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A University of Sussex DPhil thesis Available online via Sussex Research Online: http://sro.sussex.ac.uk/ This thesis is protected by copyright which belongs to the author. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the Author The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the Author When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given Please visit Sussex Research Online for more information and further details “Thinking and speaking for ourselves”: The development of shack dwellers’ political voice in the age of ICTs Kalinca Gutierrez Copello Doctor of Philosophy University of Sussex January 2015 i Abstract A prevailing urban phenomenon of the 21st century is that more people than ever before are living in informal settlements. As residents of informal settlements, the majority of shack dwellers can be considered socially, economically and politically marginalised citizens. The combination of poverty, marginalisation, and precarious living conditions has in many cases given rise to a vicious cycle. In this cycle, shack dwellers lack an effective voice and are unable to participate in political decision- making processes that affect their lives, leading to deepening deprivation and marginalisation. To break this cycle, the development of a genuine political voice of shack-dwellers is essential. However, the process of developing a political voice in shack dwellers has only received scant academic attention and is poorly understood. One aspect of this process is the role of information communication technologies (ICTs) in enabling political voice. This has received some attention and has become a salient topic in academic study and development policy. Despite growing adoption of certain ICT tools by marginalised individuals, there is little evidence of their meaningful use for political voice. Access to ICTs is not the same as meaningful use of ICTs for political voice. Only a few studies have examined the issue of meaningful use of ICTs for political voice. This dissertation explores the factors influencing the processes by which marginalised individuals are able to develop a political voice, with a particular focus on the role of two increasingly ubiQuitous ICTs – mobile phones and internet. A Qualitative case study of a shack dweller grassroots organisation in South Africa (Abahlali baseMjondolo (AbM)) is used to explore different types of political voice. The case study looks at the circumstances under which members of AbM are able to develop individual and collective forms of political expression, and the role that the use of ICTs play in this development. Data collected from semi-structured interviews and participant observation for this study suggests that, individual differences in combination with entrenched traditions ii and social structures based on patronage may undermine the development and or expression of political voice. However, active engagement in a grassroots organisation was found to be useful to overcome these limitations and for some individuals to develop their political voices. AbM members were able to engage in collective processes which led to the development of social bonds, trust, self-confidence, and critical reflection. Both the internet and mobile phones were found to play an important role in the development of political voice of AbM members. However, interaction between the use of ICTs and the development of a political voice is complex. In many instances the technology has enabled mobilization, as well as given individuals a feeling of security. Where this has happened, the appropriation and re-purposing of ICTs to fit the needs of AbM members has come about as a result of attaching meaning to these technologies, which did not exist before AbM. ICTs can facilitate the development of political voice, in particular by facilitating collective processes (e.g. mobilization), channelling support and trust, as well as raising self-confidence. Yet, as the case of AbM demonstrates, ICTs have not operated as a political eQualizer within AbM. The use of ICTs for political voice might have even created new barriers for the development of political voice of some members. This dissertation brings together disparate stands of literature dealing with ICTs, political voice, social movements, empowerment, community psychology, and participation to conceptualise the development of a political voice. Moreover, a framework is devised to analyse the nature and the process of this development in marginalised individuals, as well as the role played by ICTs in this process. This dissertation aims to bring an understanding of the complex relationship between ICTs and political voice of marginalised individuals. An understanding of the process can provide important inputs to devise more effective design and implementation of policies and projects aimed at increasing political participation of an ever-growing population of disenfranchised and marginalised people living in informal settlements. iii Acknowledgements I was once told, at the beginning of my doctorate, that doing a PhD would probably be one of the most challenging experiences of my life, alternating between many moments of self-doubt and very rare moments of pride. My PhD journey could not have been better described. However, the experiences, and most importantly, the people who made part of this challenging journey, made everything worthwhile. I own my biggest thanks to my supervisors, Justine Johnstone and Piera Morlacchi for their guidance, commitment and patience, throughout these challenging years. They have pushed me forward, and pulled me back whenever I seemed to be loosing my mind. A special thanks to Justine and Pat Johnstone, for all the meals, rides, encouraging chats, and for trusting me enough to let me in into their close-knit family. I am in an eternal debt for all the support and contacts they have given me, which made my fieldwork in South Africa possible. To Nick von Tunzelmann, my friend and mentor, who made this project possible, my eternal gratitude. Through Abahlali baseMjondolo I had the privilege to meet the most inspiring people who had overcome devastating life stories. I have learned so much from them. I thank them for their time, tolerance and trust. I would like to thank the SPRU community which has provided such a stimulating environment – socially as well as intellectually. Special thanks to Gordon MacKerron, for supporting me through finding ways to fund my studies and enabled me to see this project through. Special thanks to Prof. Vishnu Padayachee, from the School of Development Studies, for offering me a visiting fellowship, during my fieldwork, at the University of KwaZulu- Natal. iv I am grateful to all the people who have given their time, insights, and reflections on my work. I own thanks to Richard Ballard, Richard Pithouse, Jenny Morgan, Marie Huchzermeyer, Robin Mansell, Calestous Juma, Saskia Sassen, Roderick J. Watts, Kerry Chance, Kamna Patel, Sarah Cooper-Knock, Patrick Bond, David Ntseng, Anne Harley, Mark Butler, Caroline Elliot, Sokari Ekine, Dara Kell and Chris Nizza. Special thanks to Dennis Brutus and Jeff Guy, who have sadly passed away. To many of the people whom I was luck to meet in South Africa, and made my time there very special, I owe thanks to Crispin and Jonathan Henson, Jill Seldon, Mary Smith and Jai Praladh Naidoo. I would like to give a big thank you (and a hug!) to my friends from SPRU, IDS, and the Brightonians, especially the “usual suspects,” for the great time we had together. I am indebted to Rob Byrne and Eugenia Aguilar Nova for helping out in so many ways. A minha família, Sheila, Neftali, Mikhaila e Lidiane, obrigada por me aturar e me apoiar todo este tempo. Tardo, mas nāo falho. Segura o grito! Auch an meine deutsche Familie – insbesondere Hans und Lindy – ein ganz grosses Dankeschön für die unablässige Unterstützung. To my beautiful daughter Ayla Luzie, who arrived about midway through the writing of this dissertation. I thank her for being patient and understanding, and for being a constant reminder of how lucky I am. And finally, to my husband, Kai. For the careful scrutiny of this whole dissertation, and the late-nigh proof-reading. For taking care of Ayla Lu (and pretending it was all fine). For insisting that this dissertation was good, and I was good, and I could do it. I would never have done it without him. v To Jorge Olmar Copello (dad) and Bob Bruzzi, probably my two biggest cheerleaders vi Contents Abstract ...................................................................................................................................... i Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................. iii Contents .................................................................................................................................. vi Tables and Figures .............................................................................................................. xi List of acronyms .................................................................................................................. xii 1. Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Shack dwellers and the lack
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