President of the Association for the Social Scientific Study of Jewry.

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 61 is to be found. Nowhere is this prob- ment. Fried, a journalist, chronicles lem more apparent than in the lack of the process by which the congregation research on the most important Ameri- sought to hire a new rabbi. The process can Jewish institution, the synagogue. ended unexpectedly, with the hiring of This does not mean that there is a gen- the person who was then serving as the eral lack of articles and books on con- congregation’s assistant rabbi.2 temporary synagogue life. Quite the A second theme that runs through contrary, there has been a continuing the book is a story of fathers and sons. literature on the subject from rabbis, Fried’s father died soon before the book congregants and others involved in com- was written, and it was his need to say munity life. But except for a few key pub- kaddish for his father that led him to lications, such as Samuel Heilman’s The Har Zion. Wolpe had previously been Synagogue,1 social scientists have focused the rabbi in the congregation where little of their research on synagogue life. Fried grew up, and Wolpe himself was young when his own father died. Synagogue Transformation The book also illuminates other is- sues, albeit unintentionally: Fried iden- Why should a lack of studies of com- tifies many of the specific changes ap- munal institutions, especially the syna- pearing in American synagogues. Al- gogue, be of concern to American Jews? though Fried did not set out to analyze The key reason is that the role of the these issues, his book provides an impor- synagogue in the lives of American Jews tant illustration of current trends. is undergoing a vast transformation. As I will describe later in this essay, the ex- The Changing pectations that congregations have of American Rabbinate their rabbis, their synagogues and the rab- binic and congregational umbrella orga- Fried recognized that Har Zion was nizations have already begun to change. in a process of transition. But he did not We need to develop a better understand- recognize that the selection process re- ing of these changes if we are to plan for vealed a more basic transition that was the community’s institutional future. occurring in many American synagogues. It is in this larger context that we This more basic transformation in syna- need to consider Stephen Fried’s The gogue life affects the roles of all players New Rabbi: A Congregation Searches for on the synagogue stage, including the Its Leader. The basic story is a simple rabbi, the cantor, the membership and one. Har Zion Temple in Penn Valley, even the umbrella organizations for the PA, one of the most prestigious Con- various professional and lay groups asso- servative synagogues in the United ciated with the synagogue. States, needed to find a new senior That more fundamental change, not rabbi to succeed Rabbi Gerald Wolpe, in any way restricted to Har Zion, is a who, after several decades at the con- process of turning inward, in which the gregation, had announced his retire- synagogue comes to exist to meet the

62 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist individual needs of each congregant. material matters, such as strategies for This is in contrast to the traditional role negotiations about salary and raises. of the synagogue as a communal insti- The synagogue members would then tution that each congregant must sup- assist the rabbi by providing discounts port to be a member of the larger Jew- on everything from clothing to ortho- ish community. It is this changing fo- donture for the rabbi’s children. cus, from community to individual, Fried explains at some length the that informs most of the key changes support Rabbi Wolpe received from his in American synagogue life that are congregation (such as a group of mem- documented in the book. bers who assisted him in making the The rabbi of the contemporary con- down payment on a condominium in gregation is expected to play a complex Philadelphia after his retirement), and role in this new form of synagogue life. contrasts Wolpe’s salary with the sal- On the one hand, the rabbi is expected ary of one of his sons who has also en- to be a chief executive officer (CEO). tered the rabbinate. Aside from what- This transfers onto the rabbi much re- ever personal issues might emerge from sponsibility from the synagogue ad- the salary discrepancies between father ministrator (for those synagogues large and son, the fact that the son makes a enough to have such a position) for considerably higher salary (in fact, one maintaining the health (especially the of the highest rabbinic salaries in the fiscal health) of the institution. That United States) also reflects a change, in means that much of the rabbi’s time which the rabbi behaves as an employee must be spent with those congregants like all other employees, negotiating for who can best help maintain the facil- whatever salary the market will bear. ity, that is, the richest members of the Fried also points out that congrega- congregation. But if the rabbi is less the tional rabbis are now more expected to spiritual leader of the congregation and serve their congregations than to be more the CEO of an enterprise, then leaders of the community. He points the time spent with the wealthier mem- out that rabbis who were community bers of the synagogue is totally appro- leaders of the past, such as Stephen priate, as well as necessary. Wise and Abba Hillel Silver, are not to be found today. He attributes this to Employee or Spiritual Leader? the fact that Jews now are part of all areas of American society, and that in The other side of the rabbi’s transi- their new roles (such as university pro- tion to CEO is that the rabbi becomes fessors and senior members of the gov- in every sense the employee of the con- ernment), they use their positions to gregation, rather than its spiritual speak publicly on Jewish issues. leader. In earlier eras in America, the rabbi presumably focused on the spiri- Meeting Needs of Congregants tual, and was thought to lack a certain worldliness and sophistication about While there is truth in that observa-

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 63 tion, it is also true that there is a trans- ues to play a more traditional cantorial formation of the role of the rabbi in role, as a soloist in the tradition of can- relation to the congregation. The role tors of previous eras. But the cantor also of the rabbi as the one who sets the re- takes over some of the personal and pas- ligious standards of the community has toral services that had previously been diminished, while the role of the rabbi provided by the rabbi, such as prepar- as the person who meets the religious ing the children for bar and bat mitz- needs of the congregants has grown. vah. Stephen Wise once stated,“The chief Two issues demonstrate that meet- office of the minister, I take it, is not ing individual needs is now a primary to represent the view of the congrega- goal for the synagogue and for the syn- tion, but to proclaim the truth as he agogue’s rabbi. The first has to do with sees it.”3 This is very different from a controversy affecting the assistant rab- the perspective of the search commit- bi. In order to shorten the overall ser- tee described in the book, which ex- vice, the assistant rabbi shortened the pects the rabbi to execute a vision that Yizkor service on Yom Kippur, which originates in the congregation. meant that he eliminated the congre- In the American Jewish congrega- gants’ opportunity to linger on pages tion, it is not only the rabbi, but the listing the names of their departed rela- rabbi’s family that have public roles. tives. The act of remembering a depart- The tragic stroke that afflicted Rabbi ed relative is central to why many peo- Wolpe’s wife Elaine is also a window ple come to synagogue, and so rushing into the place of the rabbi’s family in it to spend more time on other parts of the synagogue. The changing role of the service showed little understand- the rabbi’s spouse, traditionally a ing of some of the personal reasons woman known as the “rebbetzin,” can people attend services in the first place. be contrasted to some extent to the dif- The second issue was the concern ferent roles played by Rabbi Wolpe’s that the “synagogue down the street,” wife and the wife of the assistant rabbi. Beth Am Israel (also affiliated with the Rabbi Wolpe’s wife had a more active Conservative movement), was attract- presence in the synagogue than that of ing some of Har Zion’s younger mem- her successor. bers. Most of the references are to the dynamic young rabbi at Beth Am Is- Pastor or Administrator? rael. The congregation may represent, as some Har Zion members fear, the Aside from the public role of the wave of the future. rabbi, the pastoral role also has begun Much of the appeal of Beth Am Is- to take a second seat to the adminis- rael rests on the pluralistic approach to trative function. Some of the pastoral Jewish identity that is the hallmark of work has been taken over by cantors, the synagogue. In much the same way and this process is described in the that Mordecai Kaplan envisioned syna- book. The cantor at Har Zion contin- gogues, Beth Am Israel offers multiple

64 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist ways of expressing Jewish identity, and one segment of the congregation, had does not treat one as better than the not been in the field for that number next. It is this recognition of the diver- of years. A compromise was reached, sity within the community, as well as but the struggle reflected not only the the quality of the rabbinic leadership, importance of Har Zion in the Con- that makes the congregation thrive. servative movement (evidenced by its Diversity makes the synagogue appeal- ability to bend the rules) but the chang- ing for younger Jews who see the syna- ing relations between individual con- gogue as a place that is designed to meet gregations and the larger structure of their spiritual needs. It is also the search the Conservative movement. for personal meaning that drives much of the decision making of American The Challenge for Research Jews in terms of their synagogues. Fried’s telling of the story of Har The Members Know Best? Zion has received mixed reviews. While some reviewers have lauded the book The assumptions that the synagogue for its insights and the quality of the membership knows best, and that the writing, others have taken the author synagogue should meet their needs, to task for the ways in which he por- does not merely define the relationship trayed certain events, or because of the with the rabbi. It also helps define the amount of very personal information relation between the congregation and contained about individuals who are the larger, umbrella organizations that identified by name. Whether or not are supposed to support individual con- this is a good piece of journalism, there gregations and set the standards by is no question that this topic is one that which they are run. should be studied by social scientists. In the case of Har Zion, the struggle While one cannot criticize an author between the congregation and the for not writing from a perspective with Placement Office of the Rabbinical which the author is not familiar, there Assembly (the Conservative move- are reasons to assume that a social sci- ment’s rabbinical association) plays an entist would have approached certain is- important part in the story, and at the sues in a different way. Perhaps, from the same time is indicative of a willingness point of view of learning something to challenge movement standards that more general about trends in the Amer- would have been unthinkable a few ican Jewish community, that different years ago. way would have been a more useful The particular issue was the rule that perspective. a rabbi needed a certain number of Fried is aware of a personal side to years of experience before applying to the story, but lacks the tools to see how serve as senior rabbi of a congregation that impacts on his journalism. This the size of Har Zion. The assistant comes out in three ways. First, he does rabbi, who was the candidate of at least not seem to be reflective about how his

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 65 own feelings, especially about Rabbi teristic of what is happening in many Wolpe, affect the way he tells the story. American synagogues, which is why, for (In the last scene, the author and Rabbi whatever its weaknesses, this remains Wolpe sit together, two men mourning an important book. By overemphasiz- for their fathers, in another Conservative ing what makes Har Zion unique, and synagogue in Philadelphia where both focusing as much as he does on the per- now pray.) Second, he misses the more sonalities (and names) of many of the general implications, as described above, major players, Fried leaves the impres- of the tale he is telling. Finally, to make sion that this story could be played out the story more compelling, he both uses nowhere else. There are unique things actual names and includes personal in- about the congregation, as there would formation that is peripheral to the narra- be about any synagogue examined in tive, at best. In doing so, he has perhaps detail, but generally, there is little in attracted more attention to the book, but the book that could not have occurred he has deflected attention from the im- at many other congregations. portant issues he raises. There are, of course, challenges for the social scientist who wishes to write Lack of Discretion a similar story. Even if the individual names and some of the personal details Fried’s use of actual names in the nar- disappear, the story does not always re- rative is troubling. The characters could flect well on the congregation. This prob- have remained anonymous, even if some lem exists in part because Jewish com- people familiar with the events described munal organizations have become the in the book could identify some of them. biggest funders for research on Ameri- Much of the publicity about this book is can Jews. One of the reasons that so many tied to personalities, and to the fact that social scientists have focused on commu- some of the material is just plain old-fash- nity surveys is that they are following the ioned gossip. Since the book was pub- money, that is, they are often following a lished, the new rabbi and the president research agenda being dictated by those of the congregation have both been American Jewish organizations willing to forced out, in part, one can assume, be- fund research. This is true in the wider cause of what appeared in the book. A social scientific community as well, with study of a congregation, if it wants to the agenda being set by the government rise above the level of story and gossip, and large foundations. should help congregations with their planning, pointing out and analyzing Programmed Research? some of the situations and circum- stances that contributed to the bad pro- The willingness of community or- cess and the eventual bad outcome at ganizations to fund certain types of re- Har Zion. search (sometimes in the very dubious What is happening at Har Zion, for hope that the same social scientists can all its unique characteristics, is charac- “solve” the problems that are identified)

66 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist leaves other types of research unfunded. the book that have brought the most And, of course, it could be difficult to criticism. Such a book would also con- remain friends with people in most sider the impact of changes in the way organizations that have been profiled. American Jews perceive the role of in- In addition, at times, the high level stitutions such as the synagogue on of sensitivity of American Jews to any- other parts of the organized Jewish thing perceived as negative can prevent community, especially the Federation a clear look at the institutional life of system. This would require a general the community. Peter Novick’s excel- understanding of the structure and or- lent discussion of the role of self-pity ganization of American Jewry, some- in the way American Jews shape their thing beyond the scope of the author own identity in regard to the Holocaust of this book. can be extended to help explain the Further, a study of the changing role unwillingness of the Jewish community of the synagogues in American Jewish to accept criticism regarding most as- life could also help define a new role pects of community life.4 for the social scientist within the com- Considering all this, it becomes dif- munity. Helping understand issues of ficult to write about the Jewish com- structure and organization, not merely munity from within in a way that is “identity” and individual behavior, objective. The social scientist wants could provide insights and information continued access (and continued fund- that would enhance the ability of the ing) from community organizations. community to plan effectively. The public outcry that accompanied the release of the intermarriage rates Where Is the Synagogue Headed? from the 1990 National Jewish Popu- lation Survey (NJPS), and the embargo So where is the American synagogue of the 2001-02 NJPS (which some sus- headed? If the various observations pect was caused by its report of an even listed in the book are added up, and higher intermarriage rate), are examples we account for the uniqueness of Har of the difficulties that attend any at- Zion, the trend is toward more indi- tempt to portray the community in less vidualized treatment and a greater de- than a glowing light. sire to negotiate every aspect of the re- ligious experience so that it is all “per- Seeing the Bigger Picture sonally relevant.” Is this a good thing? Yes and no. It However, even with these caveats, a means that individual American Jews study of a synagogue in transition that will see the synagogue as a relevant in- focused more on the general issues stitution, one that can meet at least raised and less on the specifics would some of their needs. On the other not only have made this book much hand, it also means that the commu- more useful but would have removed, nal agenda, and the obligations of each at least to some extent, some aspects of individual Jew to the community, take

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 67 a back seat, at best, to personal agen- time during the last decade working with das. In either case, we need to con- community survey data; 2) while never a sider the implications as community member of Har Zion Temple, I spent a members and leaders. And we need to good deal of time there growing up, at- tended Har Zion Day Camp and received pay more attention to these processes a grant from Har Zion to attend Camp by the academic community, as well as Ramah, so I know many of the people by others who are concerned for the mentioned in the book; and 3) I am cur- future of the community and are try- rently a member of Beth Am Israel, men- ing to plan for that future. tioned in the book and in this essay. Whether any of this affects the conclusions in this essay is up to the reader to deter- 1. Samuel Heilman, Synagogue Life: A Study mine. in Symbolic Interaction (Chicago: Univer- 3. Stephen Wise, at www.swfs.org/His- sity of Chicago Press, 1976). tory.htm, retrieved November 12, 2002. 2. In the interests of fairness, I should men- 4. Peter Novick, The Holocaust in Ameri- tion that: 1) I am part of a group of social can Life (Boston: Hougton Mifflin Com- scientists who have spent a good deal of pany).

68 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist Reconstructionist Liturgy: A Window Into an Evolving Ideology From Ideology to Liturgy — Reconstructionist Worship and American Liberal Judaism by Eric Caplan Cincinnati, Hebrew Union College Press, 2002, 413 pages

REVIEWED BY MEL SCULT

ric Caplan has written an engag- trating on prayer. It is not only central ing, provocative book on Recon- to Kaplan’s philosophy but also the area E structionism and its liturgical where he was the most active, the most expression. This work attempts to ex- innovative and the most radical. Any- amine the Reconstructionist move- one who knows the slightest bit about ment and the thought of Mordecai Kaplan’s life must feel his lack of social Kaplan through the medium of liturgy. activism, but it is more than made up After a brief summary of Kaplan’s ba- for by his innovative approach to lit- sic beliefs, the author painstakingly urgy. examines the Reconstructionist Sabbath Though sometimes tedious in its Prayer Book of 1945 (SPB). This analy- specificity, this work is set up so that sis is followed by an equally in-depth even the Reconstructionist neophyte study of the Kol Haneshamah series, can use it with ease. Caplan begins with giving special attention to the Sabbath a brief recounting of Kaplan’s life. Since and Festivals volume, Shabbat Vehagim. Kaplan lived a very long time (102 The book ends with an overall evalua- years), there is much to recount. Un- tion of these works within the context fortunately. Caplan gives us a sense of of other denominational prayer books. Kaplan’s life only up to the period of Judaism as a Civilization (1934), when Focus on Prayer what we need to understand in detail are the conditions under which the SPB Caplan is on the money in concen- emerged in 1945.

Mel Scult is Professor Emeritus at Brooklyn College of the City University of New York. He is the author of Judaism Faces the 20th Century: A Biography of Mordecai M. Kaplan, and editor of Communings of the Spirit — The Journals of Mordecai M. Kaplan: Volume 1, 1913-1934.

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 69 Caplan needs to be careful about diary reveals his profound ambivalence dating Kaplan’s desire to build a new about the use of Hebrew. Kaplan was theology. The author correctly tells us the head of the Teachers’ Institute at that Kaplan was not happy during his the Jewish Theological Seminary, where tenure at his first congregation, Kehi- classes were conducted in Hebrew. lath Jeshurun, and felt like a hypocrite There were times, however, when the because of his developing liberalism. need to speak Hebrew got in the way But it is a long way from being un- of his teaching. Witness the following happy at this time [1903-1909] to the from the 1920s: “I feel that someday I thought that he would work out a new shall create a scandal among the Teach- theology. Caplan bases his thinking ers [sic] Institute staff by declaring war here on the 1952 autobiographical es- against the miserable slavishness to say “The Way I Have Come,”1 in which mere language [i.e. Hebrew] regardless Kaplan himself reads back into his early of the cost in genuine knowledge that years his desire to build a whole phi- the students might otherwise attain” losophy. We all read back, and Kaplan (Kaplan diary, December 3, 1928). is no exception. There is, however, no credible evidence from this early period The Kaplan Diaries itself that Kaplan had already set out to build a new theology, even though Perhaps a word is in order here about he himself recalls doing so in 1952. Kaplan’s diaries. Kaplan was the great- est Jewish diarist who ever lived. His Problems of Language diary consists of twenty-seven large volumes and runs from 1913 to 1978. The summation of Kaplan’s beliefs The diary is housed at the Jewish Theo- that follows the sketch of his life is well logical Seminary, with copies at the done, and will be helpful to all. Caplan Reconstructionist Rabbinical College, clearly has done his homework; the Hebrew Union College and in Jerusa- book is, in fact, based on his Ph.D. the- lem. The diary, so far as I can deter- sis. Caplan’s understanding is thorough mine, appears not to have been con- and his presentation is precise. Unfor- sulted by Caplan at all, which is sur- tunately, he sometimes falls into some prising, since the diary contains an of the same traps that Kaplan did. In enormous amount of material that is writing of God as process, for example, relevant to the study of Kaplan’s think- he uses language that is only proper to ing about liturgy. I shall have occasion a supernaturalist conception. Caplan to refer to some of this material as we tells us that “God is to be viewed as proceed. process because God urges and fosters Caplan’s consideration of the chang- events in nature that are processes”(24). es inaugurated in the SPB is astound- Caplan accurately points to the em- ing in its scope and detail. This book phasis on the Hebrew language as cen- will serve as a guide for anyone inter- tral to Jewish civilization, but Kaplan’s ested in the way Kaplan’s theology is

70 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist embodied in the liturgy. There is nei- Red Sea and the drowning of Egyptian ther space nor would it be appropriate soldiers, he inserts an interpretive ver- to comment on the details of Caplan’s sion that associates God more with presentation. But a few highlights may human freedom and deliverance from be in order. oppression than with the joyful defeat There is a wealth of material in this of enemies. work by Caplan and he has clearly Though we cannot help but be im- demonstrated that if we want to un- pressed by the completeness of Cap- derstand Mordecai Kaplan, then we lan’s examination of the SPB, there are must study his prayer books. Some sec- missed opportunities and lacunae. In tions are particularly good, as when discussing the publication of The New Caplan notes the changes having to do Haggadah, for example, there is much with revelation, or when he notes that material in the diary on the difficulties Psalm 90, with its emphasis on God’s surrounding this landmark event. anger, was left out of the Pesukei D'zimrah (preliminary services). Loose-Leaf Prayer Books Changes in Liturgy Another matter: In the 1930s and 1940s, Kaplan used a loose-leaf prayer Consider also what Kaplan does book at the Society for the Advance- with “Zion” and “America,” both in the ment of Judaism before the SPB ap- siddur text and in the supplementary peared. The whole notion of a loose- readings of the SPB. Caplan points out leaf prayer book is a wonderfully evoca- that Kaplan changed the language of tive symbol of Kaplan’s approach to lit- the traditional prayers so that the idea urgy: Keep the core but make it easy of “the ingathering of the exiles” is to rearrange, insert new materials and omitted, being neither hoped for nor delete others. prayed for. Caplan cites Ira Eisenstein’s I was profoundly moved when, in suggestion that Kaplan thought it examining Rabbi Eisenstein’s papers in would be unrealistic for American Jews the Kaplan Archives at the RRC, I came to pray for all of the Jewish people to across a copy of one of the original be gathered into a single homeland. (It loose-leaf prayer books. My find con- is worth noting that Caplan talked a firmed another matter that is signifi- great deal with Eisenstein, and shares cant and that is omitted here. Caplan with us Eisenstein’s memory of the mentions that Kaplan included few events and the conflicts associated with materials authored by non-Jews in the the liturgical changes.) supplementary readings to the SPB. It There is, of course, much theology should be noted that the supplemen- embedded in the changes in the Kaplan tary readings in the loose-leaf prayer text. Just one example will suffice: book contain material left out of the When Kaplan comes to texts that tri- SPB. The most notable example is a umphantly recount the splitting of the prayer composed by Kaplan built out

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 71 of an essay by Ralph Waldo Emerson. an alternative Amidah in one of the The language is from Emerson but the early versions of the Sabbath Eve prayer prayer is from Kaplan. (Kaplan notes book, although it did not appear in the his creation of this prayer in the diary final edition of Shabbat Vehagim. [September 1942]; this Emerson-Kap- Kaplan believed that people could pray lan prayer is reprinted in my introduc- only if they were able to believe in what tion to the reprint of Kaplan’s The they were saying. Many questions have Meaning of God in Modern Jewish Reli- been raised about this assumption, both gion.)2 in the past and in the present. This ma- In the loose-leaf prayer book, the jor issue, which underlies many of the Emerson-Kaplan prayer sits next to a changes Kaplan introduced into the lit- prayer built from an essay by Abraham urgy, would also have benefited from an Joshua Heschel. The essay, “An Analy- extended analysis. sis of Piety,” appeared in 1942; the A major focus of Caplan’s work is prayer is titled “The Pious Man” and the evolution from the first series of may be found in the SPB.3 The Kaplan- Reconstructionist prayerbooks, edited Heschel prayer is part of the fascinat- under the direction of Kaplan, to the ing story of the way in which Heschel Kol Haneshamah series of new Recon- was brought to JTS, a development in structionist prayerbooks edited by which Mordecai Kaplan played a ma- David Teutsch. Caplan rightly praises jor role.4 the creators of the Kol Haneshamah se- ries for the very extensive readings, God as “Thou” kavannot and explanations given along with the text. The series will serve as In terms of missed opportunities, the benchmark for all future siddurim there are a host of theological problems that want to prove themselves effective. that are not fully confronted by Caplan. One of the major problems of Kaplan’s The New Generation liturgy is that in the SPB, Kaplan con- tinues to address God as “Thou.” Al- Caplan begins this part of his analy- though he does not consider God a sis with a fine account of the recent “cosmic ego,” but rather a process or a ideological developments in the Recon- series of processes within us and within structionist movement. He chronicles the universe, Kaplan continues to use the way in which the “younger genera- traditional language. Although Caplan tion” has departed from classical Re- briefly addresses this linguistic anom- constructionism in the direction of re- aly, an extended discussion of the issue appropriating language amd imagery would have been helpful. It was neces- drawn from the mystical traditions of sary to wait until the work of Marcia Judaism. He consistently contrasts the Falk for a creative attempt to take the current Reconstructionist scene with personal God language out of liturgy.5 Kaplan and the beliefs of the “classical Falk was, in fact, commissioned to do Kaplanians.”

72 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist This contrast may not be as sharp as Quest for Spirituality Caplan suggests, however. Mordecai Kaplan was much more complicated Caplan does a fine job in outlining than we realize, and his conceptual the movement of Reconstructionism framework has much in common with from a more rational to a more affec- contemporary spirituality. Caplan ar- tive-emotional kind of Judaism. Con- gues that the new Reconstructionist temporary Reconstructionist services theology goes beyond Kaplan’s belief often include dance and music, as well that “God was wholly immanent” as Eastern meditation techniques. (145). Kaplan was an immanentist, to Caplan is right that Kaplan is the rather be sure, but there are many expressions staid Victorian rationalist, someone of his belief in a realm that is not “su- who vacationed at the ocean in a neatly pernaturalist” and yet not “naturalist,” pressed suit. Yet the author overstates either. Though his term for this realm his case when he says that, for example, is cumbersome, we have not yet begun rabbi-scholar Sheila Weinberg’s “quest to explore fully Kaplan’s concept of for inner peace would have worried transnaturalism. Kaplan” (150). We would do well to Witness the following in a Kaplan remember that in Kaplan’s “God as the fragment from the 1950s: “God or power that makes for salvation,” the Godhood is the actual power residing emphasis was always on salvation, not in the man-centered cosmos and not on God. Salvation was to be defined as merely an idea or an ideal. . . . Godhood inner growth, self-realization and ful- is a process which affects every aspect fillment. Additionally, the diary gives of human life; its transcendence, there- abundant evidence to Kaplan’s empha- fore, is all inclusive or infinite.” Or sis on the inner life and his own quest consider the following from the Kaplan for inner peace. If we want to measure diary (October 3, 1939), where Kaplan the man by how he spent his time, the sounds much more like Plato than like inner life was enormously important to William James or John Dewey: him. The most revealing aspect of Cap- . . .That the ground of all reality lan’s discussion of Kol Haneshamah has —mind — is the least capable of to do with the role and influence of being named or described. What- Arthur Green. Green was the president ever we can know about it is not of RRC from 1986 to 1993, and now its noumenal side but [its] phen- teaches at Brandeis University. Green omonenal aspect. Yet we experi- is a scholar of international reputation ence its reality with an immediacy whose fields of expertise are Hasidism which cannot belong to any of its and mysticism. Green had a major in- objects. On the other hand this ex- put into the Shabbat Vehagim volume, perience is non-[transferable] but left the Kol Haneshamah enterprise communicable whereas that of its in the middle. objects is communicable. Caplan’s diligent tracing of the is-

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 73 sues (curiously found in the footnotes latter-day Reconstructionist followers instead of the main body of the text) are, committed to the proposition that that divided Green from many of the we ought not say one thing and mean other members of the Prayer Book another. Green is not the first to chal- Commission highlights a number of lenge this assumption, his point being major issues having to do with liturgy that prayer language is largely mythic and Reconstructionism. Green was and poetic, and that the rules of preci- willing to change much, but there were sion in language cannot effectively instances where he strongly advocated guide discussions of language that is retaining the traditional Hebrew word- grounded in the heart as much as in ing. the head.

Tradition or Change Inconsistencies

As Caplan reports it, one discussion The Conservative approach to this was decisive — it had to do with the problem was championed by Rabbi Yismakh Moshe passage in the Sabbath Robert Gordis (who headed the Rab- morning liturgy that explicitly refers to binical Assembly prayer book commis- Moses at Sinai with the covenantal tab- sion of the 1940s): The traditional He- lets in hand. Kaplan had omitted this brew should be kept and the English from the SPB, and the Prayer Book might be used to reflect a more con- Commission members were ready to do temporary understanding. Kaplan of- likewise, in keeping with the Recon- ten thundered against this approach, structionist belief that the Torah is a which he considered to be dishonest. humanly created and historically devel- While the creators of Kol Haneshamah oped text, and not the record of a su- are not all classic Kaplanians, with re- pernatural revelation. gard to the issue of “saying what we According to Green, however, the mean and meaning what we say,” they issue had to do with continuity and the mostly followed the master — al- essential language of Jewish prayer. though Caplan correctly notes that Kol “They said no [to Yismakh Moshe] and Haneshamah restores many poetic and I said ‘goodbye’ . . . I cannot pray with mythic images that the 1945 SPB ex- a Jewish community that does not af- cised. firm the language of talking about rev- Inconsistency also creeps into the elation, creation and redemption even feminist aspects of Kol Haneshamah. though I am not a literalist about any The new prayer books go far beyond of them. That’s essential Jewish lan- Kaplan’s SPB in this regard. In a num- guage. I will not give in on this” (179). ber of instances, alternatives are given As mentioned earlier, there is an old for male God language so that the con- and honorable disagreement here that gregants may choose which version of goes to the heart of the Reconstruc- a prayer they prefer. There are in- tionist enterprise. Kaplan was, and his stances, however, when the traditional

74 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist male God language is left in the He- formation to our understanding of brew text though the English is Kaplan and the Reconstructionist changed. One senses that this Hebrew/ movement and is a significant resource English split still held sway for certain in deepening our understanding of venerable passages; as Reena Spice- both. In analyzing the departures of Kol handler reports, “There was a real hesi- Haneshamah from the traditional tancy to change the Hebrew in a radi- siddur as well as from Kaplan’s SPB, cal way because of the antiquity of the Caplan helps make us conscious of tradition” (221). what we are doing and what we believe in as Reconstructionists. Continuity in Change

In Caplan’s summation, he rightly 1. Mordecai Kaplan, “The Way I Have points out that though there is a dif- Come,” in Ira Eisenstein and Eugene ferent flavor to Kol Haneshamah, there Kohn, Mordecai M. Kaplan: An Evaluation (New York: Jewish Reconstructionist are significant elements of continuity Foundation, 1952). with the Kaplan liturgy and that “a 2. Mordecai M. Kaplan, The Meaning of committed classical Reconstructionist God in Modern Jewish Religion (Detroit: can still pray comfortably from the text Wayne State University Press, 1994), xix. of Kol Haneshamah” (294). 3. Sabbath Prayer Book (New York: Jewish No other American Jewish denomi- Reconstructionist Foundation, 1945), 424. 4. Mel Scult, “Kaplan’s Heschel: A View nation has received such a sustained From the Kaplan Diary,” Conservative Ju- scholarly treatment of its liturgy and daism, Summer 2002. ideology. Eric Caplan has written a very 5. Marcia Falk, The Book of Blessings (San significant work that adds crucial in- Franciso: Harper San Francisco, 1996).

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 75 Musings of the Master Communings of the Spirit: The Journals of Mordecai M. Kaplan, Volume I, 1913-1934 Edited by Mel Scult Detroit, Wayne State University Press and the Reconstructionst Press, 2001, 558 pages

REVIEWED BY NEIL GILMAN

t has long been known to stu- War; the rise of communism; the de- dents of American Judaism that pression; Zionism; Jewish education; I throughout his adult life, Morde- the charge of dual loyalties; the rabbin- cai M. Kaplan kept a comprehensive, ate and rabbinic education; Reform, nearly daily diary. With the publica- Orthodox and Conservative Judaism; tion of this first volume of over 500 Ethical Culture; and Jewish life on the extracts (approximately 25 percent of campus of American universities. In the total material from 1913-1934), addition, Kaplan reflects on his con- Dr. Mel Scult, Kaplan’s biographer, de- tentious career at the Jewish Theologi- serves an outpouring of gratitude from cal Seminary, his family life, his struggle all of us who care about the develop- with his inner demons, his professional ment of American Judaism in the 20th aspirations, his tribulations with the century, scholars and laypeople alike. congregations he served, his writings, In his preface to this remarkable col- and the evolution of his thought. The lection, Scult remarks that “above and diaries also include substantial extracts beyond everything else, the diary is a from Kaplan’s writings, outlines of his record of [Kaplan’s] thoughts about lectures and much much more. himself.” How true! But in writing And the personalities; what a gal- about himself, Kaplan also records his lery of portraits! Appearing here are feelings and judgments on the range Solomon Schechter, Cyrus Adler, Ber- of issues and personalities that domi- nard Revel, Rabbi Moses Zevulun nated the international, American and Margolies (the RaMaZ), Chaim Weiz- Jewish scenes during the first decades man, Louis Brandeis, Bialik, Tcher- of the past century. nichowsky, Max Kadushin, the Ben- derly Boys, Louis Ginzberg, Louis Fin- Wide Range of Concerns kelstein (who appears with increasing frequency as his role in the Seminary Kaplan makes observations on the administration becomes more promi- Dr. Neil Gillman is the Aaron Rabinowitz and Simon H. Rifkind Professor and Chair of the Department of Jewish Philosophy at the Jewish Theological Semi- nary.

76 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist nent), an assortment of Seminary stu- . . . I am not troubled in the least by dents, later to become his rabbinic col- the fact that God is not an identifiable leagues (notably Solomon Goldman, being . . . Nor am I troubled by the Simon Greenberg, Robert Gordis and fact that God is not perfect. He would his son-in-law to be and closest disciple, have to be static to be perfect. Noth- Ira Eisenstein) — and finally, one of ing dynamic can be perfect.” the few to earn his admiration, Sha- lom Spiegel. Tensions With Tradition

Roots of Kaplan’s Thinking On the issue of revelation and the authority of Torah, an entry dated June And there is still more. The very first 2, 1931 is a detailed analysis of the dev- sentence of the very first entry (dated astating impact on the traditional ver- February 24, 1913), from an outline sion of revelation posed by biblical of lectures delivered before the Harvard criticism. It was originally designed to Menorah Society, reads: “Religion is be an address to the Rabbinical Assem- primarily a social phenomenon.” There, bly, but a week later, he notes that the in germ, is the essence of Kaplan’s revo- lecture was never delivered, partly be- lutionary notion that Judaism is cen- cause “I might get myself in trouble tered around the sense of peoplehood, with the Faculty who might even go so with religion serving as a function of far as to ask for my resignation.” peoplehood. Eventually, the notion He returns, again and again, to one that Judaism is a “civilization” begins of the more frequent questions asked to appear. That notion, proclaimed in of those of us who teach Kaplan: How a 1923 booklet published by the Soci- can we pray to a God who is not a Be- ety for the Advancement of Judaism, ing? A related question, why should we is enough to have the booklet con- observe mitzvot that are not divine in demned by his colleagues on the fac- origin, is discussed in an entry dated ulty of the Seminary, because “it made August 16, 1929 — the clearest expo- no mention of religion or theology.” sition I have ever read of why Kaplan But theology is everywhere in this replaces the notion of commandment collection. We now have an indispens- with that of folkway. Because he is often able resource for tracing the evolution accused of neglecting this issue, it is some- of Kaplan’s theology. We follow, almost what astonishing to find that Kaplan is entry by entry, his struggle with an al- obsessed by the challenge to God posed ternative to the notion that God is a by human suffering. The canard that supernatural Being. On January 15, Kaplan was not a theologian should now 1931, he summarizes “years of think- be decisively put to rest. ing”: “God to me is the process that makes for creativity, integration, love Aspirations and Anger and justice. The function of prayer is to render us conscious of that process But at the heart of just about every

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 77 page of the diary is Kaplan himself. nation the man possesses.” Louis Ginz- First, his professional aspirations: his berg talks in a “nasty satirical squeak.” back-and-forth negotiations with an as- His arguments on behalf of Talmud ex- tonishingly patient Stephen Wise about asperate Kaplan: “the few living sparks resigning from the Seminary and join- of practical purpose were smothered by ing the faculty of the Jewish Institute the ashes of his archaeological inter- of Religion (JIR), and, more briefly, ests.” The Seminary faculty is guilty of with Julian Morgenstern about mov- “bibliotry, the worship not only of the ing to the Hebrew Union College. Kap- book but even of useless manuscripts lan’s dreams for and gradual disillusion- as though the salvation of Judaism de- ment with the Jewish Center, which he pended upon them,” which “under- founded and then left for the Society mines the self-respect of the majority for the Advancement of Judaism (and [of students and graduates] who have his perpetual dissatisfaction with that not the time for those esoteric and ir- congregation’s development), are de- relevant studies.” scribed in detail. More than once, he toys with entering a career in business. Despair at the Seminary But most vividly, these pages cap- ture Kaplan's rage — that is the only A portrait of the November 17, appropriate term — at the culture of 1931 faculty meeting begins with the Seminary, and his treatment at the “How I loathe those Seminary Faculty hands of the administration and fac- meetings! The moment I enter the room ulty of that institution to which he was every part of me turns into raw flesh and to devote more than half a century of every move of my colleagues somehow service. Scult’s detailed Index (indis- agonizes me,” and goes downhill from pensable for a volume of this kind) lists there! Two colleagues read books, one the about fifty separate entries on JTS, morning Times. Boaz Cohen “sits and many of multiple pages. For those of stares.” Ginzberg “expects everybody to us, like this writer, who were affiliated take notice of him.” Alexander Marx with that school during and after “begins to work on his pipe.” Kaplan’s tenure, these entries have an Nor are the students spared. They addictive quality. We turn the pages, cheat on examinations despite the hon- waiting for one more outburst, and or system. They dawdle between class- Kaplan never disappoints. es. Not only are they frivolous, the ma- The portraits of the main cast of char- jority admit that they cannot pray, that acters are acerbic. Solomon Schechter the term God is empty of content for “used to wither the souls of the students them and that they see in the ministry with his ill-timed jests about rabbis and “nothing but an occasion for preach- their callings.” Cyrus Adler’s remarks ing nationalism and social service.” But at the Seminary’s 1917 opening exer- Kaplan shows much understanding for cises were “conventional and ram- their anger at the curriculum, which bling.” They revealed “how little imagi- has little to do with the rabbinic func-

78 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist tions they are to undertake in their ca- the year.” It makes for “mummery and reers. Each member of the faculty hypocrisy.” Finkelstein remains “obdu- teaches the problems raised by his re- rate, but his wife seemed inclined to search in his own discipline, and con- agree with me.” (The Kol Nidre issue siders that material indispensable to the was to haunt Kaplan for years. At the rabbinate, leading Kaplan to conclude SAJ, he eliminated it in 1925; then, in “On that assumption, even a ten year the face of objections from congre- training would scarcely suffice.” Plus gants, reinstated it with modifications.) ca change ! The conflict with Finkelstein comes to a head in 1932, when, over Finkel- Kaplan and Finkelstein stein’s vigorous objections, Kaplan is elected president of the Rabbinical As- But of course, the core of the ten- sembly. Finkelstein fought Kaplan’s sion at the Seminary was theological. election because “he is sure that my It is most clearly traceable in Kaplan’s election will give the Yeshiba (sic) evolving relationship with Louis Fin- crowd a weapon with which to fight kelstein. On December 10, 1922: the Seminary and the Seminary gradu- "[Finkelstein’s] star is in the ascendant ates.” Kaplan, for his part, is satisfied just now, a fact that I would gladly that his election “will put an end to the welcome were it not for his taking a policy of having the Seminary sail un- reactionary stand against an honest der the Orthodox flag.” When the results intellectual approach to the problems of the election are announced, the stu- underlying Jewish belief and practice. dents who waited outside the room for I see in him a useful recruit to the forces the results of the vote “raised a shout that of Jewish Jesuitism.” was heard all over the place.” In another context, “[Finkelstein] has absorbed a good deal of the schol- Resignation and Reaction arly virus of cynicism from the Semi- nary atmosphere.” For a while, the two Kaplan did, in fact, resign from the studied together, but Finkelstein de- Seminary in 1927. His letter of resig- cides not to continue because Kaplan nation focuses on his attempts to de- has a tendency to make him “work in velop an ideology for Conservative Ju- ways that are not natural to him.” daism that would distinguish it from Kaplan reassures him that he has no Orthodoxy and from Reform, and interest in doing his thinking for him, would “reckon courageously with the and they reconcile. established conclusions of comparative Astonishingly, Kaplan consults Fin- religion and biblical criticism.” The kelstein, of all people, about Kaplan’s opposition to his views within the desire to omit Kol Nidre from the Yom school prompted him to join Wise’s Kippur service since it is “entirely un- JIR. spiritual and unworthy of a place in News of Kaplan’s resignation spread, the service on the most solemn day of and drew a unanimous resolution from

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 79 the Executive Committee of the Rab- ciless honesty his repeated quarrels with binical Assembly, pledging to oppose his daughter Judith over her Jewish his resignation and a “vitriolic” letter practice. He is “doomed” to live the rest to Cyrus Adler from Seminary stu- of his life “in a sort of prison made for dents. Adler never presented the resig- me by my aspirations which separate nation to the JTS Board, but did meet me from my own wife and children.” with Kaplan for two hours, after which On April 12, 1928: “I have been very Kaplan withdrew his letter. The sub- much in the dumps of late. The longer stance of that conversation is included I live, the more alone I feel. I have not here. Kaplan’s final comment on that a single friend, or companion in the discussion: “At bottom Adler and I do world with whom I can share my in- live in different universes of discourse.” terests and problems.” His frustration Nonetheless, Kaplan remained at JTS with his writing makes him feel “like a until 1963. woman who constantly miscarries.” But three months later, on vacation in Surprising Sense of Failure New Jersey, reading and writing in the warm sun, he can say. “This is a great To this reader, at least, the stunning life!” (Two delightful tidbits: one en- revelation in this material is Kaplan’s try that deals in a roundabout way with persistent sense that he was a failure. his sexual impulses, and one about a There is a startling contrast between brief foray into a vaudeville show. Not Kaplan’s public presence — the author- unexpectedly, Kaplan turns both into ity that he projected and the passion a meditation about the human condi- with which he advocated his positions tion.) — and the inner Kaplan — with his Kaplan records the gradual decline doubts and sense of incompetence as a in his religious observance. He has thinker, a father, and a rabbi, and the stopped putting on his tefillin. Apart depression that seems to have hovered from reciting the Grace After Meals, on the periphery of his self-awareness. he has stopped praying regularly. He By his own account, he is one of uses a pen on Shabbat “when unseen.” those people who combine “mediocrity His reason dictates that he “emancipate with inordinate ambition.” He is “crest- himself” from the traditional bonds of fallen” because he forgot a verse in the Sabbath observance, but his moral Book of Job, or because he had worked sense upbraids him for being either “a all day in the hope of writing an ad- coward or a hypocrite” for allowing dress in Hebrew but had to give up. people to believe that he is still a tradi- (There are many references here to his tionally observant Jew. frustration over his failure to master modern Hebrew.) Kaplan’s Legacy He is “a failure not only in the Semi- nary and in the SAJ but even in my This volume ends, appropriately own home.” He chronicles with mer- enough, on a sunny note. Judaism As

80 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist A Civilization is published, and Judith administration and faculty and more Kaplan and Ira Eisenstein are married. with an increasingly traditionalist stu- Today we know the rest of the story. dent body. His classes were contentious Kaplan did become one of the most in- affairs. He finally retired in 1963; in ret- fluential shapers of American Jewry, did rospect, he probably should have left produce an impressive body of schol- some years earlier, as his colleagues had arly work, did assemble a body of loyal urged him to do. colleagues and collaborators and, most We are indebted to Mel Scult for al- important, did integrate a theology, an lowing us to listen in as Mordecai Kap- ideology and a program into one co- lan pours out his thoughts, feelings and herent whole. His dream that this concerns. Scult’s scholarship, his taste might become Conservative Judaism and his own fascination with the ma- was never realized, but it did become terial are evident on every page. The Reconstructionism (a term that curi- volume is enriched by Scult’s introduc- ously never appears in this volume), tion to Kaplan’s thought, a biography, and many of his original ideas have now concise footnotes identifying the per- become mainstream Jewish thinking. sonalities Kaplan encounters, a num- By the time this writer studied with ber of charming photographs, and the Kaplan in 1955 and 1956, the Semi- generous index. nary was a very different school. The Scult’s judicious and representative rabbinical student body was no longer choices of diary entries enriches our composed of drop-outs from Yeshiva understanding of Kaplan. But at the University, but rather of ba'alei end, we are left to wonder — if this teshuvah (the newly observant) from material represents only 25 percent of Ivy League schools. Abraham Joshua Kaplan’s entries for that twenty-year pe- Heschel had replaced Kaplan as the riod, what remained on the cutting magnet that attracted us to the school, room floor? And what lies in store for and Kaplan’s fights were less with the us with Volume Two ?

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 81 Perspectives on Prayer Major Philosophers of Jewish Prayer in the Twentieth Century by Jack J. Cohen New York, Fordham University Press, 2000, 240 pages

REVIEWED BY PETER S. KNOBEL

an prayer be revitalized in the Words and Beliefs 21st Century? The leadership C of the streams of Jewish life The words of a siddur express a believe that communal worship is es- community’s belief system, describe its sential to the spiritual health of the Jew- values, its fears, its hopes and its ish people. All agree that a prayer ser- dreams. Throughout Jewish history the vice is most successful when the wor- words of prayer have been of great im- shipers experience themselves as part portance and a matter of ongoing de- of a community. The religious streams bate. Like the Tanakh and the Talmud, are publishing new siddurim, and, con- the text of the siddur became canoni- gregations and havurot are producing cal, and to keep the text vibrant and vital their own. Programs for synagogue the community developed strategies to transformation like Synagogue 2000, solve the intellectual and spiritual dilem- under the direction of Lawrence Hoff- mas that arise with canonical texts. man and Ron Wolfson, and the efforts Elaborate commentaries explicated of consultants like Sidney Schwarz, are hidden meanings, mystical techniques opening new doors to participation. lifted the worship to a new spiritual plane New music is being written draw- and rote recitation challenged the wor- ing on contemporary musical motifs. shiper to infuse the text with meaning. Multiple musical instruments are now The struggle between the fixed text (keva) heard from the bima of synagogues that and meaning (kavanah) is a continuing permit instruments during prayer. battle. What are we to do with the words? Clapping, swaying, chanting and medi- Recite them with new meaning or revise tating as part of communal worship are them to speak to our age? Is prayer a man- becoming commonplace in worship tra in which the act and not the words is settings, where just a few years ago such the main point, or an expression of belief activities would have been considered in which we should say what we mean scandalous. and mean what we say? In Major Phi-

Peter S. Knobel is Senior Rabbi of Beth Emet, The Free Synagogue in Evanston, Illinois, and chairs the Ad Hoc Siddur Editorial Committee of the Central Con- ference of American Rabbis.

82 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist losophers of Jewish Prayer in the Twentieth words, phrases or whole passages, while Century, Jack Cohen seeks to explore these keeping the basic structure intact. questions. His formidable task is to explicate Starting With Naturalism clearly, briefly and yet comprehensively the work of major 20th century Jewish Cohen is a rationalist whose own thinkers on prayer. He devotes chap- theology is largely indistinguishable ters to Hermann Cohen, Franz from that of Mordecai Kaplan. It is Rosenzweig, Avraham Yitzhak HaCo- Kaplan’s rationalism and naturalism hen Kook, Mordecai Kaplan, Aaron that, if properly understood and ap- Rote (Reb Arele), Eli Munk, Abraham plied, Cohen believes provides the best J. Heschel, Jakob Petuchowski, Eugene hope for the revitalization of commu- B. Borowitz, Lawrence A. Hoffman nal prayer. He seeks to defend Recon- and contemporary feminist thinkers. structionism (as formulated by Kaplan) against the criticism that naturalism How Revitalize Prayer? leaves no room for genuine prayer. Cohen’s underlying assumption is Cohen’s goal is the revitalization of that theology and philosophy do mat- the synagogue service. To that end, he ter, and that sustained reflection should does not merely review the abstract help revitalize worship. Having re- ideas of each thinker, but assesses viewed and rejected most of the posi- whether a philosophical analysis of tions he has analyzed, he turns to a sus- prayer will, in fact, help Jews to pray. tained argument in defense of religious If people could only learn to think about naturalism, which Cohen argues is not prayer in a way that is consistent with merely secular humanism, although it the rest of their thinking, prayer would shares many of its features. be important and meaningful. But to a degree, Cohen is caught in The text for Jewish prayer is the sid- a paradox. He wants to refute the ac- dur, whether in one of its traditional edi- cusation that Reconstuctionism is not tions or in one of its modern revisions or religious and, at the same time, he does reconstructions. A central question for not want to alienate secular humanists. Cohen is: Can we extract unrealized These secular humanists are often com- meaning from traditional formulae, or mitted to many of the same perspec- must we provide new words that reflect tives and ideas that characterize the re- our contemporary spiritual reality? ligious humanism of Reconstruction- The thinkers in this volume, as might ism, even if they choose a different vo- be expected, divide into two basic cat- cabulary or do not participate in orga- egories in response: those who would nized Jewish religious life. leave the traditional text unchanged and develop strategies for making them mean- The Goal of Prayer ingful, and those who would revise the text by deleting, changing and adding Cohen begins by demonstrating that

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 83 his understanding of God is both ra- cal law and, at least as I understand him, tional and realistic. He brackets the natural ethical law as well. For him, “God questions of creation and of life after is not a Being but a Process that comes death. He expresses awe for the beauty to consciousness in the human soul” and order of the universe. Human life (218). Prayer becomes, then, not a com- is finite — a fleeting journey between munion with God, but an act of self- life and death. Human beings are lim- transcendence. Prayer aids in the pur- ited, yet endowed with creative pow- suit of Truth, while reminding us that ers. Common prayer can provide the we can only have partial truths that are humility and courage to live without constantly subject to revision. “The the hope of supernatural intervention. religionist will worship; secularists are He begins his own chapter, “Can likely to confine themselves to the Prayer Be Revitalized?” by citing a well- study of humankind and nature, per- known quotation from the Baal Shem haps in a spirit no less pious than that Tov: “If after you’ve prayed you are the of worshipers” (218). The paths are same as before you prayed, why did you parallel and sometimes intersecting. pray?” (200). The goal of prayer is to Prayer and worship are not the same change the worshiper. This, Cohen be- thing to Cohen. “Prayer was and is only lieves, is what is common to all of the one method by which mortals hope to thinkers whose work this book surveys. feel God’s presence and remind them- Common prayer is about becoming a selves of how much they are dependent complete human being and, in our own upon forces beyond their ken” (220). particular refraction of this universal Worship, on the other hand, is “the quest, an ideal Jew. But the unanimity of manner in which humans go about a common goal quickly breaks down searching for and relating to whatever around the meaning of the terms “com- it is in the cosmos that can help us suc- plete human being” and “ideal Jew.” cessfully cope” with the reality of both Cohen affirms that the siddur must be our finitude and our creative potential an ethical document. Therefore, prayer (218). Prayer may take place within must help us realize that “Before God, worship, but worship is not a neces- all are equal” (207). He asserts that it is sary precondition for prayer. Worship this principle that can become a yard- is about community and a communi- stick for judging our prayers. He rejects ty’s aspirations. For Cohen, the com- prayers that speak of a natural superior- munity finds its meaning in its histori- ity of birth, divinely given differences cal connection to the ongoing adven- among peoples and what he under- ture of the Jewish people. stands to be the particularist superiority reflected in the concept of chosenness. Beyond the Words of Prayer Prayer and Worship Cohen offers his own prescription for the revitalization of Jewish commu- Cohen believes there is natural physi- nal worship. His key points are: 1) The

84 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist focal point of Jewish worship can and meaning and community was correct. should remain the framework of the How worship was performed and how traditional prayer service. 2) Mind and community was constituted were of- soul, intellect and emotion, articulation ten more important than the words and silence, meditation and study are that were recited. Hoffman has even all necessary components of worship. suggested that we now live in a post- 3) Communal worship can succeed print age in which the concept of a only if interpersonal relationships are siddur as we know it may be obsolete. warm and caring. Cohen correctly notes that merely changing the siddur Treatment of Thinkers will not necessarily lead to a revitaliza- tion of prayer. By and large, Cohen strives to be fair In this regard, it is also interesting to and dispassionate about the thinkers note that each of the non-Orthodox whose work he surveys. An exception, movements in Jewish life have sought however, is his chapter on Eugene Bor- recently to articulate their ideology, owitz, which is more critical and, to theology or principles in a cognent and this reader, even disturbing. Cohen comprehensive manner — in state- seems almost miffed at Borowitz’ cri- ments as well as in siddurim — that tique of Kaplan’s understanding of show each movement to be divided transcendence. Cohen’s criticism seems between those who seek to maintain more like a personal assault on Boro- the principles of the founders and those witz rather than a more objective analy- who seek renewal and change. Even if sis. I suspect this may be because Bor- there is agreement that the words owitz, as the leading living Reform should be changed, how they should theologian, has been one of the great- be changed remains open to debate. est challengers of Kaplanian natural- Lawrence Hoffman, who after first de- ism, whereas the other thinkers dis- voting himself to textual studies of the cussed do not directly address, let alone siddur has become an articulate as well as critique, Kaplan’s thought. an astute advocate for worship change, While Cohen’s acknowledgment of offered similar insights more than fifteen the issues raised by feminism is to be years ago. Hoffman’s approach is decid- applauded, the chapter devoted to fem- edly non-theological, although it has clear inist thought is disappointing. The theological implications. challenge of feminism goes much My own studies with Daniel Schech- deeper than debates about God lan- ter, in a grant from the Nathan Cum- guage and the inclusion of women in mings Foundation and Lilly Endow- the siddur. It is about the basic struc- ment, entitled, “Lay Involvement in Li- tures of Judaism. Issues of hierarchy, turgical Change,” noted the prolifera- and the different ways in which women tion of congregationally authored and men account for their experience, prayer books as a sign that Hoffman’s beliefs and relationships, must all be understanding of worship as a quest for taken into account. Cohen, to his

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 85 credit, takes feminism seriously, but he urgent necessity. curiously fails to cite either Judith Plas- Major Philosophers of Jewish Prayer kow or Rachel Adler, who are among in the Twentieth Century will be a use- the most important Jewish feminist ful text for anyone wishing to confront theologians who have devoted much an array of important thinkers on thought to prayer and worship. prayer. The issues raised by these think- ers, and by Cohen’s discussion of them, Gaining Clarity should be carefully considered by those who lead prayer as well as by individual I have a great appreciation for Jack worshipers. All who seek to compose a Cohen and this book. It has helped me siddur should be aware that the keva crystallize a number of things: 1) Kap- that they set on paper must be infused lan’s rationalism and naturalism can with the multiple kavanot. Finally, still move and touch many who desire Cohen reminds us that the siddur is an an expression of Judaism that is intel- ethical document that teaches what it lectually in touch with modernity and means to be good human beings and the enlightenment (although Cohen’s good Jews. own defense of Kaplan was for me too The lucid manner in which Cohen polemical); 2) the siddur must be mul- presents these complex materials and tivocal and speak to Jews whose belief his own perspectives and proposals are structures, life situations and aesthetic to be appreciated. I know of no other sensibilities are diverse; 3) The head can book where these diverse perspectives prevent the heart from praying; 4) re- are so easily accessible. For this, we owe newal, or to utilize Cohen’s term, “re- Jack Cohen a debt of gratitude; his vitalization of Jewish worship,” is an book is an invitation to further study.

86 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist Pluralism Limited Dignity of Difference by Jonathan Sacks London, Continuum, 2002, 216 pages

REVIEWED BY NEIL AMSWYCH

cannot deny that I approached make a radical change, and that such a Jonathan Sacks’ new book, Dig- change must come from the great I nity of Difference, with some skep- faiths. According to Sacks, the “loyal ticism. While at university, I had the adherents” of religious traditions now wonderful opportunity of interviewing need to reassess their theology, not only him on his role as the Chief Rabbi of to recognize difference, but to embrace the United Synagogues (the largest af- it as a theological and social necessity. filiated Orthodox movement in Brit- The problem, of course, is that most ain), and his passion for Judaism and of us already have embraced it! There- careful attention not to incriminate fore, looking over the spectrum of Jew- himself with his words was very appar- ish practice, it seems as though Sacks’ ent. “loyal adherents” must be only the Or- Years later, much has changed. Seven thodox who have not yet fully em- years ago, he described the then-recent- braced the principle of difference. Plu- ly deceased Rabbi Hugo Gryn, one of ralism for Sacks exists only outside Ju- the leading Reform rabbis in the daism; pluralism within is clearly not United Kingdom, as “one of the rabbis on the agenda. who destroy the faith,” and noted that While one cannot but admire the ef- Progressive Jewry has no enemy equal fort that has been made here, the en- to the Chief Rabbi. Normally such tire premise of the book is, in some things should be consigned to the past sense, completely false. Moreover, with as a bitter learning experience, but Dig- this pluralism in mind, it is puzzling nity of Difference opens up old wounds that Sacks can state, without moral dif- in ways that Jona-than Sacks could not ficulty, that God chose one people (the have envisaged. Jewish people) and commanded it to be different in order “to teach human- Recognizing Difference ity the dignity of difference”(53). While, in the prologue, Sacks in- The premise of the book is that a forms us that his book is not written post-September 11 world needs to only for Jews, it is clear that whichever

Neil Amswych is preparing for the rabbinate at the Leo Baeck College in Lon- don, and spent the 2002-2003 academic year studying at the Reconstructionist Rabbinical College.

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 87 religious group he might have in mind, diate access to knowledge, he suggests, he addresses himself to the more con- not only radically alters our lives, but servative religious devotees — includ- is an essential human right, and there- ing those found among the Jewish peo- fore forces us to work toward total glo- ple. He does so in the eloquent and in- bal literacy in an effort to ensure hu- formed manner that has led some to man dignity. hail him as Britain’s greatest religious One cannot fail to observe Sacks’ thinker today. moral passion, and his awareness and Early on, Sacks states that “in heaven descriptions of social and economic there is truth; on earth there are truths” crises will surely move any reader. It is (64), or, “in the course of history, God disappointing, therefore, that such an has spoken to mankind in many lan- admirable platform should be tinged guages: through Judaism to Jews, with startling naiveté. While the bibli- Christianity to Christians, Islam to cal concept of the Jubilee, which Sacks Muslims — this means that religious promotes, is beautiful in theory, it is truth is not universal” (55). Without evident that any attempt to reinstate it doubt, these are the boldest theologi- in our time would be impractical. cal statements to have come from the United Synagogues that I can remem- Selective Citations ber, although they are not the sum to- tal of what Sacks has to teach. It is also disappointing that Sacks’ choice of biblical sources is so selec- Range of Knowledge tively used to support his agenda. As an example, Sacks proudly refers to Sacks demonstrates his knowledge of Ruth as the Moabite ancestor of King economics and history in explaining David, suggesting that her not being why Judaism supports the free market Israelite reveals the divine importance as the greatest tool for relieving world of difference. But Sacks fails to inform poverty. However, such a market needs his readers that Ruth is seen by the rab- to be a moral one, or else it is bound to bis as the prototypical convert to Juda- lead to the proliferation of the grave ism — the first person formally to re- consequences already apparent world- nounce difference and to assimilate wide — poverty, illiteracy and war. By into similarity with the Jews! relating biblical ethics to the free mar- Similarly, while acknowledging that ket, Sacks produces a seven-point plan the “God of the Hebrew Bible is a par- as a personal suggestion to ensure the ticularist” (56), loving one people and success of the free market for all. giving them a particular destiny, he also Sacks also articulately observes our states that God loves all the nations in current passage through the fourth in- God’s own way. As nice a sentiment as formation revolution (the previous this may be, it fails to take into account three being the invention of the alpha- God’s promise to the Israelites to drive bet, writing and printing). The imme- the Canaanite nations into the hands

88 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist of the Israelites for slaughter (Deut. few Orthodox rabbis and Sacks decided 7:1-5), one of many examples that to amend the key pluralistic statements show the danger of difference as held referenced earlier. Indeed, it was not by the Torah. (In Sacks’ defense, he ac- just the tolerant, pluralistic passages knowledges that every tradition has its that he amended — in the new edi- “abrasive passages” and notes, in a sur- tion he no longer even mentions the prisingly liberal vein, that “no tradition scientific age of the earth, in apparent is free from the constant need to rein- deference to fundamentalists. terpret” [208].) If Sacks’ disgust at contemporary Sacks uses the biblical narrative of fundamentalism is admirable, then his Babel in his argument for pluralism. compliance with fundamentalist de- Before this narrative, he claims, God mands following publication can only tries to work with a universal world be deplorable. For British progressive order, but it continually fails — in Jews, this retraction of religious toler- Eden, with Cain and Abel and with ance is surely another step back on the Noah’s generation. It is only after the road to intracultural tolerance. Sacks Tower of Babel that humanity is dis- surely opened a theological and inter- persed and diversity becomes the di- pretational door for many members of vine preference. Intriguing as this sug- the United Synagogues that could have gestion is, and as admirable as these led to a blossoming of intracultural sentiments are in such difficult times activities and thought. Now, with key as our own, the Bible’s aforementioned pluralistic passages rescinded, he has intolerance of other nations in so many firmly slammed shut this door, to the places calls into question Sacks’ con- detriment of the British community at clusion. large.

Tolerance and Fundamentalism Forced Retraction

Ironically, despite Sacks’ affirmation However, the negative effects of his of difference and pluralism, it is intol- retraction go beyond the Jewish com- erance that is the ultimate undoing of munity: Some Muslim readers have this book, because of events surround- criticized the Jewish community for ap- ing its publication. Sacks’ attempt to parently forcing the author to remove speak to a modern readership — in- tolerant passages. To have published cluding references to Spinoza, to the Dignity of Difference in the first place era of the dinosaurs and to theologies showed how the Cambridge-educated of divine preference for pluralism — is Sacks finally caught up with interfaith in some sense incompatible with a dialogue — a necessity, considering his movement ultimately controlled by role as Jewish President for the Coun- fundamentalists. cil of Christians and Jews (a non-po- Shortly after publication, Dignity of litical, interfaith organization seek- Difference was branded heretical by a ing to combat prejudice and promote

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 89 understanding). To then retract the Chief Rabbi of the United Synagogues, book’s most important passages while particularly for someone as brilliantly maintaining that nothing of substance literate as Sacks. The retraction will also has been removed is why some now say be a testament to Sacks’ inability to stand that Chief Rabbi Sacks stands for very up to more extremist pressure groups. little, and why they believe the book is I hope, though, that Dignity of Dif- very damaging. ference also stands as a significant first The retraction of the pluralistic public attempt within the United Syna- statements of this book does not in any gogue to embrace other faiths from an way help Sacks’ movement or his of- Orthodox Jewish position, and as a fice. This retraction does not diminish prompt to other Jews to take positive the significance of this book, although action regarding pressing issues, such it regrettably overshadows the impor- as poverty, the free market and univer- tant ideas Sacks hoped to communi- sal human rights. Whether one re- cate. The debate and retraction stand sponds positively or negatively, the as a testament to the political wrang- book and the controversy surrounding lings in the United Synagogues, and the it suggest it will remain an important difficulty of holding the position of the text for British Jewry for some time.

90 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist Mapping the Spiritual Journey The Journey Home; Discovering the Deep Spiritual Wisdom of the Jewish Tradition by Lawrence A. Hoffman Boston, Beacon Press, 2002 REVIEWED BY MARSHA PIK-NATHAN

ooks on spirituality abound; “think Jewish.” But books that focus walk into any mega-chain book- on the realm of the spirit? On relation- store-with-café and you are ship to God? Those belonged in neigh- Bguaranteed to see a section devoted to boring civilizations and bookshelves. the topic — often replete with books featuring a cosmos motif on the cover. Embracing the Spiritual Quest Walk a little farther into the Judaic sec- tion; what is surprising is not the num- We now see a radical shift toward ber of books on the topic, but that such the incorporation of the spiritual into an increasingly large number of books our contemporary Jewish canon, and are not about the usual concerns of Jew- indeed a blossoming of Jewish atten- ish life: text, history, ritual, prayer, life tion and writing on matters spiritual. cycle — but rather about concerns of With the abundance of offerings, how the Jewish spirit. can we discern which works truly offer Until fairly recently, such concerns something of value, something that were considered to be out of the main- enables us to view the life of the spirit stream of Jewish interest and focus — as an important arena of Jewish in- in fact, were considered at best hereti- quiry? cal (if taken seriously at all), and at Lawence Hoffman’s The Journey worst, frivolous. Sometimes such books Home: Discovering the Deep Spiritual were dismissed as being simply imita- Wisdom of the Jewish Tradition is a book tive of the ease with which Christians clearly worth embracing in this emerg- speak of God, and Eastern traditions ing canon. Hoffman, professor of lit- in general, of the ethereal. urgy at Hebrew Union College-Jewish Legitimate Jewish “stuff” has always Institute of Religion, is widely known been considered to have a “real world” in Jewish academic circles for his pro- focus: how to “do Jewish,” or how to lific and erudite writing on liturgy and

Rabbi Marsha Pik-Nathan teaches and consults in the Philadelphia area, where she is also a practicing clinical psychologist.

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 91 other aspects of Judaism. His work has longings, but in the model so well formed the basis for the establishment exemplifed by Moses’ encounter with of “Synagogue 2000” and its work in the burning bush — i.e., to be able to helping synagogue communities to de- recognize that the very ground on velop their capacities for becoming the which one is standing is holy — and spiritual centers of the new millenium. to take off one’s shoes and wriggle one’s Hoffman's audience is the well-edu- toes in the mud in celebration of its cated lay seeker who needs both a “Ju- truth. daism 101” primer and a sophisticated To apprehend fully that this ground consideration of how the basic build- on which we stand, cook, have sex, eat, ing blocks of Judaism inform the cre- plant, pray and sleep is holy is to dis- ation of a deep and rich spiritual life. cover the deep spiritual wisdom of Ju- If one does not know a thing about daism suggested by the book’s title. Judaism, this book will teach a great Hoffman delineates the uniquely Jew- deal. If one is steeped in Jewish knowl- ish paradigms by which we become edge, this book offers the challenge to spiritually attuned creatures, any one take traditional Jewish forms and ap- of which could be a book-length dis- proach them from a place that is not cussion in itself. academic and yet not, as some say dis- dainfully, “touchy-feely.” Hoffman’s Seven Spiritualities presentation is accessible and interest- ing to a wide variety of Jewish thinkers He posits seven spiritualities that in- and seekers. fuse our world and can serve to con- nect us to the Divine within ourselves What is Jewish Spirituality? and our communities: a spirituality of metaphor, stewardship, discovery, In 1975, after having given a week- landedness, translation, suffering and long seminar on the rituals of Passover, community. I cannot do justice in a Hoffman was approached by a student short treatment of this book to the ex- who asked him, “What is the spiritu- traordinary richness with which Hoff- ality of the seder?” He was challenged; man explores each of these. Rather, I not once in the week had he discussed can give some gems to whet your ap- anything “spiritual.” From that point petite. on, he became interested in the spiri- Hoffman begins his exploration by tual quest — what did it mean, and reminding us of the importance of “rea- how did people go about it? sonable spirituality” — a search not for Hoffman is clear: For him spiritual- angels, but for the meaning of, as he ity is not about the “non-visible” — the says, “connecting the dots” of our lives. world of auras and crystals and the like. What could be more frightening than Rather, it is about the very stuff of this seeing our lives as a string of random, earth. The challenge is to find the spiri- unconnected events — strange enough tual not in “other-worldy” places and when the events are good, but certainly

92 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist a frightening thought when the events manages to give us an erudite explana- are difficult or cataclysmic. This focus tion and history of berakhot, of the on connecting our experiences into a development and role of Jewish texts shape we can discern, name, and cel- in our tradition, and even a brief but ebrate is the stuff of spirituality. In understandable history of the role of Hoffman’s words: sacrifice and its spiritual descendent, prayer. I would say that spirituality is our What really stood out to me, how- way of being in the world, the sys- ever, was his radical notion that to bless tem of connectedness by which we is actually to “desanctify” something. make sense of our lives, how we Usually, prayer is understood as focus- overlay our autobiography in the ing on the holiness of an event, action making with a template of time or encounter (the Shehehianu. blessing, and space and relationship that is for instance, calls our attention to the vastly greater than we know our- holiness of a unique moment). Hoff- selves individually to be. It is the man stands this understanding on its way we dimly find our way to how head — it is by removing these acts or we matter, the maps we use for encounters from the category of pure things like history and destiny, the holiness that “we render them fit for way we take a jumble of sensory human enjoyment”(64). By blessing data and shape it coherently into a them, we bring them, as it were, to our picture, the way discordant noise level. We apprehend them so we can becomes a symphony of being, the partake of them — but we cannot do way we know that we belong to the this when they exist solely in God’s drama of the universe. It is the realm. wonderfully enchanting but Only after we recite the blessing over equally rational way we go on our wine can we drink it; in so doing, its way of growing up and growing essence transfers over from God’s world older in the mysterious business we to ours. It is our responsibility not to call life (17). stand afar from the manifestations of God’s goodness, but on the contrary, The spirituality paradigms Hoffman to drink in the abundance, to eat joy- posits are essentially vehicles we can use fully of it, to marvel at the wonderous to connect the dots of our lives — to sights and sounds that we can note if make meaning where meaning could we work to develop Heschel’s “radical very easily be bypassed, and life expe- awe” — the sense that each and every rienced as disconnected from Divinity. moment of being is truly miraculous. It is this imperative to interact with Desanctification God’s world that prompts us to bless- ing, to engagement. This is steward- In a beautifully constructed chapter ship — the fulfillment of the com- on the role of blessings, Hoffman also mandment to till and tend this earth.

The Reconstructionist Fall 2003 • 93 Tilling and tending begin with notic- we wrote when we were younger. ing. Spirituality is the conviction that the old diary entries continue to Additional Dimensions engage us; they define our way of seeing the world; by rereading our The chapter on the “Spirituality of traditional affirmations of faith, Discovery” is a wonderful survey of we rethink the world using the Torah writ large, taking the reader themes that our religion has be- through an impressive thesaurus of ter- queathed us. But using the colors minology related to Torah and its study and models that past generations — almost a mini Back to the Sources gave us is not the same as settling for the uninitiated. Addressing the for a photocopy of the same pic- spirituality of “landedness,” Hoffman tures they drew (131). considers the primal Jewish attachment to the particular space on earth that is Hoffman concludes that “spiritual Israel, apart from its geopolitical im- thinking” is plications. In his chapter on the “spiri- tuality of translation,” Hoffman offers the attempt to say more about the us an excursus on meta-thinking — universe than science can, without what does it means to “think about saying anything that science can- thinking” about matters spiritual? His not at least grant as possible and focus is perhaps best characterized by maybe even probable. . . . It con- these words — his own rendition of nects us with our past, but speaks the Reconstructionist maxim: “the past to our present. It is intellectually has a vote but not a veto:” sophisticated, but not academi- cally distant from what matters to Many people mistakenly believe us most (159). that in order to think spiritually they have to swallow uncritically Meaning and Suffering the literal truths they find in tra- ditional writings. The writings, As the book nears its end, Hoffman however, are like diary entries at applies his analysis to our most human earlier intersections of the vertical dilemma — how to find meaning in and horizontal lines, where their suffering. Taking us on a journey religious tradition has met other through biblical theology and a con- historical eras. Reading old diary sideration of the Book of Job, he ex- entries and knowing they are part plores the rabbinic ambivalence on of our own evolving life story as matters of suffering. Looking again at members of a single tradition is a variety of meaning-making schemes not equivalent to thinking the — from psychoanalysis to essayist same thoughts all over again and Annie Dillard — Hoffman asks us to feeling the same way about what consider “connecting the dots” as the

94 • Fall 2003 The Reconstructionist only way to make sense of suffering. of American Jewry and the institution- He also demonstrates the importance alization of Judaism. He sees the re- of the metaphors one uses to describe bound effect of decades of soulless Ju- the image that is formed of those con- daism in the contemporary search for nections. Jewish spirituality as the quest for lives In this way, Hoffman invites us to that have meaning, while understand- explore the “kingdom of night” (as he ing that there cannot be a facile return terms the realm of suffering) in our to the “good old” Jewish days, either own life and the lives of others. Jewish in theology or in practice. mourning rituals are explored as guide- posts to how to handle the inevitable At its core spirituality is the sense intrusion of “night” into our world. that things all fit together despite momentary fears that they are fall- Role of Community ing apart. It posits connectedness where there seems to be none. The The book concludes with a consid- search for spirituality is the yearn- eration of the role of community in ing for shape where old contours spirituality. Hoffman gives us a histori- have eroded . . . Part of us wants cal overview of Jewish community and to return to the old days where how it formed itself in America, from families could be counted on and the earliest Sephardi immigrants to the streets were safe for walking. New York, through the German Jew- Another part of us, however, ish immigration in the mid 1800s and knows that the new world of elec- onward. He considers the importance tive identity is not all bad. It does, of what each group of Jewish settlers however, require that we find brought to America, and considers the something to hold us together and diverse cultures of German and East- connect us beyond ourselves, as we ern European Jews coming together in go about choosing the paths that this country, as the backdrop for un- will take us through the labyrinth derstanding the complexity of “people- of life(210). hood” in the context of modern Ameri- can life. This chapter ends with a criti- It is this search for “something be- cal assessment of Mordecai Kaplan and yond ourselves” that constitutes the of the importance of Arthur Green’s tik- essence of the “journey home.” We kun of Kaplan’s rationalism. would do well to take Hoffman’s eru- Hoffman explores the Jewish demo- dite and sophisticated road map with graphics of the 1950s and ’60s in the us as we seek to connect the dots along context of the rising suburbanization the way.

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