Perspectives on Pests Ii

PERSPECTIVES ON PESTS II

Achievements of research under UK Department for International Development Crop Protection Programme 2000–05

Edited by Anne Sweetmore, Frances Kimmins and Penny Silverside

Natural Resources International Limited

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The Department for International Development (DFID) is the UK Government Department responsible for international development policy and managing sustainable development programmes with poorer countries. The Government is committed to halve, by 2015, the proportion of the world’s people whose income is less than one dollar a day; the proportion of people who suffer from hunger, and the proportion of people who lack safe drinking water. Other associated targets include basic health care provision and universal access to primary education. DFID works in partnership with the governments of developing countries, international organisations, voluntary bodies, the private sector and the research community. Natural Resources International Limited (NR International) specialises in managing programmes and projects in natural resources, environmental and rural development sectors as well as in cross-cutting areas such as institutional development. The company is owned by the University of Edinburgh, Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine and the University of Greenwich, and draws on the expertise of these and other institutions both in the UK and overseas. In addition to the Crop Protection Programme, NR International also manages the Crop Post-Harvest, Livestock Production, Forestry and Post-Harvest Fisheries research programmes on behalf of DFID.

Production of this publication was funded by the DFID Crop Protection Programme for the beneﬁ t of developing countries. The views expressed are, however, not necessarily those of DFID.

Short extracts of material from this publication may be reproduced in any non-advertising, non-proﬁ t-making context providing the source is acknowledged as:

SWEETMORE, A., KIMMINS, F. and SILVERSIDE, P. (2006) Perspectives on Pests II: Achievements of research under UK Department for International Development Crop Protection Programme 2000–05. Natural Resources International Ltd, Aylesford, UK. 206+xvi pp. ISBN: 0-9546452-7-8

Permission for commercial reproduction should be sought from: NR International, Park House, Bradbourne Lane, Aylesford, Kent ME20 6SN, UK Tel: +44 (0)1732 878670 (direct line); +44 (0)1732 878686/7 (switchboard) Fax: +44 (0)1732 220497 Email: [email protected] Website: www.cpp.uk.com and www.nrinternational.co.uk

Typeset by: Sweetmore Publishing Projects, Witney, Oxon, UK Printed by: Pragati Offset Pvt. Ltd. (www.pragati.com)

Cover design by: Christel Blank, Green Ink, UK (www.greenink.co.uk), Cover photograph: Eliaineny Minja, Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Selian Agricultural Research Institute (from project R7965, Promotion of IPM strategies for major insect pests of beans in hillsides of eastern and southern Africa).

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Page Preface v Glossary vii Green Evolution – partnerships and progress for change Malcolm Blackie and Andrew Ward ix

Africa R7972 Integrated management of banana weevil in Uganda 1 R7567 Integrated management of banana diseases in Uganda 3 R8342 Promotion of improved IPM practices for banana diseases and pests in Uganda 6 R8301 Archiving data from IPM projects within the Uganda Banana Research Programme 9 R8278 Evaluation and promotion of clean seed yam-production systems in Central Nigeria 11 R8302 Participatory breeding of superior, mosaic disease-resistant cassava 14 R8303 Maximising and promoting the benefits to farmers of cassava mosaic disease-resistant varieties 17 R8227 Promotion of control measures for cassava brown streak disease 20 R8040 Multiplication and distribution of sweet potato varieties with high yield and β-carotene content 23 R8167 Promotion of sustainable sweet potato production and post-harvest management through farmer field schools in East Africa 26 R8243 Working with farmers to control sweet potato virus disease in East Africa 28 R7568 Characterisation and epidemiology of root rot caused by Fusarium and Pythium spp. in Uganda 31 R8316 Bean root rot disease management in Uganda 34 R7569 Participatory promotion of disease-resistant and farmer-acceptable Phaseolus beans 36 R7965 Promotion of IPM strategies for major insect pests of beans in hillsides of eastern and southern Africa 39 R8188 Epidemiology and variability of the coffee wilt pathogen 42 R8204 IPM for smallholder coffee farmers in Malawi 45 R8313 Implementation of cocoa IPM in West Africa 47 R8300 Pheromone traps and new technologies for control of cowpea pests in West Africa 50 R8030 Finger millet blast in East Africa: pathogen diversity and management strategies 52 R7401 Improving production in the Teso farming system through sustainable draught- animal technologies 54 R7445 Groundnut rosette disease management 57 R8105 Farmer-led multiplication of rosette-resistant groundnut varieties for eastern Uganda 59 R8198 Wild rice management strategies for the lowlands of southern Tanzania 61 R8194 Green manure for enhancing upland rice productivity on Striga-infested fields in Tanzania 64 R8349 Developing crop protection research promotional strategies for semi-arid East Africa 66 R7566 Management strategies for maize grey leaf spot in Kenya and Zimbabwe 69 R8220 Improving farmers’ access to and management of disease-resistant maize cultivars in Tanzania 73 R8219 Improved access to appropriate integrated maize crop management by small-scale farmers in Kenya 76 R8212 Integrated pest and soil management to combat Striga, stem borers and declining soil fertility in maize 79 R7955 Integrated pest management of maize-forage dairying in Kenya 82 R8215 Improving food security and livelihoods through promotion of IPM in lowland maize systems 85 R8191 Promoting improved crop establishment and weed management in semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa 88 R8197 Promotion of IPM for smallholder cotton in Uganda 90 R7954 Novel technologies for control of African armyworm on smallholder cereals in East Africa 93 R7966 Improved armyworm monitoring and forecasting systems 96 R8315 Establishment of satellite ICOSAMP systems and improved migrant pest reporting network 99

continued

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R7967 Forecasting movements and breeding of the red-billed quelea bird in southern Africa 101 R8314 Environmental assessment of quelea control and breeding forecasts in southern Africa 103 R8253 Biology and control of armoured bush crickets in southern Africa 105 R8104 Promoting potato seed-tuber management for increased ware yields in eastern Uganda 107 R7960 Public–private partnerships to develop viruses as bioinsecticides for Ghana and Benin 110 R8296 Sustainable approaches for management of root-knot nematodes on vegetables in Kenya 113 R8297 Development of private service providers for the horticultural industry in Kenya 116 R8312 Promotion of quality vegetable seed in Kenya 118 R8341 Promoting the adoption of IPM in vegetable production 122 R8281 Linking demand for and supply of agricultural information in Uganda 125 R8299 Accelerated uptake and impact of CPP research outputs in Kenya 128 R8190 Ecologically based, sustainable rodent-control strategies in South Africa 130

Asia R8228 Classical biological control of Mikania micrantha with Puccinia spegazzinii: implementation phase 132 R8089 Management of fruit flies in India 135 R8247 Promotion and impact assessment of tomatoes resistant to tomato leaf curl virus disease 139 R8298 Aflatoxin contamination of groundnut in southern India 143 R8339 Effects of plant diseases on crop residues used for peri-urban dairy production on the Deccan Plateau 145 R7452 Characterisation of pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus to attain sustainable production in India 147 R8205 Pigeonpea sterility mosaic: application of diagnostic tools for sustainable pigeonpea production in India 149 R7885 Promoting the adoption of improved ICM technologies in chickpea by poor farmers in Nepal 152 R8366 Policy and strategy for improved chickpea ICM in Nepal and South Asia 155 R7813 Sustainable control of cotton bollworm in small-scale cotton-production systems 157 R7778 Rice sheath blight complex (Rhizoctonia spp.): pathogen epidemiology and management 159 R7891 Ecology and management of rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera) in Bangladesh 162 R8026 Commercial adoption of pheromones as a component in ICM of rice in Bangladesh 165 R8367 Promoting farmer adoption and policy change for rice and vegetable pest pheromones in Bangladesh 169 R8304 Technical support for SMEs supplying pheromone-based pest control technologies in South Asia 171 R8233 Promotion of integrated weed management for direct-seeded rice on the Gangetic Plains of India 173 R8234 Promotion of cost-effective weed-management practices for lowland rice in Bangladesh 176 R8184 Ecologically based rodent management for rice-based cropping systems in Bangladesh 179

Bolivia R8044 IPM of major insect pests of potatoes in the Cochabamba region of Bolivia 182 R8182 Strengthening technical innovation systems in potato-based agriculture in Bolivia (INNOVA) 184

Cross-cutting R8222 Evolution within Bemisia tabaci and associated begomoviruses: a strategic modelling approach 188

Acronyms and abbreviations 191 Project list 2000–05 195 Addresses of main participating institutes and organisations 201

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Preface

Agriculture is recognised to be a key part of the UK Department for International Development (DFID)’s efforts to reduce global poverty and achieve the Millennium Development Goals1. It extends into areas of development policy, including food security, social protection, governance and trade. Technology is central to accelerating growth in DFID’s target countries, and DFID has supported research that tackles some of the most urgent developmental constraints in agriculture, as well as other areas of natural resource management, engineering and health. Many of these sectors have pioneered new ways of working to enhance research uptake, as well as producing excellent science. The Renewable Natural Resources Research Strategy (RNRRS) programmes from 1995–2005 (extended to 2006), for example, combined high-quality natural and social science research, developed capacity in Africa, South Asia and Latin America, and disseminated their findings widely to policy makers as well as end-users. The Crop Protection Programme (CPP), the largest of the RNRRS programmes, encouraged partnerships with a broad spectrum of stakeholders and new entrants, including NGOs and the private sector, to ensure that cost-effective and environmentally sustainable crop management solutions were accessible to poor farmers. CPP project clusters were also encouraged to foster regional cooperation, as major crop pests and diseases rarely respect national boundaries and often require control in areas remote from where pests are likely to have the greatest impact. Perspectives on Pests II contains profiles of research funded by DFID’s Crop Protection Programme between 2000 and 2005. The first volume, published in 2001, described the earlier research achievements on the crop pest and disease constraints that affect poor farmers and consumers. This volume focuses on the approaches used to disseminate research methods and to influence policies and/or institutions. The scene-setting introduction by Blackie and Ward (page ix) usefully draws together lessons learned from the CPP, and highlights the impact of CPP research efforts to date. Although the timetable for research to achieve impact can be lengthy and unpredictable, there is already evidence that the CPP outputs are contributing to local and regional food security and providing nutritional and other livelihood benefits to a wider constituency, including poor consumers. The CPP is therefore well placed to contribute to the delivery of the Millennium Development Goals by 2015. An independent review of the approaches used in the RNRRS2 concluded that “Much valuable work has been carried out by the RNRRS which will continue to have many favourable consequences, even if direct poverty-reducing impact is difficult to attribute to the research. DFID’s current policy of funding a ‘facility’ to add value to this massive resource is certainly supported by the findings of this review.” The DFID ‘facility’ or programme forms part of the new DFID agricultural strategy, which starts in May 2006. It will scale out the most promising RNRRS outputs, which can contribute to sustained growth and poverty reduction in Africa and South Asia. Evidence of the impact of project activities will be collected, and lessons learned, in order to develop a coherent research and development policy for agriculture and natural resource management. We anticipate that selected CPP technologies with the greatest potential for impact on poverty reduction and economic growth will be scaled out through this process. In this way, they will continue to have an impact on improving the livelihoods of some of the most disadvantaged communities. As this is the last publication from the CPP, it is appropriate to thank all those who have contributed to the programme since 1995, especially the many project partners who have carried out the work with unfailing enthusiasm and dedication under difficult or uncertain circumstances. Special thanks are due to the programme managers who designed the CPP strategy, especially Simon Eden-Green, Jill Lenné and Anthea Cook; Andrew Ward who translated their vision into a dynamic and successful research programme; the Programme Advisory Committee members, led by Professor Michael Claridge, who provided an unparalleled range of crop protection and social development expertise; and Kerry Albright and Benedikte Siderman-Wolter for leading the CPP policy and communication strategies. The support provided by Isabel Carballel and Christine Wheeler has been appreciated by project leaders, and their ability to organise the managers on financial and logistical issues has underpinned the entire programme. Once again, the management team is grateful to the main editorial team for their tireless efforts in producing this record of CPP achievements: to Anne Sweetmore for compiling the project profiles from project technical reports, assembling images and graphics to illustrate the publication and setting the text, and to Penny Silverside for editing them assiduously and maintaining her high publication standards. They have been ably assisted by Sue Hainsworth in editing and checking the final draft and the team at Green Ink in keeping the publication on course to meet deadlines. Frances Kimmins February 2006

1. Millennium Development Goals: www.un.org/millenniumgoals 2. RATH, A. and BARNETT, A. (2006) Innovations Systems: Concepts, Approaches and lessons from the RNRRS. RNRRS synthesis study. The Policy Practice Ltd, UK.

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Editors’ note

Thanks to all project collaborators who provided photographs – images are credited only where they were provided by someone other than the project collaborators. Photo credits for ‘Green Evolution’: page xi, Benedikte Siderman-Wolter; page xii, Kerry Albright; page xiv, André Devaux. If any photographs have been wrongly credited, or credits have been inadvertently omitted, please accept our apologies. Tradenames for pesticides or biocontrol agents may be Registered or Trade Mark; tradenames are signified by an initial capital. Due to space limitations, only selected publications are listed for each project; where a publication has more than six authors, only the first three are named.

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Glossary

Aman; T-Aman rainfed rice in monsoon season (T-Aman = transplanted Aman) (see Rice ecotypes) Aus; T-Aus rice direct-seeded and transplanted under rainfed and/or irrigated conditions (T-Aus = transplanted Aus) (see Rice ecotypes) Basidiospore a spore produced by fungi of the Basidiomycetes Boro irrigated rice grown in the rabi season (see Rabi; Rice ecotypes) Cestodes parasitic flatworms (tapeworms) that live in the digestive tracts of vertebrates as adults and often in the bodies of various animals as juveniles Cherelle a young cocoa bean that ripens into a pod Conidiophore simple or branched fungal hypha from which conidia are produced (see Conidium) Conidium (plural: conidia) type of asexual fungal spore Cultivar a plant variety or landrace that is in cutivation Deletion a gene deletion is a genetic mutation in which a part of a chromosome or a sequence of DNA is missing EurepGAP an initiative of retailers belonging to the Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group (Eurep), a partnership of agricultural producers and their retail customers aiming to meet accepted standards and procedures for the global certification of Good Agricultural Practices (GAP) Genotype the specific genetic make-up (specific genome) of an individual, usually in the form of DNA Haulm stalk of groundnut, bean, etc. Haustorium the hyphal tip of a parasitic fungus or of the root of a parasitic plant (such as in the (plural: haustoria) broomrape family), which penetrates the host’s tissue, but stays outside the host cell membrane Horizontal transmission (of biopesticides) – spores from dead insects can infect new insects (also known as secondary cycling) Hybrid product of a cross: this may be between populations, breeds or cultivars of a single species; may also be between different species within the same genus (interspecific hybrids; between different subspecies within a species (intra-specific hybrids); between different genera (intergeneric hybrids) Intron section of DNA within a gene that does not encode part of the protein that the gene produces, and is spliced out of the mRNA that is transcribed from the gene before it is translated Kairomone a chemical emitted by one species that attracts a different species (cf: Pheromone) Landrace a race of plants ideally suited for the land (environment) in which they grow; they often develop naturally with minimal assistance or guidance from humans (or from humans using traditional rather than modern breeding methods) Occlusion bodies granuloviruses are contained (occluded) in ovicylindrical bodies (approx. 0.3 x 0.5 µm). The occluded form of nucleopolyhedroviruses is polyhedral in shape (approx. 0.15–15 µm). The occluded form of both viruses can clearly be seen using a light microscope Outgrowers smallholders who supply vegetables to commercial markets within and outside Kenya Pheromone substance secreted by an organism to affect the behaviour or development of other members of the same species; sex pheromones that attract the opposite sex for mating are used in monitoring certain insects (cf: Kairomone) Push–pull strategy for management of cereal stem borers in maize-based farming systems in Africa, developed by ICIPE and partners. The stimulo-deterrent diversionary strategy uses trap- and repellent plants: stem borers are repelled from the main crop (maize) and simultaneously attracted to a trap plant (Napier or Sudan grass) Rabi post-rainy season when crops are grown on residual moisture or irrigation Rice ecotypes seasonal rice ecotypes are grown in Bangladesh and the Bay of Bengal in India: Boro (March–May); Aus (July–August); transplanted Aman (T-Aman) (December–January, shallow water); and broadcast Aman (B-Aman) (December–January, deep water). Most of the rice varieties planted belong to indica sub-species, although some authors consider that the Aus and Aman rice varieties belong to a special group

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Roguing removal of diseased plants from a field Sclerotium compact mass of hardened mycelium that serves as a dormant stage in some fungi (plural: sclerotia) Seed priming method by which seed is first soaked then dried back to its original water content. Priming advances germination by inducing biochemical changes in the seed, the products of which persist following desiccation and are available quickly once seeds are re-imbibed Stakeholders a broad grouping of individuals, groups or organisations with an interest in, or influence over, a programme or project Synnema group of conidiophores bearing conidia on the apex/sides (see Conidium; Conidiophore) Trichoderma genus of fungi used as biological fungicides Trichomes on plants, are epidermal outgrowths of various kinds (e.g. pods of Mucuna are covered with dense, stinging hairs or trichomes) Variety an identifiable strain within a species, usually referring to a strain that arises in nature as opposed to a cultivar specifically bred for particular properties; sometimes used synonymously with cultivar Vegetative flush climate-related onset of bud and leaf growth Volatiles compounds that vaporise at normal temperatures and pressures

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Green Evolution – partnerships and progress for change

INTRODUCTION Schultz hypothesis of disruptive, partnership of scientists, farming rapid change to make things communities and development In the 1960s, the concept of triage happen in what were perceived agencies (both private and public). amongst developing countries was as deeply conservative peasant This ‘Green Evolution’ approach actively being discussed (Paddock societies. encourages the efficient and swift and Paddock, 1967). They argued transformation of agricultural But, while there have been that a population–food collision production through harnessing many and obvious gains from was inevitable. With science the best of skills in a collaborative, the Green Revolution, it has not unable to offer sufficient increases ‘learning by doing’ manner, in been a universal solution – most in agricultural production, the which all feel ownership and pride. notably in Africa, but also for hungry nations of the 1960s would Existing structures are improved many marginalised groups in inevitably become the starving and enhanced to build change Asia and South America. The nations of the 1970s. Their solution through an evolutionary rather Schultzian ‘big bang’ approach, – which was presented in the name than a revolutionary approach. relying on the Asian combination of reason, US self-interest and true This is cost-effective, brings the of improved seeds and enhanced humanitarianism – was a famine– best of developing country and fertility management, was not disaster version of the military international expertise together sufficient to bring about needed medical ‘triage’ system. The USA in a problem-solving format, change and the Green Revolution needed to divide the developing and can (as the examples cited failed to take root. These farmers nations into three categories: in this publication demonstrate) face harsh conditions, their land is be rapidly scaled up to reach the • those so hopelessly headed degraded and rainfall is unreliable. poor quickly and effectively. Unlike for, or in the grip of, famine Crop yields are low. High transport the hierarchical and prescriptive (whether because of costs make it difficult to compete nature of the ‘big bang’ revolution, overpopulation, agricultural in agricultural export markets, an evolutionary strategy uses insufﬁ ciency or political and rising international and local multiple channels and players, ineptness) that aid would be fertiliser prices make this essential and allows choices to emerge a waste; these ‘can’t-be-saved input unprofitable to use except and be tested, and the best to be nations’ would be ignored and on very high-value crops, which adopted. It fits comfortably into left to their fate (examples are typically too risky for the poor the widely adopted participatory included India, Egypt and Haiti) to grow. Consequently the poor framework for development that • those who could survive without (some 80%+ in the case of Malawi) facilitates the empowerment of aid, ‘the walking wounded’ (the become poorer, their food supplies the poor and disadvantaged. The Gambia, Libya) dwindle, and national growth Green Evolution, in common with • those who could be saved with stalls. At the same time, the AIDS evolution in nature, is efficient in help (Pakistan, Tunisia). pandemic causes suffering and selecting the best and encourages The deeply disturbing Paddock death in almost every family. scenario did not come about – and partnership and collaboration. the reason is largely that they, in A GREEN EVOLUTION A Green Evolution strategy involves common with other influential STRATEGY many simultaneous interventions voices, underestimated the power by multiple players, and is based of science. In India alone, wheat The stalling of the Green around the highly efficient use of production increased sixfold from Revolution, particularly in the right inputs used in the right the 1960s to today; rice yields more Africa, has led to a decline in way. This creates broad-based than doubled; and the percentage support for agricultural research opportunities for the poor to benefit of undernourished people fell from and interventions that address directly from effective access to 38 to 21% (Rashid et al., 2005). agricultural productivity. The the improved seed, fertilisers and This was the celebrated ‘Green evidence is overwhelming that other critical inputs that are the Revolution’. The model focused the change needed in difficult foundations of essential growth on improving the productivity of agricultural environments (much in productivity. Such a strategy, cereals through the development of sub-Saharan Africa) will not with a foundation of good science, of crop varieties that could exploit come from a fairytale, single- directed by farmers’ needs and intensive cropping systems. It was a focus intervention. However, informed by the commercial, social child of its time – capital-intensive, there is an alternative approach and ecological environments of the hierarchical, and based on the that builds on the evolving

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continent, can provide gains not labour that she needs to know, delivering the broader and deeper only for the better-off producers, as far as it is possible, that any agricultural research and outreach but also for the poor and excluded. investment she makes in crop agenda envisaged. Researchers improvement will repay the labour need to move towards seeing NEED FOR CONSISTENCY, or cash adequately. themselves as participating directly in development, and to building RELIABILITY AND The costs of many of the the partnerships and networks that EFFICIENCY improved technologies needed enable them to fulfil this expanded by smallholders, despite ongoing DeVries and Toennissen (2001) set ‘business-unusual’ mandate. the scene graphically: efforts at market development, will remain high. Low-cash- The constraint on this “It is that of a single mother cost technologies often have a transformation is not just whose primary means of substantial cost in terms of labour management – it is leadership and income is a one hectare plot of – which is also a scarce resource vision. Three key elements underlie unimproved land on an eroded in many poor households. But an the strategy: hillside ... From each harvest she expensive input can be profitable • a reformed and consistent must provide for virtually all the if it is used efficiently. Profitability research and outreach funding needs of her family throughout of input use depends heavily on mechanism the year, including clothing, making best use of the limited • complementary human health care, education costs amounts that the typical smallholder resource development activity and housing. Because she can is able to purchase. The advice that encourages quality, and a afford few purchased inputs, given to many poor farmers for strong development and farmer the yield potential of her farm is the use of essential inputs, such orientation in all research and low ... perhaps 2000 kilograms as fertiliser, actually serves actively outreach activities of produce ... In the course of to discourage their use because of • adequate and high-quality a given season, innumerable inadequate incorporation of basic physical infrastructure to threats to the crops appear ... economic parameters into farmer undertake the detailed The impact of drought plus recommendations (Blackie, 2005). investigative and analytical work whatever combination of pests underpinning the necessary and diseases attacks the crop in The importance of efficiency of science, for example laboratories a given year can often reduce input use is further emphasised and the needed equipment, ﬁ eld the average harvest on her farm by the fact that the poor need facilities, irrigation systems, farm by perhaps 50–60%, to 1000 cheap food. Poverty alleviation and machinery and ﬁ eld transport. kilograms of produce. At this food security have to be arranged level of productivity, the family is around low food prices. With low Such a transformation does not just on the edge of survival.” food prices, the poor can use their involve a change in management [italics added] limited cash to invest in better – it also needs leadership and housing, education and health vision from within the scientific From this, several factors are care. With high food prices, they community. The Asian Green evident. The elimination of current are further trapped in poverty, and Revolution led to the creation food losses can shift the family the opportunities for livelihood of the system of international from the ‘edge of survival’ to at diversification are few. agricultural research centres least relative food security. The (IARCs), which plays such a major gains from such a strategy are QUALITY AND IMPACT role in development science today. significant and are sufficient to The fundamental hypothesis be attractive to poor households, The focus in the Green Evolution is then was that, by assembling but those most in need of such on quality and impact, facilitated the best expertise in an area and technologies are least able to pay through enhanced networking providing good, consistent funding, for them. Reliability and consistency and coordination among the rapid progress could be made of performance are as important various sector stakeholders in addressing tough technical as absolute yield improvements and international organisations problems. The model has worked, and thresholds. A single mother, involved. Developing effective albeit with evident problems and hoping to harvest a tonne of rice programmes that support limitations. An obvious area of on a hectare of depleted upland commercialisation and market weakness is the link between soil, can ill afford to lose 100 kg orientation, as well as poverty researchers and policy-makers. of her harvest to a crop pest or alleviation, needs a significant Typically, researchers are told that disease in a single season, even if and sustained change in the way they need to influence policy, her average yields over several years researchers go about their business. but there has been no similar may potentially rise. Moreover, Green Evolution requires the pressure on policy-makers to listen she has so many demands on her mobilisation of a wide range of to and incorporate the findings very limited resources of cash and partners to contribute to the task of and opinions of researchers.

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Sometimes researchers are able A NETWORKING MODEL further initiatives. Researchers have to influence the agenda, as the determined strategic themes from Crop Protection Programme (CPP) Researchers need to reach beyond consultative stakeholders’ meetings found with developing legislation the boundaries of their own and then proceeded to implement for the registration of biopesticides disciplines and to start to engage programmes around such themes. in Kenya. Unfortunately, in most directly with the poor. As the These programmes are peer- cases potential is unfulfilled as a project summaries presented here reviewed (by key stakeholders consequence of this research–policy indicate, much has been achieved including farmer groups and policy- divide. This leads to research in this direction but more is needed. makers, as well as scientists). The without support for its broader In particular, from the outset, best options can be pulled together promotion and the implementation researchers need to understand the and then promoted through large- of suboptimal policies. dimensions of poverty. Researchers scale initiatives. The poor influence need to be innovative and active the choice of recommendations, The UK’s Department for International Development (DFID) CPP has focused considerable effort on enhanced networking and coordination among the national agricultural research systems (NARS) institutions, and with sector stakeholders and international organisations, through a policy of research and outreach funds being linked clearly and effectively to the quality of outputs – funds follow quality. The partnership focus requires that all partners play a proper role and that the development process involves enhancing the capacity of the weaker partners while moving efficiently to create solutions to the problems of poverty. This publication highlights some The market place is an ideal networking model remarkable results that have come in developing partnerships and while the private sector contributes about as a consequence. This networks that can carry the best of towards sector needs such as seed experience needs to be captured their outputs quickly and efficiently and market systems. and developed. into the hands of the poor. The This networking model offers At the core of the Green Evolution need for better forward and enhanced opportunities for strategy, therefore, is a substantial backward links between research providing the mechanism whereby and influential source of funding and policy has been stated many research can influence policy. for research and outreach activities times, but suggestions as to how Planners can learn to understand that works under radically this could be done at a practical the potential research has to offer, different rules from those of the level have been limited, especially while researchers discover how past. Those rules need to be as many non-research-oriented to present data in a manner that developed and improved using development experts do not feel is accessible to policy-makers. the best of local experience (e.g. they have the time to explore The outcome is a planned and Banda et al., 2005). This creates research findings in any depth. intelligent approach to balancing a framework for a decentralised, the requirement for technical and farmer-focused research and There are valuable opportunities to social science components in the outreach effort that has the capitalise on the potential within policy. This balance is the key to an capacity to deal with ‘over-the- existing research programmes. efficient allocation of resources that horizon’ as well as immediate Agricultural research is often falsely will lead to poverty eradication. needs. The emphasis has to be, perceived as being ‘ivory tower’. from the outset, on inclusion Perspectives on Pests II showcases The promotion of proven and and openness – making the best the talent field researchers have well validated research, using use of talent and resources for shown in creating teams that proven and novel (but justified) the benefit of improving the have gone on, not just to achieve communication pathways, can have livelihoods of all in poor rural project goals, but also to develop a rapid impact on poverty. Existing communities. links and capacity that facilitate projects, which have known

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technical and social strengths, can of individuals and institutions, to but with consistent, long-term efficiently add value to a carefully focus on addressing the central indigenous leadership and focused development initiative. theme of rural development in vision providing direction and The evidence for this optimism poor countries – the alleviation guidance. comes from the experiences of poverty and the development • Strong and effective links to of successful and innovative of sustainable livelihoods for the international science – the projects like those presented in poor and excluded. Innovation role of research in creating Perspectives on Pests II. They have requires close and effective answers to problems of a scale served to strengthen farmer– collaboration between ‘public unprecedented in human extension–researcher–policy links good’ research and the market. history needs to be carefully and for more coherent research skilfully orchestrated, and and development policy. The will require an adventurous objective is to create multi- new collaboration between agency, multidisciplinary international assistance buy-in, and to build teams agencies, universities and that work systematically scientiﬁ c establishments and with strong national in both developed and leadership, to develop developing worlds, and the solutions to pressing national private sector at both local problems. This model and international levels. encourages a coordinated, The scale of the problems cost-effective and efficient facing vulnerable agricultural technology-transfer process, ecologies, as exist in much using the best of national of sub-Saharan Africa, will and international expertise in CPP research efforts enable farmers to boost their require long-term continuing a focused, problem-solving productivity and improve their livelihoods external scientiﬁ c and effort. Local knowledge and technical support, but in expertise, both at farmer and While increasing the demand-led a highly collaborative and researcher/policy-maker level, component of the research agenda interactive mode. can be tapped to link research, is important, this will not, on its extension and national policy to own, act sufficiently quickly to lift BUILDING FARMER– improve living standards for rural the technologically disconnected SCIENTIST PARTNERSHIPS people reliant on agriculture. rural poor out of poverty. Fruitful interaction between academia, Pro-poor agricultural research needs IMPLEMENTING THE government and industry, which to involve low-income farmers and DREAM has led to the technology explosion consumers as active participants in the wealthy parts of the globe, in setting priorities for, and in the Significant benefits to the is needed to produce a strong implementation of, research. Led livelihoods of poor farmers can and effective partnership between in southern and eastern Africa by be created through the explicit national and international science, efforts of Collinson in the 1970s incorporation of research outputs and between science and the users and 1980s (Collinson, 1972), into development projects, of science – typically resource-poor building on work by a number programmes and policies. This is smallholders. of others, particularly in Asia and achieved through skilful networking Latin America, farming systems of the best available talent Three central components can be research was based around a farm – national and international – in a identified, as follows. management-oriented informal focused, problem-oriented mode to • Intensive interaction with farmers survey process supplemented by integrate high-quality technology – farmers are remarkably skilled secondary data from key sources into the development process. at exploiting environmental and informants. Variations on The success stories outlined in this niches on their own farms. This this theme have been developed publication show that, with strong knowledge and skills base needs that have a broader, less directly leadership – especially from the to be developed, conserved and agricultural focus – such as rapid research community – together promoted. rural appraisal and participatory with supportive guiding policies, • Strong national-level technology rural appraisal (e.g. Chambers, the potential for research outputs development and dissemination 1994). The scientist facilitates from the natural and social sciences capacity – indigenous knowledge the development of ideas and to address pervasive poverty can be is an active and dynamic helps define options, rather than released. concept. It draws on expertise entering with already identified The first step is to build the and information from within and solutions. The overall theme is teams, engaging a broad range beyond farming communities, that of encouraging participants

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to take control of the process of central locations in villages but, use of new, improved cultivars and change, thus empowering them depending on need and logistics, the principle of planting banana to become more active partners in they could as easily be located on material that is free from pests development. nearby research stations. Farmer and diseases on pest-free and participation in baby trial design disease-free land – the so-called The key element in creating farmer and implementation can vary from benchmark sites. For example, in involvement is building the trust consultative to collaborative. By Luwero, 128 farmers have been and respect of the farmers. This facilitating hands-on experience given ‘clean’ planting material of requires a continuing exercise for farmers, the clustered mother- traditional East African cooking of discussing and coming to a and-baby trials provide a relatively and brewing varieties, and new consensus on options, obtaining rapid approach to developing hybrid varieties, bred especially for routine and informed feedback ‘best-bet’ options. The linked trial their resistance to diseases. Farmers on results, and exploring new approach provides researchers with are also adopting recommended avenues based on field experience. tools for quantifying feedback management practices of mulching Perspectives on Pests II shows from farmers, and helps generate and manuring. that researchers have been highly new insights and priorities (Snapp innovative in developing the The outcome has been a marked et al., 2003). necessary tools, although their enthusiasm among the farmers application now needs to be much Benchmark sites of Luwero to return to growing more widespread and routine. bananas. Neighbouring farmers The Uganda National Banana are also becoming interested in The challenge of conducting Research Programme (UNBRP), in adopting the improved practices participatory research with collaboration with the International and re-entering banana production. many clients over an extended Institute of Tropical Agriculture The Banana Programme cannot geographical area, common and CPP (R7567, R7972, R8301, produce enough of the resistant in pest and natural resource R8342, pages 1–10) and others, cultivar FHIA 17 (renamed management research, is instituted an intensive programme Kabana 3) – even though the new considerable. Working intensely of research into bananas in Uganda cultivars do not have the same with many partners over a large in the 1990s in response to a major matooke or cooking quality as the area would require huge financial decline in the productivity of this true East African Highland cultivars and human resource investment national staple. An important and their bunches do not make the and sound management to be truly feature of this effort was the same price on the market. effective. The CPP has effectively establishment of benchmark sites, implemented a variety of cost- with the aim of accelerating the SCALING UP: BUILDING and time-effective research and uptake of promising improved research promotion strategies that PARTNERSHIPS WITH THE technologies by concentrating depend on researchers working in WIDER COMMUNITY activities in certain areas from collaboration with farmers. which baseline data would be Creating change in Mother-and-baby trials collected. This would facilitate potato systems in Bolivia the identification of successful CPP scientists have been early approaches that could then In Bolivia, CPP and partner agencies adopters of the ‘mother-and-baby’ be promoted to other areas. have supported a significant range trial design1 developed by Snapp This compares with previous of research projects into potato- et al. (2003). The design comprises uncoordinated approaches, in based farming systems on hillsides ‘mother’ trials that test a number which farmers are offered only in the mid-Andean valleys. These of different technologies, and a restricted number of options projects were commissioned and ‘baby’ trials that test a subset of to improve their cropping. The implemented to address a range three (or fewer) technologies, plus problem was considerable, with of biotic and abiotic constraints one control. The design makes yields falling to as low as 6 t/ha. facing poor producers. The national it possible to collect quantitative The life of a banana plantation had agricultural research programme data from mother trials managed fallen from around 50 years to five is experiencing considerable by researchers, and systematically to 10 years due to various social, change. As in many developing to cross-check them with baby economic and biological factors. countries (Uganda is the prime trials that are managed by farmers. Pests and diseases, including wilts, African example), the Government The design is very flexible – mother leaf spots (especially Sigatoka), of Bolivia is developing a new trials can be located on-farm at parasitic nematodes and weevils, framework for agricultural research have caused many farmers to and extension (El Sistema Boliviano 1. The terminology is, in fact, the abandon their crops. As part of its de Tecnologia Agropecuaria, SIBTA). farmers’, who were delighted to have drive to reverse this decline, the Within SIBTA, four Foundations responsibility for their own trials. UNBRP is actively promoting the (FDTAs) have been established,

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one for each of the principal (IPM). In Africa, the participatory Farmer field schools have been agroecological zones (Chacos, learning approach has enabled used by CPP scientists in East Altiplano, Valleys and Humid participants to minimise pesticide Africa to disseminate integrated Tropics). The FDTAs are responsible use, enhance soil management pest and production management for resource capture, research and utilise weather surveillance (IPPM) strategies in sweet potato prioritisation, and the management to bring about improvements production (R8167, page 26) and of competitive grant schemes in crop health. More than two horticultural production enterprises (using national and donor (R8299, page 128), and are funds) for agricultural research an increasingly important and extension. component of the technology- dissemination process in CPP has been highly active in West Africa as well. The CPP promoting a collaborative effort has been at the forefront of on the promotion of improved developing FFS for subsistence potato technologies using the crops. new SIBTA framework, and in engaging potential and existing partners (R8182, page 184). Improving access to The aim has been to develop inputs an initiative (INNOVA) directed towards achieving impact The CPP has been supporting and maximising investments work on a project (R8219, made to date, by validating page79) implemented by and promoting outputs of Farm Input Promotions-Africa past and present work. The (FIPS-Africa) to scale up the FDTA Altiplano, currently promotion of ‘mini-packs’ the only SIBTA foundation of inputs such as seed and with an interest in potato, fertiliser in quantities farmers has been fully involved in can afford, together with the initiative. The outcome providing information on their has been an innovative, use These are made available imaginative and impressive through Kenyan supply exercise that links demand networks and promoted with supply for agricultural through various forms of research, while at the same time farmer awareness activities. taking into account evolving As farmers gain confidence market factors. The FDTA INNOVA stakeholder platform brings together in the profitability and use Altiplano strategy is strongly farmers, processors, entrepreneurs and researchers of new technologies, they focused around improving return to their nearest stockist competitiveness of the potato million rice farmers in Asia and to purchase larger quantities sector in the context of trade South-East Asia have been trained (Blackie, 2005). liberalisation under MERCOSUR. in IPM FFS since 1989. Those One of the activities in the plan farmers who have participated FIPS-Africa, a not-for-profit is to identify demand for potato in FFS have managed to reduce company, works with the private and other Andean crops, and to their use of pesticides and improve sector – Athi River Mining (ARM), put out a call for research and their use of inputs such as water Monsanto, Western Seed Company, dissemination activities. The potato and fertiliser, realising enhanced Lachlan Agriculture and the Kenya food chain is complex, and the yields and experiencing increased Seed Company – and with public- FDTA Altiplano requires technical incomes. Alumni of FFS are now sector agencies such as the Kenya support to identify products and at the forefront of promoting Agricultural Research Institute. associated chains with commercial sustainable agricultural systems in Their strategy enables farmers potential, and to identify the their communities. The underlying to evaluate a range of different demand for technical innovation assumption is that farmers already technology options, including along those chains. have a wealth of experience and new seeds of maize, beans and knowledge. The schools facilitate vegetables; fertiliser types; and Farmer ﬁ eld schools farmer-to-farmer knowledge weed control options. FIPS has The farmer field school (FFS) sharing, provide practical, hands- worked with ARM to develop an approach has been widely adopted on education that is highly improved fertiliser blend, Mavuno, in Asia as a means of promoting participatory and linked to local better suited to smallholder crops integrated pest management issues and problems. than the existing blends available in

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the market. FIPS has collaborated Bringing in the human taking on board the development with Monsanto for both seed and element messages included. In Tanzania conservation tillage technologies. the CPP is co-funding a radio soap Lachlan Agriculture (a Kenya-based Impact and sustainability of opera, Pilika pilika. Analysis showed agent for Dow Chemicals) also change require ownership that the audience has been building collaborates actively with FIPS on by the poor. Making farmers even more quickly than in Kenya, the use of SpinTor (spinosad) dust proud of their involvement, and and indicated that listeners wanted to control larger grain borer, a making the adoption of change to know how to manage pest storage pest of maize. Currently an enjoyable and interesting outbreaks on the important bean available control technologies experience, is typically (often crop. Storylines involving improved are unable adequately to halt the unintentionally) downplayed in bean pest management were depredations of this devastating many development programmes. woven into the radio programme insect, which is capable of (with assistance from Tanzanian completely destroying the contents “Why if villagers can rapidly researchers). The soap opera of a maize granary within three communicate important news has only just begun, and already months of infestation. about a death or birth to researchers have been unable to neighbouring villages, does it still meet the demand for new varieties FIPS collaborates with both private- take years for good seed varieties of beans. sector firms and national research to spread from one village to scientists in running FFS and another?” Other CPP projects in Africa have demonstrations. It has a valuable Dr Ulicky, District Agriculture and successfully explored and developed role, acting as an ‘honest broker’ Livestock Development Officer, community seed-multiplication and helping farmers to choose Hai District, Tanzania systems for kale, sukuma wiki and evaluate various technologies (R8312, page 118), potatoes in an unbiased manner. It works Repeated reinforcement of the (R8104, page 107), groundnut through local stockists to ensure need for a pro-poor focus by (R7445 and R8105, pages 57–60) needed inputs are available for the CPP management – and the and sweet potato (R8040, page 23). sale, and helps in the promotion awareness and understanding of The sweet potatoes and groundnuts of new options for farmers research teams – have led to the promoted were developed through through a range of activities. These development of respect throughout research institutes that were include collaboration with church project stakeholders. Therefore, in unable, by themselves, to establish and school groups, providing addition to the expected technical successful seed-production systems. information at market days, and innovations, farmer empowerment, Seed systems have also been the provision of samples for farmers innovative communication developed for the sale of pigeonpea to experiment with on their own strategies and increased links (R8205, page 149) and crotalaria farms. with other initiatives have been (R8194, page 64) for Striga control manifest. These will leave a legacy in systems in southern Tanzania. Evaluation data on FIPS show of strengthened farmer–extension– Quality control was fundamental the approach to be remarkably researcher–policy-maker–farmer in all projects. For example, with successful in improving food links for more coherent research the potato-multiplication project security among participating and development policy. The in Uganda (R8104, page 107), the farmers. Once their food crop is outputs from these projects could Kapchorwa Seed Potato Production secure, they quickly start to use be quickly and easily incorporated Association established local disease very small quantities of fertiliser on into overall development policies thresholds and a quality control high-value cash crops such as kale with swift benefits for the poor committee conducts regular joint and cabbage to generate income. (see Blackie and Mann, 2005 for an field inspections. As a result, the Income growth and livelihood example of such an innovation in devastating disease of bacterial diversification follow rapidly. Using Malawi). wilt has been reduced to below the Bass model (Bass, 1969) to 1%. In just two years (to 2003), predict future uptake pathways The CPP’s experience is that the 36,000 farmers in Central Uganda suggests there will be a steady poor cannot afford to take chances tripled sweet potato production: increase in adoption, reaching 84% and need reliable and trusted 34,000 tonnes of improved sweet of farmers (some 300,000 new sources of information on new potato worth over US$2 million adopters of improved technologies) options as these become available. were produced during the project in the three districts currently Again, the experience of the CPP (R8040, page 23). Consumers served by 2011. This provides has a lot to offer. A radio soap also benefited from the enhanced a reliable exit strategy for FIPS, opera in Kenya, Tembea na majira, vitamin A content of the tubers. which can then move to another incorporating development issues, site (either within Kenya or in a has an audience of nine million with Researchers have worked as a team neighbouring country). impressive percentages of people with farmers and have explicitly

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recognised the importance and THE WAY FORWARD REFERENCES potential of indigenous knowledge BANDA, J., KAUNDA, E. and and farmer experimentation for The Green Evolution strategy KANYAMA-PHIRI, G. (2005) both innovation and promotion builds on the best that exists, encouraging local expertise and Enhancement of poverty reduction in (R7965, page 39). However, this Malawi through innovative research contributions at all levels, yet is potential is rarely fully exploited. and outreach approaches. Proceedings Often, in Africa, social analyses well integrated into international of the Seventh Conference of the will show the importance the science. Change can be fast African Crop Science Society, Entebbe, poor attach to farmer-to-farmer and far-reaching, but costs are Uganda, 5–11 December 2005. ACSS, dissemination of knowledge, affordable. It will create the Kampala, Uganda. but this pathway is rarely well broad-based change and sense BASS, F. (1969) A new product exploited. of ownership that are needed to growth model for consumer durables. break out of the poverty trap that Management Science 15: 215–227. The project leader developed ensnares so many of the poor and excellent social interactions with BLACKIE, M. (2005) The possible disadvantaged of the developing dream: food security and prosperity in farmer groups in Tanzania, Kenya world. A strong voice from the Africa. Closing address. Proceedings and Malawi, and facilitated South is built in throughout the of the Seventh Conference of knowledge flow in such a fashion endeavour. the African Crop Science Society, that farmers felt that they had Entebbe, Uganda, 5–11 December actually developed the solutions There is much that natural and 2005. ACSS, Kampala, Uganda. themselves. Once these solutions social science research can offer policy. Researchers and policy- BLACKIE, M. and MANN, C. (2005) were seen to be a success, the The origin and the concept of the makers need to start, actively project facilitated visits and starter pack. pp. 15–27. In: Starter meetings during which information and creatively, integrating their packs: a strategy to ﬁ ght hunger in was shared. The presence of capabilities to bring a swift end developing countries. Levy, S. (ed.), natural scientists gave the groups to the suffering of the poor. CAB International, Wallingford, UK. The examples provided in this credibility, and social scientists were CHAMBERS, R. (1994) The origins able to ensure indigenous pathways publication provide evidence and practice of participatory rural were utilised. Farmers have become that this is both achievable and appraisal. World Development 22: very proud of the project – over effective. The leadership and vision 953–969. to make it happen must come 70,000 have formed farmer COLLINSON, M. (1972) Farm groups that worked directly with from the research community Management in Peasant Agriculture. the project and consequently are itself. Praeger, New York. boosting their bean productivity. Projects funded through the CPP DEVRIES, J. and TOENNISSEN, G. Of possibly greater importance, have played, and continue to play, (2001) Securing the harvest. CAB though, have been the spin-off a key role in the Green Evolution. International, Wallingford, UK. benefits. The innovative project has Through the technical outputs led to farmers and rural dwellers HALL, A.J., YOGANAND, B., generated, through their adoption SULAIMAN, RAJESWARI RAINA, S., (men and women) establishing by farmers, and by showing SHAMBU PRASAD, C., NAIK, GURU innovation systems to address many C. and CLARK, N.G. (Eds) (2004) other issues (Hall et al., 2004). others what can be done, CPP- funded projects have empowered Innovations in Innovation: Reﬂ ections These have included digging a on Partnership, Institutions and farmers and researchers to be home water well, acquiring dairy Learning. CPHP South Asia/ICRISAT/ cows (and developing a market proud of their knowledge and to NCAP, India. for the produce), quality seed and improve their practices. Benefits from these projects will continue PADDOCK, W. and PADDOCK, P. credit, adult and health education, (1967) Famine 1975 – America’s to accrue over the years and it is water conservation, using clay Decision: Who Will Survive. Little stoves to reduce firewood needs, vital that this more evolutionary Brown, Boston, MA, USA. and purchasing animal draught and approach is given credit. There is no blueprint for this approach: RASHID, S., CUMMINGS, R. Jr and implements. Farmers have become GULATI, A. (2005) Grain marketing Green Evolution evolves out of empowered while addressing major parastatals in Asia: why do they have constraints to crop production. the resources available, the people to change now? MTID Discussion Founder farmers are now involved leading the project, and those for Paper 60. Markets, Trade, and in teaching new groups. Farmers whom the project is designed. This Institutions Division, International are not just following research- flexibility leads to projects suitable Food Policy Research Institute, generated best practices, rather to local needs that maximise local Washington, DC, USA. they are adapting research potential, and is a hallmark of CPP SNAPP, S., BLACKIE, M. and information to develop the most projects. DONOVAN, C. (2003) Realigning beneficial approach/combination research and extension to farmers’ of technologies for their individual Malcolm Blackie and constraints and opportunities. Food circumstances. Andrew Ward Policy 28: 349–363.

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Integrated management of banana weevil in Uganda

R7972 This project aimed to validate and assess the use of a biological control Simon Gowen agent, the fungus Beauveria bassiana, to control one of the most damaging Department of Agriculture, banana pests, banana weevil, within an integrated crop management University of Reading, UK system. The project has demonstrated that a locally discovered isolate of B. Caroline Nankinga bassiana can be mass produced on a grain substrate. When applied in banana Uganda National Banana Research plantations the fungus will persist for three months, but activity is influenced Programme (UNBRP), Uganda by environmental conditions in the plantation. Applying organic material to the crop (an established recommended practice) limits persistence of the Clifford Gold biocontrol agent. Efficacy in killing adult weevils can be improved by using International Institute of Tropical aggregation pheromones and kairomones. Farmers have participated in trials Agriculture (IITA), Uganda and would be prepared to use this technology if the cost compares favourably Ignace Godonou with chemical controls. CAB International Africa Regional Centre (CABI ARC), Kenya ISSUES David Moore CABI Bioscience, UK The banana weevil (Cosmopolites sordidus) is probably the most March 2001–March 2004 important arthropod pest of bananas, at least in Africa, and has long been considered a major SELECTED PUBLICATIONS constraint to banana production in Uganda. In the past, several control GOLD, C.S., NANKINGA, C., NIERE, B. options have been considered, and GODONOU, I. (2003) Integrated including the introduction pest management of the banana of predators and the use of weevil in Africa with emphasis on insecticides. However, predators microbial control. pp. 243–257. In: Banana weevils infected (top, left) Biological Control in IPM Systems failed to establish, and resistance and uninfected (below, right) by in Africa. Neuenschwander, P., soon developed where insecticides B. bassiana Borgemeister, C. and Langewald, J. were used. Since 1991 UNBRP, in (Eds). CABI Publishing, Wallingford, collaboration with its partners IITA, soil around banana plants can be UK. CABI ARC and the University of used to infect banana weevil in NANKINGA, C., GOLD, C. and Reading, has been implementing the field. This project investigated TUSHEMEREIRWE, W. (2002) an IPM approach to managing this how application of B. bassiana Overview of Beauveria bassiana for pest. can best be enhanced within the microbial control of the banana specific banana farming systems of This project focused on the weevil in Uganda. InfoMusa 11: XI. Uganda. potential for using the entomo- TINZAARA, W., NANKINGA, C., pathogenic fungus Beauveria KASAHIJA, I. and TUSHEMEREIRWE, bassiana as a major component ACHIEVEMENTS W. (2002). Studies on the efﬁ cacy of of an IPM strategy. Various strains some biorational insecticides against In 2001 the project initiated of the fungus had previously been the banana weevil Cosmopolites studies at Kawanda, Uganda and isolated from soil and insect hosts in sordidus (Germar) (Coleoptera: CABI ARC, Kenya to evaluate the Uganda, and can cause 50–100% Curculionidae). Uganda Journal of use of waste products and other Agricultural Sciences 7: 31–35. mortality in two weeks. Some locally available carbohydrate isolates of B. bassiana have shown TINZAARA, W., NANKINGA, C., sources for mass production of good growth and spore production TUSHEMEREIRWE, W. and KASHAIJA, B. bassiana. The mass-produced on substrates locally available in I. (2002) Comparative studies and formulated local isolate of Uganda, such as cracked maize and on chemical, hot and cold-water B. bassiana was found to be treatments of banana suckers maize bran. highly infective to banana weevil to control the banana weevil, Cosmopolites sordidus and the Previous field evaluations of delivery in on-station experiments, and effect of paring suckers on banana systems for B. bassiana have shown was further evaluated through nematodes in Uganda. Uganda that applications of the entomo- farmer participatory trials. The Journal of Agricultural Sciences 7: pathogenic fungus with planting epidemiological potential and 43–47. material, pseudostem traps or to persistence of the fungus under

Perspectives on Pests II 2000-05 1

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different banana management Use of B. bassiana was tested in conditions were investigated the field under different planting at Kawanda by evaluating the densities. After two crops, it performance of B. bassiana applied appears that greatest weevil in fields with different organic and damage will occur at the closer inorganic amendments, and also spacing. Plant spacings of 2 × 2 under different banana planting or 2.5 × 2.5 m gave a higher yield densities. Students attached to per unit area than the currently the project undertook specific recommended (conventional) research on the influence of soil spacing of 3 × 3 m. organic amendments used in Application of pheromones and the banana farming system on kairomones (as pounded stem the efficacy and persistence of Weevil damage in banana tissue) to pseudostem traps caused B. bassiana; and the development pseudostem greater numbers of adult weevils of kairomones and pheromones to aggregate and be exposed to in delivery systems for B. bassiana. small-scale production, but a full B. bassiana placed on the traps. [Unlike pheromones, which are economic analysis is still required. A Infection of adult weevils in attractant chemicals produced by South African company has shown the field can thus be improved the target species, kairomones interest in producing the fungus by attracting weevils to baited are chemicals emitted by one commercially. traps. Infected weevils tended species (in this case pounded The persistence of field-applied to stay around the banana mat banana tissues) that attract another spore product was found to decline on which they were infected, species (the weevil).] In addition to over time, the rate of decline and transmission of infection to these studies, an on-station field being affected by environmental uninfected weevils was low. trial to evaluate the efficacy and conditions in the plantation. persistence of B. bassiana applied Farmers participated in trials Perversely, application of organic under three plant spacings was using B. bassiana, and have mulch that improves plant vigour established at Kawanda. been made aware of its mode of and crop longevity, and closer action. A survey showed that, if Results showed that B. bassiana can plant spacing, were both found to commercialised, farmers would be be produced in useful quantities on increase humidity in the plantation willing to pay between US$0.25 cracked maize and rice. The spore micro-environment, which (although and 1.25 per kg B. bassiana yields on these grains are superior favouring plant productivity) hastens formulation. to those from substrates based deterioration of B. bassiana. Two on waste organic products such species of fungi, Aspergillus flavus The project also made effective use as brewery waste and sugarcane and Penicillium crysogenum, are of students and has contributed bagasse. Over 1000 kg of maize implicated in this. The results of field directly to national capacity was formulated with fungus for evaluations of persistence suggest building. trials at Masaka and Kawanda, that the fungus will need to be validating the methodology for applied three or four times a year. FURTHER APPLICATION This project has tackled one of the most important arthropod pests of bananas, at least in Africa, and has shown that technologies are acceptable to smallholders and potentially transferable to them. On-station and on-farm activities are continuing through the promotion project R8482. The national agricultural research systems have a strong base on which to build promotional activities and the likelihood of uptake by beneficiaries looks good, provided other threats to banana production can be averted. Discussions are continuing with B. bassiana delivery by semiochemical-enhanced traps in the field: top, companies interested in commercial kairomones (left, covered, right exposed); below, split pseudostem (left) and producion of B. bassiana in pheromone (right) Uganda.

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Integrated management of banana diseases in Uganda

R7567 Yields of banana, the most important food crop in Uganda, have been steadily Mike Rutherford declining in recent decades, largely due to wilt diseases, leaf spots and CABI Bioscience, UK Centre parasitic nematodes. The Uganda National Banana Research Programme has previously identified cultural farming technologies with potential to reduce Simon Gowen these problems and increase yields. This project was part of a multi-donor Department of Agriculture, effort to assist the UNBRP in banana improvement. On-farm trials were carried University of Reading, UK out by farmers to evaluate and promote improved technologies, principally Wilberforce Tushemereirwe improved hybrids, indigenous highland banana types and the application Uganda National Banana Research of mulch/manure or fungicides. Clear beneﬁ cial effects were recorded with Programme (UNBRP) farmers, many of whom have formed growers’ associations to pool resources Clifford Gold and provide a forum for discussion, reporting increased yields and improved International Institute of Tropical proﬁ ts. In addition, investigation of a wilt-like disorder reinforced earlier Agriculture, Uganda findings suggesting that it is caused by nutritional problems related to farm management practices. January 2000–June 2003

See R6794, R6006, R6007, R6692, ISSUES musicola). Exotic cultivars are important locally, particularly as R6391, R6579, Perspectives on Pests In Uganda, banana is the most 1996–2000, pp. 31, 32, 72, 74 dessert bananas and for juice, beer important single crop for food and gin production. They are also in and income security. Annual demand for export. production in Uganda is estimated at around 10 million tonnes, Over the past five decades more than 15% of world output, there has been a steady decline most of which is consumed in production of bananas in locally. The main cultivars grown Uganda. While the area of land are the endemic East African under bananas (about 1.5 million highland bananas, which have a hectares) is double that in 1956, high starch content and are used production in traditional banana- to prepare matooke, the staple producing areas has declined food of Ugandans. Unfortunately severely, with annual yields falling these cultivars are limited in from 20 to as low as 5 t/ha in the possibilities for utilisation, and are worst-hit East and Central Zone. SELECTED PUBLICATIONS also susceptible to various pests Declining soil fertility, and a pest and diseases including weevils, complex involving banana weevils, ANON. (2002) Report of KARI nematodes, and the diseases black parasitic nematodes, fusarium farmers’ open day, Bamunanika. leaf streak (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) wilt, leaf spots and banana streak NARO Bulletin 9 (7). and Sigatoka (Mycosphaerella virus have been identified as major KANGIRE, A. and RUTHERFORD, M.A. constraints; (2001) Wilt-like Disorder of Bananas post-harvest in Uganda. Musa Disease Factsheet problems, socio- No.10. International Network for the economic issues Improvement of Banana and Plantain, and low genetic Montpellier, France. diversity of the RUTHERFORD, M.A. (2000) Integrated crop are also pest management for banana contributory diseases in Uganda. Biocontrol News factors. and Information 21(3): 67. A programme TUSHEMEREIRWE, W.K., NGAMBEKI, was established D., KANGIRE, A. et al. (2005) Improving farmers’ access and by UNBRP in adoption of new banana cultivars 1989 in an resistant to pests and diseases in attempt to Uganda. Aspects of Applied Biology: reverse this loss Pathways out of Poverty 75: 139– Leaf of banana cultivar Kisansa, grown in a non-mulched of productivity. 148. plot and devastated by leaf spot Previous on-

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initially took part in sustained sensitisation and training in general farm management and pest management. Four of the farmers have been trained as trainers, and have subsequently trained 198 other farmers participating in various UNBRP trials. The newly introduced cultivars have shown excellent levels of resistance to the leaf spot diseases – these newly bred cultivars also show a superior level of vigour in the field, which is reflected in significantly higher bunch weights than are produced by the local cultivars. They also A heavy bunch of Kabana 3 (left) is supported by props in a mulched plot, appear more able to withstand while local cultivar Kisansa (right) succumbs to leaf spot in a non-mulched plot the presence of nematodes, and possibly weevils. On-farm trials station and on-farm evaluation five or more years after crop have shown that productivity is revealed that a number of cultivars establishment. Nevertheless, a greatly enhanced (by 49–143%) newly introduced to Uganda in preliminary study was undertaken if the plants are mulched – not 1995 are high yielding and also using the data acquired from the only the new cultivars, but also the show resistance/tolerance to project trials to try and identify preferred and popular local East known pest and disease constraints early economic benefits from the African highland types (see table). (R6006, R6007, R6692). Further new varieties and cultural practices. Although the studies on economic validation by relevant stakeholders rates of return were limited in was essential to reaffirm these ACHIEVEMENTS terms of the variables taken into attributes under more diverse The aim of the project was to consideration, findings of the and demanding environmental build capacity and assist the trials suggested that applying conditions, and utilising farmers’ UNBRP and Ugandan banana nutrition through mulches is still own selection criteria. To facilitate this work the UNBRP research “We have benefited in monetary terms through the sale of bananas, programme identified three suckers, making local brew and gin (waragi). This has improved on ‘benchmark sites’ representing our household income and we have been able to meet some of our different agro-ecological household needs ... clothes, books for our children, radios, drums used environments and reflecting three in brewing gin, window shutters and house construction.” levels of banana production (severe Farmers’ report on the promotion of exotic banana cultivars decline; intermediate decline; high production). These benchmark farmers to evaluate improved a viable economic enterprise at sites have hosted a number management technologies. The one site for both the new cultivars of research and development philosophy for the research was and the East African highland initiatives funded by different based on applying participatory types. Farmers reported that donors, including this project. approaches at all stages of the they were able to buy clothes for From an economic point of view, on-farm research and technology their families, pay school fees, investment in banana production promotion programme. On-farm improve on and build new homes is a long-term venture lasting trials involved 128 farmers hosting and extend their areas of banana between approximately 10 and evaluation/validation/promotion production as a result of the extra 30 years, with economic returns trials in 24 selected villages at the income generated through use of usually becoming clear only three benchmark sites. All farmers the new technologies. Early impact of the technologies “Banana growing has helped us acquire friends. These include our was very encouraging in terms customers whom we sell bananas to even at times on credit. They also lend us money when we are in need ... we have been able to form of the excellent performance of a farmers’ group and are in the process of opening up an account in cultivars being evaluated, the Wobulenzi bank” beneficial effects of manuring/ Farmers’ report on control of leaf spots: Luwero benchmark site mulching, and the positive feedback from farmers. This has

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Weight (kg) of bunches produced by banana cultivars with and without mulch application in a technology promotion trial in Luwero District, Central Uganda

Cultivar Treatment Mean Kabana 1 Kabana 3 Kabana 4 Kabana 5 Kisansa Mbwazirumee No mulch 17.5 21.2 13.7 9.1 11.2 4.5 12.9 Mulch 26.2 33.5 33.3 13.6 18.7 16.4 23.6 Difference 8.6 c 12.1 c 19.6 c 4.5NS 7.5 b 11.8 b Increase (%) 50 58 143 49 67 264 83 Mean 21.9 27.2 23.5 11.3 15.0 10.5 18.2 NS, non-significant; a–c, difference significant at 5, 1 and 0.1% levels, respectively. Significant difference between means (analysis of variance): treatment x cv = NS, Treatment = c, CV = c.

been confirmed by considerable from affected plants, soil/plant and radio, reports in local and demand for the hybrids tested nutrient analyses and on-farm national newspapers, production of and by a shift in production back trials suggested that the wilt- videotapes, farmer competitions, to bananas from annual crops like disorder is primarily caused and presentations at national and (cassava, maize, beans) in the trial by nutritional deficiency rather international meetings. areas. The research also provided than a pathogenic organism, and FURTHER APPLICATION a much better understanding highlighted the beneficial effects of the performance of local and of composting and roguing in Planting material has been exotic cultivars under both existing minimising the problem. (This disseminated to a broad range and improved farm management does not refer to the banana of farmers who will continue the validation, promotion and, practices. It has enabled farmers to bacterial wilt disease caused by hopefully, onward dissemination experience and assess the attributes Xanthomonas campestris pv. process. This will be monitored of the cultivars and management musacearum, ﬁ rst detected in through an applied follow-up approaches, and of post-harvest Central Uganda in 2001.) products, at first hand, and to project (R8342, see page 6), which decide whether they would be In addition to field trials, a broad seeks to expand the technology appropriate and beneficial based on range of activities was planned and options available and to scale out individual circumstances. Farmers, undertaken throughout the project and evaluate them. initially with the assistance of the to help to promote the cultivars The project has empowered project, actively and independently and management technologies farmers to make more informed formed groups and clubs to concerned. These included and effective decisions on the provide a forum for discussion agricultural exhibitions, farmers’ technologies they use. Some of the and decision-making, and to open days, broadcasts on local, methods tested received strong influence policy-makers to ensure national and international television approval, were already being taken the technologies are up by many thousands applied and promoted of farmers and may be effectively. adopted over the longer term, providing a sound Concern had been basis for improved and emerging over the sustainable banana development of wilt production in Uganda symptoms on bananas for years to come. This in southern and south- is especially true and western Uganda important in the East and (referred to locally as Central Zone, where the matooke wilt), and recent decline in banana of the threat it may production has been present to banana dramatic, but where production if it is caused this project and other by a transmissible initiatives are helping to disease such as reverse the downward fusarium wilt. However, Representatives of one of the groups formed by banana farmers. trend and revitalise field observations, The UNBRP helped farmers to make notice boards which are production. isolation of organisms displayed in villages across the sub-county

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Promotion of improved IPM practices for banana diseases and pests in Uganda

R8342 Over seven million people in Uganda, including 70% of farmers, rely on Mike Rutherford banana as a staple food. But banana yields have been declining in recent CABI Bioscience, UK Centre decades. Using a participatory approach, stakeholders involved in banana Wilberforce Tushemereirwe production in Luwero, Mukono and Kayunga districts of Central Uganda, Uganda National Banana Research including farmers and representatives of extension services, NGOs, community- Programme (UNBRP) based organisations, the National Agricultural Advisory Service, local councils and national government, were presented with improved IPM options for Clifford Gold banana production. The technologies, developed through a multi-donor International Institute of Tropical effort at UNBRP benchmark sites, included the use of improved local and Agriculture, Uganda newly introduced improved banana cultivars with tolerance of or resistance to Simon Gowen, Savitri Abeyasekera, major pests and diseases. Based on the relative attributes of the management Tim Wheeler options, stakeholders identified and selected those cultivars that addressed their University of Reading, UK own needs. This project followed on directly from previous work (R7567). Richard Lamboll, Lawrence Kenyon, Tim Chancellor Natural Resources Institute, acquire other foods, household University of Greenwich, UK ISSUES necessities, children’s education July 2003–March 2005 The banana crop, cultivated and medical care. Over the primarily by resource-poor, rural past 50 years there has been farming communities, is a major a significant decline in banana staple for seven million Ugandans. production in Uganda, as shown In terms of revenue, banana is by a major shift in cultivation the second most important cash from the previously productive crop after coffee, providing 22% central region of the country to of national agricultural revenue, the south and south-west, where and a vital source of income to today productivity remains high. Many farmers in Central Uganda abandoned the banana crop after decades of cultivation to seek SELECTED PUBLICATIONS more lucrative activities, largely through migration NARO (2003) Banana Production to urban areas including Manual: A Guide to Successful nearby Kampala. Even in Banana Production in Uganda. 2nd edn. National Agricultural Research the south and south-west, Organisation, Uganda. where production of some banana types (such as beer NARO (2004) Fact sheets on bananas) is increasing, important banana constraints and their management. National there has also been a Agricultural Research Organisation, general decline in crop Uganda. productivity. TUSHEMEREIRWE, W., KANGIRE, The programme established A., SSEKIWOKO, F. et al. (2004) First by the UNBRP to reverse report of Xanthomonas campestris this decline identified pv. musacearum on banana in a number of IPM Uganda. Plant Pathology 53: 802. technologies to address TUSHEMEREIRWE, W.K., KANGIRE, a complex of recognised A., KUBIRIBA, J., NAKYANZA, M. Symptoms typical of banana bacterial wilt pest constraints, including and GOLD, C. (2004) Diseases threatening banana biodiversity in – uneven ripening of the fingers, drying and nematodes, pathogens and Uganda. African Crop Science Journal decay of the male bud and flower stalk insect pests (see R7567, 12: 19–26. (photo: Simon Eden-Green) page 3) and poor soil

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Mr Ubega Lubega, a Ugandan banana farmer, with his family. Adoption of the new banana varieties has provided the family with a reliable food source and increased income, enabling them to purchase some of life’s essentials in Uganda – a cow, a bicycle and a mobile phone

fertility. The technologies have districts. The extent of the threat production in Luwero, Mukuno been evaluated and, to some presented by banana bacterial wilt and Kayunga districts of Central extent, promoted through previous compelled the UNBRP and other Uganda. CPP projects R7567; R7529 national agricultural research and Based on the relative attributes (banana streak virus); and R7972 extension services in Uganda to of the management options, (see page 10). give the disease high priority and to stakeholder communities identified reallocate resources to counteract Banana streak virus is becoming an and selected those considered its growing impact. The objectives increasingly important constraint appropriate to their needs. and activities of project R8342 were to banana production in Uganda. Stakeholders were also identified also realigned accordingly. It has been suggested that its who were capable and willing to development is associated with ACHIEVEMENTS act as intermediaries, or service very poor plant husbandry, a providers, to communicate consequence of the high incidence The primary objective of this project knowledge relating to the of HIV/AIDS in the local human was to take IPM technologies management options to local population drastically reducing the forward for promotion and communities, thereby promoting labour force able to tend banana dissemination to a broader their uptake, utilisation and stands. CPP project R7478 (led by range of farmers and associated ultimate adoption. the John Innes Centre) confirmed stakeholders across a much wider Participatory development that banana streak virus is present geographical area than to date. communication, rather than a top- throughout the banana-growing The technologies include local and down approach, was employed to regions of Uganda. Transmission introduced, improved cultivars with help ensure the success of various experiments completed for project resistance or tolerance to the major activities. In each district the R7529 indicated that a Ugandan pests and diseases. project worked through pilot or strain of banana streak virus can Through a participatory model sub-counties, parishes and be transmitted by mealybugs approach, a broad range of villages within which strong links (Planococcus and Dysmicoccus spp.). banana stakeholders, including and partnerships were developed, In the early stages of this project, farmers and representatives and where activities were, and the rapid spread and damaging of extension services, NGOs, continue to be, coordinated effects of banana bacterial community-based organisations, and supervised by community wilt (caused by the bacterium the National Agricultural Advisory task forces established during Xanthomonas campestris pv. Service (NAADS), local councils the project. In these areas and musacearum) were also becoming and national government were beyond, considerable success evident in Central Uganda, presented, by the UNBRP, with has already been achieved especially in Mukono and Kayunga improved IPM options for banana in promoting management

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approaches that are now being significant, and form part of the willingness of farmers to produce applied to the benefit of farmers IPM promotional messages being bananas not only for food but and their associates. Given limited conveyed to growers and other also as a commercial enterprise resources, the intention was that stakeholders. has increased. A continuation of the model communities would act this trend will help ensure that The project has been successful as a catalyst for more widespread bananas can be produced in in employing a participatory promotion and adoption of sufficient quantity and of a required approach to facilitate and nurture improved management practices. standard, so that improvements multi-partner communication in food security will be attained While the project continued to and promotion of IPM practices and the incomes and livelihoods address and promote IPM generally, with the key decisions being of those involved in the banana steps were taken to incorporate and made, and demand expressed, commodity chain, particularly emphasise the problems associated by banana growers themselves as the rural poor and including with banana bacterial wilt by raising the ultimate beneficiaries. In the consumers, will improve. awareness of the disease and communities in which the project promoting management practices has operated, communication FURTHER APPLICATION considered to be appropriate, such pathways are now in place. With The activities of this project have as removal of the male bud as a key the aid of communication materials been almost wholly adaptive and, infection point. developed as part of the project, being largely field-based, have been farming communities have been In-depth research on transmission of responsive to emerging threats empowered to employ more banana streak virus confirmed that such as banana bacterial wilt. appropriate IPM practices for at least three Ugandan mealybug Continued progress, in terms of the banana production. species are capable of transmitting impact of the project on pest and the virus between banana plants and A fundamental component disease control, banana production that patterns of disease spread in the of this work was the use of and farming community livelihoods,

20 25 Symptoms: 20 15 none 15 10 mild severe 10 5 5 Average bunch weight (kg) weight bunch Average Average bunch weight (kg) weight bunch Average 0 0 Year 1 Year 2 Low-cost + Manure + Soil bunds Virus severity practice Management regime Left, effects on bunch weight of different levels of banana streak virus severity; right, bunch weights under three categories of cultural practices field are consistent with mealybug local intermediaries to act as will be monitored systematically transmission, suggesting that communication channels between through follow-on project R8482. mealybugs do need to be controlled. farmers and the UNBRP. By This short project will specifically In terms of managing banana streak empowering banana farmers to monitor and evaluate the success virus, removal of senescing and select improved management of the promotional activities dead leaves (de-trashing) by farmers technologies, the project has undertaken to date in selected reduced mealybug populations helped to increase production, areas and environments by seeking and, while banana streak virus had productivity, utilisation and stakeholders’ views and perceptions a negative effect on plant growth, consumption of bananas and of the communication approaches yield reductions (bunch weight banana products in Uganda, employed, and by assessing the losses as high as 32%) could be and ultimately to improve the extent to which recommended counteracted by more intensive livelihoods of rural communities. management practices are being management, including soil and Feedback from communities successfully applied. A related study water conservation measures suggests that the benefits of (R8437) will assess the impact of such as mulching and manuring banana production are being banana bacterial wilt disease on (see graphs). These findings are realised more widely, and that the rural livelihoods.

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Archiving data from IPM projects within the Uganda Banana Research Programme

R8301 This project provided assistance to the UNBRP to help improve the quality Savitri Abeyasekera of its research through a systematic approach to the collection, organisation Statistical Services Centre, University and management of research data. Initial steps towards this goal were of Reading, UK completed through the archiving of all data, meta-data, study protocols and other information obtained via three CPP banana projects; the establishment Wilberforce Tushemereirwe of guidelines and procedures necessary for maintaining a good data Uganda National Banana Research management system; and the development and documentation of an Programme (UNBRP) appropriate data management strategy for all UNBRP research activities. April 2003–May 2004 ISSUES of projects handled by UNBRP since then, but making comprehensive Data management has been a use of the data gathered from primary concern of the UNBRP for research has been compromised several years, following difficulties by the lack of an effective system in producing results from a UNBRP for data management. The Diagnostic Survey conducted in most interesting analyses in the the late 1990s. There has been a future are likely to be those that substantial increase in the number integrate data from different

Planning baseline socio-economic survey with stakeholders

Implementing the baseline socio-economic survey

Planning and establishing on-farm trials

Setting up Setting up enhanced Setting up evaluation trial plant nutrition trial promotion trial Sucker distribution by promotion trial farmers SELECTED PUBLICATIONS Data collection, computerisation MUREKEZI, C., ABEYASEKERA, and validation Survey of labour and other farmer S., MULUMBA, Y. et al. (2004) inputs during trial management Guidelines and Procedures for Analysing data Assessment Effective Data Management (with from each trial of adoption emphasis on banana research). of released cultivars Uganda National Banana Research Assessment with Cultivar evaluation on Assessment Programme, Kawanda Agricultural respect to agro- the basis of agronomic of the effect of Research Institute, Kampala, nomic performance performance and management Uganda, 35 pp. and resistance to resistance to pests and practices for each Black Sigatoka diseases cultivar UNBRP (2004) Uganda National Banana Research Programme Policy for Research Management with Integrative data analysis particular emphasis on Research Planning the activity and evaluation by Data Management and Statistical farmers of improved Analysis. Uganda National Banana Identiﬁ cation of technologies technologies based on Research Programme, Kawanda for promotion farmers’ criteria Agricultural Research Institute, Kampala, Uganda, 14 pp. Available Links between research activities for project R7567 (see page 3) as part of a at www.banana.go.ug project-level protocol

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consolidated through additional short-term training in the UK in research data management and statistics. This provided them with improved skills to give better support to other UNBRP staff. In collaboration with UNBRP scientists, research assistants and technicians, a manual on Guidelines and Procedures for Effective Data Management was produced, and has been circulated to research scientists in the National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO)’s nine agricultural institutes. Discussions with senior scientists of UNBRP led to the production of a UNBRP Policy SADIE – free software used to measure for Research Management with and detect clustering (©Joe Perry, particular emphasis on Research Rothamsted Research, Harpenden, UK) Data Management and Statistical – was used to study the epidemiology Analysis. This has been accepted of banana streak virus (R7529) by by UNBRP senior staff, and is mapping the spatial spread of its expected to assist the programme mealybug vector in experimental management in monitoring banana plots. Top, spatial data after importing research projects and related into the SADIE software; left, sample activities more effectively. mapping results. Research scientists, research assistants, technicians and data entry personnel in UNBRP are now well sensitised to the importance of component studies, and this and control of banana streak virus paying attention to the quality of will require high-quality data in East African highland bananas) data and maintaining the meta- management and the availability benefited from having a complete data alongside numerical data. of a properly maintained database archive of all their research data, management system. meta-data, study protocols (see FURTHER APPLICATION flowchart on page 9) and other The Research Support Unit of the Follow-up work is now progressing information set up in a centralised World Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) towards the development of a full system within UNBRP. in Nairobi has developed a software database management system tool called LOGBOOK to handle a The archiving work provided on- for UNBRP with assistance from a wide range of study and data types. the-job training in writing protocols database expert from ICRAF, and It was recognised that this tool for UNBRP staff leading activities support from the Statistical Services would be invaluable in assisting under the CPP cluster of projects, Centre at the University of Reading. UNBRP to develop a database while a four-day ‘Research data This work is being funded by the management system, but a primary management’ workshop gave Rockefeller Foundation as a direct task before the commencement of 28 scientists, research assistants, result of initial work under project such work was to assemble UNBRP technicians and data entry persons R8301. data sets from a number of projects the opportunity to learn about However, the Director General of to establish the most appropriate procedures for minimising error NARO has expressed the view that direction for the database at stages of data collection and data management alone will not development work. computerisation, and appropriate improve research quality without methods for data management. ACHIEVEMENTS parallel improvement in research On-the-job training in further methods relating to appropriate Through this project, a cluster aspects of data management study design and methods of of CPP banana projects (R7567, (e.g. see figure above) was also data analysis, and discussions are page 3; R7972, page 1; and R7529 received by two members of staff ongoing to determine how these on the epidemiology, vector studies from UNBRP’s Biometrics Unit, issues can be addressed.

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Evaluation and promotion of clean seed yam- production systems in Central Nigeria

R8278 Production of yams has been important to the survival and welfare of Lawrence Kenyon many generations of poor people in the tropics, and continues to make an Natural Resources Institute, important contribution to sustainable food security and income generation. In University of Greenwich, UK Nigeria, yams provide cash income for a wide range of smallholders, including many women who are very active in marketing tubers and yam products. Danny Coyne, Biodun Claudius-Cole A shortage of affordable, good quality, healthy yam planting material (seed International Institute of Tropical yams) is a major constraint to increased production and productivity in much Agriculture (IITA), Nigeria of West Africa. Good quality seed yams are expensive and often unavailable, Steve Morse and farmers perceive seed yam production as a risky business. Building on University of Reading, UK the work of previous projects, trial plots in farmers’ fields and on-station Str Nora McNamara, Moses Acholo assessed the suitability and effectiveness of potential seed yam production Diocesan Development Service, techniques. Results indicated that a simple system based on planting cut Nigeria tuber pieces treated with a combination of a fungicide and insecticide could be a viable means for yam growers to produce their own clean seed January 2003–March 2005 yams. The economics of seed yam production need to be evaluated over See R5735, R6691, Perspectives on several seasons, as after the initially expensive outlay on planting material Pests 1996–2000, p. 8 there should be no need to buy more in subsequent years. The project has established a loose network of stakeholders in Nigeria with a strong interest in improving seed yam production, resulting in a call for the establishment of a seed yam growers’ association in Nigeria.

ISSUES northern Nigeria emphasise the continued high demand for yams, It is estimated that in south-eastern and also refute reports of the Nigeria, people in major food- negative impact of urbanisation on producing rural areas consume 757 the use of yams for food in Africa. calories per capita per day from yams, compared with 354, 298, The yam’s combination of 185 and 149 calories from cassava, dormancy and early drought rice, wheat and grain legumes, tolerance allows flexibility in respectively. Results from a recent planting and harvesting periods food demand and consumption as well as in use of labour. The traditional long fallows SELECTED PUBLICATIONS survey by IITA in three cities in COYNE, D., CLAUDIUS-COLE A.O., ROTIFA, I. et al. (2005) Seed yam production systems: use of pre-plant treatment of setts for production of healthy planting material at IITA. Paper presented at farmers’ ﬁ eld day, Food For All International (FFAI), Port Harcourt, Nigeria, 24 February 2005. IITA (2003) Calendar – Use healthy seed yams for better yields. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria. IITA (2003) Yam pest and disease identiﬁ cation sheets: Virus symptoms; Insects and insect damage; Nematodes; Fungal and bacterial diseases. International Institute for Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Nigeria. WARD, A. (2005) Yum yum, more yam. African Farming and Food Processing, September/October: 23. Yams on the way to market (photo: Danny Coyne)

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resulting in adverse effects on field establishment, low tuber yields and consequent carry-over to the following season. This project aimed to assess if the scarcity and expense of clean planting material was a major constraint to yam production. Work was carried out with farmers, through local partner organisations in Kogi and Ekiti states, to evaluate systems for the cost-effective, sustainable and environmentally sound production of clean planting material.

ACHIEVEMENTS A household baseline situation analysis in Igalaland (Kogi State) Seed yam seller at West Africa’s largest yam market in Techiman, Ghana and Ekiti State in 2003 reconfirmed (photo: Danny Coyne, winner of ‘Positive Developments: a photographic that most yam growers were exhibition by NR International in association with The Eden Project’) purchasing their seed yams because they believed seed quality was that characterised yam-based in the field. The minisett technique important. However, the high production systems in the past for rapid multiplication of yam cost of seed on the market was have become impossible owing to germplasm was developed by IITA a limiting factor in increased yam pressure on land from a growing and the Nigerian National Root production. Production of their human population. The most Crops Research Institute. Minisetts own seed yams was considered serious constraints to productivity are small pieces of tuber (25–50 g) a high-risk activity which most are the high costs of planting which, if treated appropriately, can growers would not consider material and labour, decreasing be planted at relatively high density entering into unaided. A typical soil fertility, and increasing levels of and will produce small tubers (up coping strategy, especially in Ekiti field and storage pests and diseases to about 400 g) that are ideal to but also in Igalaland, was to use associated with the increasing use as seed yams in the following yam setts (pieces of tuber up to intensification of cultivation. season to establish a ware crop 500 g) in place of seed yams. Igala (projects R5735, R6691, R7504). farmers were obtaining much of Yam planting materials are However, this technology has not their seed yam material from areas derived from the edible portion, been promoted appropriately further south on the River Niger the tuber, which is expensive or adequately in target areas. (Illushi). Farmers in Ekwuloko (Kogi (50% of production cost), bulky Poor-quality planting materials State) obtained some of their seed to transport, and has a low tend to carry pests and diseases yam from illegal planting within multiplication ratio (less than 1:10) from the barn back to the field, protected forest reserves. In both

Sale of seed yams (left) and inspecting yams in store (right)

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cases the transportation costs were Provision of credit for small- high. Credit emerged as a key scale farmers has been an issue constraint for the establishment for many years in Nigeria, and of clean seed yam production, sustainable large-scale solutions especially in Igalaland. have been elusive (for example with the collapse in the 1990s of the On-farm trials in 2003–04 and state-sponsored ‘People’s Bank’, 2004–05 confirmed that planting modelled on the Grameen Bank tuber pieces of 100–150 g, of Bangladesh). Commercial banks pre-treated with a cocktail of a have little interest in providing fungicide, insecticide/nematicide credit for small-scale farmers, and wood ash, is an effective given the risks and the relatively method of producing healthier seed high transaction costs. While a yams. Pre-treatment of planting targeted and sustainable micro- pieces with neem leaf slurry gave finance credit scheme would very variable results, while the provide growers with funds at the results for a pre-planting hot-water appropriate time to allow them to treatment appeared to be variety- start growing their own seed yams, dependent. Additional experiments a means of sustainable provision were established to assess the is required. Some NGOs in Nigeria interaction between hot-water do have long experience of such treatment and variety. Results from Women are most active in marketing yams provision, and it would be possible farmers’ fields for the 2004 season (photo: Susan Seal) to adapt the livelihoods approach indicated substantial improvement to become a rights-based business in yield, size and quality of seed plan which could become the basis tubers using the recommended A wide range of stakeholders of a partnership between NGO and pesticide mixture compared with (including yam growers, extension farmer. The farmers would then farmers’ normal practices. agents and other NGOs) become local suppliers of planting have participated in planning A detailed household livelihood material, eliminating the high costs meetings, hosted trial plots, analysis, incorporating a cost– of transport from distant sites. By visited demonstration plots and benefit study of home seed specialising in seed yam production attended participatory farmer yam production on four farms it is more likely that farmers will be field days following the harvests in Ekwuloko and four farms in able to produce quality material, of farmer trials. Demonstrations Ado-Ekiti in the 2004–05 season, and these benefits should make of the suggested method for seed generated much information. Early seed yams more affordable. yam production (resulting from indications from the Ekwuloko case the project findings) have been studies are that, while households FURTHER APPLICATION provided for farmers at state trade are involved in a diverse range of and agricultural fairs and NGO field income-generating activities that A follow-on project (R8416) aims to: days. An end-of-project workshop place demands on labour, home was held to assess the project • identify components of production of seed yams can be outputs and achievements with commercial seed yam-production cost-effective in some situations. some of these stakeholders, and systems potentially applicable However, because there are so to develop links and a network to the production of clean seed many calls on the farm finances for promoting improved seed yam yams by small-scale growers there is rarely sufficient funding systems within Nigeria. • assess sustainability of small- available at the right time, nor scale seed yam-production sufficient incentives for farmers to The project has confirmed that, in systems in the contrasting attempt to grow their own seed the study areas, yam production is ecologies and livelihood systems yams. a major contributor to sustaining of Alla-Olakudu/Makoja and A series of yam pest and disease livelihoods. Productivity will be Ekwuloko identification sheets and posters improved if the supply of good • evaluate a micro-credit scheme and a project promotional calendar quality seed yams can be increased. (supported by the Irish charity were developed and distributed in There are relatively simple systems Gorta) for seed yam production the 2003–04 and 2005 seasons. A available to growers for producing in Ekwuloko simple seed yam-production guide their own good quality seed • transfer seed yam production based on the project findings was yams, but these require financial systems/technologies to also developed in response to an investment by growers at times of promotional partners expressed need by project partners the season when currently most • identify needs for other (growers and extension agents). do not have access to such funds. promotional materials.

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Participatory breeding of superior, mosaic disease- resistant cassava

R8302 Cassava is the cheapest starch staple available in Ghana. It is a particularly Joint-funded with Plant Sciences important food for both rural and urban poor, and a source of food security. Research Programme The aim of this project was to improve Ghanaian farmers’ access to cassava diversity, and to work with them to develop a range of superior, disease- Richard Gibson resistant cassava clones appropriate to their needs. For the first time in Africa, Natural Resources Institute, a farmer-participatory approach to breeding cassava from the seedling stage University of Greenwich, UK was applied. Analysis of clones selected over three generations indicated that Joseph Manu-Aduening this approach enabled farmers and scientists to work together beneficially. Crops Research Institute (CRI), Superior clones are selected quickly because validation by farmers, a cassava Ghana breeder, and plant pathologists is achieved simultaneously rather than April 2003–March 2005 sequentially. The clones selected need to be released officially if they are to benefit from wide dissemination through official means, and the additional See R6617, Perspectives on Pests trials needed to achieve this have been identified and planted. Surveys have 1996–2000, p. 10 identified the main characteristics of current cassava end-users in Ghana, and potential and expanding uses in non-traditional foods, livestock feed and non-food uses. A side effect of this has been to improve links between the conventional breeding process in Ghana and the end-users. Clones selected through participatory breeding are being trialled on farms owned by two medium-scale food processors, and flour derived from clones selected by the project has been characterised biochemically.

ISSUES Cassava is a significant part of the diet of many people in Africa, and contributes about 22% of Ghanaian agricultural gross domestic product. Its production in Ghana is increasing, replacing yam, cocoyam, plantains, grains and other crops. About 80% of the population rely on it as their main starch staple, providing 18% of dietary energy, more than any other crop. About half the production is consumed fresh in local products such as fufu (pounded into a thick paste), and the remainder is Farmers showing the high root processed, for example into gari yield of one of their selected clones or kokonte, dried products that SELECTED PUBLICATIONS may be stored for long periods and recognition of the importance of are relatively easy to transport to this crop is also indicated by the MANU-ADUENING, J.A., LAMBOLL, distant markets. Roots and Tuber Improvement R.I., DANKYI, A.A. and GIBSON, Programme (funded by the R.W. (2005) Cassava diversity and Cassava also provides a significant International Fund for Agricultural evolution in Ghanaian farming source of income through both systems. Euphytica 144: 331–340. Development and led by the sales of the storage roots and Ministry of Food and Agriculture) MANU-ADUENING, J.A., LAMBOLL, providing employment in small which aims to enhance food R.I., AMPONG MENSAH, G. et al. processing units (e.g. for gari). security and increase the income (2006) Development of superior A President’s Special Initiative cassava cultivars in Ghana by of resource-poor farmers. One of has recently launched a cassava- farmers and scientists: the process the key elements in achieving this adopted, outcomes and contributions based starch-production industry, aim is increasing the availability and changed roles of different targeting mainly export markets. of improved cassava planting stakeholders. Euphytica (in press). The Government of Ghana’s materials.

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A number of pests and diseases Only four varieties of cassava had any one of these three groups cause major problems on been released in Ghana in the past were retained (see figure). This cassava, including cassava mosaic few decades. A number of new process ensured the selections geminiviruses (CMGs). Although varieties have now been released of each group were all retained, CMGs affect cassava crops by the Savannah Agricultural with no opportunity for one throughout Africa, the disease has Research Institute, Kwame group to influence the others and also been associated with national Nkrumah University of Science and coincidentally allowing opportunities or regional epidemics flaring Technology, Kumasi and CRI, but to analyse the outcomes of up every few decades. Such an it is too early to assess uptake by selections by each group. epidemic is currently devastating farmers. Landraces remain the main Participatory plant breeding cassava production in East and means of cassava production in activities in two communities and at Central Africa, and is threatening Ghana, as in much of Africa. an on-station trial, monitoring the West Africa. Previous work (R7565) characteristics of selected accessions in two communities in Ghana ACHIEVEMENTS through several generations, have suggests that farmers know much led to the selection of 37 superior about the symptoms and causes This project continued the clones that are being tested in of insect pest damage and of the development and validation (begun further multi-locational community symptoms of various diseases, but by R7565) of a process involving trials in Brong Ahafo and Ashanti have less understanding of what the participation of both farmers regions. The bases for the breeder’s causes diseases, including cassava and scientists for selecting superior and the plant pathologists’ choices mosaic disease (CMD). disease-, pest- and weed-resistant cassava clones. The aim was to were predetermined; the basis of Breeding work in Africa on cassava select clones that are more adapted the farmers’ choices was determined has been primarily on-station, to local conditions and more by questionnaires at each harvest. although generally with final appropriate to the needs of farmers The breeder placed most emphasis validation on-farm. A selection and other end-users than those on yield; the plant pathologists on derived from an interspecific cross selected by the current on-station absence of foliar diseases; and the with Manihot glaziovii (tropical selection process. This is the first farmers on a diversity of storage Manihot species, TMS) became the application in Africa of selection by root characteristics (of which high basis for a series of agronomically both farmers and scientists from a yield is the main one) and canopy improved CMD-resistant cassava wide diversity of cassava seedlings, formation. clones and seed, which have provided by scientists and grown Farmers, the CRI plant breeder provided the main control strategy on-farm by farmers. Farmers, a and plant pathologists all tended in Africa for several decades. formally trained cassava breeder to make broadly similar selections, More recently, another source and plant pathologists from CRI as indicated by a considerable of resistance has been identified made separate selections over degree of overlap between their in some West African landraces, one seedling generation and three choices. Despite this, each group of leading to the TME (tropical subsequent clonal generations, selectors (particularly the farmers) M. esculenta) series of clones. in which genotypes selected by made many unique selections, highlighting the value of their 18 half-sib IITA families inclusion. Farmers’ selections, in particular, were also reasonably Time Forest zone Forest–savannah transition zone consistent from one generation

On-station PPB: On-farm PPB: On-farm PPB: to the next, demonstrating their Kwadaso Nkaakom Aworowa competence in selection. The project capitalised on unique 2000 702 seedlings 650 seedlings 700 seedlings selections by different groups

2001 109 clones 160 clones 139 clones by ensuring that selections of all groups were retained from one 2002 62 clones 65 clones generation to the next. This did 55 clones (44 farmer-tested) (40 farmer-tested) not slow the elimination of inferior accessions excessively: the progress 2003 8 clones 13 clones 16 clones of selection of superior accessions occurred at a similar rate to that of 37 bulked conventional plant breeding and clones benefited from all groups selecting simultaneously, so there is no need 37 clones tested in ﬁ ve 37 clones tested in three on-farm trials and one on- on-farm trials in forest– for subsequent on-farm testing station trial in forest zone savannah transition zone by farmers. The selection process The participatory breeding scheme has identified genotypes that

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farmers, a plant breeder and plant pathologists can work together in an effective and inclusive manner in selecting cassava genotypes from seed. It also provided an environment whereby farmers made a significant and consistent contribution to the outcome of selection. FURTHER APPLICATION A project extension (R8405) Clockwise from top right: pounding fufu, Suhum, Eastern Region; large-scale starch processing, aims to submit bagging of high quality starch, Awutu-Bawjiase, Central Region; medium-scale multi-purpose documentation processing, milling flour, near Amasaman, Greater Accra Region; small, family-run, peri-urban gari of the requisite processor, Cape Coast, Central Region characteristics of selected cassava are high-yielding under farmers’ agro-ecologies, so additional multi- genotypes to the Ghanaian Variety conditions, and with a relatively locational community trials have Release Committee, and as a result high and well branched canopy been planted in Brong Ahafo and to release one or more varieties intercepting a high percentage Ashanti regions. in Ghana. This would achieve of light. The accessions selected independent, official validation A weakness of the project’s initial appear moderately resistant to of the participatory breeding participatory approach (and of diseases, and are likely to shade approach, and provide a ‘worked conventional cassava breeding at example’ of how to achieve it to out weeds. These results validate CRI) was a failure to address the other researchers. the participatory selection process needs of cassava end-users other adopted – all groups, particularly than farmers. This has now been The same participatory approach farmers, made their selections in addressed by surveys of non-farmer has been transferred to Uganda an effective and individual, yet end-users, current and potential and Tanzania for selection of inclusive manner. uses of cassava, and the activities farmer-preferred and sweet The method will not finally be of post-harvest researchers in potato virus disease-resistant validated until long-term adoption Ghana. The results of these surveys varieties of sweet potato (R8243, by farmers is demonstrated. This is have led to an initial pair of trials page 28; extension project being enabled in the communities of superior accessions selected by R8457). Because sweet potato in which the project works directly, the project at farms of medium- has a much shorter generation by allowing farmers to take cuttings scale manufacturers of cassava time than cassava, this activity of their preferred accessions to food products. The surveys were in Uganda has already reached plant on their own farms. Relying conducted either by, or in close a similar stage and appears to on farmer-to-farmer transfer of cooperation with, the CRI plant have quickly identified several superior accessions is expected to breeder. This activity has achieved high-yielding, disease-resistant be slow. The project is well placed a closer working relationship of the clones, which farmers are also CRI cassava breeder with non-farm within the official Ghanaian system already multiplying and adopting. end-users and scientists at the to release superior genotypes These clones also appear to be Food Research Institute in Ghana, through the Ghanaian Variety particularly well adapted to the resulting in starch characteristics Release Committee, enabling marginal lands to which this crop being included in cassava variety official systems to distribute more is often relegated. Again, the release documents for the first time widely. Analysis of previous release material has been adopted by the in Ghana (and perhaps in Africa). documents demonstrated the national programmes for inclusion lack of a broad enough range of This participatory breeding project in multilocational trials, with the multi-locational trials in specified has provided an approach by which ultimate aim of national release.

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Maximising and promoting the benefits to farmers of cassava mosaic disease-resistant varieties

R8303 Cassava is among the most important food crops for the rural poor throughout Richard Gibson, John Colvin Africa, both for food and food security. A pandemic of cassava mosaic disease Natural Resources Institute, (CMD) associated with very large populations of their whitefly vectors has been University of Greenwich (NRI), UK devastating the crop in East and Central Africa. This project validated control methods (CMD-resistant varieties; selecting disease-resistant planting material; Christopher Omongo intercropping with a resistant cassava variety to protect a susceptible one) and Namulonge Agricultural and Animal means of disseminating knowledge of them to farmers in East Africa. This work Production Research Institute, has also shown that whiteflies are now a direct pest of cassava in Africa, as Uganda well as the vector of its main disease. Major progress has been made towards Innocent Ndyetabura their control: previously unknown sources of whitefl y resistance have been Agricultural Research Institute- identifi ed not only in African landraces, but also in advanced breeding lines Maruku, Tanzania suffi ciently superior in yield and CMD resistance to be trialled for national release. If successful, this material will be a major weapon in the fight to control April 2003–March 2005 direct damage by whiteflies, and will contribute to protecting the crop against See R6765, R6614, Perspectives on CMD and the spread and evolution of more whitefly-borne viruses. Pests 1996–2000, pp. 13–17 ISSUES viruses belonging to the genus Begomovirus, family Geminiviridae. Cassava mosaic disease (CMD), Cassava mosaic geminiviruses the most damaging insect-borne are transmitted in the persistent disease of African food crops, is manner by the whitefly Bemisia the main constraint to cassava tabaci. The disease is caused production in Africa, diminishing mainly by two viruses – African SELECTED PUBLICATIONS production by an estimated cassava mosaic virus (ACMV) and 15–24% (12–23 million tonnes COLVIN, J., OMONGO, C.A., East African cassava mosaic virus per year). CMD is caused by MARUTHI, M.N., OTIM-NAPE, G.W. (EACMV). Previous projects (R6614, and THRESH, J.M. (2004) Dual R6765, R7565) begomovirus infections and high have shown that Bemisia tabaci populations: two the spread of CMD factors that drive the spread of a in East Africa from cassava mosaic disease pandemic. the late 1980s Plant Pathology 53: 587–614. was associated COLVIN, J., CHOWDA REDDY, R.V., with unusually REKHA, A.R. et al. (2004) Ecological large whitefly and reproductive isolation amongst populations, rapid African and Asian Bemisia tabaci spread of CMD populations. In: 2nd European and very severe Whitefl y Symposium, Cavtat, Croatia, disease symptoms. 5–9 October 2004 (abstract). The cause is LEGG, J.P., SSERUWAGI, P. and now known BROWN, J. (2004) Bemisia whitefl ies to be a natural cause physical damage and yield recombinant losses to cassava in Africa. p. 65. In: of ACMV and 6th International Scientifi c Meeting of the Cassava Biotechnology Network EACMV. This (abstract). new strain, called EACMV- OMONGO, C.A., COLVIN, J., Ug (‘Ugandan SSERUBOMBWE, W. et al. (2004) variant’), alone or Host plant resistance to African Bemisia tabaci in local landraces in dual infections and improved cassava mosaic with ACMV, disease resistant genotypes in was shown Uganda. p. 84. In: 6th International experimentally to Scientifi c Meeting of the Cassava Severe CMD on a CMD-susceptible variety (foreground) cause the severe Biotechnology Network (abstract). contrasted with a resistant variety in the background symptoms typical

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Farmers in Tanzania emerging from a sea of healthy, highly CMD-resistant cassava varieties (photo: James Legg)

of the epidemic. Its arrival in planting material and different moderately resistant local landraces Tanzania in 2000 has resulted in cultural control practices, notably despite the pandemic. the Department of Research and intercropping with a resistant cassava A leaflet describing the causes, Development giving highest priority variety to protect a susceptible one. means of spread and various ways to controlling virus diseases of root Field demonstration plots in five of controlling CMD through the use crops (principally CMD) in the Lake farmers’ fields in Mukono have of high-yielding resistant varieties Zone. As in Uganda, the pandemic demonstrated to farmers (and has been produced by the Uganda has already created much hardship validated for researchers) the lower team in English, Kiswahili and Luo. in these newly affected areas to the incidence of CMD in resistant A guide in Kiswahili describing west of Lake Victoria. The impact varieties (00067; TME14; TME204; the causes, means of spread and looks set to increase dramatically as NASE 10) and in carefully selected ways of controlling both CMD and severe CMD spreads to the south disease-free planting material of and east of the lake, where farming CMD-susceptible landraces planted sweet potato virus disease (which, communities depend even more on among a CMD-resistant variety. The like CMD, is spread by whiteflies) cassava for their livelihoods. ﬁ nal incidences of CMD in the local has been drafted by the Tanzanian varieties (Kabwa and Njule), when team. Members of the Tanzanian Modern resistant varieties provide grown with a CMD-resistant variety team have also visited Uganda to the main control strategy for the (00067), were 45% for Kabwa and exchange ideas. CMD pandemic in Africa, but 73% for Njule, in Mukono District, Training in how to control CMD no single variety is perfect. This versus 68 and 99% when grown has been provided to farmers in project, in partnership with the alone. Comparable figures for two the collaborating farmer groups international Tropical Whitefly IPM other locals (Bao and Nyaraboke) in Uganda. Here, however, Project (R8041), aimed to validate in Apac were 57 and 58%, the pandemic has long been modern resistant varieties and other respectively versus 73 and 83% established and most farmers control technologies, including when grown alone. In the mixed are already aware of the causes selection of planting material crops, healthy plants remaining at of the disease. In Tanzania this and mixing susceptible landraces the end of these experiments were is not the case, and the project with resistant varieties, in a close sufficient to provide clean cuttings has collaborated with other working collaboration with farmers for further plantings. Civil unrest organisations, notably Norwegian in Uganda and the Lake Zone of in northern Uganda resulted in the People’s Aid (NPA), to provide Tanzania. abandonment of work in Lira and its training for extensionists, mostly late replacement with work in Soroti. within the Lake Zone but also ACHIEVEMENTS Resistance was clearly the most further afield in the country. This Working with farmer groups in effective means of controlling CMD, collaboration with NPA has also Uganda and Tanzania, the project but the cultural control measures did extended to providing technical aid has tested the use of CMD-resistant provide a means by which farmers in the dissemination of planting varieties, selecting disease-free were able to sustain production of material of resistant varieties.

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Populations of whiteflies one to Large numbers (279) of Ugandan done in different areas to cover a two orders of magnitude greater landraces have been screened for range of different circumstances than before the CMD pandemic resistance to whiteflies, leading to and infection pressures. have been observed, notably in the identification of a few resistant The cassava mosaic pandemic Uganda but also in other countries ones, such as Njule. Some released continues to expand in and from affected by the pandemic. Sooty varieties also appear to support the Lake Zone in Tanzania, with mould is often observed blackening relatively few whiteflies. Screening severe effects on the livelihoods middle and lower leaves where of advanced clonal accessions in whitefly excreta have become of poor rural people there, many national advanced and uniform of whom are unusually dependent infected with fungi. Chlorosis and yield trials has also identified stunting of middle and upper leaves on cassava for food because the potential resistance in these dry conditions limit the growth occurs, caused on the upper leaves clones. In particular, the clones by adults feeding, and on middle of other crops. It is also affecting MM96/4271 and MM96/0686 leaves mainly by nymphs feeding. many other Central African supported few whiteflies and countries, including Rwanda, A trial repeated in two seasons, and whitefly nymphs in uniform yield Burundi and the Democratic involving eight varieties differing in trials, and were also chosen by Republic of Congo, and appears apparent susceptibility to whiteflies, farmers and scientists using other to have the potential to spread was conducted in Uganda to criteria. Resistance of the identified throughout sub-Saharan Africa. assess the effect on yields of using clones has been confirmed in This project plans to disseminate insecticides to control whiteflies. screenhouse preference tests. It knowledge of and materials for The insecticides controlled the is important that this work is the control of CMD; to train continued so that government and NGO extensionists future released using the protocols and materials varieties will be developed; and to disseminate less susceptible resistant materials. to whiteflies than some previous Future work should address the releases. problem of how to improve the current unsatisfactory health Project scientists status of the many local varieties have also identified still being grown, some of which an outbreak of are highly regarded by farmers. A another whitefly- more farmer-participatory approach borne virus, to cassava breeding (see R8302, page 14) could facilitate the development of resistant varieties with the preferred characteristics of these local varieties. Currently local varieties predominate in a high proportion of all plantings, Above, whitefly damage yet they are almost totally infected (sooty mould) on cassava; and yields are seriously impaired. right, whiteflies on underside of They are also an important source a cassava leaf of inoculum from which there is spread to other varieties, which increases the likelihood of a whiteflies, removing observable cassava brown streak, in Uganda breakdown of resistance. signs of whitefly feeding damage, (see R8227, page 20). This seems reducing the spread of CMD in likely to result from the large The increasing numbers of susceptible varieties, and generally numbers of whiteflies affecting whiteflies on cassava remain leading to a higher root yield. cassava crops in Uganda, and a serious problem in Uganda and other countries affected by The higher yield was seen in both whitefly resistance may be a key the pandemic, in terms of both CMD-susceptible and near-immune component in its control. varieties, so it was not the result direct damage and increased risk of whitefly-borne viruses. The of reduced spread of CMD. These FURTHER APPLICATION results also demonstrate for the project plans to continue work on first time in Africa how the spread The sustainability of this approach identifying sources of resistance of CMD can be decreased by the needs to be tested, and there is through an extension of this CPP use of insecticides to control the also scope for trying intercrops or project and through the Tropical vector. barrier crops. Such work should be Whitefly IPM Project (R8041).

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Promotion of control measures for cassava brown streak disease

R8227 Cassava brown streak disease (CBSD) poses a threat to food security in the Rory Hillocks coastal regions of eastern Africa. Because of its direct effect on root quality, Natural Resources Institute (NRI), CBSD is also a constraint to the development of commercial cassava processing. University of Greenwich, UK Good management of the disease increases the useable root yield of cassava, improving food security and allowing any surplus production to be sold directly Ministry of Agriculture and Food or made into flour. Previous work and the current project have identified and Security, Tanzania: promoted management of CBSD, which is caused by a virus, through the use G. Mkamilo of tolerant varieties, limiting losses to the disease until more resistant varieties Southern Zone, Naliendele can be made available. CBSD-tolerant varieties identified by the project have Agricultural Research Institute been distributed widely in Tanzania and Mozambique through village-based M. Muhana community multiplication, and via NGO food security projects and other rural Eastern Zone, Sugarcane Research development projects. For the first time, this project has been able to show that Institute the virus causing CBSD is transmitted by the whitefly Bemisia tabaci. Thus in A. Zacarias the future, host-plant resistance to whitefly may be used for control of CBSD Instituto Nacional de Investigacão along with the whitefly-transmitted cassava mosaic virus. Agronómica (INIA), Mozambique N. Mahungu ISSUES from Kenya to the Zambezi River in Mozambique. Southern Africa Root crops Cassava brown streak disease Research Network (SARRNET) (in (CBSD) has been shown to be a This project follows on from two collaboration with Ministry of major threat to food security in previous projects on CBSD. R6765 Agriculture and Irrigation), Malawi the worst-affected areas of coastal established the incidence and distribution of CBSD; confirmed August 2002–March 2005 eastern and southern Africa. Because of the associated symptom that it was still limited to altitudes See R6765, Perspectives on Pests of root necrosis, the disease has below 1000 m; and showed that 1996–2000, p. 13 a direct impact on both yield and some local varieties were resistant root quality. A rural population of to the associated symptom of some 20 million people are affected root necrosis. CBSD was identified SELECTED PUBLICATIONS by CBSD in the area extending in Mozambique for the first HILLOCKS, R.J. and JENNINGS, D.L. (2003) Cassava brown streak disease: a review of present knowledge and research needs. International Journal of Pest Management 49: 225–234. MARUTHI, M.N. (2004) Bionomics, morphometrics and molecular characterization of a cassava Bemisia afer (Priesner & Hosny) population. International Journal of Tropical Insect Science 24: 323–329. MARUTHI, M.N., HILLOCKS, R.J., MTUNDA, K. et al. (2005) Transmission of Cassava brown streak virus by Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius). Journal of Phytopathology 153: 307–312. THRESH, J.M. and HILLOCKS, R.J. (2003) Cassava mosaic and cassava brown streak diseases in Nampula and Zambezia Provinces of Mozambique. Roots 8: 10–15. UBWANI, Z. (2003) Devastating viral disease attacks cassava. The Guardian, 19 November, p. 5. Farmer harvesting tuberous roots infected with CBSD (photo: B. Khizza)

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target villages, and the emphasis with farmers’ groups shifted to community multiplication. Secondary schools have also been involved, and community multiplication plots now form the focus for inclusion of cassava production and its uses in the school curriculum. Teachers from six schools received training at Naliendele. In addition, CBSD- Left, peeling cassava before drying (Mozambique); right, peeled cassava tolerant varieties have been showing symptoms of CBSD root necrosis distributed to two villages in time. Project R7563 developed roguing and selection of planting Rwangwa District at the request control measures and initiated a material was abandoned because of the District Extension Officer. In programme of on-farm research in of farmers’ hostility to roguing and all these villages the varieties have been multiplied and distributed. Tanzania and established the extent an annual shortage of planting of CBSD in Malawi. Field studies material. The project then focused In the Eastern Zone, the project on the transmission and spread of exclusively on dissemination has linked with the Eastern Zone CBSD suggested that periods of of CBSD-tolerant varieties, Client Orientated Research and rapid spread coincided with periods accompanied by an information Extension (EZCORE) Project, funded of high whitefly populations. campaign to raise farmers’ by Irish aid and implemented by awareness of CBSD symptoms and Muheza District Extension Office. Previous work has supported basic availability of tolerant varieties. They agreed to multiply the CBSD- research on vector transmission tolerant varieties in their 30 contact In the Southern Zone of Tanzania, of cassava brown streak virus, the villages. Project R8227 provided on-farm validation of the tolerant cause of CBSD. Progress has been them with the initial planting varieties was completed in six slow, although all the indications material, and conducted on-farm are that whitefly is the vector because of the close association between fluctuations in whitefly populations and the amount of virus spread. This research carried over into the present project. Based on NRI’s findings and earlier project work, the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) has now recognised the Left, mild and importance of CBSD and has made below, severe leaf resistance to the disease a priority symptoms of CBSD for improved varieties intended for (photos: James Legg) East African coastal areas. By the end of 2004 there were a number of cassava variety multiplication and distribution projects, in addition to this CPP project. There are now projects on CBSD supported by IITA, USAID and the Rockefeller Foundation in Tanzania, Mozambique and Kenya, all doing work based on the earlier findings of the CPP projects.

ACHIEVEMENTS The main focus of the present project was the promotion of control measures developed under R7563. Initial on-farm research into

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evaluation of the varieties in three villages close to Kibaha. In Mozambique, technical assistance was provided to Save the Children, supporting its USAID- funded project to multiply and distribute CBSD-tolerant varieties. The project has also provided technical and financial support to the Mozambican National Root Crops Programme at INIA, to assist with its work to identify resistance to CBSD in local varieties and improved lines. In Malawi, the project collaborated with SARRNET and the National Programme to make an initial Root rot (left) and brown streak (centre) symptoms of CBSD, compared with collection of local cassava uninfected cassava roots (right) (photo: B. Khizza) germplasm for resistance to cassava After several years of trying to The Government of Tanzania mosaic diseases (CMDs) and CBSD transmit cassava brown streak virus is committed to increasing the at Karonga Sub-station. A number (CBSV) with whiteflies, successful acreage under cassava, and district of promising local and improved transmission with Bemisia tabaci extension offices are expected to lines have been identified with was achieved in growth rooms implement this policy. tolerance to CBSD root necrosis, at NRI, and the transmission and one may also have some confirmed by polymerase A large number of farmers and all resistance to CMD. These lines chain reaction diagnostics. The district extension officers in the were planted in on-farm trials in implication of this important Southern Zone of Tanzania have November 2004. finding is that host-plant resistance been trained in disease recognition to whitefly may be considered as a and control. Community-based On-farm evaluation of the CBSD- possible method of dual control for multiplication has been established tolerant varieties in Tanzania has CMDs and CBSD. in contact villages and schools in shown that there is high approval the Southern Zone of Tanzania among farmers for some of them. In December 2004, symptoms and northern Mozambique (with Kiroba, for instance, has proved resembling those of CBSD were Save the Children), which requires very popular with farmers who seen in Uganda. Leaf samples were no further input to be sustainable. market their cassava because of sent to NRI and the presence of Community-based multiplication its early maturity and sweetness. CBSV was confirmed. It appears will also be established in eastern An improved variety, Nal 34, has that greatly elevated whitefly Tanzania under the project yielded well and also has good populations now occurring in extension. culinary characters. Nal 34 has Uganda have led to this outbreak been approved by the variety of CBSD. This is the first time that Under extension R8404 the release committee as a CBSD- substantial numbers of CBSD- project teams mobilised funds tolerant variety. These varieties infected plants have been reported for an emergency survey in will provide a temporary solution in the Lake Victoria Basin and at Uganda, which confirmed fears to CBSD until the IITA programme altitudes above 1000 m. that at least two TME (tropical comes up with more resistant Manihot esculenta) varieties widely material. Their main drawback is FURTHER APPLICATION distributed in Uganda (due to their susceptibility to CMDs. resistance to CMD) were highly Now that resistance to CBSD has susceptible to CBSD. Following The variety distribution programme been made a cassava-breeding our report on this, survey steps has been supported by a priority by IITA, continued funding are now being taken by the communication strategy involving for CBSD research beyond Association for Strengthening an information leaflet, posters the life of the CPP project is Agricultural Research in Eastern and radio broadcasts. Extension assured. The new SARRNET and Central Africa (ASARECA) officers in the Southern Zone of programme will include CBSD in and IITA to alert researchers in Tanzania have received training in Malawi and Mozambique. The neighbouring countries to the all aspects of cassava production, Rockefeller projects in Tanzania crop protection and post-harvest and Mozambique will continue threat from CBSD if these varieties utilisation. after the end of the CPP project. are grown.

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Multiplication and distribution of sweet potato varieties with high yield and β-carotene content

R8040 According to the 2001 Uganda Demographic and Health Survey and the Berga Lemaga, WHO, vitamin A deficiency is a clinical problem in Uganda, with incidences Kyewalabye Male, James Nsumba of 30 and 50% among children and women, respectively. This project aimed Programme Regional to increase the multiplication, distribution, production and consumption of d’Amelioration de la Pomme sweet potato varieties that are not only high-yielding and virus-resistant, de Terre et de la Patate Douce but also rich in β-carotene (a precursor of vitamin A) – and thus to reduce en Afrique Centrale et de l’Est food insecurity, poverty and malnutrition among small-scale farmers – in (PRAPACE), Uganda eight districts of Central Uganda. Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, UK ISSUES a lack of proper links to markets, Namulonge Agricultural and Animal and limited post-harvest processing A shortage of improved varieties Production Research Institute and utilisation are among the that are acceptable to farmers (NAARI), Uganda factors that greatly constrain sweet and consumers has long been a potato production, in addition to Kenya Agricultural Research major constraint to sweet potato sweet potato virus disease – the Institute (KARI) production in Uganda’s Central most important disease limiting Buganda Cultural Development Region, and throughout East and production in Uganda (see R8243, Foundation (BUCADEF), Uganda Central Africa. The situation is page 28). aggravated by a lack of formal July 2001–June 2003 systems to produce and distribute In 1999, Uganda’s National quality planting material. Poverty, Agricultural Research Organisation

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS AGFAX (2003) ‘Chipping’ in on sweet potatoes. May radio pack. www.agfax.net AGFAX (2003) Processing sweet potato for poultry. June radio pack. www.agfax.net NARO and CIP (2001) New sweetpotato varieties. National Agricultural Research Organisation, Uganda/International Potato Center, Lima (leaﬂ et). PRAPACE/BUCADEF (2002) The CPP- funded Sweetpotato Project with BUCADEF. Buganda Cultural and Development Foundation, Kampala/ SusRo Productions, Uganda. (Video, 14 min) WREN MEDIA (2003) Eat up – it’s good for you. New Agriculturist on-line. www.new-agri.co.uk/02-6/ focuson/focuson6.html WREN MEDIA (2003) Sweet success. New Agriculturist on-line. www. new-agri.co.uk/03-2/pfeat/intro.html (picture feature). Making sweet potato chips

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(NARO), in collaboration with Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP) and PRAPACE, released six virus disease-resistant sweet PRIMARY MULTIPLICATION SITE potato varieties with a production clean nuclear seed stocks multiplied potential up to four times higher by NARO scientists at NAARI than the average for local varieties. One of these varieties is orange- fleshed and is rich in the β-carotene compounds that provide vitamin A.

With financial and technical SECONDARY MULTIPLICATION SITES support from PRAPACE/CIP BUCADEF receives clean seed stocks and NARO, the NGO BUCADEF and multiplies further from its own or local started an informal, farmer-based group leaders’ ﬁ elds sweet potato planting material multiplication project. A year after that project’s inception, 30% of BUCADEF’s 3000 farmers had accessed the latest improved varieties and were multiplying them TERTIARY MULTIPLICATION SITES on over 170 hectares across eight local group leaders and individual districts. The interest expressed by farmers receive seed from BUCADEF farmers in the earlier project, the and multiply further for sale or need to maintain links between distribution the generators of the improved technology and the end-users, and the fact that the World Health Organization had categorised Uganda’s vitamin A deficiency INDIVIDUAL FARMERS status in the clinical category, are receive seed and multiply further for the factors that led to the initiation sale or distribution to others of project R8040.

ACHIEVEMENTS The project identified the current major limitations to the sweet The multiplication, distribution and uptake pathway potato sub-sector as: a shortage of clean planting material of is highly profitable, bringing in up for particular locations, while others improved varieties; poor links to to 10 times more money than the such as SPK004 perfomed well in market outlets; inadequate storage sale of fresh roots, and contributing all districts. The varieties are now and processing techniques; lack of greatly to the sustainability of widely distributed in the districts market information; lack of capital; farms. of Central Uganda, where vitamin control of unlicensed traders; and A deficiency is most pronounced. high transportation costs. Improved varieties coupled with good management increased These districts are dedicated to Decentralised, informal, on-farm yields around threefold, multiplying the varieties more farmer-based planting material providing better culinary aggressively. multiplication farms were characteristics and associated In the project’s lifetime, the established in the eight districts. production returns. This resulted in multiplication farms have These farms are now operational, in high levels of adoption (about disseminated at least 10 improved supplying quality planting material 90%) for two varieties, one white- varieties to over 6000 other of improved varieties to farmers on fleshed (Naspot 1) and the other a timely basis. They are becoming farmers, and have sold planting orange-fleshed (SPK004), in the material estimated to allow increasingly commercial – surprising project target districts. in a region where sale of sweet planting of over 2000 hectares. potato vines was previously felt to Some orange-fleshed sweet potato In general, including multiplier be a social taboo. Producing sweet varieties that are rich in vitamin A, effects, BUCADEF estimates that potato planting material for sale for example Naspot 5, are suitable over 60% of the approximately

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One family in Luwero District was able to generate income that enabled it to shift from a grass-thatched hut to a larger, iron-roofed house, which they named ‘NASPOT’ after the improved sweet potato variety

60,000 farmers that it serves in access to better food. Over 60% of promote the adoption of orange- Central Uganda have received planting material sold by secondary fleshed sweet potato varieties as a improved varieties. Consequently, and tertiary multiplication farms dietary source of vitamin A. Links on-farm productivity has tripled. It was of the orange-fleshed type. were made with the Vitamin A is conservatively estimated that over Districts that are most affected by Initiative for Africa (VITA A) project 34,000 tonnes of improved sweet vitamin A deficiency were the most implemented by CIP in several potato worth over US$2 million responsive in multiplying orange- countries in East and Central Africa. were produced in the project area fleshed varieties, which are gaining The project also successfully during its duration. The increased popularity, particularly among introduced farmers to post- income has helped communities children and their mothers – the harvest processing to add value to improve their livelihoods, seen most important target groups. to their produce, for example in such concrete evidence as living There is testimony that eating by contributing to the successful in better houses, owning more orange-fleshed sweet potato has production of Nutri-porridge land, and sending more children to improved the sight of children by Maganjo Millers (funded by school, as well as having improved and the elderly, and has helped PRAPACE as a contribution to the people living with project). HIV/AIDS. Factors that negatively influenced FURTHER APPLICATION adoption rates were The project was successful in unavailability of establishing and strengthening credit, variations in inter-institutional links between consumer preferences, BUCADEF and networks (PRAPACE, unavailability and high Foodnet), NARO, extension prices of planting services, farmers, processors, material, and poor international research centres and transportation facilities donors. This work formed the basis from farm to market for a further DFID-funded project and vice versa. (R8273) in the Crop Post-Harvest The project brought Programme (CPHP), which was run In Luwero District, 78% of children interviewed together multiple by a coalition of 11 partners from preferred orange-fleshed sweet potato (a good partners in agriculture, various disciplines and managed by source of vitamin A) health and nutrition to PRAPACE.

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Promotion of sustainable sweet potato production and post-harvest management through farmer field schools in East Africa

R8167 Over many years, collaborative efforts of local and international agencies have Tanya Stathers focused on developing the components of sweet potato crop management in Natural Resources Institute, East Africa. This project brings together the most promising results from these University of Greenwich, UK studies into an integrated improved production and post-harvest management approach, with the aim of contributing realistically to higher yields, more Sam Namanda, Regina Kapinga reliable food security, and improved household incomes and livelihoods. The Centro Internacional de la Papa experiential learning approach of farmer field schools provides farmers with (CIP), Uganda a deeper understanding of crop ecology and with observational, analytical Godrick Khisa and problem-solving skills that help them to evaluate existing and innovative FAO Global IPM Facility, Kenya practices. The formation of cohesive farmers’ groups during these collective Robert Mwanga learning activities, and their exposure to economic analysis, increases the Namulonge Agricultural and Animal negotiating power of farmers with traders or suppliers, and leads to increased Production Research Institute, awareness of rights and the establishment of farmers’ action networks. Uganda ISSUES April 2002–March 2005 In East Africa, sweet potato is grown predominantly by women, both for home consumption and to supplement household income by sale in local markets and urban centres. In the past, sweet potato was consumed mainly in rural areas and its utilisation in SELECTED PUBLICATIONS towns was limited and often kept secret, as it was thought to reflect STATHERS, T., NAMANDA, S., MWANGA, R.O.M., KHISA, G. and the low-income status of the KAPINGA, R. (2005) Manual for consumer. However, with increasing Promoting sweet potato (artist: Sweetpotato Integrated Production urbanisation and health-conscious William Temu, Mwanza, Tanzania and Pest Management Farmer Field consumers, sweet potato is markets and/or market information; Schools in sub-Saharan Africa. becoming increasingly important in short shelf life of fresh roots after Kampala, Uganda: International urban food systems, and there has harvest; and limited processing Potato Center. ISBN 9970-895-01-X. been a positive change in attitude opportunities. These are often 168 pp. towards the crop. interrelated. This promotional NAMANDA, S., KAPINGA, R., Constraints to production include TUMWEGAMIRE, S., STATHERS, project is one of four CPP sweet T.E. and VAN DE FLIERT, E. (2006) lack of planting materials; a potato projects implemented Dissemination and promotion of shortage of varieties that are high- between 2000 and 2005. Unlike orange ﬂ eshed sweet potato varieties yielding, early-maturing, drought- the project that involved BUCADEF through FFS and VITAA partnerships: tolerant and high in dry matter (R8040, page 23), it attempted experiences in Eastern Uganda. and β-carotene content (R8040, to bring together as wide a range Proceedings of 13th Triennial see page 23); sweet potato weevil; of research findings as possible Symposium of the International sweet potato viruses (R8243, see and promote sustainable sweet Society for Tropical Root Crops, 9–15 page 28); low soil fertility; lack of potato production and post-harvest November 2003, Arusha, Tanzania (in press). NAMANDA, S., STATHERS, T., KAPINGA, R. et al. (2005) Promotion of sweet potato marketing and utilisation through improved chipping techniques: evidence from Abuket Sweet Potato Processors Association. Presented at the ISTRC- AB Symposium, Mombasa, Kenya. 1–5 November 2004. Products from orange-ﬂ eshed sweet potato: juice, crackies, doughnuts

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evidence they collect about their own activities • selling products they have made from sweet potato • linking to factories and setting up village-level quality processing units that function as proﬁ t- making businesses • having improved access to planting material at the end of the dry season, and making a good profit by selling planting material of new varieties to other farmers at the start of the rains Farmer ﬁ eld school activities: above, checking root development, • using different sweet potato Okunguro FFS; top right, singing and recipes (mandazis, chapatis, dancing, Saasia FFS; bottom right, juice, soup, etc.) to help increase sharing agro-ecosystem analysis income opportunities and to data, Undugu FFS encourage their children to eat more sweet potato. management through farmer field communication skills; planning; schools (FFS) in western Kenya and farming as a business; post-harvest FURTHER APPLICATION north-eastern Uganda. processing and sweet potato product development. To date The project also identified useful ACHIEVEMENTS seven extension and one NGO lessons in promoting promising staff have been trained as master technologies developed from Location-specific protocols, manuals trainers; 12 farmers have been research – one of the most and materials for sweet potato trained as farmer facilitators and a important being the link between integrated crop management FFS further 15 identified for this role. production and markets. A were developed and field-tested follow-on project (R8458) is via a process of three drafts. A wide range of diverse currently supporting a further These incorporated or acted upon stakeholders have been involved 37 sweet potato FFS in Uganda, comments from all the different in the project since it started, and Kenya and Tanzania, involving stakeholders who used the draft many have been brought together materials in the field during season- annually at the project’s planning over 1000 farmers. A number of long field schools. The final version and evaluation workshops. A other organisations have or are of the manual has been distributed stakeholder workshop was held in implementing linked activities using to more than 1000 stakeholders, March 2005, to which individuals skills initially acquired through and is intended for use by field from other organisations with an this project: examples include the school facilitators (who may be interest in sweet potato and food Ugandan National Agricultural extension staff, farmer facilitators security in Uganda and Kenya Advisory Services programmes or NGO/CBO staff facilitators). were invited. The participants (Busia and Soroti); the NARO/ gave presentations on their plans DFID Client-Oriented Agricultural Eighteen pilot sweet potato FFS for integrating sweet potato FFS Research and Dissemination Project were held (eight in Soroti, Uganda; approach and activities into their in Soroti; World Vision in Gulu 10 in western Kenya) involving 492 own programmes, and a feedback and Kitgum districts; the GTZ/CIP farmers, and four additional pilot system to enable progress in project on mass dissemination of schools were initiated as a self- achieving the plans was developed. sweet potato planting materials financed spin-off activity in Kagera, in East Africa project; the Kenya Farmers were able to use what they Tanzania. National Agricultural and Livestock had learned to improve household Extension Programme; the A training-of-trainers course income and nutrition through: on sweet potato pre- and post- Rural Energy and Food Security harvest management was • growing sweet potato varieties Organization (REFSO); Africa developed and refined through with high vitamin A content Now; and projects in Tanzania and participant feedback. This practical • producing more sweet potato Zanzibar. The future of FFS in the course covers: sweet potato using the techniques learned region now lies in the hands of variety development; agronomy; • testing different practices skilled farmer facilitators who are disease and pest management; • improved decision-making as not only trusted by their farmer experimental design and data a result of understanding how colleagues, but are also highly collection; facilitation and to base economic decisions on experienced and committed.

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Working with farmers to control sweet potato virus disease in East Africa

R8243 Sweet potato is among the most important food staples grown in sub-Saharan Richard Gibson Africa, particularly in East Africa. This project increased the productivity of Natural Resources Institute, sweet potato in East Africa by enabling farmers to grow the crop without the University of Greenwich, UK constraint of sweet potato virus disease and other pests and diseases. Farmers Buganda Cultural and Development participated in selecting superior resistant varieties and seedling accessions, Foundation, Uganda identifying appropriate cultural control measures and developing training tools and materials. Farmers and extensionists received resistant varieties and Centro Internacional de la Papa, training in disease control methods. Uganda Programme Regional d’Amelioration de la Pomme ISSUES the growing middle class from de Terre et de la Patate Douce supermarkets. By 2020, it is en Afrique Centrale et de l’Est With good husbandry, sweet predicted that root crops will have (PRAPACE), Uganda potato is among the most an even more important role in FAO Global IPM Facility, Kenya productive crops, but it can also food production in Africa than now Namulonge Agricultural and Animal yield on relatively poor soils. It and will be used in a more diverse Production Research Institute, requires few inputs except labour, range of products. Sweet potato Uganda and its ability to yield rapidly, and virus disease (SPVD), a complex Agricultural Research Institute- over a long cropping season, if disease caused by synergism Maruku, Tanzania harvested piecemeal, provides between a whitefly and an aphid- the flexibility to fit into a range of borne virus, is the most important November 2002–March 2005 cropping systems. It produces a disease of the crop throughout yield even when the rainfall pattern Africa. This CPP project on sweet is irregular. Consequently, it is an potato viruses built on previous important daily food for many DFID and EU research investments farmers and their families in Africa, and used participatory varietal particularly resource-poor farmers selection methods as promotional growing food on a restricted channels. area of marginal land. It can be important in disaster relief when ACHIEVEMENTS other crops fail. Sweet potato is The project was based at national a cheap food for the urban poor agricultural research institutes: in the growing conurbations of Namulonge in Uganda and Maruku Africa, yet is also purchased by in Tanzania. Through collaboration SELECTED PUBLICATIONS BYAMUKAMA, E., GIBSON, R.W., MWANGA, R.O.M., MPEMBE, I. and KAYONGO, J. (2004) Effect of shading and intercropping in management of sweetpotato virus disease in Uganda. Paper presented at the 9th Triennial Symposium of the International Society of Tropical Root Crops, October–November 2004, Mombasa, Kenya. RWEGASIRA, G.M., MARANDU, E.F., GIBSON, R.W. and KAPINGA, R.E. (2004) Control of sweetpotato virus disease through farmer ﬁ eld schools approach in Kagera region, Tanzania. Paper presented at the 9th Triennial Symposium of the International Society of Tropical Root Crops, October–November 2004, Mombasa, Kenya. Symptoms of sweet potato virus disease (front) contrasted with healthy plants

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with farmer groups (seven in barrier seemed to reduce each country), training was the yield of protected sweet provided for facilitators and potato. Simple phytosanitary farmers through project staff, guidelines (see below) were project-trained facilitators and developed for extension and exchange visits among the produced in poster form. groups. This training process Until recently all sweet potato included knowledge of the varieties grown in East Africa causes of SPVD, how to control were landraces derived from it by cultural methods, and the occasional chance seedlings. use and development of resistant Working with three farmer varieties. The training also groups in Uganda and three provided a test-bed whereby the in Tanzania, the project has project developed and validated made farmers aware of training tools and materials. how new varieties develop. Participatory varietal selection Farmers are involved in was conducted with farmer growing seedlings of groups in both countries, testing superior families and then nine and 11 cultivars in Uganda selecting them, with national and Tanzania, respectively. These programme breeders, cultivars included high-yielding, through clonal generations SPVD-resistant and high-vitamin in communal participatory A orange-fleshed ones (see breeding trials. They have R8040, page 23). Farmers also taken material to their Sweet potato storage root derived from an accession generally considered all varieties own gardens to experiment. selected by the participatory breeding process were useful: what did well in Farmers and scientists retain one location and one season did This was demonstrably effective, a small number of clones which not necessarily do well in other decreasing virus spread, increasing appear to be high yielding, resistant situations. There were trends, yield and improving the health to SPVD and Alternaria, and are however: the variety Naspot 1 of planting material. Isolation by monitoring them closely for other yielded highly in most places and distance and by a crop barrier was necessary quality attributes. most situations; Naspot varieties also tested. While both helped to One general constraint highlighted were all generally very SPVD- control SPVD, isolation by distance by the close collaboration with resistant but some were Alternaria- was unsatisfactory because of farmers was the importance susceptible. SPK004 was the most land shortages and vulnerability of of drought resistance in sweet SPVD-resistant of the orange- isolated crops, and the sorghum potato. Drought destroyed several fleshed cultivars. The project also identified more orange-fleshed Phytosanitation guidelines for controlling SPVD local varieties as a contribution to the VITA A project (see page 23). • If possible, choose a variety or local cultivar that is not much affected by the disease. Interviews suggested that varietal • Collect cuttings for new crops from healthy plants. resistance is the farmers’ control strategy of choice, apparently • Select cuttings from healthy plants in crops in which few other plants have the disease; avoid collecting cuttings from very old crops requiring no change in work because SPVD is less easy to see here than in vigorously growing other than a new variety. Farmers crops. were keen to receive a ‘basket’ of varieties to select from. However, in • Remove any diseased plants as soon as they appear, especially in practice this is over-simplistic as the young crops. ‘perfect variety’ is elusive. Farmers • Plant new crops away from old crops. are also all individuals with different • Avoid planting new crops where sweet potato was grown last season preferences, priorities of use and – storage roots and cuttings from old, diseased plants surviving in customers. Good cultural control the soil will produce diseased plants from which infection will easily practices can help here by enabling spread to your new crop. farmers to grow more than just • Ensure trash from old harvested crops, including unwanted storage highly resistant varieties. roots, is destroyed. Farmers traditionally select healthy All these treatments will work better the larger the area in which they planting material, so the main are used – so – work together with your neighbours. cultural control tested was roguing.

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Farmers in Luwero discussing whether or not to retain a particular accession

participatory varietal selection and livelihoods of poor farmers in due to their selection under this cultural control trials, and was East Africa through a variety environment. Sweet potato seems identified as a major reason why of measures, working directly particularly suited to participatory some farmers did not continue with small-scale farmers, mostly breeding: its short generation time growing the released varieties. women, and including refugees, means results have been achieved It also severely affected the farmers in refugee-affected areas, quickly, and its easy vegetative participatory breeding trials. One and families affected by HIV-AIDS. propagation means there is outcome of this is that the surviving Planting material of superior no further variation of chosen selected accessions are likely to be varieties has also been provided to accessions and there are ample drought- as well as disease-resistant. such groups. cuttings to share among farmers. In both Uganda and Tanzania, Through a participatory approach, FURTHER APPLICATION posters and leaflets explaining the project has validated the in different languages how to provision to farmers of a basket of The project will continue with control SPVD were developed superior, disease-resistant varieties, participatory breeding during an and used in training programmes backed up by selecting healthy extension (R8457), maintaining for extensionists; a section on planting material and roguing of close collaboration with national SPVD control was also included young crops. Participatory breeding programmes in Tanzania and in a general farmer field school has been tested for sweet potato Uganda to achieve an easy hand- technical manual (see R8167, page in Africa for the fi rst time, using over of selected material. From this 26). Extensive training was provided a protocol developed to enable basis, the national programme in to extensionists in Tanzania, scientists and farmers each to Uganda is continuing participatory especially through a collaboration contribute their own particular breeding using funds provided by developed with Norwegian People’s skills, resources and knowledge to the McKnight Foundation. Aid. Planting material of superior the process. A few high-yielding, disease-resistant and drought- The project will continue to work varieties was also disseminated to tolerant accessions have already closely with other organisations, refugee-affected areas in Kagera, been identifi ed. These accessions particularly in Tanzania, to Tanzania, and to refugees in show signs of being particularly disseminate project outputs Uganda. well adapted to the low fertility more widely through the CGIAR The project has sustained the evident in most farmers’ fi elds, Systemwide Tropical Whitefl y Project.

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Characterisation and epidemiology of root rot caused by Fusarium and Pythium spp. in Uganda

R7568 In the past 10 years, yields of common bean in Uganda have declined by Nicola Spence*, John Carder about 50% due to declining soil fertility, insect pests and diseases, most Warwick HRI, UK importantly root rots caused by Pythium, Rhizoctonia and Fusarium spp. Robin Buruchara, Sonia David These fungi had not been well characterised in Uganda, yet this information Centro Internacional de Agricultura is crucial for effective epidemiological studies, which can assist in developing Tropical (CIAT), Uganda sustainable disease management strategies. Using a combination of scientific Fina Opio, Julius Mukalazi, and socio-economic research, this project took an innovative approach Geoffrey Tusiime, Edidah Adipala to the problem by determining the significance of interactions, not only National Agricultural Research between components of the pathogen complex causing the disease, but also Organisation (NARO), Uganda between different farming practices and crop environments. The research has advanced current knowledge of the biology of the disease, its causal agents, Rory Hillocks, Dawn Teverson their epidemiology and interactions with other bean pests and pathogens. Natural Resources Institute, Novel tools have been developed for rapid and reliable molecular diagnosis University of Greenwich, UK of Fusarium and Pythium to sub-species and pathotype levels; distribution of April 2000–March 2003 the pathogens in Uganda has been mapped; and management approaches evaluated. This project has increased both researchers’ knowledge of farming See R6651, Perspectives on Pests practices, and farmers’ knowledge of the causes of root rots, building up a 1996–2000, p. 18 receptive system for the promotion and adoption of management approaches that will stabilise and increase yields. *Present address: Central Science Laboratory (CRL), UK ISSUES home consumption, and any excess production is sold at market. Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) is the most important pulse crop Thus beans play an essential role in Uganda, grown throughout the in the sustainable livelihoods of country but especially in the south- smallholder farmers and their SELECTED PUBLICATIONS west region. An important food to families, providing both food people of all income categories, security and income generation. BURUCHARA, R., OPIO, F., beans are especially important to In many areas there are several OTSYULA, R. et al. (2001) growing seasons a year, so crops Development of integrated the poor as a source of protein, are grown with minimal rotation management of bean root rots in East because animal protein is often and Central Africa: past, present and rare or completely absent from and limited or no fallow period. future. Poster presentation at: PABRA their diets. In East Africa, beans This has led to a decline in soil Millennium Conference, 28 May–1 are grown primarily by smallholder fertility together with an increase in June 2000, Arusha, Tanzania. farmers (especially women) for pest and disease pressure. MUKALAZI, J., BURUCHARA, R., ADIPALA, E. et al. (2002) Characterization of Pythium species pathogenic to common beans in Uganda. Poster presentation at: International Conference on Integrated Pest Management for Sub-Saharan Africa. 8–12 September 2002, Kampala, Uganda. TUSIIME, G., BURUCHARA, R., ADIPALA, E., CARDER, J., SPENCE, N. and OPIO, F. (2002) Variation and detection of Fusarium solani from beans exhibiting Fusarium root rot disease symptoms. Poster presentation at: International Conference on Integrated Pest Management for Sub-Saharan Africa. 8–12 September 2002, Kampala, Uganda. A participatory farmer research group in Uganda

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Beans showing chlorosis due to root rot

In south-western Uganda in 1994, knowledge transfer and resource Pythium were developed, tested bean production dropped to 25% supply were undertaken. Survey and applied to the pathogens of its previous level, dropping data were collected and analysed collected. More work has followed further to 20% in 1995. This from Kabale and Kisoro districts, to use the molecular probes drop in yield has been attributed covering farmers’ ITK; factors successfully for identification and to the effects of insect pests and influencing disease; resource quantification of the pathogens in diseases, especially root rot. Root distribution; and communication field soils (R8316, page 34; extension rots are believed to be caused by systems. From the survey data, project R8478). one or more soilborne pathogens including studies of the information The distribution of Fusarium and that act alone or as a complex flow within communities, and Pythium spp. associated with root depending on the environmental the results of several participatory rots in Uganda has been mapped conditions. Pathogens that have rural appraisals, dissemination for the first time. been isolated from plants displaying methodologies suitable for effective root rot symptoms include Fusarium technology transfer to resource- Interactions between root rot oxysporum, Fusarium solani, poor farmers were identified, and pathogens and other biotic factors Rhizoctonia solani and Pythium spp. dissemination The importance of root rots will materials continue to grow as the population are under pressure increases, resulting in development. greater cropping intensity. This Surveys were project responded to the need to made of farmers’ understand the disease aetiology fields and large and to diagnose the components of collections of root the pathogen complex in different rot pathogens bean-production areas. were established. ACHIEVEMENTS Novel, rapid and reliable molecular Studies were made of indigenous diagnostic technical knowledge (ITK) of root tools for the rots, farmers’ crop management identification, practices and their perception differentiation of root rots. Farmer groups and quantification Bean plants displaying root rot symptoms were established and training, of Fusarium and

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MPG RG* Morphology (MPG) and restriction MBL 3, MBL 4 fragment length polymorphisms 1 1 HRI–P. oligandrum (RFLPs) by CfoI, HinfI and MboI CBS 149.84–P. oligandrum† (RG) groupings of 35 Pythium 2 HRI–P. spinosum KAB 4, KAB 5 2 CBS 377.72–P. spinosum† strains. KIS=Kisoro; KAB=Kabale; 3 KIS 1 KIS 2, KAB 3 MBL=Mbale; AWD=Kawanda; 3 4 KIS 6 KIS 5, KIS 7 CBS=Centraalbureau voor chimmelcultures. 5 CBS 165.68–P. salpingophorum† 6 KAB 2, KAB 6, KAB 7 4 KAB 1 MBL 5 7 HRI–HS group KAWD 1 HRI–P. ultimum 8 † CBS 296.37–P. ultimum 5 HRI–P. irregulare, KIS 3 9 HRI 323933–P. irregulare† KAB 8, MBL 2 10 HRI–P. sylvaticum CBS 452.67–P. sylvaticum† 6 11 MBL 1, CBS 172.68–P. rostratum† 12 KIS 4, CBS 556/67–P. echinulatum†

influencing disease, including in a screenhouse. Accessions in the NARO. The knowledge, nematodes and bean stem a root-rot nursery (68 entries) technologies and approaches to root maggots (Ophiomyia spp.), were and a segregating population rot management identified were investigated. In glasshouse tests, (110 entries) were screened at promoted through project R7965 F. solani was a more damaging the highland NARO station of (see page 39). pathogen than either of two Kachiwekano. Several potentially Pythium spp. A nematode survey valuable accessions have been FURTHER APPLICATION revealed slight galling due to root- identified and will be subjected to Further research inputs knot nematodes (Meloidogyne further trials. have improved the tools for spp.) present in many fields, but Dissemination methodologies quantification of pathogenic severe galling was rare and there suitable for effective technology was no association between root Fusarium and Pythium species in transfer to resource-poor farmers rots and root-knot nematodes. order to monitor and evaluate soil were identified from several inoculum in relation to disease Management strategies for participatory rural appraisals management practices (R8316, the control of root rot that are and surveys of farmers’ ITK see page 34). A rapid, reliable appropriate to resource-poor and information flow within quantification method is critical farmers were evaluated in terms communities. The methodologies to epidemiological studies and of their effect on pathogen were evaluated using participatory to understanding how disease populations as well as their approaches in community fields, management practices affect the impact on disease. Several farmer- which also served as learning plots inoculum levels of pathogens managed trials were established for other farmers and groups. causing root rot disease in the in community plots involving six A modified farmer field school soil. The capacity for molecular farmer groups (with a total of over approach was used with two diagnostics in the National 100 members). These included groups to address deficiencies in Programme has also been participatory variety selection farmers’ understanding of bean enhanced. Additional studies on of root rot-resistant varieties, root rot disease. the interactions between pathogens and fertility improvement using (especially between F. solani different types of manure. Materials The studies on farmers’ working and Pythium spp.) are ongoing and technologies of interest were practices, technical knowledge and (R8478) to elucidate their relative then selected for use in farmers’ information flow proved invaluable importance in field situations in individual plots. in developing future strategies Uganda. This research may also lead for reducing the impact of bean to opportunities for biocontrol. The resistance to root rot of root rots on these resource-poor nearly 500 bean accessions was This work will enhance the smallholder groups. quantified in screenhouse trials productive capacity of bean crops, and in farmers’ fields. Over 300 The project has trained Ugandan particularly in Uganda, but also in germplasm entries were screened scientists to MSc and PhD level, and countries where beans are grown for resistance to Pythium root developed research protocols that under similar conditions, including rot under artificial inoculation will benefit researchers throughout Kenya, Rwanda and Tanzania.

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Bean root rot disease management in Uganda

R8316 An important food for people of all income categories, beans are particularly Nicola Spence*, Gay Marris valuable to the poor as a source of dietary protein because animal protein is Central Science Laboratory, UK often limited in their diet. In East Africa, beans play an essential role in the sustainable livelihoods of smallholder farmers and their families, providing Robin Buruchara, George Mahuku both food security and income generation. Root rots are the most serious Centro Internacional de Agricultura constraint to bean production in Uganda, and the development of good Tropical (CIAT), Uganda management is limited by insufficient knowledge of the primary pathogens. John Carder, S. Sreenivasaprasad This project built on previous research to develop a multiplexing polymerase Warwick HRI, UK chain reaction detection method for key Pythium species that are pathogenic Fina Opio to beans as well as other important crops such as sorghum and millets, often Namulonge Agricultural and Animal grown in association/rotation with beans. As a result, a quantitative assay Production Research Institute, (combining classical and biotechnology techniques) can now be adapted Uganda for the most important pathogens (e.g. P. ultimum var. ultimum), which can then be used to evaluate crop and management options on their inoculum July 2003–March 2005 levels in the soil. This will generate information on more effective options *Present address: Central Science for integrated root rot management strategies. Information and techniques Laboratory (CRL), UK to assess how these options affect pathogen population levels have been generated, with prospects for application by researchers in the Pan-African Bean Research Alliance (PABRA) region.

ISSUES Pathogens that have been isolated from plants displaying root-rot The intensity of bean production in symptoms include Fusarium Uganda is very high. In many areas oxysporum, Rhizoctonia solani and there are several growing seasons Pythium spp. Previous research a year, so crops are grown with (R7568, page 31) developed minimal rotation and limited or molecular diagnostic tools for the no fallow period. These practices identification and differentiation of have led to a decline in soil fertility Fusarium and Pythium. However, along with a rise in disease pressure although progress in quantification caused by increasing pathogen SELECTED PUBLICATIONS was good for Fusarium, this inoculum levels in the soil. In south- proved to be more difficult for BURUCHARA, R.A. (2003) Integrated western Uganda in 1994, bean Pythium. Following on from the Management Strategies for Bean production fell to previous work, this Root Rots in Africa. CIAT in Africa No. 25% of its previous project aimed to 2.CIAT, Cali, Colombia. level, dropping develop rapid detection MUKALAZI, J., ADIPALA, E., further to 20% in and quantification BURUCHARA, R., CARDER, J., OPIO, 1995. Although this methods for Pythium F. and SPENCE, N.J. (2003) Variation dramatic decrease in spp. to support the and identiﬁ cation of Pythium species yield was attributed evaluation of resistant associated with bean root rot to the effects of a germplasm and disease disease in Uganda. In: Proceedings Bean root rot symptoms of the VIth African Crop Science number of insect management practices; Conference, 12–17 October 2003, pests and diseases, to ascertain the role and Nairobi, Kenya. African Crop Science root rot has now been identified significance of other crops within Society, Kampala, Uganda. as a major constraint to bean bean-based cropping systems in the TUSIIME, G., BURUCHARA, R., production. The problem is no development of root rots in order to ADIPALA, E., CARDER, J., SPENCE, longer restricted to south-western allow sustainable integrated disease N. and OPIO, F. (2003) Variation of Uganda, and its control is now of management; to characterise Fusarium solani from beans with high priority for the country. F. oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli, causing root rot symptoms inferred from wilt disease in climbing beans in AFLP analysis, pathogenicity and Root rots are believed to be Rwanda; and to explore interactions DNA sequences. In: Proceedings caused by one or more soilborne of the VIth African Crop Science pathogens that act either alone between root-rot pathogens and Conference, 12–17 October 2003, or as a complex of two or more other soilborne, disease-moderating Nairobi, Kenya. African Crop Science pathogen species, depending on organisms, allowing improvement of Society, Kampala, Uganda. the environmental conditions. disease-management practices.

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ACHIEVEMENTS Further studies using four Pythium beans in Rwanda, has been species pathogenic to beans determined. This will be a valuable A multiplex polymerase chain induced symptoms and damage tool in monitoring the spread of reaction (PCR) assay was developed on different crops to varying these isolates in the Eastern and for Pythium ultimum, P. oligandrum, degrees. The crops most affected Central Africa Bean Research P. salpingophora and P. spinosum. were beans, sorghum, millets, field Network (ECABREN) region. The assay was validated, peas and maize, in descending Pathogen- and race-specific standardised and optimised for the order, maize being least affected. primers have been developed to simultaneous detection of these species. A DNA extraction protocol Inspecting that utilises skimmed milk was bean varieties tested on different soil samples in field plot in spiked with these species, and all Kabale District, species were successfully detected Uganda in the samples. New probes were developed for Pythium torulosum, P. deliense and P. nodosum, for incorporation into the multiplex PCR detection system. A quantitative PCR assay has been developed for P. ultimum, the most important Pythium pathogen causing bean root rot. Heterologous probes were developed and the Observable symptoms included examine the molecular variation of assay tested. reduced root and shoot mass, Fusarium spp. root necrosis and shoot symptoms To evaluate the effects of beneficial The incidence and severity of root of deficiency (yellow and purple interactions between root-rot rots on crops were ascertained leaves). On-farm and glasshouse pathogens and other soilborne through surveys carried out in 16 studies showed that major crops disease-moderating organisms, sub-counties in Kabale District, intercropped or grown in rotation different ways (form and timing) including 22 crops and two with beans are affected by Pythium of deploying beneficial organisms common weeds. In the second species pathogenic to beans, (Fusarium spp.) were evaluated season, additional surveys were suggesting that they could serve against Pythium spp. on beans carried out in 10 sub-counties and as alternative hosts of the bean under screenhouse conditions. Use samples taken from 15 crops. A pathogens. total of 180 samples were collected. of sorghum or millets as media for Second-season studies carried out growing and deploying beneficial A range of symptoms (associated on-farm confirmed that some soil Fusarium spp. was promising. with Pythium root rot in the amendments [farmyard manure, screenhouse) were recorded on green manure, NPK and Ridomil FURTHER APPLICATION different crops, notably sorghum, (metalaxyl) fungicide], which are A fast and accurate quantitative millets, maize, peas and beans. useful in integrated management of assay for pathogenic species of Initial characterisation of cultures bean root rots, were also effective Pythium would be very valuable isolated from plant samples using in reducing damage and increasing in assessing the influence of a semi-selective medium showed yield parameters in sorghum, management practices on inoculum that nearly half the samples were millets, field peas and maize. The levels and trends, and hence their Mortierella spp. Isolates considered evidence obtained indicates that effectiveness in managing bean to be Pythium came from Irish some crops intercropped or grown root rots. Quantitative assay will potatoes, sweet potatoes, sorghum, in rotation with beans are hosts also facilitate monitoring and maize, beans, peas, millets and one of, or are infected by, Pythium spp. assessment of the root-rot problem weed species. pathogenic on beans. Similarly, under different conditions, as some organic and inorganic Pythium cultures have been well as the relative population of amendments influence the effects characterised using restriction potential biocontrol species such as of bean root-rot pathogens on fragment length polymorphism P. oligandrum. A follow-on project these crops, suggesting that use of (RFLP) and grouped into 10 (R8478) is developing and adapting amendments has broader effects on classes. Representatives of these a quantitative assay (molecular and many crops. classes are being sequenced using classical) for the characterisation of oomycete universal primers, and The pathogenicity of isolates of Pythium species that are pathogenic the sequences compared with a F. oxysporum f.sp. phaseoli, to beans, and that have potential as Pythium sequence database. causing wilt disease in climbing antagonistic or biocontrol agents.

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Participatory promotion of disease-resistant and farmer-acceptable Phaseolus beans

R7569 Phaseolus beans provide affordable dietary protein for poor producers and Dawn Teverson consumers in both urban and rural areas. Diseases can cause substantial Natural Resources Institute (NRI), crop losses, but can be managed sustainably using appropriate disease- University of Greenwich, UK resistant germplasm, thus avoiding application of pesticides. This work aimed Catherine Madata to disseminate improved varieties of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) Agricultural Research Institute (ARI)- resulting from previous CPP research in East Africa by giving farmers access Uyole, Tanzania to seed of appropriate, locally adapted varieties in sufficient quantities to meet demand. A bean variety (Urafiki), developed with farmers through John Taylor participatory screening and assessment, was released in November 2003, and Warwick HRI, UK multiplied in sufficient quantities to fulfil the immediate requirements of the Chris Garforth seed-release process. Seed-uptake pathways and distribution channels used University of Reading, UK by farmers were studied and project outputs prioritised according to farmers’ March 2000–March 2003 requirements and incomes. The result should be improved food security where beans are grown for subsistence, and raised incomes in households where See R6651, Perspectives on Pests beans are grown as a cash crop. In urban areas better bean varieties will 1996–2000, p. 18 improve the stability of supply, and therefore prices, of this key component of the staple diet of the urban poor.

ISSUES work produced a range of valuable germplasm. This material has Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) are been subjected to severe disease known in Tanzania as the ‘meat pressure to provide agronomically of the poor’, underlining the adapted seed lines for farmer importance that farmers themselves participatory selection. A linked place on the crop. Since the early DFID project (R6670) revealed the SELECTED PUBLICATIONS 1990s, yields of common bean in complex management strategy East Africa have been declining ANON. (2002) Mbegu za maharage due to reduced soil fertility, insect used by farmers in the Southern kutoka Uyole ‘Mbegu mpya zinakuja’, Highlands, who use bean mixtures Zimetathminiwa na kuthibitishwa pests and a range of diseases. composed of between two and 25 na wakulima. Wizara ya Kilimo Bean landraces collected as part na Chakula, Taasisi ya Utafi ti na of farmer’s bean mixtures (project components of different size, shape Maendeleo – Uyole, Mbeya (in R6651) were found to be resistant and colour. This knowledge formed Kiswahili). to several races of one or more the basis of the current project’s studies of local requirements, ANON. (2002) Ushirikishwaji major bean pathogens. Together Wakulima Katika Uzalishaji Mbegu with the activities of the Tanzanian communication strategies and Bora za Maharage. Wizara ya national bean programme, this uptake pathways. Kilimo na Chakula, Taasisi ya Utafi ti na Maendeleo – Uyole, Mbeya (in Kiswahili). ASSEID, B. and GARFORTH, C.J. (2003) Participatory promotion of disease resistant and farmer acceptable beans in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania: survey to assess the impact of the communication and promotion strategy. University of Reading, UK (unpublished). LULEKA, M. and GARFORTH, C.J. (2003) Role of local government structures in communication and information fl ow in respect of Phaseolus beans in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania. University of Reading, UK (unpublished). On-farm review of bean varieties

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After presentation to the Tanzanian NATIONAL Media Seed Research Committee, this variety was released in November DISTRICT 2003. HIMA District Religious Crop diversity is often used as leaders groups a means of stabilising yields. Smallholder subsistence farmers Books and need sustainable yields that can be newsletters Seminars Businessmen relied on year after year, and crops that are robust enough to provide some yield, even in poor seasons. Development Part of their coping strategy is colleges the use of bean mixtures, which are fundamental to agriculture DIVISION in the Southern Highlands of OR WARD Seminars Tanzania and have withstood HIMA decades of political pressure to eliminate them. Only recently have researchers started to understand VILLAGE Seminars farmers’ management of their Local Demonstrations biodiversity resources. This variety leaders was developed to complement FARMER’S farmers’ bean mixtures rather than HOUSEHOLD replace them. It will enhance rather Fields Businessmen than replace agrobiodiversity, and therefore contribute to sustainable A sample agricultural information network drawn up by farmers in Kifanyi increases in crop yields. [HIMA = DANIDA-funded Hifadhi Mazingira (Conserve the Environment) Project] Bean mixtures also contribute to maximising household income by Seeds are small packages of six participating farmers. Farmers’ decreasing production costs. These technology, and relatively cheap. priorities were quantified in a mixtures have diverse growth habits They can be tried by farmers on a participatory ranking exercise. – bush, climbers and intermediate small scale without jeopardising types are grown mixed together to The variety Urafiki, released their overall production. Studies produce a multi-dimensional crop as a result of project activities, (R6670) have shown that farmers canopy providing maximum light originated from a cross made in are familiar with the management interception, and making optimum 1995 between Kabanima (5060/6) of genetic resources – especially use of the land area cultivated and Canadian Wonder. Kabanima women, who tend to be the seed and the water and nutrients (5060/6) is a bean mixture sub- custodians. This current project available. This makes efficient component that was collected has continued the work to show use of resources, minimising the in 1991 from a farmer in the that sustainable management of opportunity for weed competition. Southern Highlands of Tanzania. agricultural biodiversity is crucial Thus weeding is minimised in this Canadian Wonder is a commercial to both increased food production system, resulting in more efficient variety that has large red seeds and sound management of the use of labour, with a consequent which are readily marketable. The environment. reduction in drudgery (for women). new variety (Uraﬁ ki) combines Farmers select their beans carefully adaptation to the severe growing ACHIEVEMENTS to ensure they complement other conditions in Tanzania and bean mixture components, and the UK-bred bean lines, derived from resistance to a range of diseases variety developed by this project is locally adapted Tanzanian bean with a desired colour shape and suitable for this use. mixtures, have been selected under size of bean – it is well liked and severe disease conditions at ARI- readily marketable. Urafiki is well In addition, maximising the use of Uyole and assessed on-farm. Two liked and readily marketable. disease resistance minimises the seasons of agronomic evaluation Simultaneous participatory use of crop protection chemicals, of project-developed material screening and assessment, both which are dangerous to both resulted in the selection of eight on-station and on-farm, means users and the environment, and promising bean lines from the that farmers have ownership of this expensive for resource-poor 32 screened on-station. Activities variety and has greatly increased farmers to buy. Beans also fix moved on-farm to Lyadebwe with the speed of varietal development. much of their own nitrogen, thus

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reducing the requirement for steps to minimise them has been Although not the preferred artificial fertilisers. addressed by production of posters source for new seed, research and and leaflets, which were distributed A survey of seed-uptake pathways extension services did score highly throughout the Southern Highlands showed that farmers are interested for the credibility of information. of Tanzania, and by a radio in growth potential and yield In order to retain this credibility, programme on beans. Although potential, with only 6% of male all new germplasm released and copies of the posters and leaflets respondents and no women disseminated by research stations making any reference to diseases. have been widely distributed to must be free of seedborne However, growth potential is extension workers and NGOs, diseases. the process has highlighted some highly negatively correlated Marketing of beans is increasingly constraints to distribution. The with disease. The first effect of important, both within Tanzania general scarcity of print material most diseases will be decreased and in export markets to and the perceived cost and quality seed germination, which will be neighbouring Malawi, Zambia of the leaflets combine to create noticed immediately by farmers. and the Democratic Republic of reluctance on the part of extension This means, however, that new Congo. This variety, developed staff (public sector and NGOs) varieties cannot be marketed and tested in collaboration with directly on the basis of disease to give them out to farmers. For farmers, is both appropriate for resistance, although this may similar reasons, posters are more use as a component of local bean have been the major force behind likely to remain on the (internal) mixtures, and has also deliberately their development. Yield per se is walls of extension offices than to been bred to have a seed colour, not the most important attribute be displayed in public places where size and shape which is suitable required by farmers: taste, seed- they run the risk of being taken for marketing. At the same time coat colour, cooking qualities and away or damaged by rain. it retains the adaptation to local keeping ability are often more Existing sources of agricultural environmental constraints of its important. The project worked information were found to vary parent Kabanima, collected as part with farmers from an early stage according to location and social of a local mixture in 1991. to ensure that their performance and economic conditions. Informal criteria were met and to give them contacts were the most important FURTHER APPLICATION a sense of ownership. source of information about This project could only have been The project also had a significant new bean varieties: for women, achieved using bean materials communication component. the market was most important developed during project R6651 Increasing farmers’ awareness of whereas for men, friends and and the knowledge of bean bean diseases so that they can take other farmers were preferred. mixtures and their management by farmers gained during the in situ project (R6670). The original bean cross was made in 1995, from a mixture component collected in 1991. By 2005 Uraﬁ ki had been ofﬁ cially released and the promotion project R8415 reports that 300,000 people now have access to this variety. The project has contributed to poverty reduction and enhanced the ability of smallholders to participate in commercial farming through making available this high-yielding and Selling beans at the local market marketable variety.

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Promotion of IPM strategies for major insect pests of beans in hillsides of eastern and southern Africa

R7965 The project aimed to increase uptake of IPM technologies through improved Eliaineny M. Minja, Kwasi Ampofo dissemination strategies, in order to reduce losses caused by major bean Centro Internacional de Agricultura pests in smallholder farming systems. This was achieved through surveys Tropical (CIAT), Tanzania to improve understanding of the socio-economic characteristics that influence technology uptake in smallholder farmer communities, and of local Ministries of Agriculture, Research knowledge systems and traditional IPM strategies. The project adopted a and Extension – Uganda, Kenya, participatory group approach that helped create awareness of IPM among Tanzania, Malawi local community members and policy-makers. Participating farmers have CIAT, Uganda and Malawi accessed high-yielding, pest-tolerant beans and other crops, as well as FARM Africa improved cultural/agronomic practices that have helped raise production World Vision levels. Farmers in target areas have been linked to different partners to Concern Universal enhance their access to services and information (on markets, farm inputs, savings and credit, farm enterprises, etc.). The participatory approach, and the African Highland Initiative (AHI) blending of indigenous and improved technologies, have restored farmers’ Project, Uganda confidence and empowered them in decision-making as well as raising CABI Bioscience, UK awareness of other community members and policy-makers. Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, UK ISSUES quality livestock feed. Although beans are grown largely for April 2001–March 2005 Common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) subsistence and mainly by women is an important food and cash crop farmers, about 40% of the total in eastern, central and southern production in eastern, central and Africa. The crop contributes as southern Africa is marketed at an much as 60% of dietary protein average annual value of US$452 in Rwanda and Burundi, and million. SELECTED PUBLICATIONS about 30% in parts of eastern and southern Africa. Common beans Bean production intensity is ALLEN, D.J., AMPOFO, J.K.O. and greatest in highly populated WORTMANN, C.S. (2003) Field Guide are highly valued by the poor hillsides, where farms are small On Bean Insect Pests, Diseases And because all parts of the plant are Nutritional Disorders. CIAT, Arusha, consumed: the leaves are used as and few other significant sources Tanzania (in Kiswahili). spinach and the grains are eaten of dietary protein are available. fresh or dried, while the haulms The intensification of production AMPOFO, J.K.O., MZIRAY, H.A., in such areas has resulted in the HOLLENWEGER, U.V., MINJA, E.M., (stems and pod shells) are a high- elimination of fallow periods, soil MASSOMO, S.M. and ULICKY, E. (2004) Scaling out IPM with bean fertility decline and high levels of growers: some experiences from insect pests (particularly bean stem eastern and southern Africa. In: maggots, Ophiomyia spp.; bean Scaling Out for Impact: Natural foliage beetles, Ootheca spp.) and Resources Management. CIAT, Arusha, diseases (root rots). These, together Tanzania. ISBN 958-9439-55-1. with frequent droughts, are the 108 pp. principal constraints limiting bean CIAT and FUTURE HARVEST (2003) productivity in the region. Disseminating bean IPM technologies: an adaptive approach with farmers. Collaborative research work by In: Agroecology Highlights. CIAT, national research and extension Arusha, Tanzania. systems in eastern, central and southern Africa, CIAT, the Eastern HOLLENWEGER, U.V. and AMPOFO, and Central Africa Bean Research J.K.O. (2001) No-one has a monopoly on good ideas: learning Network (ECABREN) and AHI, through sharing in IPM technology has focused on developing development in Tanzania. In: and disseminating sustainable Proceedings of the South and East strategies for management of these African Association of Farming pests. Strategies have included Systems Research 2001. Nairobi, Farmers benefit from improved bean genetic resistance, chemical seed Kenya. varieties and agronomic practices

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Farmer group in Dedza, central Malawi

dressing, cultural practices to tolerant/resistant crop varieties, soil radio, songs, poems, shows, reduce population build-up, and and water conservation practices, displays, leaflets, posters, booklets integrated soil/water and crop neem powder). and TV programmes were used management strategies to enhance by different groups to disseminate Robust and dynamic farmer groups plant vigour and tolerance of knowledge. Farmers’ need for easy (over 250 groups with more than pests. Dissemination of some of access to information within reach 60,000 members in Malawi, these management strategies was of their villages, and the retention Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda), already in progress in pilot areas of of documents on their traditional plus additional groups in Rwanda northern Tanzania in collaboration knowledge and research results, and the Democratic Republic of with the extension service and led to the establishment of village Congo, were formed at project through AHI. information centres (VICs) – small sites. Over 60% of group members community libraries stocking are women farmers, who also play ACHIEVEMENTS extension and other relevant key roles in group leadership. The reading materials. Currently The project adopted a participatory groups have been instrumental there are 42 VICs operational at group approach, conducting in planning and implementing project sites in Uganda (1), Kenya sessions of group training for major development activities in (2), Tanzania (6), Malawi (1) and innovative farmers, extension their respective communities. Rwanda (32). The VIC in south- officers, local leaders and other Group members have been very western Uganda is in the same service providers in target keen to learn by doing, and to premises as a telecentre that locations. These were followed share knowledge and experiences. was set up by the AHI project. by on-farm participatory learning/ Group-to-group visits have resulted Farmer group members and demonstration trials to study the in farmer-to-farmer dissemination other individuals are using VICs biology and ecology of the major of knowledge beyond the to obtain knowledge. Innovative bean pests and diseases, effects expectations of the project. of soil nutrients, etc. Farmer farmers have been training and groups experimented with both Researchers and extension catalysing the formation of new traditional (wood ash, crude personnel have developed a better farmer groups at different sites extracts from different botanical understanding of the operation in each season. Some farmer plants, soap and kerosene, cow and needs of different types of groups began researching on one urine and cowshed slurry, soil farmers and farmer groups. Formal constraint and, within a period amendments) and improved crop and informal group training, group of three years, were able to and pest management technologies demonstrations, participatory conduct studies on more than 10 (cultural/agronomic practices, monitoring and evaluation, drama, constraints and became exposed

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to over six different partners. private seed traders, etc.); and The participation and involvement The promotional materials have other special projects [AHI; CPP of farmer group members has been shared with national bean projects R7569 (p. 36), R7568 given farmers the confidence to research programmes in Rwanda, (p. 31), R8219 (p. 76), R8316 identify production problems, Madagascar and the Democratic (p. 34); PADEP and the Agricultural search for solutions, experiment Republic of Congo. Marketing Systems Development with options, monitor and evaluate the options, disseminate and The processes used in share knowledge, exchange implementing project activities experiences with other farmers, have attracted an increasing and plan for future action. number of active partners Farmers have been enabled to (government ministries, NGOs, train others, implement research CBOs, other projects) who activities, collect information, are now using the farmer and present reports clearly at groups to plan and implement farm level during field days up development programmes in to regional workshop level. target communities. This process has encouraged Policy-makers from local farmers to take the lead in government and political organising research activities and offices participated in project in disseminating information to activities and have initiated other farmers and stakeholders cross-sectoral initiatives. In at project sites, to the extent western Kenya, for example, the that the role of researchers two VICs were partly furnished and extension agents is now to by the Ministries of Health provide backstopping services and Education with interest in in response to farmer group using such centres for HIV/AIDS demands. awareness and adult literacy campaign activities, respectively. The availability of both The Ministries of Agriculture in traditional and improved IPM Kenya and Tanzania have used technologies for bean pests was the project farmer groups as Farmers active in disseminating IPM strategies improved beyond the project an entry point to projects such target sites. Specifically, the as the Participatory Development Programme in Tanzania, etc.]. socio-economic characteristics of and Empowerment Project (PADEP) The promotion of outputs from IPM technology uptake and end- in Tanzania, where farmer groups CPP projects R7568 and R7569 user benefits from participation develop proposals through the has widened the scope of project in project activities have been district authorities (or through the activities and stimulated farmers determined and documented for Kenya Agriculture Research Institute to demand more pest-tolerant Hai District in northern Tanzania. in Kenya) to compete for grants materials, information on the Partnerships in project activities for farm inputs and promotion availability of quality seed and have enabled the participating of research technologies. The training in seed multiplication. farmers to increase farm Tanzanian Government has Recent links to R8219 have production and have contributed instituted a national policy on increased farmers’ awareness to improved food security and group approaches to planning and of appropriate soil nutrient household income, despite implementing rural development management for different crops. shortcomings such as frequent activities by different institutions. Some farmer groups have also droughts and the increasingly high Farmer groups requested various requested information on markets, incidences of HIV/AIDS at project services and were linked to their rural enterprises, training in various sites. respective partners at project sites. fields of production and visits/tours These partners included NGOs to share knowledge. In response to FURTHER APPLICATION (World Vision, Concern Universal, this demand, efforts have been made Farm Africa, TechnoServe, to link some groups to other CIAT Follow-up uptake studies on the Adventist Development and Relief projects (e.g. the Pan-African Bean socio-economic benefits of IPM Agency, PLAN International, Research Alliance, PABRA; ECABREN; technologies to bean farming Community Based Organisation the Southern African Bean Research communities have been conducted Against Desertification, AFRICARE, Network, SABREN; the Enabling at target project sites in Malawi, CARE, etc.); extension and Rural Innovation initiative) and to Tanzania, Kenya and Uganda service agents (local government, interested local partners. during April–November 2005.

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Epidemiology and variability of the coffee wilt pathogen

R8188 Coffee wilt disease causes major damage to Coffea canephora grown by Mike Rutherford, Julie Flood smallholder farmers in the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda. It CABI Bioscience, UK also threatens production of C. canephora in Tanzania, although outbreaks are presently localised. The disease also occurs on Coffea arabica in Ethiopia, Georgina Hakiza where it causes substantial losses in some areas. Project scientists collaborated Coffee Research Institute, Uganda closely with partners in a larger regional coffee rehabilitation and disease Million Abebe, Girma Adugna management programme (the Regional Coffee Wilt Programme, led by the Jimma Agricultural Research Center, Common Fund for Commodities). In this way a more comprehensive, regional Ethiopian Agricultural Research perspective was gained on coffee wilt disease and the prospects for its future Organization management. Important new knowledge of the wilt disease pathogen has Deusdedit Kilambo been gained, particularly regarding pathogen variability, paving the way for Tanzania Coffee Research Institute research into resistant varieties, development of a rapid diagnostic technique, Daniel Bieysse and advice on phytosanitary measures to limit disease spread. Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche ISSUES patchy, ranging from 44% in some Agronomique pour le areas to 100% in others. Développement (CIRAD), France Coffee is Uganda’s premier export, accounting for up to Coffee wilt disease (also known as August 2002–December 2004 55% of foreign exchange. tracheomycosis or vascular wilt of Currently 70% of coffee-growing coffee) had been declining from areas are affected by coffee the late 1950s, but the disease wilt disease, and the Ugandan began to appear again in parts Coffee Developmental Authority of Central Africa in the 1970s. has estimated that the disease is Although it continues to be a causing an annual financial loss problem on Coffea canephora per coffee-growing household of in Uganda and the Democratic approximately US$63 (compared Republic of Congo (DRC), it does with a per capita annual income in not appear to affect Coffea arabica Uganda of US$190). In Ethiopia, in those countries. In Ethiopia the SELECTED PUBLICATIONS losses due to coffee wilt disease are potential risk to C. arabica posed by CABI (2003) Coffee Projects Page. the recent outbreak on CABI commodities: www.cabi- C. canephora in Uganda commodities.org/Coffee/Cfp/Cfp.htm and DRC needs to be assessed. Symptoms ODUOR, G. (2004) Improvement of coffee production in africa by control similar to those of of coffee wilt disease. Regional coffee wilt disease have Coffee Wilt Programme CFC/ICO/13: also been reported on Report of annual review and planning C. canephora trees in workshop, Nairobi, 9–13 November the Kagera Region of 2004. CAB International Africa Tanzania. If the disease Regional Centre, Nairobi. has indeed spread to RUTHERFORD, M.A. (2006) Current these areas of Tanzania knowledge of coffee wilt disease, a from Uganda or major constraint to coffee production elsewhere, the aetiology, in Africa. Phytopathology (in press). extent and severity of RUTHERFORD, M.A., HAKIZA, G. the outbreaks need to and PHIRI, N. (2003) Isolation and be determined, and Identiﬁ cation of fusaria from coffee: efforts to limit further a training manual. CABI Bioscience, spread must be put in Egham, UK. place. RUTHERFORD, M., FLOOD, J., LEA, S. The aim of this project and CROZIER, J. (2005) Coffee Wilt was to acquire new Disease. CABI Bioscience, Egham, UK (advisory leaﬂ et, 8 pp). Defoliation caused by coffee wilt disease knowledge of genetic

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C. arabica in Tanzania or (although cultivation is limited) on C. canephora in Ethiopia. In-country studies of pathogenic variability within the two F. xylarioides forms were not possible during the project, and further information on host specificity and aggressiveness in particular would be useful. If the genetic variability observed between the two forms of F. xylarioides is based on differences at specific DNA sites (for example an intron or deletion), the prospects for developing a rapid, DNA-based diagnostic technique are good. This research has also helped to Sampling weed species for the presence of F. xylarioides clarify the mechanisms of coffee wilt disease transmission and disease and pathogenic variability within groups is very limited, suggesting spread. Initial data generated by the coffee wilt disease pathogen, that they may represent two clonal a number of small-scale on-farm Fusarium xylarioides (teleomorph lineages. Studies of pathogenic and on-station trials suggest that Gibberella xylarioides), and of variability also revealed that type wounds made with a machete the mechanisms of pathogen A is pathogenic only to C. arabica previously used to cut infected transmission and infection in variants, while type C is pathogenic coffee wood are sufficient to relation to disease spread. This only to C. canephora. The minor induce wilt disease development on knowledge will be of great genetic differences observed healthy coffee, at least in mature value in the search for durable between these two forms, which trees. Coffee wood, an important resistance and generally enable preliminary studies indicate may source of fuel for farmers, can more appropriate, effective and be caused by DNA insertions also act as a source of infection sustainable cultural management or deletions, may be linked to to young coffee seedlings if the options to be made available for pathogenicity traits. wood is already affected by wilt validation, including validation by These findings have considerable disease, while infested field soil farmers. As part of the broader implications for the search for host can remain infective to seedlings Regional Coffee Wilt Programme resistance to coffee wilt disease, for at least three months after in Africa, it will ultimately enable as the genetic base within the removal of an infected coffee tree. strategies to be developed to pathogen appears to be relatively Despite speculation that insects reduce the impact of coffee wilt narrow. Theoretically, coffee may play a role in transmission of diseases, helping to stabilise possessing resistance or tolerance to F. xylarioides, the fungus was not smallholder coffee productivity in a type A isolate from Ethiopia should found on the body parts of a range target countries. show this trait against any type of insects commonly found on ACHIEVEMENTS A isolate, at least within Ethiopia. coffee farms and associated with Similarly, resistance or tolerance coffee, including coffee pests, bees A number of very significant findings to a type C isolate from Tanzania, and termites. Nor has the fungus emerged from the project. In-depth Uganda or DRC genetic analysis of the pathogen should exhibit revealed that, while overall variation this characteristic is limited, the ongoing coffee wilt when challenged disease endemic in Ethiopia and the by isolates from recent, highly destructive outbreak throughout this on robusta coffee in other parts of region. East and Central Africa comprises Host specificity two forms of F. xylarioides. The first operating within (type A) is found only in Ethiopia the pathogen and only on C. arabica; the second may also explain (type C) occurs in Tanzania, Uganda why coffee wilt and DRC, and only on C. canephora. disease was not Variability within each of these two encountered on Ascospores of Fusarium xylarioides

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Setting up screenhouse trials to assess pathogenicity of the coffee wilt disease pathogen

been found on a wide range of provide the backbone for research This component is, in part, possible alternative hosts, including on coffee wilt disease, and directly dependent on the crops commonly cultivated alongside constitute an extremely useful knowledge generated by this coffee, or on weed species occurring resource for future research project, and that of the linked on coffee farms. initiatives. It is imperative that they International Cooperation with are adequately maintained and, Developing Countries (EU) Isolation of F. xylarioides from soil, as where feasible, built upon. project (Development of a long- an indicator of the existence of viable term strategy based on genetic propagules of the pathogen, proved FURTHER APPLICATION resistance and agro-ecological a problem throughout the project. approaches against coffee wilt The new knowledge generated Development of coffee wilt disease disease), coordinated by CIRAD. by this project will support the symptoms on seedlings raised in Regional workshops are held development of more appropriate, soil was (albeit based on somewhat each year to summarise outputs effective, applicable and sustainable circumstantial evidence) found to from the linked projects, identify management strategies for coffee be the only means of confirmation. those suitable for extension and wilt disease. The project outputs Successful development of a DNA- dissemination, identify promotional can be taken up by national based diagnostic technique would pathways and allocate resources to coffee improvement programmes constitute a major step forward, but promotional activities. still would not allow differentiation for validation, promotion and between living and non-living fungal implementation. This will be The project outputs will enhance material. Further research is required achieved under the auspices of the capacity of farmers and those on this aspect. the multidonor Common Fund who support them in the struggle for Commodities/EU Regional against coffee wilt disease. By Through the project, a large and Coffee Wilt Programme in which doing so, they will help safeguard comprehensive collection of a component is devoted to the future coffee production in Fusarium species from coffee was validation and promotion of Africa; maintain a vital source of established at CAB International improved methods for farmers revenue for resource-poor farming Africa Regional Centre, Nairobi, to manage coffee wilt disease, communities and others dependent while smaller collections were also and which specifically addresses on coffee production; and stabilise developed in Ethiopia, Tanzania the development of extension national economies that depend on and other countries affected by programmes and training for the crop as an income-generating the disease. These collections small-scale coffee producers. commodity.

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IPM for smallholder coffee farmers in Malawi

R8204 In the remote hillside farming systems of northern Malawi, coffee is one Rory Hillocks of the few options for cash cropping. Yields are among the lowest in the Natural Resources Institute, world but, despite the low world price for coffee, there is a market for University of Greenwich, UK ‘Mzuzu’ coffee because of its high quality. Following on from earlier work to Chimmings Chanika identify the pest constraints, this project promoted control measures within Ministry of Agriculture, Lunyangwa an ICM framework. On-farm demonstrations were used to promote an ICM Research Station, Malawi system based on growing a derivative of the improved variety Catimor 129 (known as Nyika), which is resistant to the two major diseases. On-farm trials Noah Phiri, George Oduor to evaluate insecticides led to the approval of fipronil for use on coffee. This CAB International Africa Regional project has contributed to the rehabilitation of smallholder coffee in Malawi at a Centre, Kenya time when the estate sector is abandoning coffee in favour of other crops. The Albert Chalabesa smallholder sector is expanding rapidly with the assistance of the EU, and the Zambia Agricultural Research SCFT expects the crop to be sufficient to sustain this trade organisation from Institute export levies by 2007. The project has contributed to the sustainability of the Smallholder Coffee Farmers Trust sector by promoting ICM for a farming system (coffee × banana intercropping) (SCFT), Malawi that is favoured by farmers, and which provides a food crop as well as a cash crop. Work with perennial crops over a relatively short time frame is always September 2002–March 2005 challenging, but this research has made significant steps in addressing some of the primary constraints facing Malawian smallholders.

ISSUES price, coffee output from estates has been declining as they diversify The earnings from coffee sales are into other crops such as tea and a vital part of the livelihood strategy macadamia nuts. This smallholder for rural communities in the hillside expansion has been supported by SELECTED PUBLICATIONS farming systems of northern EU funds to the SCFT for capacity Malawi. Whereas the bulk of coffee HILLOCKS, R.J. (ed.) (2004) building and the multiplication and Promotion of IPM for smallholder production comes from large distribution of new (Catimor) coffee coffee in Malawi. Proceedings of a estates in the south of the country, varieties. Project Workshop, 25 May 2004. and the estate sector has some Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, of the highest yields in the world, CPP support for coffee IPM in UK. 31 pp. the smallholder sector averages Malawi began in 1996 (R6807), just as the smallholder sector entered NRI/CABI/SCFT (2004) White Stem one of the world’s lowest yields Borer. Natural Resources Institute, – but some of the coffee is of high a period of conflict and change. Chatham, UK (in Chisukwa and quality. Since 2002 the smallholder At that stage the smallholder Tumbuka) (leafl et). sector has been expanding at a sector was in turmoil, with poor prices being paid to farmers and NRI/CABI/SCFT (2004) Coffee Berry time when, due to the low world Disease. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK (in Chisukwa and Tumbuka) (leafl et). NRI/CABI/SCFT (2004) How to Grow Catimors. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK (in Chisukwa and Tumbuka) (leafl et). NRI/CABI/TaCRI (2004) White Stem Borer. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK (in Kiswahili) (leafl et). NRI/CABI/ TaCRI (2004) How to Grow Catimors. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK (in Kiswahili) (leafl et). ORR, A. (2004) Catimor Management Survey, Misuku Hills and Viphya North, Malawi, June 2004. Working Paper No 1063/2. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK. 31 pp. Catimor coffee × banana intercrop – demonstration plot

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and Compound J fertiliser (NPK plus sulphur in the ratio 15:5:20:6). Nitrogen application rates were above recommended levels. This suggests that there is considerable scope to improve the efficiency of fertiliser use and thus reduce the costs of fertilising coffee. Farmers’ evaluation of chemical control using stem paints was positive, but formal economic evaluation showed that benefits discounted at 15% over an eight-year coffee cycle were lower than costs. Application rates in on-farm trials are therefore not profitable at current rates and given current knowledge of The hedgerow system for growing Catimor varieties of coffee borer infestation rates. This analysis is provisional as full coffee gardens neglected. Coffee selection from Catimor 129 (known information on infestation rates is smallholders supported an industry as Nyika) that was resistant to both not yet available, and it may prove restructuring and the establishment diseases, but supplies of seed were feasible to apply stem paint every in 1999 of the SCFT. This trade scarce. A mother garden of Nyika two years rather than every year. organisation was to be funded trees was therefore established to Nevertheless, these results suggest eventually from export levies, but meet the demand for seed. On-farm the need to continue efforts to was initially supported by the EU. demonstrations of Nyika intercropped identify control methods that When the present project began with banana were used to promote may be less effective, but more in September 2002, the SCFT was the technology direct to farmers, affordable and economically viable. focusing its efforts on Catimor backed by an information campaign An impact survey over the first growers. Although most of the using leaflets in local languages. four years of Catimor adoption new Catimor varieties were yet showed positive impacts on to come into bearing, the work White stem borer (Monchamous livelihoods, including accumulation described here responded to leuconotus) is the major insect of assets, improved food security, demand from farmers to promote pest in the region, and is a threat and greater demand for hired disease-resistant Catimors as a to coffee rehabilitation based on labour at weeding and harvesting. component of the IPM system. This Catimor varieties. On-farm trials Women in adopter households aimed to ensure that the IPM/ICM to evaluate insecticides led to the often planted their own coffee messages developed over the years approval of fipronil for use on coffee. gardens to ensure a protected were promoted through extension Socio-economic research focused source of income. Households with literature, on-farm demonstrations on growers’ management practices more Catimor had lower incomes and farmer training. for Catimor coffee, the economics from bananas, reflecting the SCFT of chemical control for stem ACHIEVEMENTS recommendation to plant Catimors borers, and the impact of Catimor in pure stands. This confirms the An ICM system that met coffee on livelihoods, particularly importance of current trials to smallholders’ requirements was for poorer growers. A study of develop recommendations for developed and promoted as one of a management practices showed intercropping coffee with banana. basket of crop management options that early ICM adopters had closely for the new dwarf Catimor varieties. followed recommendations on FURTHER APPLICATION Varieties promoted by the EU project terracing, mulching, manuring were resistant to coffee leaf rust and frequency of weeding. But A nine-month follow-up project (Hemileia vastatrix), but not to the growers generally had not adopted (R8423) is working to promote other main disease, coffee berry recommended practices about these findings to the much larger disease (Collotetrichum kahawae). hedgerow planting, planting in coffee smallholder sector in The project advocated the use of a pure stands, or the use of lime Tanzania.

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Implementation of cocoa IPM in West Africa

R8313 Much work has been carried out on specific pest and disease problems in Janny Vos cocoa, but much of this knowledge needs to be made available to farmers. CABI Bioscience, UK In partnership with the STCP in West Africa, a farmer participatory training David Hall, Mark Downham and research programme was initiated in three countries to evaluate and Natural Resources Institute, University disseminate outputs from previous CPP projects on cocoa IPM. Research of Greenwich, UK activities included the development of a tailor-made farmer participatory Roy Bateman learning curriculum. The project played a major role in the start-up phase of Imperial College London, UK farmer field school activities, and contributed a range of technical IPM bulletins and field guides for use by farmer facilitators and master trainers. Models for Sustainable Tree Crops Programme optimising management inputs to cocoa production were adapted for West (STCP), Cameroon, Ghana, Nigeria Africa. Farmer field research activities were supported in Nigeria, Cameroon and July 2003–March 2005 Ghana, on rational pesticide use against black pod disease; evaluation of See R6656, Perspectives on Pests biological control agents for black pod; and evaluation of pheromone traps 1996–2000, p. 47 for cocoa mirids, respectively. Farmers greatly appreciated the cost savings that could be made using more targeted (bio)pesticide application methods. Through collaboration with regional SCTP and national research institutions, new IPM knowledge from previous research has been effectively evaluated by farmers and disseminated through participatory learning.

ISSUES problem-solving by farmers and effective research–extension– More efficient transfer of farmer partnerships. technologies (knowledge SELECTED PUBLICATIONS transfer) is needed to achieve Previous CPP projects on cocoa production include: modelling PADI, B., HALL, D.R., SARFO, J.E., real benefits from research DOWNHAM, M.C.A. and FARMAN, efforts into sustainable cocoa of management inputs for D.I. (2003) Development of sex production. The classical ‘top- cocoa production (R6656); spray pheromone traps for the monitoring down’ manner of transferring application against black pod and control of cocoa capsids in blanket recommendations is (R7326); biological control agents Ghana – update on fi eld trials. being largely discarded, with against black pod (R7249); and pp. 79-83. In: Proceedings of 4th increasing attention being paid pheromones of cocoa mirids International INCOPED Seminar on to farmer participatory models of (Distantiella theobroma and Cocoa Pests and Diseases, Accra, Sahlbergella singularis) (R7249). Ghana, 20–21 October 2003. Akrofi , knowledge dissemination. Farmer A.Y., Ackonor, J.B. and Ollennu, training should take a holistic The STCP was created in 1998 L.A.A. (Eds). International Permanent approach to the farming system, by USAID and industry, aiming Working Group for Cocoa Pests and and research needs to focus on to achieve a shared vision for Diseases. sustainable tree crop development. STCP (2005) Learning About It is a public–private partnership Sustainable Cocoa Production: between industry, producers, A Guide for Participatory Farmer researchers, government agencies, Training 1. Integrated Crop and Pest public sector institutions and Management. IITA and partners. West Africa STCP, Cameroon, Ghana, conservation groups. The STCP Nigeria. started with pilot implementation activities early in 2002, which VOS, J.G.M. (2003) Practising cocoa almost coincided with the start IPM – current developments and of this project. Collaboration needs in farmer training for IPM implementation. pp. 153–158. In: was sought for the project to Proceedings of 4th International assist STCP with its curriculum INCOPED Seminar on Cocoa Pests development and participatory and Diseases, Accra, Ghana, 20–21 technology development work, October 2003. Akrofi , A.Y., Ackonor, and for this project to be part J.B. and Ollennu, L.A.A. (Eds). of a larger framework, leading International Permanent Working to a unique cooperation and Group for Cocoa Pests and Diseases. Testing the trombone sprayer, coordination of field activities Website: www.treecrops.org Nigeria among all partners involved.

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project also contributed to exercise protocols and advisory documents, especially on rational pesticide use and testing of biocontrol agents. Through workshop participation and facilitation, further documentation of participatory training processes and methods was made available to trainers within the STCP. All these guidelines will be incorporated in the STCP manual (in English and French) – Learning about sustainable cocoa production: a guide for participatory farmer training. The manual contains technical bulletins, discovery learning exercises and field guides. The project provided support to the STCP knowledge-transfer specialist in initiating farmer participatory training activities through awareness-raising, planning and curriculum development Demonstrating run-off with a conventional high-volume cone nozzle in Cameroon workshops, and through advice (photo: R. Bateman, International Pesticide Application Research Centre) on participatory research activities, impact assessment, self-financing ACHIEVEMENTS allow the user to simulate shade field schools, simplified statistics, etc. management and to assess the costs Farmer innovations and experiences A farmer participatory learning and benefits that shade manipulation in the STCP context and with curriculum for cocoa IPM in West may have for farmers. Climate-based various other stakeholders were Africa has been produced. A wide vegetative flushing (or growth) documented through participatory range of participatory exercises models have been developed that video production, so that these was compiled and validated with are relevant to the population experiences can be disseminated master trainers and farmers during dynamics of pest populations based more widely. Farmer field research curriculum-development workshops on historical weather data. The activities were supported in and in pilot farmer field schools most important inhibitory factors to Nigeria, Cameroon and Ghana. (FFS). Many of these were written vegetative flushing are drought and This collaboration was channelled up as straightforward protocols, and low temperatures. The flush model directly through the Cocoa included in a manual that will form Research Institute Nigeria (CRIN); the base curriculum for the STCP interacts with flower setting and the Institut de Recherche Agricole master trainers. Local adaptation and cherelle wilts in the age-structured pour le Développement (IRAD) expansion of the curriculum have pod model, which interacts with the in Cameroon; and the Cocoa taken place. flush model when large numbers of rapidly growing pods (90–120 Research Institute Ghana (CRIG). Several modules of the finished days old) inhibit the size of climate- STCP master trainers were trained cocoa-production model have induced flushes. The model simulates to facilitate farmer field research, been developed, including a shade the start of ‘normal’ floration as and an agreed action plan was module that will allow users to occurring at a fixed time after a implemented in the three countries: explore the impact of shade intensity leaf-hardening period following a and ‘gappiness’ on three primary • in Nigeria, the focus was on new vegetative flush. It is expected black pod control through pests of West African cocoa: mirid that, by including these phenological bugs and two black pod fungi. rational pesticide use to improve aspects, different varietal responses on the current use of self- Shade intensity has impacts on to climatic and phenological cues will both mirids and black pod, but made fungicides applied with improve the value of the model. more importantly on the latter. The trombone sprayers gappiness aspect of shade allows The project developed IPM technical • in Cameroon, farmers were the mirid population model to be bulletins for the major cocoa pests involved in evaluation of compartmentalised for an improved in the region, to be translated into biological control agents in description of population dynamics French and handed out to farmer the search for more effective and management. This module will trainers as information leaflets. The management of black pod

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Observing a biocontrol agent- treated cocoa tree to observe efficacy of black pod control, Cameroon (left). Added value was achieved through a partnership with industry to pilot participatory video production (photo: STCP)

• in Ghana, farmers worked with Cameroon, Côte d’Ivoire, Ghana with these traps showed that scientists to evaluate the use of and Nigeria. In 2003 a total of 160 significant populations of mirids mirid pheromones to look for FFS were implemented, training are present well outside the innovative ways of avoiding mirid 3734 farmers; in 2004, 127 FFS for generally perceived ‘mirid season’ damage during peak seasons. 3780 farmers were held. of August–December. Trials using the traps for mirid management Spray-application techniques Advisory visits were made to by mass trapping were carried out were investigated in participatory support the planning and design in farmers’ fields at three different research with scientists and farmers of protocols to test biological trap densities. Results showed little in Nigeria and Cameroon. In control agents with IRAD in evidence for a reduction in mirid Nigeria, working with CRIN, the Cameroon. Field application was numbers or damage, probably focus was on improvements to carried out by technical assistants, partly due to the small scale of the the spray equipment to improve using full protective clothing, experiments. Farmer field research the targeting of fungicides and evaluation was done in close was initiated rather late in the and to reduce fungicide waste, consultation with farmers. Farmers project lifetime due to delays in thereby reducing environmental were most interested in the formalising the CRIG collaborative pollution. In Cameroon, biological control methods, which agreement. However, this has now working with IRAD, the focus scientists clarified using various been secured and is in progress in was on applying a biological participatory exercise protocols. collaboration with STCP and also at control agent and comparing Advice was given on eventual mass other sites regularly used by CRIG this with improved methods production and quality control for farmer extension. of applying regular fungicides. of efficacious agents, and on the Both scientists and farmers have laboratory facilities needed. An FURTHER APPLICATION reported enthusiastically on the expected bottleneck might be the An industry co-funded CPP scientist–farmer collaboration. registration of successful biocontrol extension project (R8448) is Improvements were achieved in agents, and IRAD has been made focusing on exploring participatory farmers’ understanding of the aware of this. importance of spray equipment in video as a tool for consolidation making an impact with pesticide In collaboration with CRIG in and sharing of IPM lessons from applications; reducing pesticide Ghana, pheromone blends and cocoa FFS, and making the benefits waste; and reducing input costs trap designs were optimised for of cocoa mirid pheromone research – and in scientists’ understanding the main mirid species in Ghana. available to a wider cocoa-growing of farmers’ real needs. Over the Lures last for at least six months public. This is being achieved project period, STCP implemented in the field, and traps can be through a farmer participatory FFS in pilot areas using the used for several seasons with training and research programme in jointly developed curriculum in little maintenance. Monitoring collaboration with STCP.

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Pheromone traps and new technologies for control of cowpea pests in West Africa

R8300 Cowpea provides a cheap source of dietary protein for low-income urban Mark Downham and rural populations in West Africa, but is prone to insect pest attacks. Natural Resources Institute, On-station trials for control of these pests in Benin and Ghana built on University of Greenwich, UK earlier work to show that a variety of botanical pesticides, with or without Charles Agli pheromone traps for the legume pod borer Maruca vitrata, were intermediate Institut National des Recherches in effectiveness between conventional (expensive and environmentally Agricoles du Bénin damaging) pesticides and untreated controls. Neem seed oil was the best botanical for controlling flower thrips and pod borer. Farmer field school Simplice Vodouhè trials confirmed these findings, and recommendations were developed for Organisation Beninoise pour the optimal use of traps. Approximately 500 farmers in 26 villages now have la Promotion de l’Agriculture detailed experience of the technologies, with many expressing willingness Biologique (OBEPAB), Benin to pay economic costs. These farmers will form a core market for future Haruna Braimah commercial development. Crops Research Institute (CRI), Ghana Sam Adimado ISSUES legume bud thrips (Megalurothrips sjostedti). The cost of insecticide Ghana Organic Agriculture Cowpea (Vigna unguiculata) is Network (GOAN), Ghana limits its use by many poor a highly important grain legume farmers. In cotton-growing Clementine Dabiré crop grown in West Africa. The areas of Benin, farmers often Institut de l’Environnement et crop is grown mostly in subsistence use cotton insecticides (sold at Recherches Agricoles, Burkina Faso farming systems and on a small subsidised prices), which are not April 2003–March 2005 scale in the lowland dry Savannah recommended for cowpea, applied and Sahelian regions. it is an on a calendar basis, resulting in See R6659, Perspectives on Pests important source of dietary protein, health and environmental hazards. 1996–2000, p. 56 and also a vital cattle forage crop. Africa produces 75% of world Recent research efforts, mostly cowpea production, of which the led by the International Institute SELECTED PUBLICATIONS majority comes from West Africa. of Tropical Agriculture (IITA), have been directed to developing ADETONAH, S., COULIBALY, O., The legume pod borer Maruca DOWNHAM, M.C.A., ENDAMANA, resistant varieties and biological vitrata (syn. Maruca testulalis) is D., ADEOTI, R. and TAMÒ, M. (2003) control against key cowpea pests. Farmers’ perceptions of cowpea yield a key pest of cowpea and other A viral pathogen of M. vitrata losses due to M. vitrata (Fabricius) legume crops. In West Africa has been discovered in southern (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Benin M. vitrata forms one of a complex Benin (investigated under CPP (West Africa). Annales des Sciences of damaging insect pests of project R7247), and the fungal Agronomiques du Bénin 1(6): 1–20. cowpea, which can also include entomopathogen Metarhizium DOWNHAM, M.C.A., TAMÒ, aphids (Aphis craccivora), foliage anisopliae has shown promise, but M., HALL, D.R., DATINON, B., beetles (Ootheca mutabilis), neither is likely to be implemented ADETONAH, S. and FARMAN, D.I. several species of pod bugs, and at farm level for some time. Current (2004) Developing pheromone research therefore focuses mainly traps and lures for Maruca vitrata on botanical pesticides such as (F.) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) in Benin, West Africa. Entomologia neem (Azadirachta indica), papaya Experimentalis et Applicata 110: (Carica papaya) and extracts of the 151–158. wild herb Hyptis suaveolens, which are already indigenous methods of RUREMA, D.G., ATACHI, P., control used by some farmers. TAMÒ, M., DOWNHAM, M.C. and DATINON, B. (2003) Relation entre les This project built on previous infestations larvaires et les vols des development of M. vitrata adultes de Maruca vitrata (Fabricius) pheromones and trap lures (R6659, (syn: M. testulalis Geyer) (Lep: R7441) to produce a pest control Pyralidae) dans les cultures de niébé (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp.) sous package combining practical l’attrait des phéromones. Annales Pod borer damage pheromone traps for M. vitrata with des Sciences Agronomiques du Bénin on cowpea; inset: botanical pesticides for control of 1(6): 61–75 (in French). larva of M. vitrata pod borer, aphids and thrips.

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ACHIEVEMENTS Agricultura Familiar (PRONAF) in of direct evidence of farmer southern and central Benin; five demand; this should be provided Replicated, on-station trials by OBEPAB in northern Benin; and by future work. Initial survey demonstrated that, using a two each by CRI and GOAN in results indicate that a substantial variety of botanical pesticides central Ghana (15 in total, eight of proportion of farmers would be with or without traps, yields them new). Feedback from farmers willing to pay the estimated cost of and infestations were generally in Benin indicated that the use traps and lures. intermediate between those with of traps with a flexible approach the recommended conventional to the choice of control agent During the 2004 season, traps pesticide deltamethrin (Decis) and enabled better integration with were made by farmers as part untreated controls. Results suggest existing farmer practice, and better of FFS activities. Lures were that neem seed oil purchased from a UK is the best botanical supplier by IITA and for controlling flower distributed via project thrips and M. vitrata, partners. Agreement although in practice has been reached it is difficult to obtain that future purchases adequate supplies of will be through the neem leaves. Results PRONAF-Benin team, with leaf extracts with onward sale to of papaya and farmers. H. suaveolens were Following a technical less encouraging, development, additional and these cannot work was carried out be recommended at to assess the M. vitrata present. Farmer field pheromone blend at school (FFS) trials in A farmer adds water to his locally produced trap to drown five locations in Benin, 18 villages largely moths entering the trap Ghana, Burkina Faso confirmed these and northern Nigeria. findings. Through on-farm trials, understanding and interest among Catches with all blends at Tamale the following recommendations farmers than previously. In Ghana, (northern Ghana), Kano (northern were developed for the optimal similar conclusions were reported Nigeria) and Cotonou (southern use of traps. A minimum of five by CRI partner staff. Benin) were quite low; in Burkina to six traps should be distributed Faso there were quite high catches A survey of several villages among neighbouring cowpea fields but the best were with the single was carried out to assess the around a village, and all cowpea (already known) major component potential for farmer-to-farmer fields should be sown within one alone, not with the standard transmission of information about week of each other. When the three-component blend previously the pheromone trap and botanical cumulative mean catch among all developed at Cotonou. At Savè pesticide technologies. This was the traps reaches two moths per (central Benin) all blends did equally coordinated by IITA and carried trap, spraying of conventional or well. Overall there appears to be botanical pesticides should begin out in collaboration with other clear, but unexplained, regional within three days. Beyond this, project partners. In response to a variation in the optimum blend. recommendations should not be demand for practical information, too prescriptive, and farmers should two posters on the traps were FURTHER APPLICATION be free to decide collectively the produced for distribution to FFS, as well as a leaflet for FFS facilitators A further CPP project (R8411) best control agent to apply to each has been approved until January field – botanicals or recommended and extension staff giving more technical details on the traps. 2006 to build on work in Benin pesticide – taking account of other and central Ghana, and to extend pests in addition to M. vitrata. It has not yet been possible it to northern Ghana and Burkina On-farm scaling-up trials, through to identify local commercial Faso. IITA is seeking further funding FFS, were carried out with partner companies to either manufacture or for a cowpea biocontrol project, organisations in Benin and Ghana, supply pheromone traps or lures for which could include a component but not on the scale originally M. vitrata. Discussions have been to develop effective M. vitrata intended (30+) due to unexpected opened with the Ghana-based pheromone traps for northern budgetary constraints experienced NGO TechnoServe to help identify Nigeria, and to develop a network by partner organisations. Six companies to commercialise of light traps using pheromones for FFS were managed by Programa the technologies, but they were M. vitrata to assist with ecological Nacional de Fortalecimento da reluctant to do this in the absence studies.

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Finger millet blast in East Africa: pathogen diversity and management strategies

R8030 Although finger millet is a staple and highly nutritious food crop cultivated S. (Prasad) Sreenivasaprasad, by millions of poor farmers in East Africa, and its high nutritional value can S. (Meena) Muthumeenakshi help sustain the health of malnourished people, it has been largely neglected Warwick HRI, UK by researchers. This project built on the very limited existing knowledge base to carry out studies on genetic and pathogenic diversity, and pathogen J.P. Takan epidemiology. It has contributed greatly to developing useful diagnostic tools Serere Agricultural and Animal for pathogen monitoring and, most importantly, to more assured methods Production Research Institute, Uganda for managing blast in the field. Baseline information has been generated on East African finger millet cropping systems and constraints to production, so A.B. Obilana, E.O. Manyasa that interventions can be targeted with greater surety. Characterisation of the International Crops Research pathogen has enabled creation of a framework for identification, deployment Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, and development of host resistance. Findings on blast epidemiology will lead Kenya to identification of disease intervention points and management strategies Averil Brown such as improved weed management and use of clean seed. Varieties with Queen’s University of Belfast, UK blast resistance, likely to be suitable for East Africa, have been identified as April 2001–November 2004 having potential for immediate promotion or incorporation into breeding programmes. Links to industry were also identified.

ISSUES Finger millet (Eleusine coracana) is one of the most important cereal crops in Africa and India. In the SELECTED PUBLICATIONS semi-arid tropics of eastern Africa it is a major staple OJANJI, W. (2005) Blast management. food for millions of resource- Report following stakeholder poor people, and the area under workshop in Nairobi, 13–15 September 2005. The Standard (East production ranges from 65,000 Africa/Kenya), 16 September, pp. hectares in Kenya to 500,000 in Magnaporthe grisea perithecia 6–7. Uganda and 1 million in Ethiopia. bearing asci and ascospores Finger millet is used in East SREENIVASAPRASAD, S., TAKAN, Africa primarily for malting and J.P., MGONJA, M.A. et al. (2005) constraints including high labour brewing, and for foods in the Enhancing fi nger millet production requirements, weeds, and blast form of thin porridges. It is very and utilisation in East Africa through disease. Blast, caused by the fungus nutritious, containing five vitamins, improved blast management and Magnaporthe grisea, is a major 10 amino acids and 12 mineral stakeholder connectivity. Aspects of problem in Uganda and Kenya and Applied Biology: Pathways out of salts. Finger millet is considered is particularly severe in very wet Poverty 75: 11–22. the domain of women, and its years, in some cases causing failure successful cultivation enhances TAKAN, J.P., MUTHUMEENASKI, S., of grain set and shrivelled seeds, their status in the household and SREENIVASAPRASAD, S. et al. (2003) and resulting in major yield losses. in the community. Where there Genetic and pathogenic diversity The disease was first recorded in of the fi nger millet pathogen in is sufficient yield, women use it Uganda in 1933, but very little East Africa (abstract). p. 345. In: for brewing and also as a cash is known of the epidemiology Proceedings of the International crop. Finger millet is a traditional and diversity of the pathogen Congress of Plant Pathology, crop and is considered important populations in this region. 2–7 February 2003, New Zealand. for cultural occasions such as International Society for Plant agreement of weddings. Although Pathology. ACHIEVEMENTS not particularly drought-tolerant, TAKAN, J.P., AKELLO, B., ESELE, J.P. finger millet is one of the hardiest New scientific knowledge has been et al. (2004) Pathogen diversity and crops grown in this region and generated on the genetic and management of fi nger millet blast the seeds have excellent keeping pathogenic diversity and mating in East Africa: a summary of project qualities, making it an important compatibilities of East African activities and outputs. International Sorghum and Millets Newsletter famine reserve food. Production finger millet blast populations. 45:66–69. has been declining due to several Information has been gathered on

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blast incidence and the constraints Understanding of the pathogen’s that has been generated enables faced in disease management, and epidemiology, particularly the role specific interventions to be readily tools and local capability for long- of infected seeds and weeds in identified and targeted. This term pathogen monitoring have disease development, has been makes the key outputs extremely been developed. enhanced. Isolates of M. grisea relevant to resolving practical field from weed hosts compared with problems, increasing the likelihood Blast genotypes based on a those from finger millet were of their uptake and promotion to collection of more than 300 characterised isolates were generally not genetically distinct farmers. and, in most cases, belonged to the established. Isolates showed limited Clear findings, for example on same genetic groups (except for genetic diversity using polymerase the suspected role of weed some isolates from Digitaria sp.). chain reaction (PCR)-based markers hosts and seedborne inoculum Weed blast isolates were capable of such as amplified fragment length in the epidemiology of the infecting finger millet; in particular, polymorphism and simple sequence disease, provide straightforward blast isolates from wild Eleusine repeats. Based on studies with management strategies that need were as aggressive as some of other crops and fungal pathogens to be promoted. This should be the finger millet blast isolates, for which there has not been facilitated by the rejuvenation of underlining the potential of weeds extensive selection and breeding for the Eastern and Central African single-gene resistance, this limited Research on Sorghum and Millet genetic diversity in the pathogen is Network (ECARSAM: www. not surprising. asareca.org/ecarsam), funded by Considerable variation in pathogen the EU through the Association for aggressiveness was observed Strengthening Agricultural Research both on a particular variety and in Eastern and Central Africa in infecting different varieties. (ASARECA). For example, in a set of 35 blast There is also a need to disseminate isolates, most showed highest the results to industry in the disease levels on finger millet region. Currently in East Africa, variety E11, but four isolates gave demand for finger millet far the highest disease levels on variety exceeds supply, and much of the PESE 1. Some genotypes were finger millet grown in Uganda prevalent in both Uganda and is exported to Kenya (Ugandan Kenya, while others were restricted finger millet is noted for its quality to one country. Symptoms of blast in the ﬁ eld and flavour). Industry is seeking None of the isolates tested ways of increasing production and showed clear-cut differences in as inoculum sources. The pathogen working more closely with farmers, compatibility, suggesting the appears to be seedborne, with and there is tremendous potential quantitative type of resistance. higher blast levels in susceptible to enhance connectivity in the Blast populations containing a finger millet varieties grown supply chain and to increase yields DNA repeat element, ’grasshopper’ from seed lots containing higher through widespread promotion of (common in Asia), were found at levels of the naturally occurring the outputs from this work. This a low level (approximately 4%), pathogen. A PCR-based diagnostic provides an excellent opportunity indicating recent transcontinental test has been developed that will to work directly with the farming movement of the pathogen. be useful for pathogen detection community keen to produce millet, Isolates causing leaf, neck and in epidemiological work and seed and also the processing industry, panicle blast on finger millet were quality assays. to promote the outputs generated genetically similar, suggesting as well as engaging stakeholders in a role for the same strains in An assemblage of finger millet the planned activities. different types of blast, thus the varieties likely to be suitable for host resistance identified should East Africa was screened, and a A regional workshop with be effective against all expressions range of varieties with resistance to ECARSAM, held during a short of blast. Near-equal distribution of blast identified. Such varieties have follow-on project, provided mating-type alleles MAT1-1 (47%) potential for immediate promotion an excellent opportunity to and MAT1-2 (53%) among blast or incorporation into breeding promote the outputs and initiate populations in Uganda and Kenya programmes. connections with a wide range was observed. Cross-compatibility of stakeholders. The workshop assays have shown the high fertility FURTHER APPLICATION proceedings are being prepared for status of these isolates, and it is distribution to regional research important to assess the impact of The simplicity and clear-cut nature and development organisations, this on host resistance. of the new scientific knowledge policy-makers and donors.

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Improving production in the Teso farming system through sustainable draught-animal technologies

R7401 Joint-funded with Livestock This project worked with farmers in the Teso farming system – a semi-arid Production Programme production system centred in five districts of northern Uganda – to develop David Barton appropriate animal-drawn implements, primarily for weeding but also for University of Greenwich, Natural planting. Research activities included training of farmers in draught animal- Resources Institute, UK power (DAP) weeding; planter design and testing; on-farm and on-station trials to test weeding implements and planters; and participatory assessments Peter Obou of weeding implements. The results have shown that DAP weeders offer a Serere Agricultural & Animal practical and effective alternative to hand-hoe weeding. For households that Production Research Institute have access to those weeders there is an opportunity to reduce drudgery (SAARI)*, National Agricultural and costs of production. As hire markets develop for DAP weeding, it is likely Research Organisation (NARO), that this will become a cheaper option than hiring manual labour. However, Uganda more effort will be needed to make weeding technology appropriate for the David O’Neill very poorest households, which are often female-headed and have limited Silsoe Research Institute, UK access to draught animals. John Terry IACR-Long Ashton Research Station ISSUES land preparation (ploughing) was (now Rothamsted Research), UK introduced to the Teso farming The Teso farming system, common August 1999–March 2005 system during the colonial era in the north-eastern parts of (1920s) and was associated with *Two members of the DAP Project Uganda (Kaberamaido, Katakwi, the commercial production of team died in 2001: Joel Wange, co- Kumi, Pallisa and Soroti districts), cotton. The technique is therefore leader of the project at SAARI and is characterised by pastoral and well established, but there has Nelson Olani, agronomist at SAARI. crop farming. The climate of Teso been a shortage of draught animals is classified as semi-arid, and following civil disruption during the rainfall is distributed over two wet 1980s and 1990s. This constraint SELECTED PUBLICATIONS seasons, March/April–May and has been addressed by a number of BARTON, D. and O’NEILL, D. (2002) September–November. The project ‘oxenisation’ or restocking projects, Modernising agriculture: visions and concentrated on two priority crops: and many households are now able technologies for animal traction and groundnuts, grown mostly in the to open up land (by ploughing) conservation agriculture. In: ATNESA first wet season; and sorghum, with oxen. But this expansion of Workshop: Modernising Agriculture grown mostly in the second, Through Improved Animal Traction the cultivated area often leads to shorter wet season. and Rural Transport Services, Jinja, a labour constraint for weeding, Uganda, 20–24 May 2002. Animal The use of draught animals for which is undertaken by hand Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa. O’NEILL, D.H. and AGOBE, F. (2002) The use of animal-drawn weeders in the Teso farming system in Uganda. pp. 13–20. In: ATNESA Workshop: Modernising Agriculture Through Improved Animal Traction and Rural Transport Services, Jinja, Uganda, 20–24 May 2002. Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa. OBUO, J.E.P., ORYOKOT, J., OKUNI, A. et al. (2001) Improving weed management in Uganda through the development of sustainable draught animal technologies. pp. 217–222. In: Proceedings of the BCPC Conference, Brighton, 12–15 November 2001. British Crop Protection Council, Alton, UK. Demonstrating DAP weeding of cotton

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Left to right: SAARI weeder; SG2000 weeder (from Kenya); plough minus mouldboard

(mostly by women and children). diverse, with at least 85 species parameters. Participants assigned The range of implements available present (two-thirds annual scores from 1–10 to each weeder for weeding and planting is broadleaves, one-sixth annual for each parameter. Semi-structured limited, and the project addressed grasses). Characterisation of the interviews followed completion of this issue by testing and evaluating different types of weeds allowed the matrix to discuss and follow up with farmers, on their fields, a the performance and suitability of issues raised by farmers. variety of implements likely to be weeders to be determined in the All four DAP weeders tested appropriate to their circumstances. specific context of farms in Teso. on-farm performed well in terms Cereal crop yields (finger millet Trials were designed to compare of reducing the labour and costs and sorghum) in the Teso farming the use of animal-drawn required for weeding sorghum and system have stagnated at below weeders in line-sown crops with groundnuts. Judged solely in terms 1500 kg/ha, despite increasing traditional broadcasting and of weed control, there was little or availability of high-yielding varieties. hand-hoe weeding. On-station no difference between the weeders Continuous cropping of land, trials were conducted at Bukedea tested on-station and on-farm. mainly due to power shortages and Kaberamaido Technology However, there were significant which prevented the opening of Verification Centres, used by SAARI differences in weeding efficiency, new land, has led to the collapse for location testing of new varieties; with the AEATRI weeder being least of the traditional management the on-farm trials involved nine effective. sites, with seven farmers at each. practice of crop rotation, causing From the farmer’s perspective, the declining soil fertility and increasing Two weeders were designed and plough without mouldboard, SAARI weed pressure. A heavy build-up made by the NARO Institutes SAARI and SG2000 were the preferred of mainly annual grass weeds, and the Agricultural Engineering weeders, while AEATRI was the especially Eleusine and Setaria, and Appropriate Technology least preferred. occurs, and difficult perennial Research Institute (AEATRI). The Uptake of the most useful of weeds such as Digitaria spp. and SG2000 weeder was imported into these methods should lead to a Imperata cylindrica occur in some Uganda from Kenya. These three reduction in the drudgery associated areas. Soils in the Teso farming types of weeder were provided with hand-weeding arable crops system are generally light, ranging by the project and delivered to (a task predominantly undertaken from sands to sandy loams. These the nine project sites. The Cossul by women and children); improved soil types are readily worked weeder was imported from India school attendance during the by animal draught equipment. and was used only in on-station weeding seasons; reduced costs However, being light, they also trials. The plough without a of production, higher returns and easily lose moisture, creating mouldboard (known to be used in higher incomes; and opportunities environments that allow the Zimbabwe) was tested as a possible for both men and (particularly) hardy and adapted weed species cheaper solution. women to redeploy labour to more to thrive. Few farmers can afford Following on-farm field trials, male productive enterprises elsewhere. to purchase labour for weeding and female farmers were invited to as prices rise during periods Two stakeholder workshops share their experience of the use of peak labour demand. This involving government organisations of draught animal-power (DAP) project worked with farmers to and NGOs were held in 2001 and weeders with the research team. develop appropriate animal-drawn 2002 in Enugu village, Soroti. An A participatory rural appraisal implements, primarily for weeding extension leaflet on the use of a methodology (matrix scoring) was but also for planting. plough without mouldboard for used at the nine locations with weeding has been drafted for a total of 56 male and female distribution by SAARI. ACHIEVEMENTS farmers. The efficiency of each A survey of the weeds of Teso weeder was assessed against a A prototype planter has also found the weed flora to be very range of technical and ergonomic been developed by the project.

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There is a commercial opportunity technologies were promoted: with a private-sector machinery for machinery manufacturers to the use of a plough for ridging/ manufacturer (SAIMMCO) in Soroti produce a simplified SAARI weeder. weeding sweet potatoes and town to develop the fabrication This may, in the longer term, lifting groundnuts. Both have of DAP weeders for future provide employment opportunities been particularly well received sustainable supply of equipment in in urban and peri-urban locations. by farmers, and widely adopted. the Teso farming system. Although The mechanisation of potato participating farmers identified the DAP weeders are a practical and ridging reduces labour costs from SAARI weeder as their preferred effective alternative to hand USh120,000 to USh24,000 per tool, the design was inefficient weeding, assuming that the hectare. from a manufacturing point of household has access to a DAP view. Discussions with farmers, weeder/plough at no cost. If a Farmer-to-farmer extension was scientists and manufacturers household owns cattle and a DAP chosen as the most appropriate resulted in design concept changes plough, this could be adapted with means of encouraging more and the production of a second- little or no additional cost generation prototype which (although there may be an incorporated those aspects opportunity cost of not hiring required by farmers, but out the cattle and plough). reduced manufacturing costs If the household does not (and retail price). SAIMMCO own these resources, then has sold over 250 of these the cattle and/or implement weeder units to date. would need to be bought or hired. The introduction The project also assisted the of DAP weeding has made manufacturer with the design and printing of promotional women feel less oppressed, literature. Leaflets were and men have become distributed widely among involved in this task as it the farming community, is mechanised. A great especially during field days reduction in drudgery and demonstrations where is reported, along with the weeder (and other improved food security and agricultural equipment) higher incomes. Women are was demonstrated. For the now able to pursue more manufacturer to be successful rewarding activities and sales must be maximised, are experiencing a better and to aid this a system of quality of life. Children are market agents has been no longer withdrawn from organised. Seven agents, school during the weeding all based in rural areas, are seasons. Farmer-to-farmer seeking markets for weeders, extension may be one of communicating orders to the the more effective means of manufacturer in return for a Making ridges for sweet potatoes achieving rapid adoption of small commission. technology, as most farmers in rural Uganda have little, if any, farmers to use their draught animals A series of field days (agricultural contact with formal extension for weeding. Extension materials shows) were held during rainy services. It is anticipated that, in the (a manual for trainers and posters seasons in 2004 and 2005. These longer term, even the poorest of for farmers) were produced and included live demonstrations economically active households will distributed. Expert farmers in the of DAP weeding, ridging and benefit from mechanisation as hire nine original project locations were weeding of sweet potatoes, line markets develop for DAP services supported (but not paid) to train planting and other equipment, (weeding, groundnut lifting and their friends and neighbours, and along with displays by the potato ridging). more than 1100 farmers have been manufacturer and artisans. Local trained in this way. Staff of NGOs leaders and farmers were invited, FURTHER APPLICATION working in Teso are being trained to with local and national media ensure that DAP weeding extension (radio and newspapers), with the The project was extended beyond continues. Over 800 trainers (NGO objective of popularising the use of March 2005 to promote weeding extension workers) and 1200 of DAP. These field days also provide and planting technology to more their client farmers have been an opportunity for dialogue Teso farmers via training of trainers trained in the past two years. between manufactures and (extension workers) to ensure farmers and other organisations sustainability. Two additional DAP Links have been established (NGOs and extension workers).

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Groundnut rosette disease management

R7445 Groundnuts are a key crop in eastern Uganda, grown for both food and Tim Chancellor, Frances Kimmins income. The major factor limiting production is groundnut rosette disease, Natural Resources Institute, a virus disease transmitted by aphids. This project built on previous CPP University of Greenwich, UK epidemiological research in Malawi which identified new sources of resistance Charles Busolo-Bulafo to aphids and to rosette disease. Screening methodologies were developed Serere Agricultural and Animal to enhance the efficiency of groundnut improvement programmes. Working Production Research Institute closely with researchers, agricultural extension agents, NGOs and farmers, the (SAARI), Uganda project’s ultimate aim was to to develop sustainable management strategies for groundnut rosette disease, based primarily on the use of improved groundnut Piet van der Merwe varieties with durable resistance to pests and diseases. The availability of new, International Crops Research short-duration, disease-resistant groundnut varieties will assist a substantial Institute for the Semi-arid Tropics number of smallholder farmers to increase their income. (ICRISAT), Malawi Naidu Rayapati University of Georgia, USA ISSUES ACHIEVEMENTS A needs assessment commissioned A large-scale household survey July 1999–June 2002 by DFID in 1998 recognised the was conducted in three districts Seee R6811, Perspectives on Pests importance of groundnuts for both in the Teso farming system of 1996–2000, p. 27 subsistence and income generation, north-eastern Uganda, and a and identified groundnut rosette database was compiled of social disease and aphids as serious and economic data related to constraints to production. This groundnut production, including project addressed these problems, groundnut rosette disease. The primarily by developing and survey found that farmers consider promoting groundnut varieties several traits when selecting a that would combine pest and groundnut variety, including SELECTED PUBLICATIONS disease resistance with other key drought resistance, duration, characteristics that are demanded quality characteristics, yield, and NAIDU, R.A., KIMMINS, F.M., DEOM, by farmers. pest and disease resistance. Rosette C.M. et al. (1999). Groundnut rosette: a virus disease affecting the sustainability of groundnut production in sub-Saharan Africa. Plant Disease 83: 700–709. PAGE, W.W., BUSOLO-BULAFU, C.M., VAN DER MERWE, P.J.A. and CHANCELLOR, T.C.B. (2002) Groundnut Manual for Uganda: Recommended Groundnut Production Practices for Smallholder Farmers in Uganda. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK.

SUBRAHMANYAM, P., VAN DER MERWE, P.J.A., REDDY, L.J. et al. (2000) Identiﬁ cation of elite short- duration rosette resistant lines in world germplasm collections. International Arachis Newsletter 20: 46–50.

VAN DER MERWE, P.J.A., SUBRAHMANYAM, P., KIMMINS, F.M. and WILLEKENS, J. (2001) Mechanisms of resistance to groundnut rosette. International Arachis Newsletter 21: 43–45. Rosette-resistant plants (left) improve groundnut yields

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was a study of Serenut 4T (ICG 12991), which confirmed that it was resistant to the aphid vector through the mechanisms of non- preference and antibiosis. Detailed feeding studies revealed that virus transmission by the aphid vector might be inhibited through the collapse and death of plant cells at the feeding site. A second PhD programme identified molecular markers linked to the vector resistance gene in ICG 12991, and a basic genetic linkage map for groundnut, the first of its type, was developed. A Groundnut Manual for Uganda Traditional drying of groundnuts (Soroti) (www.cpp.uk.com/outputs.asp) was compiled and 1000 copies disease was known by the local of on-farm trials has demonstrated distributed to agricultural extension name of atikuba and the range that farmers appreciate their agents and NGO staff and used of available varieties and their qualities. Serenut 4T was as a key reference by farmer field qualities were collated. Specific particularly favoured because schools and extension providers. information was fed back into the of the large number of seeds it breeding programme at SAARI and produces and because it resembles FURTHER APPLICATION used to refine the criteria used for a popular local variety (Erudurudu) Considerable attention was devoted assessing new breeding lines. Other in appearance. Complementary by the project to enhancing the important survey findings related to institutional capacity within Uganda how farmers obtain information on to help ensure the gains made from farming practices. The information this research will be sustainable. obtained – that very different Strong links were forged between approaches are needed to reach SAARI and ICRISAT in Malawi, different categories of farmer and a self-sustaining system of – was used to guide the project’s groundnut seed multiplication and dissemination strategy. distribution has been established. The Ugandan Seed Committee A key feature is the role played by approved two high-yielding, NGOs in delivering seed to those short-duration, rosette-resistant farmers who stand to benefit most groundnut varieties for release from growing it. The multiplication within three years of the project’s rate of groundnut seed is slow starting in March 2002. The seed and does not attract interest from of one variety, Serenut 4T (ICG private seed companies. One of the 12991), is tan-coloured and vector- project collaborators, Appropriate resistant whereas that of Serenut Technology-Uganda (AT-Uganda), 3R (ICGV-SM 93530) is red and has continued this work through resistant to groundnut rosette virus, a community-based dissemination so farmers have a wider choice to approach (farmer-to-farmer) meet their own and local market transfer of new rosette-resistant requirements. The short duration groundnut varieties, (R8105, see of the varieties will allow farmers research led to the development page 59). to grow two crops of groundnut of a practical field-based method Groundnut rosette disease is a a year and thus to enhance their for evaluating vector resistance in serious constraint to groundnut income potential significantly. groundnut. production throughout West Africa, These varieties are expected to In addition to the field work and a similar approach to the emulate the success of Serenut 2, in Uganda, a PhD programme evaluation and promotion of rosette- released in 1999. Evaluation of investigated the mechanisms of resistant varieties using the lessons the varieties together with other resistance in a range of groundnut learnt from this project would candidate lines in large numbers genotypes. Of particular interest benefit that region.

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Farmer-led multiplication of rosette-resistant groundnut varieties for eastern Uganda

R8105 Legume seed availability is a major constraint on crop diversification in many Rita Laker-Ojok, Grace Tino African farming systems. This project has shown how, through careful and Appropriate Technology-Uganda innovative use of participatory methods, it is possible to produce high-quality (AT-Uganda) Ltd seed and get it widely distributed among the population, including the poorest. Groundnut production has been declining due to groundnut rosette Serere Agricultural and Animal disease. Poor farmers cannot afford chemicals to control the aphid vector of this Production Research Institute virus disease, yet the risk of failure caused by the disease is very high. This project (SAARI), Uganda focused on enabling poor farmers to reverse the decline in production through February 2002–March 2005 promotion of farmer-led multiplication of rosette-resistant groundnut varieties under the supervision of local leaders, to give poor farmers increased access to new resistant varieties. Extension staff, local leaders and farmers have been trained in groundnut production, multiplication and storage, and foundation seed for new rosette-resistant varieties has been obtained and multiplied by farmer group members. Multipliers have returned twice the amount of planting material received, for redistribution and further multiplication. Managing the process of collection, redistribution and monitoring of seed multiplication has been handed over to local leadership.

ISSUES resistant varieties of groundnuts (Serenuts 2, 3R and 4T) had been This farmer-led multiplication project released, but seed availability was was implemented in five districts limiting, especially for the rural poor. in eastern Uganda (Kumi, Pallisa, A previous project (R7445, page 51) Tororo, Mbale and Sironko) and had already extensively tested the covered 16 sub-counties, the early maturing, disease-resistant same area as AT Uganda’s LIFE varieties (Serenuts 3R and 4T) Project focusing on improving rural multiplied in on-farm trials, involving livelihoods by enhancing food and AT Uganda as a stakeholder. income security. ACHIEVEMENTS Poor households in the region face two serious problems in Farmer-led verification and groundnut production: inadequate multiplication of improved crop seed supplies, and lack of cash to varieties was used to provide poor buy chemicals to control the aphid farmers with access to the improved vector of groundnut rosette disease. varieties, practices, knowledge and Through farmer-led multiplication information they need to increase and use of disease- and vector- crop productivity. A publication on resistant varieties, both constraints groundnut production produced by SELECTED PUBLICATIONS can be addressed. New rosette- project R7445 was used as a training resource. This project AT-UGANDA (2004) Farmers’ Guide was based on involving on Production of Groundnuts. the target beneficiaries Appropriate Technology (AT) Uganda Ltd (factsheet). in activities to ensure their participation NAMISI, S., LAKER-OJOK, R. and and ownership of SMIT, J. (2004) Impact Assessment the process for long- Report for Farmer-led Groundnut Multiplication in Uganda. Appropriate term sustainability Technology-Uganda (AT-Uganda) Ltd. and benefit. The approach emphasised TINO, G. (2004) Farmer-led the participation of multiplication of rosette-resistant groundnut varieties. Uganda Journal farmers in planning, of Agricultural Sciences 9: 578–582. Groundnut rosette symptoms implementation,

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Safia Aseku, groundnut farmer, with her pregnant heifer purchased with the profits of her groundnut crop, Bukedea County, Uganda

monitoring and evaluation of to plant 3275 hectares had been is continually increasing under activities. given out, of which 1092 came the guidance of local leadership, direct from the project, and 2183 but at a somewhat less than Farmers’ groups participated in the resulted from seed sales and gifts. expected repayment rate, and preparation of seed distribution Estimated production from 2004 lessons are continually being plans, and established regulations to alone was sufficient to plant 4725 learned about how to improve the ensure seed was not lost, to avoid hectares if the whole crop was system to ensure a good rate of breaking the distribution chain. multiplication. Local leadership structures were put committed to seed. in place at group level (production In addition, the availability of seed This project has greatly increased committees, PCs) and at parish level of the introduced varieties has access to rosette-resistant varieties (parish development committees, increased substantially and large and ensured that the seed reaches PDCs), with defined roles to ensure quantities are being sold, enabling the hands of poor farmers. It has planned activities were completed. other non-participating farmers to also helped test a novel approach Seed was given to individuals in benefit and further disseminating that can be effectively replicated groups as loan seed, to be repaid the new varieties. Use of home- by others to successfully promote with seed interest, so that it was saved seed and purchase from dissemination of research outputs. multiplied until all target households other farmers is the most reliable had access to it. Distribution and way that groundnut farmers ensure FURTHER APPLICATION repayment of the loaned seed was seed availability, and is being As a result of the strong foundation public to ensure accountability, and widely practised by beneficiary laid by this project, AT-Uganda groups exerted peer pressure to farmers. Fifty-two per cent of the is now well placed to expand ensure seed was repaid. project beneficiaries are women. this novel approach to new An impact survey conducted in The PDCs and PCs were trained in communities and facilitate market links for poor farmers. Planned September 2004 estimated that seed production and the training 17,154 people had received seed activities include: was reinforced through publication of improved groundnut varieties of simple production guides. • selection and training in new Serenuts 2, 3R and 4T (see page Those individuals then went on sub-counties, parishes and 57) – almost double the projected to train other beneficiaries. A groups target of 9000 recipients. Of total of 960 community leaders • establishing PDCs and PCs in the these, 3634 people received seed (PDCs and PCs) and more than new sub-counties directly from the project, 5910 6000 farmers have been trained in purchased seed from beneficiaries, • setting up marketing groundnut production, storage and and 7610 received seed through committees; market promotion multiplication. gifts or as payments in kind. The • establishing community stores survey indicated that enough seed Redistribution of the varieties for a groundnut assembly.

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Wild rice management strategies for the lowlands of southern Tanzania

R8198 Rice is a vital cereal crop in Tanzania, and the majority of rice farmers depend Jacob Mbapila*, Hamisi Mtwaenzi, on it both for food and as a cash crop. This project aimed to develop and Nkori Kibanda promote strategies and extension materials for the management of highly Ministry of Agriculture and Food competitive wild rice weed species in Tanzania. Farmer–research groups Security, Kilombero Agricultural undertook demonstration trials on wild rice-infested farms in three districts. Training and Research Institute Farmers identified the use of glyphosate before planting as the best option for (KATRIN)§, Tanzania managing these weeds. For in-crop weed control, post-emergence application A.G. Pyuza of 2,4-D was favoured to reduce labour inputs. Yields in glyphosate-treated Kilimanjaro Agricultural Training plots have more than doubled compared with farmers’ previous practices. The Institute (KATC), Tanzania sustainability of the production system has been enhanced as farmers become aware that application of glyphosate to perennial wild rice prior to seeding Hamis Lucas Nyangi rice reduces subsequent in-crop weeding time by 50%. Extension materials Ministry of Agriculture and Food were produced to provide farmers with the knowledge to use herbicides Security, Tanzania safely and effectively. Results from this project have provided district council Joseph Hella extension managers with an opportunity to consider how to incorporate wild Sokoine University of Agriculture, rice management issues into future extension programmes. Tanzania David Johnson, Charlie Riches ISSUES lowlands in central and southern Natural Resources Institute (NRI), Tanzania. Wild rice is a cause of University of Greenwich, UK Rice is the second most important very low yields on large-scale farms, cereal crop in Tanzania after maize, October 2002–March 2005 and is a major problem confronting and the majority of rice farmers small-scale farmers. Wild rices are *Jacob Mbapila died in 2005. depend on it both for food and the only known alternative hosts §Now Ifakara Research Institute as a cash crop. Weeds, including for African rice gall midge, and highly competitive annual and are important hosts for rice yellow SELECTED PUBLICATIONS perennial wild rice species (Oryza mottle virus. Both are important MBAPILA, J.C. and PYUZA, A. G. punctata and Oryza longistaminata, pests of the rice crop both in (2003) Rice Production Techniques. respectively), are one of the major Tanzania and more widely in West Kilimanjaro Agricultural Training constraints to rice production on Africa. Centre Extension Unit, Tanzania (video, 20 min). NRI (2004) Integrated management of wild rice O. longistaminata and O. punctata in Tanzania. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK (extension leafl et in Kiswahili). NRI (2004) The management mf wild rice in rice fi elds. Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, UK (extension leafl et in Kiswahili). RICHES, C.R., MBWAGA, A. M., MBAPILA, J. and AHMED, G.J.U. (2005) Improved weed management delivers increased productivity and farm incomes from rice in Bangladesh and Tanzania. Aspects of Applied Biology: Pathways out of Poverty 75: 127–138. WREN MEDIA (2003) Running wild. New Agriculturist Online, 1 January 2004. www.new-agri.co.uk/04-1/ Using herbicide before planting results in a clean rice focuson/focuson2.html crop in Kyela; unsprayed area in background

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In Tanzania, lowland rice production is undertaken both on large, mechanised parastatal farms, and by smallholders who cultivate either with a hired tractor, by hand or by ox-drawn plough. Oryza longistaminata occurs widely in Kyela and Kilombero districts on rainfed floodplains farmed by smallholders. Control is by cultivation, removal of rhizomes by hand, and hand-weeding. Before this project, little herbicide was used, and some of those that were applied (such as picloram and paraquat) are not intended specifically for weed control in rice. Oryza punctata thrives on irrigation schemes under a system Removing wild rice rhizomes before planting in Kyela (above and right) of direct seeding of rice with poor water management, and this has contributed to the collapse of Annual and perennial wild rice and Mali. Building on that some large commercial operations. weed species are difficult to work, this project aimed to Due to their low profitability, control because they are similar evaluate the use of glyphosate substantial portions of these in appearance to cultivated rice as a component of improved rice enterprises have subsequently in the vegetative stage, and management with farmer groups been handed over to smallholder compete vigorously with the for O. longistaminata control on farmers, but the problems with crop. A previous CPP project two floodplain areas, and against wild rice persist under current (R7345) studied control methods O. punctata at Dhakawa and Ruvu. agronomic practices. for annual wild rice in Ghana ACHIEVEMENTS Seven farmer–research groups, with membership from 128 households, undertook demonstration trials on 32 farms infested with wild rice. Participatory evaluation during field days and sensitisation workshops involved more than 230 rice producers from seven villages within the project areas. Farmers identified the use of glyphosate before planting at the rate of 3 l/ha for the control of annual wild rice (on irrigated land) and 4 l/ha for the control of perennial wild rice (on rainfed fields) as the best options for management of these weeds. Post-emergence application of 2,4-D at 21 days after germination was favoured to reduce labour inputs for in-crop weed control. Partial budget analysis undertaken with growers, district agricultural Field day participants, Kyela extension staff, village chairmen

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rice production has increased substantially. The sustainability of the production system has been enhanced as farmers have realised that application of glyphosate to O. longistaminata regrowth or O. punctata seedlings prior to seeding rice allows wild rice-infested land to be cultivated profitably. This previously abandoned land includes areas with the deepest water and highest soil fertility, with the highest potential for rice production. The combination of wild rice suppression by glyphosate and in-crop weed control with 2,4-D reduces subsequent in-crop hand-weeding time by 50%, a saving in labour welcomed by growers. and ward executive officers than 3500 litres of glyphosate were demonstrated the benefits of purchased between November FURTHER APPLICATION improving wild rice management. 2004 and February 2005 in areas When glyphosate was used, where the project has been The areas targeted by this study income from rice production could operating, compared with less are mostly sown to low-yielding, be increased from a cost–benefit than 500 litres in 2003. To support traditional rice cultivars, and ratio of <1 (0.64) to little fertiliser is 2.94 for farmers in used. Growers Kyela; 3.25 for Dakawa; participating in the and 4.93 for Ruvu. A project, particularly significant increase in in Dhawawa and yield of more than 4 Ruvu irrigation t/ha over the control schemes in Ifakara has been achieved District, are using glyphosate now interested before planting and in intensifying 2,4-D at 21 days after cultivation at high- crop emergence. This potential sites. This positive result has been includes growing an added incentive to a newly released, high-yielding technology adoption. cultivar of aromatic In addition to the rice (TXD 306 or experimental fields, SARO 5) which group members from is not sufficiently Michenga and Lumemo Farmers and pesticide dealers need better training – competitive to villages in Kilombero set rice damaged by an unsuitable herbicide that was sold on perform on infested up demonstration plots Kyela market for use in rice fields in the absence on their own fields to of wild rice control. enable other farmers in the district promotion, the project prepared a A one-year extension to the project to copy the technology they have leaflet and poster (3000 and 1500 (R8477) will include demonstrations acquired. Due to the involvement copies, respectively) and distributed of combining the new cultivar of different rice-production them to extension teams and with use of glyphosate, 2,4-D and stakeholders in seminars and field farmers. fertiliser. These demonstration days, and following the Deputy Rice yields in glyphosate-treated activities will be undertaken Minister for Agriculture’s visit to plots have more than doubled through farmer groups in one of the trial sites, the supply of those achieved by farmers’ usual collaboration with the district glyphosate has increased. More practices, and income from extension services.

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Green manure for enhancing upland rice productivity on Striga-infested fields in Tanzania

R8194 Yields of upland rice have been declining in Tanzania, mainly due to an Ambonesigwe Mbwaga, Cornel increase in the parasitic witchweed Striga asiatica. Use of a legume/rice Massawe rotation, rather than continuous rice cultivation, has been evaluated and Agricultural Research Institute- shown to have potential for adoption over large areas of Tanzania, not only Ilonga (ARI-Ilonga), Tanzania where Striga is a problem, but also in areas with poor soil fertility. This is George Ley especially useful for resource-poor farmers who cannot access or afford Agricultural Research Institute- inorganic fertilisers. Farmers in participating villages have begun to adopt the Mlingano, Tanzania use of green manure on a large scale, and Striga infestation has decreased. Joseph Hella, Juma Kayeke Yields of rice following the green manure Crotalaria increased consistently Sokoine University of Agriculture, by a factor of two, compared with those of rice following rice – and by a Tanzania factor of six in a few cases. The project has demonstrated the value of using a E. Masangya, Mr Mwampaja range of partnerships, including research, extension and schools, to promote Morogoro and Kyela District knowledge of improved agricultural practices. Extension materials have been Extension Services, Tanzania produced that can be used elsewhere in the country to support promotion Patrick Lameck of cereal/legume rotations that improve farm productivity and incomes. Institut Africain pour le Développement Economique et Social – Centre Africain de ISSUES declining harvests, from more Formation, Tanzania than 3 tonnes to little more than Rice is the second most important 400 kg/ha in living memory. Work Charlie Riches, Richard Lamboll cereal crop in Tanzania, and carried out with farmer groups Natural Resources Institute, demand from urban centres in Kyela since 1996 (CPP project University of Greenwich, UK is increasing annually. Under R7564) demonstrated that up September 2002–March 2005 continuous cultivation, rice yields to 60% reduction in Striga and in the rainfed uplands have 45% increase in rice yield could SELECTED PUBLICATIONS be achieved by applying urea HELLA, J.P., MBWAGA, A.M., LEY, fertiliser on upland rice fields. G. and RICHES, C. (2003) Rural Although some farmers in development strategies through project locations may have farmer groups and farmer oriented research: a case study. Presented used fertiliser in the past, few at the Pre-IAAE Conference, 13–15 could afford the increased August 2003, Durban, South costs following the removal Africa. International Association of of subsidies under national Agricultural Economists. Economic Structural Adjustment RICHES, C.R., MBWAGA, A.M., Programmes. Another approach MBAPILA, J. and AHMED, G.J.U. to managing Striga that boosts (2005) Improved weed management soil health is therefore needed. delivers increased productivity and farm incomes from rice in Bangladesh The legume green manure and Tanzania. Aspects of Applied Crotalaria ochroleuca (Marejea Biology: Pathways out of Poverty 75: in Kiswahili) has been grown 127–138. for many years at St Benedict’s MBWAGA, A.M. and RICHES, C.R. Abbey, Peramiho, southern (2004) Achievements in 2004 Season Tanzania, to maintain the on promotion of green manure to fertility of organic gardens. increase soil fertility and control Striga When broadcast as a sole in Kyela and Matombo districts. ARI- Striga asiatica stunts rice growth crop, growth is vigorous so Ilonga, Kilosa, Tanzania. 46 pp. that weeds are suppressed, ARI-ILONGA (2004) Kudhibiti Viduha been declining in recent years providing a clean entry for the kwa kurutubisha udongo kutumia due to falling soil fertility and an subsequent crop. Previous attempts Marejea. ARI-Ilonga, Kilosa, Tanzania associated increase in infestation to popularise the use of Crotalaria (poster in Kiswahili). by the parasitic witchweed Striga met with little success, due to a ARI-ILONGA (2004) Mbegu bora asiatica. In southern and eastern prescriptive top-down approach, ya maharage. ARI-Ilonga, Kilosa, Tanzania (poster in Kiswahili). Tanzania, farmers have witnessed with extension officers providing

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planted following fertility and to reduce the impact of legumes to be Striga on the rice crop. more vigorous than continuously FURTHER APPLICATION grown cereals. Only one light weeding Promotion work continued during was needed in rice 2005 with increased backing after Crotalaria, from ward-level education and compared with agricultural extension staff. The two or three video tape on the use of Crotalaria in continuous was used during training of rice, and Striga extension staff and lead farmers. infestation was Another video, documenting reduced by 50% by the school pathway, will be aired Vice-chairman of village next to his Crotalaria Crotalaria. Rice yield on Tanzania Television. A Striga following Crotalaria management training manual was little knowledge to farmers on how increased more than 90% on also produced and distributed to to incorporate green manure into average compared with continuous extension officers, primary school their systems, or on its economic rice, with many farmers achieving teachers and NGOs. The project benefits. This project reintroduced more than 100% greater harvests. approach and training materials the concept of using both Crotalaria Rice yields after pigeonpea were presented to district council and the grain legume pigeonpea increased by 20%. Consequently, agricultural extension managers for soil fertility enhancement and there has been a steady increase and NGOs from other districts of Striga management, through a in the number of farmers adopting southern Tanzania where Striga programme of village-level seminars rice–legume rotation through and yield decline in upland rice are and demonstrations, a process that farmer-to-farmer extension, and major problems. subsequently became farmer-driven. demand for Crotalaria seed is outstripping ACHIEVEMENTS supply. Kyela farmers have sold 400 kg of The project undertook promotional seed to neighbours, activities in two districts of to Matombo and to Tanzania – Kyela District in the farmers participating in Southern Highlands Zone and project R8215 (page 85) Matombo Division in the Ulugulu in Muheza District of Mountains of Morogoro Rural northern Tanzania. District in the Eastern Zone. Shifting cultivation is still commonly A total of 21 village practised in Matombo although primary schools have Primary school children perform drama about fallow periods are generally much included knowledge how to control Striga reduced, while in Kyela land is on the biology cultivated continuously. and management of Striga in Various initiatives, including the the agricultural school science Millennium Project Task Force on Farmer research groups were curriculum. Schools demonstrated Hunger, are now promoting a ‘21st formed in eight villages in Kyela, the value of Crotalaria and century green revolution’ for Africa. where rice is the major food and pigeonpea to increase soil The techniques and communication cash crop; and five in Matombo, fertility and control of Striga materials developed with farmers in where both rice and maize yields using songs, plays, poems and two major rice-growing regions of have declined due to Striga traditional dances, and by setting Tanzania can make a contribution infestation. Participants carried out up demonstration plots at their to this green revolution. Low soil a context analysis, selected sites schools. Publications produced nitrogen can be replenished by and established demonstrations, include a leaflet on the use of green manures that fix atmospheric which included plots of Crotalaria/ Crotalaria (2000 copies) distributed nitrogen in the soil and manage rice and pigeonpea/rice rotations to extension staff, farmers and the pervasive witchweeds, compared with continuous rice. schools, and a poster on Crotalaria which reduce yields. If combined These groups undertook 117 (500 copies) distributed to schools, with low-cost water-harvesting and 122 demonstrations of the hospitals, churches/mosques and techniques, such green manures legume–rice rotations in Kyela and extension offices. A video has been can provide a highly reliable Matombo, respectively. produced documenting the use package of soil, weed control and Farmers assessed rice and maize of green manure to improve soil water interventions.

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Developing crop protection research promotional strategies for semi-arid East Africa

R8349 Recent policy research has identified the food crop sector as offering the Alistair Sutherland, Richard largest potential return to investment in research and development in Africa, Lamboll, Charlie Riches in the medium to long term. In the context of generating returns from Natural Resources Institute, existing research investments, a major challenge identified by this project was University of Greenwich, UK how to empower local agricultural service providers to access and process existing crop protection information and products, in order to meet farmers’ Alphonce Katunzi, Patrick Lameck needs. The project used information and products generated through CPP Institut Africain pour le and other research with potential to bolster the household food security and Développement Economique et incomes of smallholders in semi-arid East Africa. The aim was to improve Social-Centre Africain de Formation access to crop protection knowledge through trying out various approaches (INADES-Formation), Tanzania and tools within pilot learning sites. This was achieved by an action-learning Job Mika, Loveness Sakwera, approach which ultimately led to the identification of better promotional and Judicate Mwanga communication strategies. With a view to sustainability, and in the context of Ministry of Agriculture and Food the decentralisation and reform of agricultural service provision, the project Security, Tanzania built on collaboration with existing organisations, institutional mechanisms John Ogecha, Margaret Makelo, and initiatives. Justus Kavoi, Charles Bett Kenya Agricultural Research Institute ISSUES sector service provision. While crop protection issues can be major George Bosire, Richard Ndegwa, People living in semi-arid sub- production constraints, the financial Charles Mugo Saharan Africa are among the Ministry of Agriculture, Kenya returns to improvements in crop most resource-poor (most fall protection are more limited and Charles Onyango below the poverty data line) risks are greater than for higher- Community Mobilization Against and are most challenged by their value crops in higher potential Desertiﬁ cation, Kenya environment. A major feature of areas with good market access. Emmanuel Kisangau this environment is its relatively low Public extension (at times working Catholic Diocese of Kitui, Kenya and unreliable rainfall. The vast with local NGOs) is still the main majority of households depend service provider but, for a variety of November 200–March 2005 on crop production (directly or reasons, traditionally has struggled indirectly) as their main livelihood with its limited personnel to provide source, although through choice or a quality service to widely dispersed necessity pursuing diverse livelihood populations. strategies. Most of the crops grown are vital to food security but are of A wide range of pests – notably low market value. Infrastructure is stem borers, Striga, smut and leaf relatively weak, and this contributes diseases in cereals, insect pests in to the generally low level of private legumes and vegetables, pests in

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS RICHES, C. and LAMBOLL, R. (2003) Learning how to learn together: agricultural communication in Central Tanzania. Tropical Agriculture Association Newsletter 224. SUTHERLAND, A.J., KATUNZI, A., KAVOI, J., LAMBOLL, R., OGECHA, J. and RICHES, C. (2005) Developing Crop Protection Promotional Strategies for Semi-Arid East Africa. Agricultural Research and Extension Network Newsletter No. 51. Overseas Development Institute, London. A farmer being interviewed by local radio

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protection information was found to stimulate demand for the new crop protection research products. Such approaches were also effective in obtaining feedback when combined with training and capacity building in crop protection. The project design drew on stakeholders’ (extension providers, farmers, researchers) expressed views that relevant crop protection information was difficult to access. This view challenged a simplistic model of ‘demand-driven’ research and extension services. As an extensionist commented Discussing Striga-tolerant sorghum varieties with a farmer in the field at a stakeholder workshop: “You cotton and pests in stored grain for updating demand about major [researchers] need to stimulate – further constrain stable levels issues, but had provided very demand – how will we know what of production and income. Three limited feedback on technology is available if we are not informed, projects focusing on sorghum performance, and had failed to and how will we know how to use (R7518, R7572, R7504) were attract consistent representation of it if we are not empowered?” followed by stakeholder workshops farmers, NGOs and agribusiness. Farmers’ and extension providers’ in Kenya and Tanzania that Measures to improve the actual and preferred sources of identified a demand for accessible performance of these committees crop protection information were and appropriate dissemination of were identified. In Central Tanzania, explored. Farmers’ main sources the project findings. in the context of a previously cited were other farmers, public centrally driven agricultural extension, and (in some locations) ACHIEVEMENTS information and extension para-extension. Farmers saw system, the project team piloted information from public extension, Three inter-agency teams were implementation of a decentralised stockists and newspapers as more formed to facilitate comparison extension service model as part of reliable than the alternatives. Both of experiences and organisational ongoing political decentralisation. farmers and extension service lesson learning. The central This was done to set the baseline providers preferred face-to-face Tanzania team was coordinated against which to assess the interactive information sources such by an NGO, INADES-Formation early stages of implementing a as field schools, demonstrations Tanzania; and other stakeholders decentralised extension service and training sessions. involved included public extension model as part of ongoing political at various levels, farmers and decentralisation. The development Although preferred, these sources public research. The eastern and of a participatory monitoring of information are currently south-western Kenya teams were and evaluation system as part of accessible to only a minority of the extension providers and farming coordinated by two KARI centres zonal and district communication populations in semi-arid areas. (Katumani and Kisii), working strategies was identified as a Initiatives identified through the with public extension at various potentially key intervention for project to improve local access levels, NGO extension providers improving demand and feedback and stimulate demand for crop and farmers (including ‘para- mechanisms at various levels. protection information within a extensionists’ – volunteers selected The project facilitated the design decentralised setting included by the local community trained in of participatory monitoring and a catalogue of crop protection crop protection). evaluation, linking farmers with the products for drier areas of south- zonal agricultural communication Mechanisms were reviewed for western Kenya; a training-of- office through district council updating demand and gathering trainers crop protection manual extension services. feedback on the performance of for semi-arid eastern Kenya; crop protection research products. At all three sites (one in Kiswahili crop protection posters; In Kenya the focus was on the Tanzania, two in Kenya) the and leaflets and radio broadcasts advisory committees established in use of participatory learning for central Tanzania. In central 1994 under a joint memorandum approaches (collaborative on- Tanzania the development of of understanding between research farm trials, farmer field schools, zonal and district communication and extension. These were found to group-based demonstrations) strategies provided a framework be reasonably effective mechanisms to adapt and disseminate crop for exploring how district extension

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staff and the Zonal Communication strategies. The strengths, weaknesses is looking to re-orient research Office access information and and ways of improving these towards achieving greater ideas for improvement. A review various tools were assessed with developmental impact. In Tanzania, of the performance of these farmers. While all the face-to-face ASDP programme management strategies indicated that factors methods piloted were effective supported the opportunity to encouraging dynamic information- in terms of farmer learning and pilot agricultural communication seeking and exchange need to be application of knowledge, their approaches that would be explored further if a pluralistic and costs differ. The most interactive compatible with the emerging decentralised extension model is to methods seem most effective for institutional arrangements and be effective. more complex types of information. farmer focus of its component Based on the first season of projects. The ASDP coordinator Quality assurance in relation monitoring, it was found that encouraged the project team to to the development of training the use of para-extensionists is work through the Central Zone information and products remains cost-effective in terms of reaching district councils. an issue. Preliminary feedback on and training farmers who would the quality of locally produced otherwise not be reached. FURTHER APPLICATION information products is very encouraging, and the process In the early stages, many of the Project activities were extended of producing these materials stakeholders did not appreciate to January 2006 under project locally has been empowering for the centrality of monitoring and R8428. This will provide time the research and extension staff evaluation to the lesson-learning to improve the quality of lesson involved. process. It has taken all involved learning around promotional time to fully appreciate what is and communication strategies; At each site a range of pathways involved in implementing this strengthen links with policy and methods was tried with the effectively, and to understand that players; and deepen learning aim of evaluating their strengths, developing participatory monitoring about undertaking monitoring and weaknesses and (where possible) and evaluation at community level evaluation. It is expected that the cost-effectiveness. The farmers is very ambitious in a project of participating agencies in Kenya targeted were the regular short duration. Much of the focus and Tanzania will use the lessons service users of the various on lesson learning (as distinct from learned from both phases to scale pathways piloted. The majority technology dissemination) has out effective communication in are smallholders living in semi- been at the ‘meso’ (district and semi-arid areas beyond 2006. arid areas relying on ox-drawn or region) rather than community Action research will need to hand-hoe cultivation, producing level. This has been through continue, and some of the issues for their own consumption, and stakeholder review workshops thrown up by this project will in some cases marketing their involving sharing experiences, require further in-depth research surplus. However, in areas where participatory documentation and to produce the type of evidence the extension approach has been analysis. The results indicate that needed to underpin proposed enterprise-oriented, there has been each stakeholder group will identify policy changes. This includes a focus on producer groups with an different types of lesson, depending further research into: interest in cash enterprises such as on their interest and perspective tomatoes and onions. In each case • practical methodologies for – raising the question ‘who is the technologies disseminated were assessing the cost-effectiveness lesson learning for?’ based on an analysis of potential of alternative extension and demand and opportunity, following Through visits to national offices communication approaches and consultation at various levels. and production of short fliers methods and progress reports, dialogue • developing a workable model In Kenya the focus was on was initiated with important for participatory monitoring comparing public extension and national programme initiatives in and evaluation in the context NGO para-extension pathways agriculture: the Kenya Agricultural of decentralised pluralistic using ‘best-bet’ face-to-face Productivity Project (KAPP) in extension services extension methods such as farmer Kenya; and the Agricultural • partnership models for field schools, demonstrations, Sector Development Programme accelerating the rate of crop barazas (public gatherings (ASDP) in Tanzania. Areas were protection-related technology convened by the local chief), identified where findings from development and adaptation for teaching of existing groups, and this project could usefully inform semi-arid smallholder systems farmer-to-farmer extension. these larger agricultural service • knowledge management in In Tanzania a range of reform programmes. For example, the context of reform towards communication tools were used KAPP plans to assess various pluralistic research and extension in the implementation of the extension approaches in order providers, including public– zonal and district communication to inform extension reform, and private partnerships.

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Management strategies for maize grey leaf spot in Kenya and Zimbabwe

R7566 Small-scale maize farmers in Kenya and Zimbabwe experience significant yield Sarah Simons losses (up to 40%) as a result of maize grey leaf spot (GLS), caused by the CAB International Africa Regional fungus Cercospora zeae-maydis. The epidemiology of the pathogens(s) was Centre (CABI ARC), Kenya studied in order to develop and promote appropriate improved management Sammy Ajanga, Gilbert Kibata strategies. This project has quantified the distribution and importance of Kenya Agricultural Research Institute GLS. The knowledge generated, together with existing literature, has been (KARI), Kenya used to design, develop and promote an IPM strategy for the disease that has a high probability of being effective and adopted by small-scale farmers. Simon Sithole, Cames Mguni The strategy is based on the use of cultural methods for the removal of crop Department of Agricultural debris, soil fertility, and recommendations concerning host resistance. The Research and Extension, Plant project has used a variety of promotional means to raise awareness of GLS Protection Research Institute (PPRI), and its management among farmers and extension staff. Zimbabwe

April 2000–March 2003 ISSUES scale maize farmers experienced significant yield losses. At that time Grey leaf spot (GLS), caused by most of the maize varieties being Cercospora zeae-maydis and, grown were highly susceptible to a lesser extent, Cercospora to the disease. Small-scale sorghi var. maydis, is recognised maize farmers have continued as a major constraint to global to experience considerable yield maize production. In Africa, yield losses, particularly in GLS ‘hot losses ranging between 30 and spots’, and in some areas have 60% have been reported, and been relying heavily on the the disease is considered to pose use of expensive fungicides to a serious threat to food security. control the disease. Following GLS was first reported in Kenya the initial outbreaks of GLS in and Zimbabwe during the 1995 Africa, breeding programmes growing season, when small- were undertaken by the maize seed companies, and GLS-tolerant varieties first appeared on the market in southern Africa in 1997. Initially these were expensive, lower-yielding, late-maturing varieties inappropriate for small- scale maize farmers. In the past two years this situation has changed with SELECTED PUBLICATIONS the increasing availability of CABI ARC (2002) Socio-economic affordable, higher-yielding, survey of maize grey leaf spot on early-maturing varieties. small-scale maize farms in Kenya and Nevertheless, there Zimbabwe: farmer perceptions and continues to be a reluctance economic analysis. CAB International among some small-scale Africa Regional Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. maize farmers to switch to CABI ARC (2003) Options for GLS-tolerant varieties. This managing maize grey leaf spot: project looked at the use a leaﬂ et for small-scale farmers of early-maturing varieties in Kenya (in Kiswahili, Shona and and the availability of host English versions). CAB International Africa Regional Centre and Kenya resistance – potentially Agricultural Research Institute, Nairobi, Maize grey leaf spot can cause severe the most cost-effective Kenya. symptoms method for managing

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Distribution and severity of GLS in Zimbabwe <5% under maize (left) and Kenya (right) Not visited

None

Trace Low

Moderate Severe

maize GLS – as well as the role of surveys of small-scale maize farms species causing GLS: C. zeae-maydis cultural practices in managing GLS, found that GLS occurred throughout (95%) and C. sorghi (5%). Isolates including reducing crop debris to Zimbabwe and, to a lesser extent, of C. zeae-maydis from Kenya and reduce inoculum levels. The aim Kenya, with particular ‘hot spots’ Zimbabwe were all found to belong was to identify means of managing around Harare and Kakamega. Over to type II. The AFLP analysis showed GLS effectively based on sound 500 isolates of GLS were collected the C. zeae-maydis population to be epidemiological principles, and to during surveys and maintained in highly homogeneous, whereas the facilitate the selection of durable culture in duplicate collections. population of C. sorghi was highly host resistance against the disease. Taxonomic identification of >300 heterogeneous. The low level of isolates revealed two different genetic diversity within populations ACHIEVEMENTS culture types which, based on of C. zeae-maydis meant there was little scope for further studies on The distribution and severity of GLS morphology, conform to descriptions the geographic distribution of the on small-scale maize farms in Kenya for C. zeae-maydis and C. sorghi. pathogen. and Zimbabwe were quantified Studies using internal transcribed and mapped for the first time, spacer sequences and amplified Cultural practices influencing the confirming the threat to livelihoods fragment-length polymorphism occurrence of maize GLS were from this recently introduced (AFLP) confirmed the existence and identified through detailed socio- pathogen. Nationwide biological delineations of the two Cercospora economic surveys of approximately

Socio-economic survey of GLS in Zimbabwe

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potential sources The primers provided conclusive of inoculum failed evidence that, if decay is speeded to demonstrate up by burying debris, the reservoir the presence of of C. zeae-maydis will decrease C. zeae-maydis rapidly. on over 15 A standard protocol for screening potential for resistance in the field was alternative hosts, developed and validated. or on numerous This enabled the selection of imported aid suitable, locally available maize shipments of cultivars and provided support grain (sampled for maize breeding and selection using a DNA programmes. Available germplasm isolation kit). in Kenya and Zimbabwe was As inoculum screened using both natural from different inoculum in fields situated in sources has not disease hot spots, and artificially been isolated, enhanced inoculum. The absence and genetic of pathogen variability, despite variability in repeated sampling, precludes C. zeae-maydis is the need for host-resistance extremely low, it screening to take account of was not possible potential variability. A considerable Above: symptoms of GLS on maize. Below from left to to establish amount of resistance exists in the right: conidiophore and conidiogenesis; synnema; mature the disease germplasm in both Zimbabwe and conidium of Cercospora zeae-maydis epidemiology Kenya, but whereas the majority of (photos courtesy of Dr Z.M. Kinyua) using molecular commercially available varieties in markers. Zimbabwe have been bred for GLS 220 small-scale maize farmers in Investigations into the decay resistance, that is not the case in Kenya and Zimbabwe. Maize variety of C. zeae-maydis on maize Kenya. was found to play the key role in debris over time were conducted determining the occurrence of GLS using denaturing gradient gel An IPM strategy for maize – other factors included the removal electrophoresis and specific primers. GLS, including awareness- of crop debris, and soil fertility The primers were extremely raising activities, was developed (nitrogen). Poor awareness of the effective in detecting C. zeae- in consultation with Centro disease among small-scale maize maydis in soil, and far exceeded Internacional de Mejoramiento farmers and extensionists, together results achieved using microscopy. de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), seed with inadequate knowledge of the availability of resistant varieties in Zimbabwe (and a lack of resistant varieties in Kenya), are the major constraints to reducing the impact of maize GLS. Cultural practices found to influence the incidence and severity of maize GLS during the socio-economic survey were consistent with literature on the disease from other countries. The epidemiology of the disease was established through field experimentation supported by the use of molecular markers. Extensive field trials established in Kenya and Zimbabwe quantified the effect of soil fertility, initial inoculum (infested crop debris), type of maize, maturity and fungicide use on the incidence and severity of the disease. Investigations into Farmers voting on the acceptability of the IPM Strategy

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Small-scale maize farmers in western Kenya validating the IPM strategy for maize GLS

companies, extensionists, farmers’ resistant varieties no longer carry of resistant varieties and hybrids groups and scientists. The basket of a price premium above traditional by seed companies, the extension options includes cultural practices varieties. service, NGOs, etc. Two projects (removal/burial of infested maize in the CPP maize cluster could debris), soil fertility and fungicide FURTHER APPLICATION offer support in dissemination: application (in Zimbabwe), as well project R8219 (page 76) has as the use of resistant varieties. This Outputs of this research have developed protocols for making basket of options was introduced been promoted through farmer small packets of crop seeds widely to farmers within existing farmer field days, open days, stakeholder available to Kenyan farmers, and field schools in western Kenya for workshops, videos and posters. could probably assist in doing so the purposes of validation. Leaflets setting out options for the for seeds of GLS-resistant maize management of GLS have been cultivars; and project R8220 (page Two stakeholders’ workshops on published in English, Kiswahili and maize GLS were held, at CABI ARC 73) is improving farmers’ access to Shona and distributed to over 1500 resistant maize cultivars in southern in Kenya (2000) and in Zimbabwe farmers and extension officers. A Tanzania. Information was shared (2003). Extensive training in the poster, also in three languages, was between these and other maize molecular characterisation of disseminated to over 5000 farmers projects at a CPP maize cluster isolates of GLS was undertaken and extension officers. The advice meeting hosted by KARI in Embu by two project scientists through offered can be directly taken up by during 2004. A short project to attachments to CABI Bioscience, UK. farmers because the management promote GLS management in of GLS is affordable and can be We now have a much clearer Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania took adopted with only small changes understanding of the variability (or place in 2005–06 (R8453). lack of it) in the African pathogen to existing farming practices. population; the epidemiology of Despite this, there remains a lack The promotional materials the disease; and management of awareness among many farmers developed have been disseminated strategies appropriate for small- and extension officers about the to 8000 extensionists and farmers, scale maize farmers. Of particular existence of resistant varieties and and widely accepted. The posters importance is the development of other management strategies, and are currently being used for training resistant maize varieties that are there is still reluctance among some by agricultural extension staff very early-maturing and therefore small-scale farmers to switch from and seed companies such as Seed preferred by many small-scale their ‘traditional’ maize varieties to Co Ltd, and there is increasing farmers who rely on rainfed the newer, resistant varieties. Take- demand for more copies from other irrigation. Many of these new, up will depend on the promotion stakeholders, including universities.

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Improving farmers’ access to and management of disease-resistant maize cultivars in Tanzania

R8220 Tanzania has been without an organised system for local seed production and Nick Lyimo, Anderson Temu distribution since 2000, when the national seed company, TANSEED, collapsed. Agricultural Research Institute- This situation had severely limited farmers’ access to locally bred, certified and Uyole (ARI-Uyole), Tanzania disease-resistant seed, particularly in rural areas. This project facilitated the establishment of a public–private partnership between ARI-Uyole and two Baruani Iddi private-sector seed companies in order to initiate a seed production and Institut Africain pour le delivery system for the benefit of farmers in the Southern Highlands. The two Développement Economique seed companies embarked on certified seed production during the 2004/05 et Social – Centre Africain de season, beginning with UH615, a hybrid validated by farmers. In order to ensure Formation (INADES-Formation), accessibility of seed to poor farming communities, both companies have agreed Tanzania to start distributing seed in small packs (500 g to 1 kg bags), starting with the Richard Lamboll, Tanya Stathers, newly released hybrid UH6303. This step should enable sustainable access for Richard Gibson farmers to improved certified seed maize, starting with the cultivars they have Natural Resources Institute (NRI), already validated through this promotional effort. These outcomes are likely University of Greenwich, UK to lead to increased maize productivity, contributing to poverty alleviation and December 2002–March 2005 sustainable livelihoods in the region. ISSUES climatic conditions for maize SELECTED PUBLICATIONS production, currently producing Maize is the most important food almost 50% of total national maize ARI-UYOLE (2004) Kanuni Za Kilimo crop in Tanzania, accounting for production. Up to 90% of the Bora Cha Mahindi (Agronomic 60% of dietary calories as well as annual purchase of maize for the Recommendations for Maize up to 50% of utilisable protein for national strategic grain reserve is Production). ARI-Uyole, Mbeya, the majority of the Tanzanian rural Tanzania (leafl et in Kiswahili). normally made in the Southern population. It is the most widely Highlands. ARI-UYOLE (2004) Matumizi ya cultivated crop in the country, Mbolea Katika Kilimo Bora Cha covering about 45% of the area Poor access to quality seed by Mahindi (Fertilizer Practices for Maize under annual crop cultivation. The farmers has been a major constraint Production). ARI-Uyole, Mbeya, Southern Highlands of Tanzania for a long time, not only after the Tanzania (leafl et in Kiswahili). provide the most favourable collapse of the monopolistic national ARI-UYOLE (2004) UgonJwa wa milia seed company, TANSEED, kwenye mahindi (Maize Streak Virus but previously during its Disease Information Sheet). ARI- over 20 years of existence Uyole, Mbeya, Tanzania (leafl et in in certified seed production Kiswahili). and marketing. Most ARI-UYOLE (2004) Improving maize certified seed, which was seed systems to meet farmers’ marketed through a limited needs in the Southern Highlands of distribution network, had Tanzania: Report of a Stakeholders been of questionable purity Workshop on 29–31 July 2003, Iringa, Tanzania. ARI-Uyole, Mbeya, and in many cases exhibited Tanzania. unacceptably low levels of germination. In addition, GIBSON, R.W., LYIMO, N.G., TEMU, serious infections of grey A.E.M. et al. (2005) Maize seed selection by East African smallholder leaf spot (GLS, caused by farmers and resistance to maize streak the fungus Cercospora zeae virus. Annals of Applied Biology 147: maydis; see R7566, page 153–159. 69) and maize streak virus TEMU, A., LAMBOLL, R., LYIMO, (MSV) have caused major N., STATHERS, T. and GIBSON, R. losses. (2005) Be Your Own Maize Doctor: In response to this situation, A Guide Towards Nutrient Defi ciency and Foliar Disease Symptoms in the Maize Improvement Maize Production. ARI-Uyole, Mbeya, Programme (MIP) at ARI- Uyole embarked on a Tanzania (leafl et). Selecting maize seed in the fi eld

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massive screening and evaluation of maize cultivars in target villages. to modern and local varieties programme of both local and Seminars to introduce the aim of (for example, understanding exotic, commercial and pre- the project to farmers followed, differences between hybrids, open- commercial maize varieties and during which identification of pollinated varieties and landraces, inbred lines. The MIP developed training needs and formation of and how to improve farmers’ own several potential new maize farmer groups were accomplished. seed). Needs for insect and disease hybrids, one of which (UH615) Validation of new, disease- management training included was officially released during the resistant maize cultivars was diagnosis and management 2000/01 season. Given the urgency carried out by farmers and other information using both industrial of the situation, seed production stakeholders through village-based pesticides and botanicals. Soil of this new variety was carried out demonstrations in four target management featured significantly, swiftly through financial support districts. In addressing quality seed and there was a high demand for from the World Bank. However, production/supply-side issues and information on both inorganic and less than 50% of the 120 tonnes the current status of seed systems, organic methods of enhancing soil of UH615 hybrid seed produced a consultation survey of non- fertility. by ARI-Uyole was taken up by farmer stakeholders was carried Leaflets on agronomic farmers. Smallholders’ scepticism out in the target districts, followed recommendations for maize about new technology may reflect by a major workshop bringing production, fertiliser use, the previous failure of TANSEED to together farmers and other general maize pathology plus provide good quality seed. Many stakeholders. one specifically on MSV, and on farmers have lost confidence in Increased awareness of disease- management of open-pollinated the so-called new improved crop resistant maize cultivars (specifically varieties, were developed as varieties from seed companies or for GLS and MSV) has been training tools. Farmer-group from other institutions dealing with achieved through three seasons exchange visits were also used to seed distribution. of on-farm demonstrations of address farmers’ lack of knowledge In addition, stocks of a GLS- new, high-yielding hybrids in of maize production and seed resistant version of the MSV- four districts in the Southern management. These training/ resistant TMV2 (open-pollinated Highlands of Tanzania. Some learning tools, developed by a variety) were available at Dabaga, of these demonstrations were demand-driven approach, provide a foundation seed farm. Other established in areas where no farmers and extension agents with MSV-resistant (but not GLS- maize production technology had current information and practices resistant) open-pollinated varieties been presented to farmers for on maize production and seed are also available (e.g. Staha and 20 years. These demonstrations management. TMV1). The Agricultural Sector have played a significant role in To address the issue of quality Programme Support Seed Unit popularising the new materials, seed supply, it was necessary to and the Tanzania Official Seed and have contributed to a recent consult widely to understand the Certification Agency have made increase in demand for seed in significant progress in developing a rural communities. There has been perceptions, interests, activities and protocol for quality-declared seed particular demand for UH615, situation of stakeholders (including (seed produced by a registered one of the hybrids demonstrated. farmers, seed companies, stockists, producer which conforms to Another hybrid, UH6303, which NGOs, public-sector extensionists, minimum standards and is subject was awaiting official release, was researchers, regulatory bodies and to quality control measures). This ranked first by most farmers in policy-makers). This was achieved project builds on previous work terms of preference in three out of through various activities including and a number of community-based four districts. This overwhelming a situation analysis with farmers; a maize seed initiatives, for example farmer preference, in addition consultation survey of non-farmer in the Eastern and Northern Zones to other agronomic attributes, stakeholders; and a major workshop of Tanzania – including project facilitated the successful official with farmers and other stakeholders. R7429 in which Ugandan farmers release of this material as a new Three main systems (certified, learned about the principles of maize hybrid for the Southern quality-declared, and farmer-saved seed management and successfully Highlands in December 2004. seed), which are more or less multiplied seed of the MSV- linked, were found to exist in the Training needs have been Southern Highlands and Tanzania resistant maize variety Longe 1 identified with farmers and other using a village-based system. as a whole. Strengths, weaknesses, stakeholders across the four opportunities and threats to each target districts, during which were explored with stakeholders, ACHIEVEMENTS farmers expressed demand for and opportunities were identified information/training at all stages of Activities started with a baseline for improving each seed system. survey/situation analysis examining the crop cycle. With regard to seed current access to and management management, demand related Certified seed: a viable link with the

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farmer-saved seed can perform well. For example, in one village in Mbarali District, farmer-saved Staha seed out-yielded certified Staha seed. The project has encouraged the establishment of public–private partnerships between ARI-Uyole and two private-sector seed companies in order to embark on certified seed production and distribution. The commitment of these two seed companies to sustainable, quality seed production and distribution is demonstrated by their decision to absorb the costs involved in further screening of maize germplasm for disease tolerance at ARI-Uyole, to speed up the dissemination of more and better maize cultivars to farmers in the Southern Highlands and other parts of Tanzania.

FURTHER APPLICATION In the course of demonstrating and promoting new, disease-resistant maize cultivars, the project has identified other new resistant hybrids. There is a need to continue promoting these materials both within and beyond the project’s target area. The training tools, developed through a demand-driven approach, will play a significant role in addressing the lack of knowledge about improved maize production and seed management Farmers inspecting a variety trials of high-yielding, disease-resistant hybrids in the target area and the Southern Highlands in general, so that private sector has been established experiences in supplying mini-packs farmers may derive maximum following the efforts of the of agricultural inputs (seed and benefit from the maize cultivars project to promote public–private fertiliser) to resource-poor farmers. they have already validated. These partnerships in quality seed Quality-declared seed: district and tools need to be utilised more production and supply. Two private village extension staff from four intensively and made accessible sector seed companies (Mbegu districts were trained in the principles through a wider range of partners, Technologies Inc. and Highland and practice of open-pollinated both in the Southern Highlands, Seed Growers Ltd) have shown a seed production. Farmers in Mbarali where zonal and district strategies keen interest in undertaking this District received training (including have been developed with project endeavour, and have signed a a field visit to Njombe District) in partners, and eventually across Memorandum of Understanding quality-declared seed production. Tanzania. with the Tanzanian Ministry of Agriculture and Food Security to Farmer-saved seed: a stakeholder In an extension project (R8406) participate jointly in research and workshop in Iringa helped raise on improving Southern Highlands development for mutual benefit the profile of farmer-saved seed maize seed systems, improved links between the two parties. The in the Southern Highlands with a with the private sector, government project has links with the Kenya- range of stakeholders, including extension and NGOs working based Farm Input Promotions policy-makers. Results from two with farmers will be employed to project (R8219, page 76) to share demonstration seasons indicate that support the strategy.

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Improved access to appropriate integrated maize crop management by small-scale farmers in Kenya

R8219 There are three major biophysical constraints to improved maize crop Paul Seward production by small-scale farmers in Embu and Kirinyaga districts in Kenya: Farm Input Promotions-Africa Ltd poor soil fertility; prevalence of maize streak virus (MSV); and weeds. Use of (FIPS-Africa), Kenya appropriate farm inputs (fertilisers, disease-tolerant varieties and herbicides) John Muthamia is essential to increase yields. However, inputs are conventionally packaged Kenya Agricultural Research Institute in large-sized bags that are too expensive for most small-scale farmers. In (KARI) addition, blanket recommendations for fertiliser that date back over a decade can result in the use of inappropriate nutrient applications to crops. The Jonathan Anderson aim of this project was to introduce small-scale farmers to appropriate farm University of Exeter, UK inputs and crop management. Methods used included dissemination through January 2003–March 2005 farmer field schools; small-plot demonstrations (maize varieties, fertilisers and herbicides); and promotions using small packs of products provided by the private sector. The companies involved cooperated by providing seed and fertiliser in small quantities to allow farmers to experiment with their use. This work has successfully addressed the role of the private sector in smallholder service provision, and has assisted this sector to become more responsive to the needs of smallholders.

ISSUES Production of maize by small-scale farmers in Embu and Kirinyaga districts of Kenya is well below crop potential. Maize varieties with a yield potential of 5–10 t/ha are available on the market, but yields in these districts are approximately one-tenth of what could be achieved. The increasing pressure on land due to a rapidly growing population means there is an urgent need to increase yields per hectare of cultivated maize.

There are three major biophysical Maize yields were substantially constraints to crop production. improved by fertiliser application First, soil fertility is very low, with and the use of resistant varieties widespread deficiencies of nitrogen and phosphorus. Low levels of SELECTED PUBLICATIONS constraints; disease-tolerant, fertiliser use also result in the high-yielding maize varieties are MUTHAMIA, J.G.N., MACHARIA, G., depletion of other nutrients such needed to maximise crop response RIMUI, M. and AMBOGA, S. (2004) as potassium and sulphur. Second, to nutrient inputs; and correct, Participatory Conservation Tillage maize streak virus (MSV) disease is focused herbicide applications are in Eastern and Central Kenya. KARI prevalent, resulting in up to 80% needed to control weeds while Embu Research Station, Kenya. loss of yield in non-tolerant varieties. saving labour. However, inputs are SEWARD, P. (2004) The dissemination Third, crops suffer from competition conventionally packaged in large- of the appropriate farm inputs to from weeds due to ineffective and sized bags, which are beyond the small-scale farmers in Kirinyaga late weeding, often caused by a lack financial means of the vast majority district, Kenya: an example of private of available labour. and public sector co-operation. Farm of small-scale farmers, who survive Input Promotions Africa Ltd, Kenya. Use of appropriate farm inputs on an income equivalent to about US$1 per day. For example, WREN MEDIA (2004) Unlocking the to increase yields is essential. potential of Africa’s farmland. New Fertilisers containing the right blend fertilisers are conventionally Agriculturist, 1 November. of plant nutrients are required to packaged in 50-kg bags that cost www.new-agri.co.uk/04-6/develop.html alleviate the nutrient deficiency the equivalent of US$25.

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[glyphosate and atrazine+alachlor (Lasso)] in a no-till system reduced the cost of production by 50% compared with conventional tillage (digging and hand-weeding). Large increases in maize grain yields due to fertiliser use demonstrate the importance of the ICM approach used in this project. Failure to address the soil fertility constraint while concentrating solely on dissemination of crop protection strategies would result in reduced impact. The project established a network of over 120 farm-input stockists throughout Central Province, who Private sector cooperators provided mini-packs of seed and fertiliser, which promoted the project outputs. FIPS-Africa promoted to empower small-scale farmers to experiment with Stockists were trained in the inputs on their own farms identification of MSV and the choice Previous research from western by using herbicides resulted in of varieties tolerant to the disease. Kenya has shown that small-scale significant reduction of labour The project has attracted the farmers are keen to purchase small requirement and also significantly support of the private sector to quantities of appropriate fertilisers increased maize yields. provide inputs in small quantities and improved seeds, in mini-packs to allow farmers to experiment costing as little as Ksh3 (3 pence). ACHIEVEMENTS with their use. A fertiliser company, Farmers try these out on their own Demonstrations through farmer Athi River Mining, developed plots of land and, having ‘learned field schools (FFS) managed two new fertilisers (Mavuno and by doing’, return to their nearest by KARI-Embu showed large Mavuno Top) and packaged them in stockist to purchase progressively yield increases due to fertiliser branded 1-kg bags. Western Seed larger packs as they see the returns (44–179%), and through use of Company, the supplier of MSV- on soil fertility, food security and the MSV-tolerant variety WH403 tolerant varieties that performed marketable surplus. Use of this compared with the conventionally excellently in demonstrations, methodology has dramatically used hybrid H513 (41–53%). Maize supplied over 60,000 small 150-g increased the demand for farm yields under conservation tillage packs of seed, free of charge, which inputs among the poorest small- were approximately 40% higher FIPS-Africa distributed to farmers scale farmers in Kenya. than under conventional tillage. through stockists and farmer groups, This project aimed to further In addition, the use of herbicides and during field days. Monsanto develop and implement this agreed to package its Roundup methodology, in close cooperation Max product (glyphosate) in 100-g with the private sector, to make quantities. the appropriate fertilisers, maize A total of 500 farmers were trained varieties and herbicides more by KARI-Embu staff in the use of accessible to small-scale farmers herbicides, conservation tillage, in Embu and Kirinyaga districts. fertiliser use and MSV-tolerant An additional dimension was varieties through 12 FFS. In addition, an investigation of herbicide FIPS-Africa conducted a total of use for crop protection within 1500 small-plot demonstrations the framework of integrated on small-scale farmers’ fields in crop management (ICM) for soil six districts over four seasons. and water conservation. In this 500 posters advertising ‘Mavuno’ respect, the project aimed to build fertilisers, commercially available on a previous project (R7405, MSV-tolerant maize varieties, and implemented by KARI), which symptoms of nutrient deficiency and identified labour constraints in MSV were produced and distributed land preparation and subsequent to cooperating stockists. weeding as the limiting factor in ‘Mavuno’ fertiliser provided in maize production. That previous affordable quantities leads to Thanks to the material and financial work found that controlling weeds improved crop performance support from Athi River Mining

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Plants of an MSV-tolerant maize variety sampled from a demonstration showing response to different nutrient combinations (plant on the left is grown without nutrients)

and Western Seed Company, the and it was used by 12,000 farmers An impact assessment has been geographical range of the project each growing 0.5 acres of maize, carried out to determine the effect was extended beyond the originally then each farmer would harvest an of the project on the adoption of proposed target districts of Embu additional yield equivalent to seven inputs and on farmers´ livelihoods. and Kirinyaga. Demonstrations 90-kg bags. Data obtained will be used to fine- and promotions were extended tune the promotion approach for into Nyeri, Meru, Kiambu, Thika, FURTHER APPLICATION future campaigns in neighbouring Murang’a and Maragwa districts in regions/countries. This methodology Central Province. This work is helping to raise major is continuing to be developed for the widespread dissemination The project succeeded in quickly issues about private-sector provision of herbicide use, which is more raising demand among small-scale of inputs and improving farmers’ complex than seed due to the farmers for 60 tonnes of seed of access to knowledge. These issues greater need for effective training new maize varieties, sold through include the lack of market research in terms of product knowledge and stockists within the fourth season carried out by the private sector; application methods. of the project. The majority of the limited technical capacity of farmers purchased a 2-kg bag (the the private sector; an apparent Following the success of the project smallest size available). In addition, inability to develop markets; and in Kenya, a pilot project was started over 200 tonnes of ‘Mavuno’ public-sector agencies that find it in Tanzania to encourage the fertiliser were sold in the project difficult to work with and enhance private sector to adopt the small- areas. Assuming the 60 tonnes of the private sector. There is potential pack methodology and to empower seed were used effectively with to affect the future formulation and small-scale farmers to experiment fertiliser to yield an extra 1.3 tonnes implementation of policy in this with small packs of seeds and new, of maize grain per acre (0.53 t/ha), critical area. improved fertilisers.

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Integrated pest and soil management to combat Striga, stem borers and declining soil fertility in maize

R8212 Maize grain yields in eastern Africa average less than 25% of potential Zeyaur Khan, Dickens Nyagol yield. This low yield is caused mainly by witchweed (Striga) infestation, stem International Centre for Insect borers and declining soil fertility. ‘Best-bet’ strategies have been identified, Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), developed and adapted for control of these three major constraints in Kenya, Kenya Tanzania and Uganda. This work has provided better understanding of the Hugo de Groote, Fred Kanampiu, relative contributions of these constraints to the maize yield gap in the Lake Esther Rutto Victoria Basin, and of farmers’ indigenous coping strategies. The ‘push–pull’ Centro Internacional de crop rotation system; herbicide-resistant (imidazolinone-resistant) maize; and Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (CIMMYT), Kenya crop rotation have been tested in farmer-participatory trials. The project has helped build the capacity of farmers and national research and extension Joseph Kikafunda systems to conduct biological, ecological and socio-economic research on the Namulonge Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute integrated management of these constraints. A monitoring and evaluation (NAARI), Uganda system has been put in place to evaluate the new technologies and options, George Odhiambo and to estimate their impact. The involvement of a large number of farmers Kenya Agricultural Research should ensure a lasting impact at the local level, and hopefully a gradual Institute (KARI) diffusion of benefits to neighbouring areas. Ignath Rwiza Agricultural Research Institute- ISSUES cause yield losses of 30–50%, Ukiriguru (ARI-Ukiriguru), Tanzania although losses of up to 100% are Maize is one of the most important Bernard Vanlauwe not uncommon, with a value of the cereal crops in eastern Africa, Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility order of US$37–88 million per year. serving as both a staple food and a Institute, CIAT, Kenya cash crop for millions of people in Stem borers seriously limit maize John Pickett, Lester Wadhams the Lake Victoria Basin. Grain yields yields by infesting the crop Rothamsted Research, UK under farmers’ conditions average throughout its growth stages. The October 2002–March 2005 about 1–1.5 t/ha, less than 25% yield losses incurred by maize vary of the potential yield of 4–5 t/ha. widely in space and time, but range SELECTED PUBLICATIONS The low maize yield is associated from 20–40% of potential output KHAN, Z.R., MUYEKHO, F.N., with several constraints. Farmers in eastern Africa, depending on NJUGUNA, E. et al. (2005) A Primer consistently list Striga, stem borers agro-ecological conditions, crop on Planting and Managing ‘Push- (Chilo spp., Busseola fusca, Sesamia cultivars, agronomic practices and Pull’ Fields for Stemborer and Striga spp.) and declining soil fertility intensity of infestation. Weed Control in Maize: A Step-by- as the three major constraints to Soil infertility results from the poor Step Guide for Farmers. ICIPE Science efficient maize production in the inherent fertility status, together Press, Nairobi. region. with high human population KIKAFUNDA, J. and EBELLU, M. Striga is a parasitic weed that pressure, and poor soil and crop (2003) Participatory rural appraisal (PRA) to assess pest and soil fertility infests approximately 158,000 ha management practices. Due to problems in the Lake Victoria Basin of arable land in the Lake Victoria the low inherent fertility status of – Busia District, Uganda. NAARI/ Basin in Kenya alone. Striga can the soils in the target region, their NARO, Uganda. low buffering capacity, and the inability of small- ODHIAMBO, G. and NYAGOL, D. (2004) Participatory rural appraisal scale farmers to invest in (PRA) to assess pest and soil fertility soil fertility management problems in Western Kenya, February strategies, soils are rapidly 2004. KARI, Kenya/ICIPE, Tanzania. degrading and are hardly able to sustain acceptable RUTTO, E.J., DE GROOTE, H., VANLAUWE, B. et al. (2005) Farmers’ maize yields. Nitrogen perceptions and evaluation of and phosphorus are the integrated approaches to combat major production-limiting striga, stemborers and soil fertility nutrients. problems in Western Kenya. Presented at the 7th African Crop A range of technologies Science Society Conference, Entebbe, addressing various aspects Uganda, 5–9 December 2005. A farmers’ field day in Siaya District, Kenya of Striga, stem borers and

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Project farmers use soybean rotations with maize to increase soil fertility and reduce Striga infestation

soil fertility management have been applied as a seed dressing, the 2004) in Tanzania. Components developed and disseminated. These herbicide in IR maize (imazapyr) is of these best bets were the include the ‘push–pull’ technology imbibed by the germinating seed maize–Desmodium (push–pull) for control of maize stem borers and absorbed into the growing intercropping system; continuous and Striga – maize is intercropped maize seedling before any damage maize; and rotations with grain with the stem borer moth-repelling is inflicted on the host plant by (soybean) and herbaceous legume Desmodium (‘push’), and Striga. Additionally, imazapyr from (Crotolaria) legumes. Their effects stem borer moth-attracting (‘pull’) the seed coat that is not absorbed on suppression of Striga and Napier grass is planted around by the maize seedling diffuses stem borers, and on soil fertility the field (see page 84). Other into the surrounding soil and kills improvement, were compared technologies include herbicide- ungerminated Striga seeds. using two maize varieties (IR and a local landrace or improved resistant (imidazolinone-resistant, This project developed and commercial variety) grown under IR) maize for the control of Striga, disseminated integrated pest and two fertiliser levels (no or medium and various crop-rotation options soil fertility management practices, fertiliser). Stem borer damage for restoring depleted soils. in particular against stem borers, to maize varied substantially Striga and declining soil fertility, for Research conducted at ICIPE between locations and seasons in maize-based production systems in showed that the root system of all countries, and the push–pull the Lake Victoria Basin. Desmodium in the push–pull technology was observed to technology, originally developed ACHIEVEMENTS suppress stem borer damage from to control stem borers in maize, the second (Kenya/Tanzania) or produces both Striga seed- Demonstrations of ‘best-bet’ third (Uganda) season onwards. germination stimulants and lateral technologies for the control The IR maize fully controlled growth-inhibiting chemicals, of Striga and stem borers, and Striga emergence in Tanzania, and thereby hindering the attachment enhancement of soil fertility, substantially suppressed Striga of Striga’s haustorial root system to were initiated in the long rainy emergence in Kenya. In Uganda, IR that of the host plant (maize). The season (March–July) 2003 in maize did not show any effect on germinated Striga plant soon dies Kenya and Uganda, and during Striga emergence. The push–pull (suicidal germination). Research at the more reliable second rainy technology equally suppressed CIMMYT has shown that, when season (October 2003–January Striga emergence, but again only

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after two or three seasons. Other their middle- systems or fertiliser application did and high- not result in significant reductions wealth-class in either stem borer or Striga counterparts. infestations. Differences in grain The tech- yields of maize between cropping nologies systems were minimal, and only developed and fertiliser application was observed dis-seminated to increase maize yield substantially are helping in all countries. to reduce the Farmers from the target villages vulnerability were exposed to the various of small-scale options demonstrated during the farmers to first two seasons through field days the vagaries in the villages. These formed the of different basis for the selection of options pests and to be tested by farmers during the the declining Push–pull intercropping for stem borer and Striga control adaptation trials, which started soil fertility during the long rainy season of that threaten their food security. and the relatively high potential for 2004 in Kenya (148 farmers: 38% The project is increasing local drought around Lake Victoria. female farmers in Vihiga District; knowledge and capacity to deal The project will deliver its 60% in Siaya District) and Uganda with pest and soil fertility problems, outcomes to a larger number of (24 farmers in Busia District, 56% leading to a sustainable increase farmers within and beyond the female), and during the second in food production. Involving both target villages around the Lake season of 2004 in Tanzania. private and public institutions Victoria Basin through enhanced Many of these farmers combine such as seed companies, NGOs, links with farmer groups, NGOs, crop rotation with IR maize, agricultural extension and research and other projects operating in or intercropping IR maize with bodies, will increase access to new the Lake Victoria Basin. The NGOs push–pull technology. Preliminary technologies. To ensure long-term assisted include, in Kenya: CARE, farmer evaluation showed that in sustainability, the project is working Christian Relief Development Vihiga District (Kenya), legume–IR exclusively through existing Agency, the Kima Integrated maize rotations were preferred over institutions. the push–pull technology; while in Christian-based Rural Project, Sustainable Community Oriented Siaya District (Kenya), the push–pull FURTHER APPLICATION treatments scored highly for all Development Program, and criteria. In Busia District (Uganda), This work has demonstrated Farming in Tsetse Control Areas; in soybean and Crotalaria rotations variability in the effects of these Uganda: farmers’ groups reached scored the highest. technologies, and has helped to through links with NGOs such clarify the possible limitations of as Care for the Orphan, Widows A second set of farmer evaluations the various inputs. For example, and the Elderly, Busia District was carried out in six villages push–pull works better where there Farmers’ Association, Farming (Kenya and Uganda) in the short has been excessive rain and high in Tsetse Control areas, and rainy seasons of 2003 and 2004, Striga pressure; IR maize performs Lumino Women’s Development when 202 (in 2003) and 362 (in better where Desmodium cannot Association; in Tanzania, CARE- 2004) farmers participated. Results survive drought. International, the Evangelical showed that in Siaya, farmers Lutheran Church of Tanzania, and scored push–pull technology Follow-up activities (R8449) will World Vision of Tanzania. highly, while in Vihiga and Busia, yield conclusive information on the Crotalaria and soybean rotations medium- to long-term effects of Some components of the best- scored better. Treatments were the best-bet options on the Striga bet technologies require access to significantly different, with women seedbank, stem borer infestation, improved seeds and/or fertiliser. generally ranking the technologies overall soil fertility status, and Public–private sector links with higher than men in both Kenya economic performance for the seed companies operating around and Uganda. The low-wealth-class target areas. Farmers’ assessment Lake Victoria will foster access to farmers in Kenya ranked push–pull of the best-bet options requires seeds. The potential for alleviating technology highly, while the several feedback cycles over poverty and spreading the high-wealth class ranked soybean several seasons due to the nature products through areas beyond and Crotalaria rotations better. In of the technologies evaluated the target areas will be evaluated Uganda, low-wealth-class farmers (e.g. rotations require at least two through impact assessment ranked all treatments higher than seasons to assess residual effects), activities.

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Integrated pest management of maize-forage dairying in Kenya

R7955 Dairying is an important source of household income on most smallholder Joint-funded with Livestock farms in Kenya. As landholdings decrease in size due to subdivision, small-scale Production Programme (LPP) farmers cannot generate sufficient forage for dairying. A shortage of forage results in low milk production, long calving intervals, high calf mortality and Alistair Murdoch, Emyr Owen, Peter low weight gain in young stock. Forage shortage is especially pronounced Dorward during the dry season. In central Kenya maize is increasingly being grown Department of Agriculture, continuously for forage as well as for food on small-scale farms. Weeds from University of Reading, UK crop land are also an important source of forage for livestock. This CPP/LPP Jackson Njuguna, David Maino project aimed to assist maize–dairy smallholders to produce more forage for Mwangi, Jedidah Maina improved milk production through integrated management strategies that Kenya Agricultural Research increase the seasonal availability of forage from both maize and weeds. The Institute (KARI) – (NARC-Muguga, project investigated the effects of different maize cultivars, dense planting NARC-Embu, NARL-Kabete) regimes and incidence of maize streak virus disease on grain yield, and on Dannie Romney forage yield and quality. Also studied were the effects of different weeding International Livestock Research regimes on grain and forage from maize and weeds; integrated management Institute, Kenya to optimise grain and forage production, including the push–pull system of reducing maize stem borer; and the farm-level economic implications of April 2001–March 2005 IPM strategies.

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS ISSUES producing sufficient forage for LUKUYU, B.A., NJUGUNA, J., dairy cattle is expected to become Maize is the staple food for 24 MWANGI, D.M. et al. (2002) Effects increasingly difficult for farmers. of infection with maize streak virus million households in eastern and Forage (in the form of maize southern Africa. Research into and cultivar, on yield and quality of thinnings and leaf strippings, agronomic practices to optimise maize forage and on yield of grain. weeds, and forage crops such as pp. 60–61. In: Responding to the grain yields is a priority for the Napier grass) is abundant only Increasing Global Demand for Animal Government of Kenyan because during the rainy seasons. This Products. Smith, T. and Mlambo, of the critical role played by project sought to increase forage V. (Eds). British Society of Animal maize in food security. As a result, Science, Penicuik, UK. production, and to promote small- agronomic evaluation and crop scale silage-making technologies MAINA, J.M., KIVUVA, B.M., husbandry recommendations for to conserve higher-quality forage MBURU, M.W.K. et al. (2003) Weed maize focus on maximising grain produced during the rainy seasons management options for resource yield, but ignore the maize crop for use during the dry season. poor maize–dairy farmers in Central as a source of forage for livestock Kenya. pp. 993–998. In: Proceedings production, despite the value of the of the 2003 Crop Science and A survey of the Central Highlands Technology Conference 2. British crop residue being between one- found that localised, but often Crop Protection Council, Alton, UK. third and half the value of the grain severe, epidemics of diseases and produced. pests are present at levels likely MURDOCH, A.J., NJUGUNA, J.G.M., to reduce maize yields. The most LUKUYU, B.A. et al. (2003) Integrated In the Central Highlands of Kenya, pest management options to improve dairying is the most important important are maize streak virus maize forage yield and quality for agricultural activity after tea and disease (MSVD); northern leaf small-scale dairy farmers in central coffee growing. Dairy animals are blight (Exserohilum turcicum); Kenya. Aspects of Applied Biology fed in zero-grazed or semi-zero- rust (Puccinia spp.); anthracnose 70: 71–77. grazed systems, mainly on ‘cut- (Colletotrichum spp.); Fusarium NJUGUNA, J.G.M., NJOROGE, P.G. and-carry’ forage maize residues, foot rot; and stem borer (Busseola and JAMA, A.N. (2003) Epidemiology weeds, and crops such as Napier fusca). Weeds infesting maize crops and maize crop resistance to head grass (Pennisetum purpureum). (and non-cropped vegetation in smut disease with reference to For example, in Kiambu District adjacent land), while providing small-scale maize–dairy farmers 48% of households stall-feed a measurable source of animal in Central Kenya. pp. 999–1004. forage, also directly reduced yields In: Proceedings of the 2003 Crop dairy cattle. Farming in this area Science and Technology Conference is becoming more intensive as in maize. Conversely, Napier grass 2. British Crop Protection Council, population size increases leading and the legume Desmodium Alton, UK. to pressure on the land, and uncinatum, when grown in

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Farmers at a field day to promote sustainable maize–dairying association with maize, reduced the diseased forage and weeds were to MSVD. This could benefit poor

incidence of stem borer by repelling explored, including studies of the farmers who cannot afford F1 the adult insects then trapping the ‘push–pull’ habitat management hybrid seed. larvae. The negative and positive system for maize stem borer control Early infection was most damaging contributions of weeds and planted which augments forage production when all plants in a crop were vegetation to livestock production by the maize crop with Napier grass infected artificially. A conflict in must be integrated within the and Desmodium. the scientific literature implied that context of pest, disease and weed The effects were quantified of management. early infection was not necessarily maize genotypes, diseases and a problem when natural infections ACHIEVEMENTS weeding regimes on total forage were investigated – this work yield, forage quality and seasonal demonstrated that where only 25% The project first assessed all forage availability. MSVD was of plants were artificially infected the impacts (biological, socio- highlighted by farmers as having 14 days after crop emergence, economic, management) of MSVD the greatest impact on maize uninfected plants appeared to and weeding regimes on the forage and grain yields. It was also grow and compensate for infected seasonal availability of forage and the problem about which they ones. Partially infected crops its quality in smallholder dairying. knew least in 2001. The project could therefore give yields similar Farmers identified MSVD, maize confirmed the deleterious impact to infected ones, even though stem borer and weeds as the three of MSVD on yields of forage, and individual infected plants are main biotic constraints in Kiambu. that these could be alleviated stunted. Most agronomic research on maize by growing resistant F1 hybrid in Africa has ignored use of the cultivars (PAN 67 and KH 521). Farmer practices that aim to crop as forage, and most farmers These cultivars also performed well maximise forage production from in Kenya were unaware of cultivars on- and off-station, and farmers the maize crop include high-density resistant to MSVD at the start of confirmed their resistance to planting each season, with some the project. The implications for MSVD. The open-pollinated variety plants being thinned to provide IPM of feeding or composting SADVEB also had some resistance forage for dairy animals. Dense

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The economic implications were Main crop quantified of maize diseases and farmer-acceptable weeding regimes for grain and forage yield, quality and seasonal availability for Trap crop smallholder maize–dairy farmers and for landless women livestock farmers. The use of MSVD- resistant cultivars was shown to Attract moths improve gross margins of MSVD- Attract natural infected maize. The push–pull enemies system shows negative returns in its first season, but thereafter is Moths are expected to be more profitable pushed away than current practice, even though stem borer infestations were Layout of push-pull plot for maize stem borer control. Napier around insufficient to show a dramatic the perimeter pulls (attracts) the moths while the Desmodium intercrop pushes effect. The returns were substantial (repels) them from the maize (illustration courtesy of Dr J. van den Berg/ICIPE, when combined with forage reproduced with permission of Taylor & Francis/CRC Press*) conservation to alleviate forage shortages in the dry season. planting of maize was found favour the resistant Napier cultivar Extensionists and farmers were to reduce weeds, but thinning Kakamega 1, which has never trained to promote sustainable for forage must be carried out been tested in push–pull systems. maize–dairying, including how carefully to avoid reducing grain Questions still to be addressed IPM may affect the availability yield. To obtain forage from include whether the semiochemical of forage. Field days were held weeds, some farmers leave them production by Kakamega 1 will and specific training provided to to grow for longer before the attract stem borer moths to a extension staff and NGOs. Extension second weeding. In addition to the greater extent than maize; and staff prepared action plans, and long-term effects of such practices whether semiochemical production progress in these was monitored on weed infestations, there are by Napier and Desmodium will be and evaluated. A website was implications for disease and pest adequate for attraction/repulsion of developed (www.apd.rdg.ac.uk/ problems. maize stem borer moths in different Agriculture/Research/CropScience/ The IPM strategies promoted by the agro-ecosystems. Projects/IntegratedWeed/index. htm) and various items of literature project comprised cultivars resistant Both MSVD infection and weeds supplied. Farmers were exposed to to MSVD and maize head smut, actually increased the quality of and the push–pull system for stem technologies by two field days and maize forage, especially in protein various exchange visits, and through borers. The recommendation is to concentration. However, differences a leaflet made available in English plant three rows of Napier grass were small and were outweighed and Kikuyu. around the maize crop – Napier by the much higher total protein grass attracts (pulls) and traps the yield per unit land area from FURTHER APPLICATION stem borer, preventing it from uninfected/weed-free maize. getting into the maize. A row of The project was extended until Desmodium planted between The effectiveness was studied of January 2006 to train promotion maize rows after every three to five routing maize and weed forage partners in IPM technologies rows of maize repels (pushes) the through ruminants, and of and in participatory approaches. stem borer from the maize. Farmers composting, in order to reduce After training, follow-up support in Kiambu and elsewhere have transmission of maize diseases, included supplying seed for trials, considerable problems with Napier stem borer and weed seed between funds for farmer exchange visits head smut, and some therefore seasons. The study focused on and two review days. Only one year maize head smut, which can after training, promotion partners *KHAN, Z., HASSANALI, A. and PICKETT, be soilborne. Spores could pass had, at their own expense, reached J. (2006) Managing polycropping to through the rumen, but were enhance soil system productivity: a case 31 farmer groups (351 men and study from Africa. pp. 575–586. In: killed by composting. The only 374 women); held 11 field days Biological Approaches to Sustainable Soil weed species that survived was attended by over 4100 farmers Systems. Uphoff, N., Ball, A.S., Fernandes, Amaranthus: some of its seeds while 190 and 498 farmers had E. et al. (Eds). Taylor & Francis/CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, USA. ISBN: 1 574 445839 survived both rumination and adopted ‘push–pull’ and MSVD- (in press). composting. resistant cultivars, respectively.

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Improving food security and livelihoods through promotion of IPM in lowland maize systems

R8215 Despite the importance of maize in the lowland tropical zone of Africa, yields Jim Ellis-Jones, Rodger White in the region average less than 1.2 t/ha, compared with estimated potential Silsoe Research Institute, UK yields of 4–5 t/ha. Striga infestations compounded by low soil fertility, diseases and pests are all constraints to improved yields. Although adverse climatic Vincent Alukumka conditions were experienced during much of this project, the participatory Eastern Zone Client Oriented research and extension approach (PREA) used led to improved soil and pest Research project (EZCORE), weed management techniques being adopted in target villages, indicating Agricultural Research Institute- the success of PREA in allowing farmers and communities to identify and seek Ilonga, Tanzania solutions for their own priority problems. There is evidence for considerable George Ley, Adolf Nyaki adoption of improved maize varieties (notably TMV1, Syn White and Syn 98) Agricultural Research Institute- and, to a lesser extent, soil fertility and pest management practices. In the Mlingano, Tanzania case of declining soil fertility, use of green manures has improved soil fertility Paul Kyakaisho and reduced Striga infestations. More widespread adoption will result from Muheza District Council, Tanzania stakeholders promoting the technologies in other areas. This is likely to lead Joseph Hella to a strengthening of the rural economy, with consequent advantages for Sokoine University of Agriculture, local seed production and agents selling agri-inputs. The adoption of low- Tanzania cost, labour-efficient weeding practices will release resources for other crops Patrick Lammeck and non-farm activities. The combination of these outcomes in the long term Institut Africain pour le should raise household incomes and improve basic food security, helping to Développement Economique alleviate the drudgery associated with hand labour, frequently carried out et Social – Centre Africain de by women and children. Formation (INADES-Formation), Tanzania ISSUES drought, foliar diseases (including streak), stalk borers, weeds Fred Kanampiu Maize is important for household and Striga among the priority Centro Internacional de food security and as a cash crop for constraints to improved maize Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo producers in the lowland tropical production. CIMMYT, working in (CIMMYT), Kenya zone (0–1000 m above sea level) collaboration with the Eastern and which stretches across Ethiopia, Charlie Riches Central Africa Maize and Wheat Kenya, Malawi, Mozambique, Natural Resources Institute, (ECAMAW) research network University of Greenwich, UK Tanzania, Somalia, South Africa and Zambia. The Association of ASARECA, has developed October 2003–March 2005 for Strengthening Agricultural cultivars (open-pollinated varieties Research in Eastern and Central and hybrids) that are tolerant Africa (ASARECA) ranks maize as of moderate levels of Striga first priority among crops grown infestation, low soil nitrogen and in the region, with low soil fertility, drought, as well as being resistant

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS AKULUMUKA, V., ELLIS-JONES, J., HELLA, J. et al. (2004) Improving food security through Striga and soil fertility management in lowland maize: a participatory development process. Paper presented at the International Weed Society Conference, Durban, South Africa, 19–24 June 2004. A stand of ARI-ILONGA (2004) Best Practices improved for Integrated Striga Control. A maize Syn98 Group Extension Tool for Discussions following with Farmer Groups. Users’ Guide. the green Agricultural Research Institute-Ilonga, manure Tanzania. Canavalia

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Left, inspecting the green manure Mucuna in Mtakuja; right, illustration from ‘Best practices for integrated Striga control: a group extension tool’

to the major pests and diseases of pruriens. An added advantage of used no control method. Stem the region. Additionally, CIMMYT Crotalaria is that it produces Striga borer numbers can be reduced and has developed a novel technology germination stimulant and has the maize yields increased by planting for controlling Striga in maize, potential to reduce Striga seed a trap-crop border of Napier grass which involves the application of populations in the soil. (Pennisetum purpureum) around low doses of herbicide as a seed maize plots (see R8212, page 79; Maize streak virus, the main coating to herbicide-resistant maize R7955, page 82). This practice maize disease of the East African varieties. These varieties are non- needs to be tested with farmers lowlands, is readily controlled by transgenic but derive their herbicide in the Tanga region to examine the use of host-plant resistance. resistance from a naturally farmers’ acceptance of the practice Released varieties, including TMV1 occurring mutation in maize that and how it fits in with other and Staha, have been converted was identified and isolated by tissue production practices. to carry resistance, but farmers culture. are not always aware of sources Work to support increased Trials undertaken by a previous of clean seed. One of the reasons productivity of maize-based systems project (R7564) have indicated for this is the widespread practice has been initiated through the that Striga alone can reduce yield of recycling improved seed for Irish aid-funded EZCORE project by over 50%, depending on the many years before new stocks (a programme within the Ministry cultivar, and that this effect can be are purchased. Stem borers were of Agriculture and Food Security reversed by the addition of nitrogen reported by 54% of farmers in implemented by the district offices fertiliser or the use of leguminous the Eastern Agricultural Zone of of the Department of Agricultural green manures such as Canavalia Tanzania to be the major pest of Extension). Striga infestation of spp., Crotalaria juncea or Mucuna maize. Most farmers interviewed cereal crops is a national research

Illustrations from ‘Best practices for integrated Striga control: a group extension tool‘ (dispersal by, left to right, wind and water; animals and tools; crop seeds

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Phase 1 Situation analysis and social mobilisation • Entering a community and building trust, motivating community • Assessing livelihoods • Identifying local institutions Phase 2 Action planning • Understanding local farming systems • Prioritising problems • Providing feedback and Phase 4 Sharing experiences • Identifying causes of the problem raising awareness • Mid-season monitoring • Identifying coping mechanisms • Searching for solutions • End-of-season evaluation • Mandating local institutions • Process monitoring and • Producing action plans Participatory research and review • Working with farmer research extension approach groups

Phase 3 Farmer experimentation • Trying out new ideas • Providing support and training

The participatory research and development approach used during the project

priority in Tanzania, and work Ready access to inputs, particularly started to use new varieties of maize to identify S. asiatica-tolerant or maize seed in small packs, have achieved considerable increases -resistant maize lines is ongoing at was identified as important in production. Mwele seed farm in Muheza. This in promoting adoption. Two Despite adverse climatic conditions project was designed to respond communities established their during much of the project, to the need to test technology own seed-production units, and a improved soil and pest weed combinations in a participatory private-sector company supplied management techniques have manner as a powerful strategy for improved seed in small packs. been adopted in target villages, technology development for both Muheza District Council, in indicating the success of PREA in pest management and soil fertility conjunction with EZCORE, has allowing farmers and communities enhancement. expanded activities to other parts to identify and seek solutions for ACHIEVEMENTS of the district, and a considerable their own priority problems. Close number of households are using at liaison between stakeholders The project worked with key least one of the technology options. (researchers, extension agents) and stakeholders using the participatory In particular, those farmers who have close involvement of policy-makers research and extension approach at village and district levels has (PREA), ensuring that farmers and ensured that wide scaling up should their institutions were fully involved now be possible. EZCORE has used from the outset. Evaluation of the findings to date, and expanded farmer-selected pest and soil activities to a further six villages fertility management options was during 2004–05. carried out through farmer testing in Muheza District, Tanzania, FURTHER APPLICATION selected as being representative of lowland maize production areas. Benefits from increased productivity This was based on participatory have so far been assessed only over evaluation of appropriate maize a very short period, necessitating varieties, alternative green manure a further year of activities (R8452) crops, and low-cost methods that will build on existing farmer of controlling stem borer over trials and their use within a farmer a two-year, four-season period. group training approach, and Although three of these seasons training of trainers in conjunction were adversely affected by drought, with EZCORE/District Agricultural improvements were apparent Office. The sale of seeds in small with the improved rains in the last A village extension worker packs will be promoted through the season of the project, ensuring that discussing green manure options establishment of village-level supplies farmers achieved positive gains. with a farmer from Mbambakofi linked to local seed production.

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Promoting improved crop establishment and weed management in semi-arid sub-Saharan Africa

R8191 Over 80% of smallholder, subsistence farming households in Zimbabwe Ostin Chivinge, Edward Chuma, live below the basic needs poverty line. The number of small-scale farmers Peter Jowah, Arnold Mashingaidze in rural areas is growing, but at the same time their contact with markets University of Zimbabwe and transport facilities are declining. Building on research outputs from a number of CPP projects, knowledge and technologies for improving crop Tiri Koza, Sipho Sibanda productivity in cotton and maize systems were identified and developed with Department of Agricultural both extension workers and farmers. AREX, farmers, the private sector, NGOs Research and Extension, Ministry of and commercial companies were all involved in developing a process for Agriculture (AREX), Zimbabwe testing a range of crop establishment and weed management technologies Jim Ellis-Jones, Nicola Harford targeted at resource-poor farmers in the small-scale sector. A process Silsoe Research Institute, UK approach was developed for farmer testing of these practices. The capability Charlie Riches of participating organisations has been strengthened through the use of Natural Resources Institute, participatory approaches, training in the technologies, and improvements University of Greenwich, UK to research–extension–farmer–private sector links. However, the potential CARE, Zimbabwe impact will remain limited until political and economic circumstances in Zimbabwe allow the redevelopment of an effective extension service with Africa 2000, Zimbabwe an efficient input-supply network. Zimbabwe Farmers Union (ZFU) Agricura, Zimbabwe ISSUES food security and overexploitation Cotton Company of Zimbabwe of natural resources. In Zimbabwe, crop and livestock (Cottco) production are increasingly central This project aimed to assist the Monsanto to people’s livelihood strategies. 80% of small-scale farmers who SeedCo However, following the drought in live below the poverty line. Within Windmill early 2002 people are being forced this group, four categories have been identified, ranging from Zimbabwe Fertilizer Company to diversify into unsustainable, riskier and sometimes illegal coping relatively well resourced to very September 2002–March 2005 strategies such as gold panning, poorly resourced, distinguished by poaching, sale of fuelwood and access to physical assets (draught animals, implements), natural See R6655, Perspectives on Pests thatching grass, piecework and assets (land), and financial assets 1996–2000, p. 4. illegal cross-border trade. At the (especially non-farm income, which same time, new vulnerable groups is rapidly declining). Households are emerging, including the elderly headed by women, especially and children caring for HIV-affected where the head is widowed, people. Traditional safety nets are separated or abandoned, are breaking down under pressure, among the poorest. Different levels notably those of the extended of access to resources make it SELECTED PUBLICATIONS family under pressure of the burden particularly important that a range of AIDS and the rising cost of living. of technology options is available, CHIVINGE,O.A. (2004) Fight against weeds. Harvester 1(5). Unfortunately rural people are from no-cost (such as seed priming) increasingly distanced from to high-cost (such as herbicides). UoZ, SRI, NRI, AREX, COTTCO (2003) Guidelines for Farmers. 13 leaﬂ ets input and output markets, and Low-cost, labour-efficient options on: land preparation, ploughing communities are interacting less for soil and weed management in options, minimum tillage, soil with the outside world due to seasonally inundated land (vleis) conservation, third burrow planting rising transport costs. Rather than in maize–rice and cotton–maize and ripper planting, hand and the usual picture of urban-to-rural production systems in the Zambezi opening plough furrow planting, migration, the reverse is now true Valley have been the subject of a weeding options, ploughing with – people are moving back to rural number of previous CPP projects dish remover, ploughing with dish areas due to urban unemployment. attached, weeding with a cultivator, over the period 1996–2002 weeding with a cultivator with Devastating droughts in both (R5742, R6655, R7189, R7440, hillers, using herbicides, and safe 1992 and 2002, especially in the R7473, R7474). That research use of pesticides. Farmer leaﬂ et nos southern parts of Zimbabwe, have developed appropriate and UZ/03/01-UZ/03/12V. led to increasing concerns about applicable technologies to improve

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Some major external factors had a severe impact on stakeholders’ abilities to support project activities from their own budgets. Extremely dry conditions in the first and third seasons of the project resulted in partner organisations, particularly NGOs, changing their priorities to food relief. Deteriorating economic conditions in the country led to a serious rise in input costs (over 1000% in two years). Initially the project had worked with the private sector to improve farmers’ access to inputs, but economic conditions resulted in huge increases in costs, Assessing increases in rice and maize yields unavailability of many items and the withdrawal of many suppliers from crop production, increase income The establishment by lead farmers rural areas. As a result, the project generation, reduce poverty, improve of test and demonstrations plots took over the role of input provision health and nutrition, improve was facilitated by AREX, Cottco, in many cases. In addition, changing food security, reduce labour CARE, Africare and ZFU over government priorities such as the demand (especially for women and three years. These test plots fast-track land resettlement resulted children), and increase livelihood involved various technologies in AREX extension staff being options. The current project chosen by the different assigned new duties. aimed to promote these research farmer groups, depending on outputs through communicating their available resources and Despite these restrictions, the the knowledge and technologies environment, as follows. project has demonstrated an to extension workers, farmers and enhanced dissemination process Vlei utilisation (Masvingo): other relevant stakeholders. providing farmers with improved • alternative maize–rice planting access to information about ACHIEVEMENTS systems production-increasing technologies. • seed priming Given normal weather conditions, For each component of the • soil and water management, project, seven training modules these technologies have the including ﬂ at, bed and ridge potential to increase income were developed with 12 leaflets systems in English and Shona for each. A generation, improve livelihoods • improved use of ploughs and total of 40 farmer study groups and reduce poverty. Training kits, cultivators in crop establishment (800 farmers) were formed. incorporating a trainer’s manual, and weed management With farmers and field staff in posters and farmer leaflets, have • use of herbicides. government, NGOs and the private been developed for use by the sector, the project developed and Cotton production (Zambezi Valley): extension services, and electronic tested a participatory research and • soil and water management versions are being provided to extension approach involving a options, including reduced tillage institutional stakeholders for further four-phase cycle: situation analysis • improved use of ploughs and dissemination. and social mobilisation; action cultivators in crop establishment planning; farmer experimentation; and weed management FURTHER APPLICATION and sharing experiences. • use of herbicides in combination Further scaling-up activities are The participatory approach with hand and draught-animal needed to raise awareness of senior was used to identify adoptable weeding equipment. staff in stakeholder institutions of technologies and promote scaling In all cases, lead farmers from the potential gains of using this up in two areas of Zimbabwe: each group provided facilities for approach to scaling-up technology testing the new technologies, adoption. Training of trainers in the • parts of Masvingo Province, with others in the same group use of the training kits developed south-east Zimbabwe, where encouraged to learn from and try by the project is needed at both farmers prioritised improved the technologies on their own provincial and district levels, as well utilisation of vlei (swamp) areas farms. In Mshagashe, for instance, as subsequent training of extension • the Zambezi Valley in northern there has been a steady increase workers so that farmer training Zimbabwe, where priority was in the number of farmers adopting can be incorporated into local-level given to maize–cotton systems. the technologies. programmes.

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Promotion of IPM for smallholder cotton in Uganda

R8197 Average cotton yields in Uganda are well below the potential for rain-grown Rory Hillocks, Derek Russell, cotton, mainly due to problems with crop management and pest control. Charlie Riches, Alastair Orr Despite poor world prices for cotton, it can still be a profitable crop for African Natural Resources Institute (NRI), smallholders with appropriate crop management and crop protection. This University of Greenwich, UK project aimed to develop an IPM system appropriate for smallholder cotton in Uganda to complement an agronomic package being promoted by a Mark Wood, Ben Sekamatte USAID-funded project (IDEA, later APEP). The IPM system was based on Investing in the Development of delayed first use of insecticide by using soapy water to control early-season Export Agriculture (IDEA) Project, aphids, followed by scouting-based application of broad-spectrum insecticide later Agricultural Productivity and sprays for control of bollworms and lygus bug. A simple wooden peg-board Extension Project (APEP), Uganda was designed as a scouting aid for farmers. The combined agronomic and Pius Elobu IPM system was promoted through 6000 on-farm demonstrations, which Serere Agriculture and Animal depended for their success on close collaboration with private-sector ginning Production Research Institute companies. The eight main ginning companies operating in Uganda provided (SAARI), Uganda a total of 600 extension personnel who were trained in IPM and became ‘site coordinators’. The involvement of the private sector ensures that IPM September 2002–March 2005 knowledge will continue to be transferred to cotton farmers long after the See R6734, R6760, Perspectives on end of the current projects. Pests 1996–2000, p. 95 ISSUES supported by the International Fund for Agricultural Development, Between 1945 and the early and public and private investment 1970s, Uganda became the in the cotton industry has seen leading producer of upland production levels recover to around cotton in sub-Saharan Africa. one-third of 1970 levels. The IDEA Regional and internal conflict in Project (later APEP), funded by Uganda in the 1970s and 1980s USAID, began in 1998 to promote saw production decline by more SELECTED PUBLICATIONS improved cotton agronomic than 90%. Rehabilitation of the practices through a programme HILLOCKS, R.J., RUSSELL, D. cotton industry in the 1990s was of on-farm demonstrations. Later, SEKAMATTE, B., RICHES, C.R. and USAID approved an expansion of ORR, A.W. (2005) IPM for smallholder the cotton on-farm trial programme cotton in Uganda: an example of under APEP, with a target of successful private sector engagement 12,000 on-farm trials by 2007. in service delivery. Aspects of Applied Biology: Pathways out of Poverty 75: Falling world cotton prices in 1–10. the latter half of the 1990s, RUSSELL, D.A. (2003) Integrated and continued problems with Control of Pests, Weeds and Diseases marketing, are discouraging in Ugandan Cotton. A guide for farmers from growing the crop use with the SPEED IDEA cotton where there are alternative sources demonstrations. SPEED and IDEA of cash income. But in the drier Projects, Kampala, Uganda. areas of north-eastern Uganda RUSSELL, D.A. (2003) How to Control there are few reliable alternative Insect Pests of Cotton. A guide for cash crops, and at least 400,000 use in cotton ﬁ eld demonstrations. households SPEED and IDEA Projects, Kampala, depend on Uganda. cotton for cash SEKAMATTE, B., RUSSELL, D.A., income. With HILLOCKS, R.J., ORR, A. and Several thousand the falling world RICHES, C.R. (2003) Extending IPM wooden peg- price for coffee practices into Ugandan cotton pest and the cotton management. Paper presented at boards were price beginning the African Crop Science Congress, manufactured to Nairobi, Kenya, 12–17 October 2003. aid scouting to pick up,

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Photographs taken for training in 2003, IPM adoption was scaled manuals were used by the up to reach 6000 on-farm trials by agrochemicals company Balton the end of 2005. to produce a laminated insect In order to achieve these levels of identification sheet, used by adoption of the IPM system, a large farmers in the field to identify training-of-trainers programme was pests and beneficial insect initiated. The private-sector ginning species companies were enthusiastic, and their participation increased from two companies in 2002 to all ginning companies in Uganda by 2004. The ginning companies provided site supervisors for the on-farm trials, who were trained in IPM. This involved training workshops, the production of training guides and an IPM video. More than 600 site supervisors were required for the on-farm trials by the end of 2004. Each supervisor trained 10 demonstration farmers increased cotton production will water. As a scouting aid, a simple in IPM (or, if the IDEA agronomic play an increasingly important role wooden peg-board was used to package is included, in integrated in the national economy. record key pests, with insecticide crop management, ICM). Each of applied only when a set threshold Collaboration with the IDEA Project those farmers was expected to pass number of pests was reached through its network of on-farm the knowledge on to at least 15 as marked on the board. By this demonstrations allowed this project neighbours, friends and relatives. system, the number of insecticide immediate access to promotion sites On this basis it was estimated that sprays was reduced from four and participating farmer groups. 180,000 cotton farmers would be to two or three, without loss of exposed to the ICM technology ACHIEVEMENTS insect control. The system received by the time the target of 12,000 approval from IDEA and from Lessons learned from a successful cotton on-farm trials was reached USAID. In the following season CPP project in India (R6734, in 2005/06. in Pallisa (Teso), the IPM system R6760), which demonstrated was adopted on 300 on-farm Together with the National Cotton that IPM can be enthusiastically trials and on a further 300 in Programme at SAARI, 25 on- adopted by cotton smallholders Kasese in August 2003. When the farm trials were set up within to decrease their dependency on cotton demonstration programme the Teso farming system area. insecticides, were used to develop developed by IDEA was expanded These trials showed that while, an IPM model for Africa. The main under a new USAID project (APEP) overall, there was an economic cotton insect pest in Africa is the same as in India, the bollworm Helicoverpa armigera. In Uganda, in collaboration with SAARI, NRI scientists developed an IPM model for use by cotton smallholders. IDEA was initially recommending a calendar-based spray regime of four sprays at three-week intervals from first flowering. Smallholders were receiving enough insecticide for only two sprays with their seed in a ‘starter pack’, and often used their first spray before first flower to control aphids. An appropriate IPM system was designed and evaluated in Kasese. First insecticide use against aphids was eliminated by using soapy Drying cotton in Uganda

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3500 Seed cotton yield from IPM 3000 plots compared with other 2500 IDEA plots and farmers’ unsprayed plots in Kasese, 2000 2002/03 season 1500

1000 Cotton yield (kg/ha) 500

0 Farmer IDEA-Lo IDEA-Hi IPM-Lo IPM-Hi

benefit from fertiliser use, on an scale growers, the route to higher that the private sector is willing individual basis only three farmers productivity lies through planting and able to invest in service delivery obtained a yield increase that was less cotton but managing it more where there is clear commercial statistically significant. Replacing effectively, particularly by weeding benefit. one ploughing with reduced and pest control. Yield increases tillage based on herbicide use was might then compensate for the FURTHER APPLICATION also found to be cost-effective. reduction in the area planted. Some A short follow-up project (R8403) Intercropping with beans, a level of insecticide use is almost will complete the scaling up to common practice among cotton universal, and all growers would introduce IPM to all the cotton farmers, was shown to be a risky benefit from IPM that reduces demonstrations in the country, strategy, decreasing cotton yields the number of sprays required. and will assess the success of and giving poor or even zero bean By reducing the cash needed for the programme in terms of yields on sandy soils. pest management, IPM would technology adoption outside the save poorer growers money and demonstration farms. Socio-economic studies showed improve the timeliness of spraying. that medium- rather than small- The private agricultural sector is However, as poorer growers plant scale growers are the poorest weak in sub-Saharan Africa, and more cotton than they can manage cotton growers, as measured companies do not have a clear because they lack alternative by ownership of physical assets. vision of how they can act to sources of cash income, improving Poorer growers hire less labour for increase production and improve productivity among this group land preparation and weeding, smallholders’ access to markets. might depend on opportunities for suggesting that they lack sufficient Private companies and farming diversification into other cash crops working capital for cotton communities need to be persuaded or into off-farm employment. cultivation. The frequency of cotton that there will be economic spraying is determined by asset The project has shown that farmers benefits to their collaboration, ownership and cash availability, are keen to adopt knowledge- and this can be facilitated by close rather than knowledge of cotton intensive technologies provided collaborations with donor-funded cultivation. Among poorer medium- appropriate training is given, and projects of this type.

25 Farmer 20 IDEA-Lo IDEA-Hi 15 IPM-Lo 10 IPM-Hi Number per 25 plants 5

0 Bollworm larvae Boll damage Lygus damage

Pest incidence in IPM plots compared with other IDEA plots and farmers’ unsprayed plots in Kasese, 2002/03 season

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Novel technologies for control of African armyworm on smallholder cereals in East Africa

R7954 African armyworm (Spodoptera exempta) is a serious migratory pest of David Grzywacz pasture and grain crops in Africa. Outbreaks occur every year in primary Natural Resources Institute (NRI), outbreak areas of Tanzania, and under favourable conditions the armyworm University of Greenwich, UK can then move across Tanzania and migrate to many parts of eastern and Wilfred Mushobozi southern Africa. This project aimed to develop and evaluate two novel Pest Control Services (PCS), Ministry approaches to replace environmentally damaging and expensive synthetic of Agriculture and Food Security, chemical pesticides to control African armyworm: applying S. exempta Tanzania nucleopolyhedrovirus (SpexNPV), a naturally occurring biological control Ken Wilson agent; and neem, a locally available botanical agent. Field work confirmed Lancaster University, UK that the candidate technologies work well in practice, and both were used Jenny Cory successfully in small-plot trials and for large-scale aerial application (the first Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, UK use of aerial application for any NPV biopesticide in Africa). In Tanzania the use of SpexNPV has been adopted as National Policy, and local neem is being Flavio Moscardi promoted in target districts by the PCS. Work has started on adapting an Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa existing Brazilian production model for NPV which should lead to a stable Agropecuária (EMBRAPA), Brazil product that is affordable for poorer farmers in Tanzania. Benefits of this Roger Day research will accrue throughout Tanzania, with likely spillover benefits for CAB International Africa Regional surrounding countries. Centre, Kenya January 2001–July 2004 ISSUES around the timely supply and use of effective pesticides, supported SELECTED PUBLICATIONS Poor farmers are especially by a centralised forecasting unit ANON (2004) Focus on agriculture: vulnerable to armyworm outbreaks. (the PCS). Concerned about the biological weapons used in battle Losses due to armyworm may be environmental effects of wide- against armyworm. International Pest virtually zero in some years, and scale pesticide use, and the high Control 46(2): 96. immense in others. Yield losses cost of imported pesticides, within an outbreak area may be BELL, B. (2004) Natural attack on the Ministry of Agriculture and African Crop pests. British Industrial very high, although 30% loss Food Security in Tanzania sought News January: 7. in recently planted maize has assistance to develop better been estimated as an average armyworm management based on DALYELL, T. (2004) Westminster diary. loss. Armyworm populations New Scientist 24 February, p. 47. biological control. Under a previous often originate in game parks project (R6746), the Spodoptera DIXON, D. (2004) Biological weapons and environmentally sensitive exempta nucleopolyhedrovirus used against armyworm. Appropriate areas; there are also growing Technology 31(1): 60–61. (SpexNPV) was evaluated in the environmental problems with the field in Tanzania. Following on IHUCHA, A. (2004) Natural way to stockpiling of pesticides. Reducing from that work, this project aimed control armyworms sought. Financial the impact of armyworm attack to continue field testing and work Times, Tanzania, March: 10–16. in Tanzania currently hinges towards sustainable production GRZYWACZ, D. and MUSHOBOZI, of the virus; and also to examine W. (2004) A local solution to African the use of the local botanical armyworm. Biocontrol News and agent neem as a possible tool for Information 25(1): 7–8. armyworm management. MUSHOBOZI, W.L., GRZYWACZ, D., MUSEBE, R., KIMANI, M. and ACHIEVEMENTS WILSON, K. (2005) New approaches An initial workshop was held to to improve the livelihoods of poor discuss the project with stakeholders farmers and pastoralist in Tanzania and plan project activities in through monitoring and control of African armyworm, Spodoptera detail. This generated a better exempta. Aspects of Applied Biology: understanding of those who are Pathways out of Poverty 75: 37–46. Project findings on SpexNPV have at risk from armyworm outbreaks, and of the appropriateness and RANDERSON, J. (2003) Corpses been disseminated widely in the local adoptability of the proposed of dead kill living. New Scientist and international press (from Dalyell, 13 December, p. 12. 2004, courtesy of New Scientist) technologies.

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The laboratory work had to natural outbreaks of overt shown that both SpexNPV lethal NPV disease in larvae and neem could kill is not yet clear. However, armyworm, and initial field the SpexNPV disease is likely trials confirmed SpexNPV to be an important factor could be effective at influencing the population application rates [5 × 1011 dynamics of armyworm, to 5 × 1012 occlusion bodies and understanding this (OB) per hectare] that would relationship could be a be practical in the field. A major breakthrough and a survey of farmers confirmed key to better forecasting of that neem was available in outbreaks. A reliable method armyworm outbreak areas, of forecasting outbreaks and could therefore be will greatly enhance the harvested and used where application of control resources were not available methods, and progress to purchase pesticides. towards this has been made by the linked project R7966 Working with a sporadic, (see page 96). migratory pest such as armyworm makes it difficult to Major armyworm outbreaks can decimate The virus is present as a wide obtain trial data in some years cereal crops variety of genotypes, 60 of which (such as 2001 and 2003), but field results to date indicate that neem have already been identified and trials in 2002 did demonstrate that can be of value where no other collected. A number of these SpexNPV can be used successfully control options are available. It is genotypes have been cloned and to control armyworm outbreaks. the intention of PCS to conduct assayed, but none has proved Progress made by the project participatory field trials during the individually to be more pathogenic attracted additional funds from next few years to validate neem and than the wild type used in the field USAID, which enabled aerial determine its utility and reliability. trials. spraying trials of NPV to be carried For scaling up production of the out. In both the major field trials Ecological studies have shown that virus, field trials confirmed that it in 2004 (aerial and ground), SpexNPV is widespread in Tanzania is a viable strategy in Tanzania to application of SpexNPV was in adult armyworm moths, but is produce SpexNPV for armyworm followed by armyworm population found as a non-symptomatic, or control by spraying naturally collapses and the appearance latent, infection – the first scientific occurring armyworm outbreaks with of large numbers of SpexNPV- confirmation of a latent NPV in an an inoculating dose of SpexNPV, infected and killed larvae. African insect. The role of these non- symptomatic infections in relation then harvesting the diseased larvae. Overall, the trials showed that SpexNPV can be as effective as chemical insecticides in controlling armyworm, when applied at rates as low as 1 × 1012 OB per hectare using ground-based or aerial application. PCS is committed to controlled expansion of the scope of field trials, including yield trials, to ensure that this technology is sufficiently robust before full replacement of chemical control by SpexNPV is adopted. The same trials also showed that simple extracts of neem leaves and seeds can be used to kill armyworm. While these are not as effective as either chemical insecticides or NPV, use of neem should be useful to local communities who lack access to other resources. Local neem Farmers discussing armyworm forcasting and control with the research team under may be highly variable, but the neem trees in central Tanzania

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Field trials included the first use of aerial application for any NPV biopesticide in Africa (with funding from USAID)

The head of PCS in Tanzania 80% of farmers have neem trees, continue to promote the use visited EMBRAPA in Brazil to be and their leaves and/or berries could of SpexNPV through its own trained in low-cost NPV production be used to protect cereal crops by channels, and the findings of the techniques. He judged these to be the majority of smallholder farmers. project will inform the USAID- appropriate for use in Tanzania, The high bulk of neem needed and funded armyworm control project. and that the techniques could high transport costs mean it is not The use of neem is currently being produce armyworm NPV at a feasible to recommend its use for promoted to farmers in several cost comparable to that in Brazil strategic control on a large scale, trial districts by PCS, as part of the (US$3.00 per hectare). This is where NPV is more practical. armyworm control project funded by USAID and the Government of much lower than the current cost A strategy to disseminate the Tanzania. of imported synthetic insecticides project’s findings to a wide range (around US$10 per hectare). Initial of clients has been implemented, However, while the field use of work has shown that the clay-based including articles in local and SpexNPV is proven, research is still formulation developed by EMBRAPA international newspapers and needed to develop a system for can be produced for use in popular journals; TV broadcasts in mass harvesting the NPV cheaply Tanzania. The system for harvesting Tanzania; and leaflets and posters. and in bulk, and is being undertaken infected field populations needs in the 2005 field season (R8408). additional work, as the Brazilian Institutional capacity in PCS Tanzania larval collection system is not has been improved by staff receiving The results are being disseminated appropriate for African armyworm. training in the production and use of to interested African countries The development of low-cost NPV both NPV and neem. (Kenya, Uganda, Mozambique, is crucial – the cost of chemical FURTHER APPLICATION South Africa, etc.) and organisations insecticides is the major reason why mandated to lead regional 65% of poor farmers cannot control Tanzania has agreed as National armyworm control, such as the Policy, through its National Plant Desert Locust Control Organization. armyworm. Protection Advisory Committee, Some countries, such as Kenya, Neem leaves can be used in the to adopt SpexNPV as the already have the legislation in place many areas where neem is already replacement for chemical pesticides for adoption of biopesticides as a planted as a shade tree. Some 50– for armyworm control. PCS will result of other CPP activities.

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Improved armyworm monitoring and forecasting systems

R7966 Cereal yields in East Africa are highly variable due to the unpredictability John Holt of the climate and of pest attack. This variability is a key constraint to rural Natural Resources Institute, development, causing periodic crises and hardship for rural communities. University of Greenwich, UK Improved forecasting of sporadic but serious crop pests is vital to reduce this Roger Day variability, making it possible to improve the supply, targeting and timing CAB International Africa Regional of pesticides or biopesticides. This project focused on African armyworm in Centre, Kenya Tanzania. The work has demonstrated the feasibility of village communities making armyworm forecasts, potentially decreasing the response time for Jon Knight control interventions. Community-based forecasting represents a significant Imperial College London, UK paradigm shift in migrant pest forecasting away from the prevailing view Wilfred Mushobozi that, as migrant pests are international, their forecasting should be tackled Ministry of Agriculture and Food by centralised organisations. This project demonstrates that forecasting at Security, Tanzania a village level is both feasible and can be complementary to the national service. October 2000–March 2004

ISSUES Agriculture and Food Security already runs a forecasting service. Armyworm (Spodoptera exempta) The new forecasting tools being causes devastating but highly developed are intended to extend localised damage to cereal crops their capabilities and increase the and grasslands. It is mainly a efficiency of their operation, and problem in eastern Africa, but were developed jointly with the also occurs in southern Africa. forecasting services through a Losses due to armyworm are process of evaluation and feedback virtually zero in some years, and in a series of mini-workshops. immense in others. Insecticides or The current project also built on biopesticides can control the pest, a wealth of information from but only if they are applied within previous research funded by DFID a narrow time window – after the and others, including an earlier eggs hatch, but before the larvae project (R6762) which developed become large enough to cause a system for the weekly processing significant damage. The protection and provision of Meteosat data. A of crops from armyworm requires related project (R7954, page 93) that intensive scouting is carried is researching novel technologies SELECTED PUBLICATIONS out in areas of high outbreak (biopesticides) for armyworm risk; and that insecticides and control in East Africa. CABI and PLANT HEALTH SERVICES government application teams or TANZANIA (2002) The Armyworm farmers are in the right place at Forecasting Pack. Nairobi, Kenya: CABI ACHIEVEMENTS the right time to treat the localised, ARC (in Kiswahili and English). but often large, infested areas. A planning workshop in Arusha, HOLT, J. (2002) Report of the ﬁ rst Forecasting has a key role in both Tanzania, involved a wide range armyworm forecasting project tactical and strategic control: of stakeholders in examining evolution workshop, 8–9 July 2002. short-term forecasting to guide the current state of armyworm Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, scouting operations, and medium- management and planning UK. term forecasting to manage further development of existing HOLT, J. (2003) Report of the the control logistics. Tanzania is armyworm forecasting methods. second armyworm project evolution particularly important for strategic A series of ‘evolution workshops’ workshop (combining forecasting control because the first armyworm held throughout the project’s and novel control), 28–30 May 2003. outbreaks of the season frequently lifetime allowed continual re- Natural Resources Institute, Chatham, evaluation of its direction and occur there before spreading out to UK. activities. In response to this other parts of eastern Africa. MUSHOBOZI, W. (2004) A new way feedback, two substantial to control armyworm sought. Financial The Pest Control Service (PCS) changes in the project from its Times (Tanzania), 10 March. of the Tanzanian Ministry of initial conception concerned the

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Data are recorded from the Meteosat satellite on the number of hours of rain in a day (daily cold cloud duration). These data are stored in the form of a false-colour image of the area acquired (left). Maximum values are extracted for each degree square in central and east Tanzania. Daily data are contoured (top right), combined with data from the previous week, to give a two-week rainfall sequence. The contour chart of meteorological risk is forwarded to Arusha. Examination of the historical armyworm database for Tanzania shows that this is a good estimator of the risk of armyworm outbreaks during October–May. Armyworm trap-catch data can then be considered in conjunction with the meteorological conditions in order to reach a prognosis for the armyworm outbreak risk.

expansion of activities geared to For community-based forecasting, benefit analysis of the value of the development of community simple rules have been developed armyworm control, and of the value forecasting; and the development to allow farmers to make forecasts of following a forecast, revealed of new computer software to based on a single rain gauge and that when an armyworm infestation handle the data management pheromone trap. Testing in five occurred, highest returns were needs of the central forecasting pilot study villages indicated that obtained when spraying was carried operation. these rules were providing good out but returns were less good when forecasting accuracy even before there was replanting. This was the Real-time, spatially accurate trap calibration – which will be case despite frequently poor timing rainstorm data are used in the possible only when data exist for the of application, and therefore poor centralised armyworm forecasting. traps concerned. During the first year spray efficacy. A useful outcome of Based on Meteosat images, the of the pilot study, traps were run the community-based forecasting likelihood of storms on each day and successfully and forecasts made in all pilot was that farmers tended in each district of Tanzania is made the participating villages. to become aware of armyworm available to the national forecaster infestations in their fields at an earlier for a weekly armyworm outbreak Analysis of historical armyworm data stage. The use of community-based forecast to be formulated and allows comparisons between trap forecasts to alert crop monitoring issued. catches, rain-gauge measurements appears to be both feasible and cost- and outbreaks, but only at district An armyworm website was effective. level. A particularly good data set established to provide the Meteosat exists for the 1994/95 season, The socio-economic survey also rainstorm information and with trap catches and rain gauges assessed whether farmers are corresponding outbreak forecasts. indicating periods when armyworm interested in carrying out their own This information, together with activity was generally high. The details armyworm forecasting (using a rain pheromone-trap and rain-gauge of the prediction were, however, gauge and pheromone trap located data, can now be stored and collated frequently inaccurate, with outbreaks in the village), and in what ways they in such a way that the necessary occurring in different weeks and are willing to respond to forecasts, information can be compared by in different districts from those either local or national. A forecasting the national forecaster in order to expected from the trap-catch data. pack in both Kiswahili and English make the weekly forecast for each has been produced to accompany district. The software to do this Part of the socio-economic survey training in community forecasting. (WADI), developed by the project in involved the assessment of yield This includes basic information about ACCESS 2000, provides a ‘Windows losses and benefits derived from armyworms and how they can be Armyworm Database Interface’. control with insecticides. A cost– forecast; instructions on how to

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Pheromone trap used to obtain catch data for community-based forecasting

operate the pheromone trap and community forecasting plot studies: support district agricultural officers. rain gauge; and how to record and in the first community-forecasting This project has contributed interpret the data in order to make pilot, the Tanzanian government significantly to the development the forecast. supplied insecticide spraying of PCS as a national resource equipment for the participating centre to forecast and promote the Community-based forecasting, villages and agreed to pay the local control of armyworm. though lacking the larger costs for a second pilot. These perspective of a national or are encouraging signs for further FURTHER APPLICATION international operation, has key uptake of the approach. advantages. A greater sense of USAID has funded a series of ownership of the process has Unlike most migrant pest projects, activities with support from the increased the likelihood that in community-based forecasting Ministry of Agriculture to promote farmers will act on forecasts. The poor farmers are directly involved and further develop community major constraint to armyworm in forecasting pest outbreaks, forecasting, including a further pilot forecasting – that the national and are thus motivated to take study in Moshi District. forecast usually failed to reach appropriate action. This approach Community-based forecasting is the people who needed it – has to armyworm management now being linked with community- been overcome by putting forecast proved popular with farmers, and based control. It is necessary to generation in the hands of the spread by word-of-mouth and by determine where constraints are people who use it. The national extension officers to neighbouring likely to exist, for example in areas service (PCS) has taken a strong communities. The forecasting where armyworm outbreaks are less lead in setting up and running the model has been used by the PCS to frequent and so interest in running a trap might not be sustained. In such cases, national forecasting might remain the most appropriate model. Potential also exists to increase the capabilities of the WADI software and develop a generic version that could be used by interested parties in other countries in eastern and southern Africa. Feedback from the A further pilot study has been stakeholder workshop proposed for Kenya, together with informed the project’s further promotion of community- development based forecasting in Tanzania.

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Establishment of satellite ICOSAMP systems and improved migrant pest reporting network

R8315 The Information Core for Southern African Migrant Pests (ICOSAMP) was Margaret Kieser established in 2001 to assist with reliable and sustainable cross-border Agricultural Research Council, Plant communication and collaboration on migrant pests in the Southern Protection Research Institute, South African Development Community (SADC) region. ICOSAMP established an Africa information network that provides up-to-date migrant pest distribution data, enabling decision-makers within the SADC region to forecast impending Judith Pender invasions or outbreaks, and thus reduce the impact of migrant pests on the Natural Resources Institute, food security of this semi-arid region. The initial project focused on developing University of Greenwich, UK a centralised system. This follow-on project developed the concept of satellite August 2003–March 2005 systems – each participating country was provided with computer hardware and software, and a country-specific ICOSAMP system, giving each country collaborator the ability to produce a map and bulletin specific to their own locality. Data input, now the responsibility of each country, was streamlined, and routines were developed for import and export of data between the systems. This project has contributed to building national capacity and pest management strategies in each SADC country, resulting in improved collection of migrant pest distribution data in the region and a valuable, ongoing information database.

ISSUES species of locust [brown locust (Locustana pardalina); African Migrant pests are a major threat migratory locust (Locusta migratoria to agricultural productivity in the migratorioides); red locust SADC region, annually threatening (Nomadacris septemfasciata)]; red- the livelihood of more than 123 billed quelea birds (Quelea quelea), million people. These pests are see R7967 page 101 and R8314 highly mobile and are able to pages 101 and 103; and African freely traverse political boundaries, armyworm (Spodoptera exempta), making active cooperation on see R7954 page 93 and R7966 management and control between pages 93 and 96. neighbouring countries vitally important. The major management technique is preventive control of these pests The main migrant pests that before they become a serious threaten food crops are three problem. It is thus important

SELECTED PUBLICATIONS KIESER, M.E. (2004) ICOSAMP, the Information Core for Southern African Migrant Pests. GIMS E-News August 2004. Electronic newsletter of the Geographical Information Management Systems (South Africa). GIMS (Pty) Ltd, Johannesburg, South Africa. KIESER, M.E. (2004) ICOSAMP News Monthly Bulletins. ARC–Plant Protection Research Institute, Pretoria, South Africa.

website: http://icosamp.ecoport.org The ICOSAMP website, http://icosamp.ecoport.org

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to know the current Manual, and one Co- distribution and ordinator’s Manual were scale of infestation, written. The ICOSAMP especially in the case of website armyworm where the (http://icosamp. sudden appearance, ecoport.org) was rapid development and regularly updated, disappearance of the and 22 ICOSAMP insect call for quick monthly bulletins were action. Cross-country disseminated. Personalised communication is the and individual training key to early warning of sessions were given to impending invasions or each of the country outbreaks. collaborators in South Africa. ICOSAMP addressed this problem by establishing The objective was to an information network hand over ownership in 2001 (R7890), and of ICOSAMP at the regularly providing end of March 2005 to up-to-date migrant SADC’s Food, Agriculture pest distribution data and Natural Resources to decision-makers in Directorate, now based SADC countries. During in Botswana. However, an ICOSAMP workshop as SADC is undergoing held in South Africa in major restructuring of May 2002, delegates its offices and staff, enquired about the and some international possibility of country- donors have withdrawn specific ICOSAMP funding, there is currently systems to assist them no capacity or funding Calibrating the aircraft prior to spraying operations during the with the input and September 2005 training course to run ICOSAMP from retrieval of data in their the SADC offices in own countries, and to allow for Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Zambia, Botswana. The current coordinator the display of primarily country Zimbabwe), along with one system has agreed to keep ICOSAMP alive data, but still allow users to view for the International Red Locust under the mantle of the ARC until information on an SADC-wide Control Organisation for Central SADC is able to take over. basis. This led to development of and Southern Africa (IRLCO-CSA), As a result of the satellite country the concept of ‘satellite’ ICOSAMP and one coordinator’s system. This systems and the related, improved systems, linked to a central included the construction of country- data input and retrieval, up-to- information collection point. specific geographic information date migrant pest distribution system (GIS) maps and databases, information has assisted decision- ACHIEVEMENTS and provision of new computer makers in the SADC region to The ICOSAMP database now hardware and software for each forecast impending pest invasions contains more than 2500 records country collaborator. Two systems or outbreaks, thereby reducing the of migrant pest control operations were translated into Portuguese impact of migrant pests on the undertaken in the SADC region (Angola and Mozambique), and food security of the region. since the inception of the database one into French (DRC). Three User in 2001. During this project, 450 Manuals, one Computer Set-up FURTHER APPLICATION armyworm, 425 locust and 611 In response to requests from quelea records were added to the collaborators, the Fourth ICOSAMP database – a significantly higher Workshop was held in Pretoria number than in the first phase of (12–16 September 2005), bringing the project. The ICOSAMP gazetteer together collaborators from 12 now contains more than 680 entries. SADC countries. The workshop Twelve SADC country systems focused on pest identification, were developed (Angola, assessment of pest damage, Botswana, Democratic Republic of estimation of pest numbers, and Congo (DRC), Lesotho, Malawi, ICOSAMP workshop participants various application and control Mozambique, Namibia, South receiving training methods.

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Forecasting movements and breeding of the red-billed quelea bird in southern Africa

R7967 This project sought to improve the livelihoods of small-scale farmers in semi- Robert Cheke arid areas of southern Africa where cereal crops are threatened by the red- Natural Resources Institute (NRI), billed quelea bird (Quelea quelea lathamii). A short-term forecasting system, University of Greenwich, UK the first of its kind for this pest, was created for use by organisations involved in quelea control, and was improved through a validation process. The system’s Margaret Kieser forecasts were displayed weekly on a dedicated Internet website: 89 out of Agricultural Research Council, Plant 91 colonies reported were at sites predicted by the model to have conditions Protection Research Institute, South suitable for breeding. No simple method for medium-term forecasts was Africa established, but promising lines for future research were identified. It is likely January 2001–March 2003 that very high populations will occur only if there have been high populations in the preceding season. There was a significant positive correlation between See R6823, Perspectives on Pests numbers of quelea colonies reported and rainfall levels. A desk study of the 1996–2000, p. 45 environmental effects of quelea control showed them to be substantial, and means of minimising them were identified. Uptake of the project’s outputs has SELECTED PUBLICATIONS included handing over the running of the forecasting model to the Southern AND WEBSITES Africa Development Community (SADC). DALLIMER, M. and JONES, P.J. (2002) Migration orientation behaviour of ISSUES often means that control teams the red-billed quelea, Quelea quelea. reach the areas too late, after the Annual losses to red-billed quelea Journal of Avian Biology 33: 89–94. juvenile birds which cause most birds (Quelea quelea lathamii) in damage have left their nests. This DALLIMER, M., BLACKBURN, C., Africa have been estimated at project arose from the need of local JONES, P.J. and PEMBERTON, J.M. US$45 million. Populations of institutions responsible for quelea (2002) Genetic evidence for male quelea threatening subsistence biased dispersal in the red-billed control for a system to forecast crops are killed with avicides quelea Quelea quelea. Molecular where their activities would be applied either from the ground or Ecology 11: 529–533. needed, and from concerns about DALLIMER, M., JONES, P.J., the environmental effects of control PEMBERTON, J.M. and CHEKE, R.A. measures. (2003) Lack of genetic and plumage differentiation in the red-billed As quelea regularly perform long- quelea, Quelea quelea across a distance migrations from one migratory divide in southern Africa. affected area or country to another, Molecular Ecology 12: 345–353. prediction of where and when they JONES, P.J., ELLIOTT, C.C.H. and will occur relies on knowledge of CHEKE, R.A. (2002) Methods for their migratory habits in response ageing juvenile Red-billed Queleas Quelea quelea to the seasonal movements of Quelea quelea and their potential rain fronts. Rain causes their main for the detection of juvenile dispersal food, grass seeds, to germinate patterns. Ostrich 73: 43–48. from the air, or by explosions set off at the start of the wet season, VENN, J., CHEKE, R.A. and JONES, at the bases of roosts or colonies, if forcing birds to migrate away P.J. (2003) Forecasting breeding they are located soon enough (see from their dry-season quarters. opportunities for the red-billed quelea R8314, page 103). If quelea were The birds then undertake further in southern Africa. pp. 612–617. In: not controlled in South Africa it breeding migrations to areas where Proceedings of the 2003 EUMETSAT is estimated that 1 million quelea adequate rainfall will permit them Meteorological Satellite Conference, birds would eat approximately 4 to breed. Thus the patterns of Weimar, Germany, 29 September–3 tonnes of wheat per day in one October 2003. quelea occurrence vary from year season, equivalent to ZAR100m or to year. The main objective of this SADC Quelea Breeding Forecast US$18m. In some countries, such as project was to devise a model to website: Botswana and South Africa, control forecast where and when the birds http://gisdata.usgs.net/sa_ﬂ oods/ﬁ les/ takes place in most years, but there region/quel/latest.htm would be able to breed during a has been no system to warn where season. NRI Quelea latest forecast: the birds are likely to occur. Even www-web.gre.ac.uk/directory/NRI/ when breeding colonies are located, The project was closely linked to quel/Latest.htm the speed of the birds’ development the Information Core for Southern

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quelea upsurges in the medium term. A spin-off from this research was the discovery of significant autocorrelations in the time-series data on quelea. Due to the lack of unequivocal relationships between climate and quelea movements, it was not possible to develop a Quelea Sample outputs from model for medium-term forecasts, + – Rainfall the quelea forecasting Season not started <60 mm but areas for further study have model for weeks ending Season has started >60 mm in 2 weeks been identified. Breeding possible 240 mm in next 6 weeks (left to right) 22 Breeding less likely 6 more weeks elapsed December 2002, A desk-based assessment was 26 January and 16 carried out on the environmental February 2003 impacts of quelea control operations. This is the first review African Migrant Pests (ICOSAMP: environmental factors, quelea to gather together all published R7890 and R8315, page 99), which migrations and breeding activities. information on the environmental has created a web-based system for Detailed observations from two effects of spraying quelea birds information exchange. locations in 1995–99 were used with fenthion and the use of to supplement information explosives against roosts and ACHIEVEMENTS published over a 34-year period colonies. The review covers the effects on non-target organisms from eastern and southern Africa. The first model to show where (especially birds of prey and The threshold rainfall level required and when quelea can breed in mammals) and on ecologically to initiate migration by the birds southern Africa was developed, sensitive areas. and weekly short-term forecasts out of their dry-season quarters was established as 60–70 mm, were made available on the FURTHER APPLICATION Internet. The model was developed falling at any time within a two- in consultation with stakeholders week period. Information on the The end point of the modelling during two workshops organised subsequent rainfall thresholds is and processing of large data by ICOSAMP. The main model is more complicated, as this requires sets has been quelea distribution programmed in Microsoft EXCEL sufficient rainfall to have fallen maps that are easily interpreted and is based solely upon Meteosat and sufficient time to have elapsed by users, and easily accessed cold-cloud duration data as an since the first germination of grass via the Internet. SADC has now estimate of rainfall and knowledge seeds. Project work indicated taken over the production of of red-billed quelea breeding that breeding could occur if at quelea forecasts using the models biology. A simple geo-stationary least six weeks had elapsed after developed, and places forecasts earth-orbiting satellite (GOES) the 60-mm threshold had been on its Quelea Breeding Forecast precipitation index is used, where exceeded and 240 mm of rain website. temperature below –38°C is (estimated from durations of A follow-on project (R8314, page presumed to indicate cold cloud cold cloud at –38°C or below) 103) was implemented in 2003 that is sufficient for rainfall to had fallen during this or any to train staff in Botswana on occur. Each hour of cold cloud is subsequent six-week period. the environmental monitoring equated with 3 mm of rainfall. A preliminary analysis was made of of quelea control; to conduct an The values for each quarter of a the potential for a medium-term environmental impact assessment degree are summed and compared quelea seasonal forecasting model of quelea control in Botswana with the thresholds detailed, based on sea surface temperature and develop protocols for this; shown above in the legend for the data and atmospheric indicators. and to continue to run the quelea sample outputs. The first forecast Although some relationships forecasting model in conjunction was issued on 23 September between quelea activity and with SADC. 2002, and subsequent forecasts rainfall were established (wet have been added to the website Training from the quelea project conditions during the austral at weekly intervals. The model was provided at the Pretoria summer months favour increases has been successfully validated workshop in September 2005 in quelea populations), the against 2001–02 data, and similar (see page 100), and delegates analysis showed that, in contrast exercises for other seasons are in participated in a lively discussion to other migrant pests such as progress. on drafting a set of standardised the brown locust, it was not protocols for SADC, for monitoring The key relationships were possible to use variations in sea effects of quelea control on non- determined between surface temperatures to predict target organisms.

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Environmental assessment of quelea control and breeding forecasts in southern Africa

R8314 This work focused on environmental impact assessments (EIAs) of quelea Robert Cheke bird control in southern Africa; continuation of a modelling programme for Natural Resources Institute (NRI), forecasting quelea breeding opportunities and transfer of the modelling University of Greenwich, UK technology to users in Africa; and investigating the potential for community- based control whereby villagers harvest the birds for food. Monitoring of EIAs Andrew McWilliam has been greatly strengthened in Botswana by the training of relevant plant The Macaulay Institute, UK protection officers in the Ministry of Agriculture. Standardised protocols on Plant Protection Division, Ministry EIA of quelea control have been developed and disseminated, and parallel of Agriculture, Botswana running of the southern African quelea bird model has been continued and Remote Sensing Unit, Food, expanded via the SADC Quelea Breeding Forecast website. Crop protection Agriculture and Natural Resources, organisations concerned with the control of quelea will benefit from the Southern African Development development of rational protocols to help minimise adverse effects on the Community (SADC), Botswana environment, and the results of this work have wider relevance within the southern Africa region. April 2003–March 2005 to sprays and explosions – the See R6823, Perspectives on Pests ISSUES harvesting of quelea nestlings 1996–2000, p. 45 A previous project (R7967, see as food for people. The most page 101) developed a model to widespread method of harvesting forecast the timing and locations quelea is the collection of nestlings of suitable sites where quelea from breeding colonies, which is breeding colonies require control most productive just before they to prevent successful fledging of fledge. Demand for this research juveniles. was identified through regional Birds threatening crops are discussions, including those with currently controlled by aerial the related Information Core for spraying of their breeding colonies Southern African Migrant Pests with the avicide fenthion, or by (ICOSAMP) project (see R8315, the use of explosives to destroy page 99) with the SADC; and nocturnal roosts. As there are no via national authorities including standard protocols or codes of the Ministry of Agriculture of SELECTED PUBLICATIONS practice established within Africa Botswana. AND WEBSITES to ensure that environmental McWILLIAM, A.N. and CHEKE, R.A. damage is minimised, this project ACHIEVEMENTS aimed to devise such protocols (2004) A review of the impacts of A week-long training course on for biodiversity assessment control operations against the Red- EIA of quelea control was run at billed Quelea (Quelea quelea) on (vertebrates and invertebrates) and Sebele, Botswana, in February non-target organisms. Environmental evaluation of potential ecological 2004, and was followed by Conservation 31: 130–137. damage. A further objective field-based training. An EIA of was to investigate an alternative VENN, J., CHEKE, R.A. and JONES, the effects of ground-spraying a P.J. (2004) Forecasting breeding breeding colony of the opportunities for the red-billed quelea in southern Africa. p. 302. red-billed quelea (Quelea Abstract in: Proceedings of the quelea lathamii) with 15th International Plant Protection 4 litres/ha of fenthion, Congress, Beijing, 11–16 May 2004. an organophosphate Foreign Languages Press, Beijing. avicide, revealed up to SADC Quelea Breeding Forecast 1.52 mg/kg fenthion website: in soil samples the day http://gisdata.usgs.net/sa_ﬂ oods/ﬁ les/ after spraying. Nearly region/quel/latest.htm 50% of a treatment dose was still recoverable NRI Quelea latest forecast: www-web.gre.ac.uk/directory/NRI/ Migrant pests seminar, September 2005, from soil a week after quel/Latest.htm South Africa (photo: Margaret Keiser) application.

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Apart from a both models has been put on the 90% kill of the ICOSAMP website (see page 99). target birds, three A possible alternative to sprays non-target birds and explosions – the harvesting and four non- of quelea nestlings as food for target mammals people – was investigated through were also killed, interviews conducted with farmers but no significant in the region around Bobonong, differences were Botswana. It was confirmed found in pre- and that they prefer quelea breeding post-explosion colonies to be left uncontrolled so censuses of that they can harvest chicks and non-target bird adult birds to use as food and, populations. in some cases, for sale. Similar However, practices were recorded in other analyses of soil parts of the country where less samples revealed systematic and more opportunistic concentrations harvesting occurs. up to 9.31 mg/kg of diesel and Constraints that hindered more Setting residues of widespread use of the method explosives in dibutyl phthalate, were identified as: the field presumably • lack of transport from villages to phthalates quelea colonies No differences were found in derived from the plastic containers • the existing policy of spraying pre- and post-spray populations used. of non-target birds estimated by • lack of knowledge on ways to Protocols for the environmental timed bird counts and line-transect preserve the birds assessment of quelea control methods. However, significant • lack of identiﬁ able markets or were proposed and will be depressions were demonstrated means to reach them. disseminated to SADC countries of both acetylcholinesterase and The potential has been for consideration for adoption as butyrylcholinesterase levels in the demonstrated for reducing the a regional policy. The protocols blood of target quelea birds and adverse environmental impacts that include sections on control in samples from non-target birds. can arise from the control of quelea decisions; safety; EIA decisions; The high percentage depression birds. The increased environmental soil sampling for pesticide levels (64–88%) found among quelea, awareness of plant protection staff (to be repeated before and after and the low cholinesterase values will lead to fewer decisions to apply control applications); vegetation of the non-target species from chemical control – for example, sampling; assessment of changes the sprayed colony, confirm the where concentrations of non-target in insect populations; assessment utility of this assay, conducted species such as storks are present; of changes in bird populations; with a novel purpose-built field kit, or where the local population will carcass searches; clearing up; and for assessing fenthion poisoning. undertake their own control by Such poisoning was probably reporting. harvesting quelea colonies. responsible for the death of a male The quelea forecasting model for red-backed shrike (Lanius collurio) predicting where and when areas FURTHER APPLICATION and the moribund condition of within southern Africa become This work concentrated on four non-target birds of three suitable for breeding by red- Botswana, but has wider relevance other species. Background levels of billed quelea, developed under within the southern Africa acetylcholinesterase were recorded project R7967, has now been region. The Pretoria workshop in in 32 species. This will form the transferred to the Remote Sensing September 2005 (see page 100) basis of a database against which Unit of SADC, and the website disseminated the results more future post-control assessments can has been updated with soil, widely, and the quelea forecasting be compared. vegetation and watercourse maps model is being extended to include An EIA was also conducted of to aid forecasting based on rainfall East Africa. CPP is supporting the control of a quelea bird roost estimates. The model was also run further work through funding a with explosives. This involved the in parallel throughout the 2003/04 project on early warning systems detonation of 233 5-litre plastic and 2004/05 seasons at and training for improved quelea containers, each filled with 2 litres www-web.gre.ac.uk/directory/ management in eastern and of diesel and 2 litres of petrol. NRI/quel/Latest.htm. A link to southern Africa (R8426).

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Biology and control of armoured bush crickets in southern Africa

R8253 Armoured bush crickets (ABC) are destructive, sporadic pests of smallholder Stuart Green, John Holt cereal crops in semi-arid areas of southern Africa. This project sought to test Natural Resources Institute, and promote strategies for ABC management developed by previous project University of Greenwich, UK work in Botswana. The baited trench method of control was tested, although ABC numbers in 2003 were below outbreak levels and findings were not Jannette Mitchell conclusive. Attention was paid to environmental impact: vertebrate scavengers Agricultural Research Council were not attracted to the baited trench, but certain beneficial beetles were (ARC), Plant Protection Research often found dead, trapped in the trenches. An economic evaluation suggested Institute, South Africa that the baited trench method is likely to be cost-effective only in high- Pharaoh Mosupi yielding years when there is an ABC outbreak, and only for sorghum, not Department of Agricultural for maize. Field observations of ABC nymphs were undertaken to assess Research (DAR), Botswana methods for estimating ABC population size well in advance of potential field invasion. Population density on individual bushes was found to be subject December 2002–September 2003 to behavioural regulation, with many individuals forced into less-preferred microhabitats at high population density, which means that monitoring ABC population densities on bushes alone is unlikely to be a reliable method of assessing population size. The use of ABC as a dietary supplement for chickens was assessed. Despite the nutritional benefits demonstrated, some farmers apparently are reluctant to eat ABC-fed chickens. However, ABC specialists in Botswana and elsewhere are keen to pursue their use as poultry feed. SELECTED PUBLICATIONS GREEN, S.V. (2006) Biology and ISSUES areas. Farmers currently have no Control of Armoured Bush Cricket in effective methods of protecting Southern Africa. Natural Resources Sorghum and pearl millet are the their crops during Setotojane Institute, University of Greenwich, main subsistence food crops in outbreaks, and consequently Chatham, UK (in press). eastern Botswana and throughout most take no action. Research GREEN, S.V., MOSUPI, P.O.P. and much of southern Africa. Both funded by the International Crops MOSINKIE, K. (2003) Setotojane! crops suffer sporadic serious Research Institute for the Semi- – the Armoured Bush Cricket. damage due to outbreaks of Arid Tropics (ICRISAT) in Namibia Farmers can provide early armoured bush crickets (ABC, in the 1990s, followed by CPP warning of an Armoured Bush known locally as Setotojane) project R7428, in collaboration Cricket outbreak. Department of – principally Acanthoplus discoidalis with smallholder farmers and the Agricultural Research, Gaborone, and A. speiseri – which can cause Ministry of Agriculture in Botswana, Botswana (poster in English and over 30% crop losses in affected sought to develop and promote a Setswana). MVIHA, P.J.Z., HOLT, J., GREEN, S.V. and MITCHELL, J. (2003) The ecology of the armoured bush cricket, Acanthoplus discoidalis, with reference to habitat, behaviour, oviposition, site selection and egg mortality. pp. 61–62. Abstract in: Proceedings of the 14th Entomological Congress, Pretoria, 6–9 July 2003. Stals, R. (Ed.). Entomological Society of Southern Africa, Hatﬁ eld, South Africa. STALS, R. (2003) Symposium: Integrated management of armoured bush crickets in southern Africa. p. 3. Abstract in: Proceedings of the 14th Entomological Congress, Pretoria, 6–9 July 2003. Stals, R. (Ed.). Entomological Society of Southern PhD student Pharaoh Mosupi demonstrates how to prepare bait for use Africa, Hatﬁ eld, South Africa. against Setotojane in the baited trench

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sustainable IPM strategy against From an environmental point of fields in order to gauge the extent ABC. An effective, acceptable new view, the baited trench did not of aggregations as well as within- technique, the baited trench, was attract vertebrate scavengers, aggregation population density. developed and refined. Teaspoon but it did result in the death of A poster for farmers and extension quantities (2.5 g) of carbaryl/ certain beneficial predatory beetles. illustrating the different Setotojane bran bait (3 g/kg) applied at 3-m Trenches may pose a minor hazard nymphal stages was produced in intervals inside a 30-cm-deep to small livestock. Tswana and English. An audience trench retained and killed 93% of of about 60 attended a symposium crickets in on-station trials. Barrier on ‘Integrated control of armoured application of fipronil spray (175 g bush crickets in southern Africa’ ai/ha) around field plots was field- at the Entomological Society of tested under outbreak conditions Southern Africa’s congress in and resulted in a 65% reduction in Pretoria (July 2003). Seven talks ABC. This project extension aimed were presented, followed by a to field-test the ABC forecasting wide-ranging discussion session. system and certain control An information booklet on ABC technologies, including the baited biology and control will be printed trench; to assess the economics Armoured bush cricket (Setotojane) and distributed via congress of ABC control; and to assess a delegates to participating countries. potential benefit from ABC – as a A cost–benefit analysis was carried diet supplement for poultry. out on the use of the baited trench Farmers’ chickens kill and eat ABC eagerly. They were found to use ACHIEVEMENTS to protect sorghum and maize from ABC. The high cost of hired a technique for dispatching ABC Insufficient ABC were present in labour is a major problem, and which circumvents the cricket’s 2003 for a conclusive evaluation. costs of constructing a baited chemical defences. A nutritional In each of three valid paired-plot trench are frequently greater than analysis found that dried ABC are comparisons conducted, mean benefits from using it. The analysis rich in protein, with a crude protein numbers of ABC present were suggested that the baited trench content of 63% (compared with lower in baited trench-protected will be cost-effective only in years 49% in dried beef). A growth trial plots than in controls, but not of high yield and ABC outbreak, for was compromised by the shortage significantly so. However, farmers sorghum. Strategic use of baited of ABC. Chickens provided with were enthusiastic about the baited trenches in key invasion areas is an dried, mashed ABC as a supplement trench because they saw that it option. to commercial feed ate the ABC and killed many ABC. grew at least as well as controls. Population monitoring of ABC However, some farmers may need Trench construction is laborious, is best conducted in the early convincing that ABC-fed chickens particularly in heavy soils, and this morning, when nymphs are pose no health risk and are tasty. was a concern for farmers. Further sluggish and conspicuous while testing of mechanised digging basking. Counting ABC nymphs Owing to the shortage of ABC, devices was undertaken. Trenches is best achieved with minimal the findings of field- and feeding- appear to be most effective in disturbance. Population density trial activities were not clear-cut. more sandy soils; regular minor appears to be limited behaviourally Nevertheless, important new maintenance is important for in ABC aggregations, so sampling insights have been obtained trench effectiveness in all soil types. is needed at several distances from about the baited trench method, and the use of ABC as a poultry feed supplement. The successful ABC symposium has disseminated the findings of this and previous work to researchers and extension personnel throughout southern Africa in every country where ABC is an agricultural pest.

FURTHER APPLICATION No further work is planned by UK institutes, but DAR plans to continue developing and testing aspects of Shoshong choir perform a song (and dance) about the Setotojane problem baited trench and ABC chicken feed and what they hope to learn today in Botswana.

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Promoting potato seed-tuber management for increased ware yields in eastern Uganda

R8104 Many poor households lack access to healthy seed to grow white (Irish) Rita Laker-Ojok potatoes in the highlands of eastern Uganda, resulting in poor yields. Appropriate Technology-Uganda AT-Uganda Ltd has established a sustainable system of farmer-led potato (AT-Uganda) Ltd production that is suitable for planting improved seed in four sub-counties of Kapchorwa District. Production is focused on the implementation of a locally CABI Bioscience, UK Centre driven and monitored system of quality seed production and marketing. National Agricultural Research Cycles of multiplication, starting at the level of 20 commercial seed-potato Organisation (NARO), Uganda multipliers, moved through to a total of 1410 small-scale farmer-group Makerere University Kampala, members who received seed for further multiplication using the small Uganda seed-plot system. The commercial multipliers, who formed themselves into Programme Regional a trade association, returned three times the amount of seed received for d’Amelioration de la Pomme de redistribution and further multiplication by small-scale farmers. An impact Terre et de la Patate Douce en survey found that the project has benefited both multipliers and farmers Afrique Centrale et de l’Est, Uganda by changing production practices, eating patterns and income sources. The project has taken a holistic approach to training target farmer groups February 2002–March 2005 in improved commercial and technical practices, to enable them to exploit the marketing edge of their quality-assured seed potatoes.

ISSUES White potato is becoming an important crop in Uganda due to a growing market for chips and crisps. In Uganda, potato production is centred in the highlands close to the Kenyan SELECTED PUBLICATIONS and Rwandan borders, and is dominated by smallholder farms. NAMISI, S. and SMITH, J. (2004) Their major constraint is low yields Promoting potato seed tuber attributed to diseases, and a management for increased ware shortage of disease-free seed. yields in Kapchorwa, eastern Uganda. Paper presented at NARO The earlier LIFE Project, Conference, 1–4 September 2004, implemented in Kapchorwa District, Kampala. identified as major constraints the NAMISI, S., SMITH, J. and TINO, G. high risk of potato crop failure Farmers of Kabale observing (2004) Farmer’s Guide on Potato due to diseases of bacterial wilt development of a seed-plot system Production. AT-Uganda, Kampala. disease (Ralstonia solanacearum) SMITH, J. (2003) Potato Pest and blight (Phytophthora infestans); ACHIEVEMENTS Symptom Sheets and Hazards to availability of healthy seed potato; Tuber Health. Pest Risk Analysis and knowledge about potato The emphasis was on establishing Sheet. CABl Bioscience, Egham, UK/ production. a limited number of viable Kapchorwa Seed Potato Producers’ commercial seed producers, Association. This project aimed to promote as well as training farmers to farmer-led seed-potato production, SMITH, J. (2003) Locally Assured Best maintain their own healthy seed focusing on the implementation Practice Production and Marketing from season to season. Seed for of Potato for Seed. Experience of of locally driven and monitored multipliers is then passed over Kapchorwa Seed Potato Producer’s quality-assured production methods to poor farm households, who Association (KASPPA). CABI that allow for the traceability of multiply the seed further using the Bioscience, Egham, UK. tubers as they move through cycles small seed-plot system. The project SMITH, J. (2005) Research approaches of multiplication towards delivery to established 20 commercial seed- to improve crop productivity using small-scale farmers. This work built potato multipliers in Kapchorwa potato seed health. Aspects of on the improved seed-production and provided them with training Applied Biology: Pathways out of system developed by CABI in seed-potato production, disease Poverty 75: 23–36. Bioscience under project R7858. monitoring and management.

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KASPPA seed potatoes loaded for delivery to beneficiaries

Twenty primary seed multipliers Producers’ Association (KASPPA), the primary seed multipliers using were identified and established. which was registered as a local the ridge/furrow system under strict The project purchased seed (var. NGO in 2003. KASPPA manages monitoring, thus assuring seed Victoria from Kalengyere Research crop best practice, carrying out quality. From the harvested seed, Station) and loaned it to the seed-health monitoring to ensure primary multipliers pay back three primary seed multipliers. These production of high-quality seed. times the quantity of seed they seed multipliers formed themselves received. The seed is distributed The basic seed obtained from into the Kapchorwa Seed Potato to numerous small-scale farmers, Kalengyere NARO is multiplied by who multiply it on small plots for their own use, using small tubers less than 30 mm in diameter. This Research station seed-plot technique is suitable for farmers with limited land. All the target farmers and other Primary seed multiplier partner group members have received the improved Victoria seed; they multiply it for one SPS seed SPS seed generation, then produce table potatoes. Some of this crop is sold and the money used to purchase clean seed from the primary multipliers. Ware potato SPS seed SPS seed Ware potato production production Seed potato distribution has been tracked successfully by the local leaders (production committees) at group level, and by parish Home Sale development committees at parish consumption level. Local leaders have been involved in planning, implementing and monitoring seed distribution. Buy new As a result, a total of 1200 target seed from farmers received the seed, and multipliers SPS seed additional seed was distributed to 210 members of the partner The seed-potato multiplication system (SPS = seed-plot system) groups. A total of 1340 bags of

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3 80 SPS-seed SPS-ware 60 Farmers’ ware Seed tuber production per unit area of land Control ware at two sites under the seed-plot system 40 (SPS-seed) and traditional ridge/furrow ware cultivations: using seed derived from SPS 20 (SPS-ware); farmers’ saved seed from ware production (Farmers’ ware); and Tigoni 0 Seed tuber production/m Site 1 Site 2 Research Station (Control ware)

seed were distributed to small seed- of infected seed, which can be of potato-growing since 2002 plot multipliers. implemented by farmers, has been among non-beneficiaries is more tested with promising results. marked among the neighbours of The 20 primary seed multipliers, KASPPA members have managed beneficiaries than is seen in non- four extension staff, four field to keep levels of bacterial wilt beneficiary villages and parishes. assistants, 80 production below 1% in their crops. committees, members of eight parish development committees FURTHER APPLICATION and more than 1400 farmers were Farmers have a clear incentive to trained in best practices for potato adopt and maintain the improved production/multiplication, disease practices promoted by the project, identification/management, and as they provide added value storage. Three thousand copies through growing quality-assured of a Farmers’ Guide on Potato seed potatoes that attract a Production were produced by premium profit margin. However, AT-Uganda and distributed to some form of independent farmers. Crop best practices were certification or approval mechanism developed for KASPPA on crop might be required to back this up. production, disease monitoring/ Even then, the sustainability of such management, and storage. improvements will be subject to Two artisans were trained to the fragile economic environment construct diffused light stores, and unexpected droughts that and constructed 20 stores in can undermine farmers’ and collaboration with seed multipliers. consumers’ abilities to pay The project contributed 50% of the Diffused light store for controlled premium prices for improved crop cost and the multipliers contributed sprouting inputs. As a result of the strong the balance. foundation laid by this project, The results of an impact survey AT-Uganda is now well placed to A repayment rate of 98% was carried out in September 2004 expand the project’s impact to realised from the seed multipliers. indicate that more land has new communities, to strengthen The 2% default arose when some been put under cultivation by KASPPA, and to facilitate market of the tubers were rejected for seed links, especially for ware potatoes. due to bacterial wilt infection. beneficiaries since the project started. Land allocated to potato Planned activities being funded To support production by the production has increased, and under a nine-month extension to primary potato multipliers, the potato is now ranked second the project (R8435) include: project developed management in area by multipliers, and third • KASPPA strategic planning tools for crop management that by beneficiaries. A clear benefit aim to provide a best-practice, was seen for household income. • selection of new sub-counties, quality-assured, identity-preserved Potato has gained preference as parishes and groups pathway of potato multiplication. a staple food among beneficiaries • training of new groups/sub- The main management tool is the and multipliers, with current county marketing associations ‘crop history sheet’, which provides consumption once or twice a week • establishing demonstration sites, a written record of management – previously the project potatoes organising ﬁ eld days practices and pest status at the were rarely eaten. Beneficiaries are field level. • setting up marketing increasingly adopting technologies committees, market promotion In addition, as a response to the such as improved varieties • establishing simple potato stores destructiveness of bacterial wilt in and regular field inspections, potato, an on-farm, post-harvest while multipliers now adopt • end-of-season evaluation incubation test for the interception all the technologies. Adoption • ﬁ nal external impact assessment.

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Public–private partnerships to develop viruses as bioinsecticides for Ghana and Benin

R7960 Brassicas, particularly cabbage, are key cash crops for peri-urban vegetable Andy Cherry farmers in West Africa – but larvae of the diamondback moth are a severe International Institute of Tropical constraint to production. The appearance of widespread resistance to Agriculture (IITA), Benin and Natural commonly used insecticides is driving farmers to spray their crops more Resources Institute (NRI), University and more frequently to control diamondback moth, while others abandon of Greenwich, UK their fields or give up brassica cultivation altogether. This project worked through partnerships between government departments, the private sector J.V. Suglo and research scientists to evaluate Plutella xylostella granulovirus (PlxyGV) Plant Protection and Regulatory for control of diamondback moth larvae on brassica crops, and to examine Services Directorate, Ghana the constraints, opportunities and implementation routes for biopesticides Symphorien Saïzonou in Ghana and Benin. PlxyGV imported from Kenya proved highly virulent Service Protection des Végétaux et towards diamondback moth larvae from Benin. In participatory trials, growers Contrôle Phytosanitaire, Ministèrè in Benin found that crop yield and value in virus-treated plots exceeded those in du Développement Rural, Direction control and farmer-practice plots. In Ghana, PlxyGV efficacy was acknowledged de l’Agriculture, Benin but was more critically received. Wide-scale adoption of PlxyGV in Ghana and Ramatu Al-Hassan Benin is unlikely in the short-to-medium term without economic incentives or University of Ghana donor support. However, through informed debate, local stakeholders in the biopesticide industry are now better informed than prior to the project, and as January 2001–March 2004 a consequence the prospects for biopesticides in the region are brighter. See R6615, Perspectives on Pests 1996–2000, p. 53 crops are the targets of frequent applications of chemical insecticides. Such chemicals are associated with the familiar problems SELECTED PUBLICATIONS of environmental pollution and human ANON. (2003) Bientôt un virus pour lutter contre la teigne de choux. Agri- contamination, rising culture 46: January (in French). costs and resistance development. CHERRY, A.J. (2001) Microbial insecticides for horticultural pests in With the high value of West Africa. Pesticide Management brassica crops, the larva in West Africa 2: 12–14. Peri-urban vegetables in Cotonou, Benin of the diamondback CHERRY, A.J., MERCADIER, G., moth (Plutella xylostella) MEIKLE, W.G., CASTELO-BRANCO, ISSUES is among the most serious pests M. and SCHROER, S. (2004) The role in peri-urban agriculture. Farmers Abuse and misuse of insecticides of entomopathogens in diamondback all claim pesticides are required for is common in Africa, and although moth biological control. pp. 51–67. diamondback moth control and In: Improving biocontrol of Plutella the consumption of pesticides in many have expressed interest in xylostella (D. Bordat and A. Kirik, the continent represents less than testing biopesticides. eds). CIRAD, Montpellier, France. 5% of the global total, misuse DJEGUI, D.A. and CHERRY, A.J. is disproportionately high. The While there has been substantial (2003) Développement des increasingly important peri-urban technical progress in the baculovirus comme bio pesticides sector accounts for ever-larger development of biopesticides, pour le contrôle de Helicoverpa volumes of insecticide consumption their uptake has been limited. armigera (Hübner) sur le coton en in which products, dose and The early stages of biopesticide Afrique: contraintes et perspectives application frequency are not well R&D are often undertaken in the d’avenir. In: Proceedings of the regulated. Insecticides imported for public sector using public finance, Conférence Africaine sur le coton use in export crops spill over into but many potential biopesticide biologique au Bénin, 23–27 the peri-urban sector for which the septembre 2002. l’Organisation products fail to go beyond the Béninoise pour la Promotion de products are not approved. In West laboratory or field-trial stage. l’Agriculture Biologique, Cotonou, Africa, lepidopteran pests attacking Commercialisation is an important Benin. a wide range of peri-urban implementation pathway for

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Good quality cabbages treated with PxGV, Lokossa, Benin

biopesticides, and failure to engage larvae from Benin than towards the results, but disappointed that the private sector and a lack of those from Kenya. Laboratory assays the product was not commercially market data are factors contributing also showed that PxGV could be available when the trials finished. to poor biopesticide uptake. transmitted horizontally at high larval In Benin, there are no public or densities, and that it could move The project proposed partnerships private companies with experience from the soil to plant surfaces in with the private sector to motivate in producing and distributing sufficient quantity to cause infection. and encourage commercial biopesticides. Bt-based products Trials on treated potted plants enterprises to establish production come in across the borders, but exposed to sunlight showed that of the viral insecticides, by are not registered for use. Small- the half-life of PxGV was less than first demonstrating that these scale pesticide distributors are four hours. On-station field trials products have the potential to be interested in biopesticides if there demonstrated that PxGV was as manufactured and sold for a profit. is demand, but they are concerned effective in reducing larval numbers about efficacy. Among pesticide as acephate, a standard insecticide ACHIEVEMENTS importers, few are interested in used by brassica growers, and also as biopesticide distribution to vegetable Plutella xylostella granulovirus effective as the bacterial biopesticide growers because of poor demand, (PxGV) was transferred from Kenya Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt). Daily but those that did express an to Benin under a Material Transfer application of a 1/10th dose of interest would want to be sole Agreement, and tested in a series PlxyGV-Nya01 improved yields, as did representatives. Distributors would of laboratory and field trials. Links to use of a proprietary UV protectant. the East African cluster of vegetable like to see growers more aware of IPM projects (R8297, page 116 Fifty cabbage growers in each biopesticides in order to guarantee and R8341, page 122) facilitated country participated in farmer- the market. Farmer training sessions negotiations. led trials and farmer field school and demonstration plots are seen training in the use of PxGV. Yields as important mechanisms for Laboratory assays demonstrated in PxGV-treated plots exceeded promoting biopesticides. Farmers that Kenyan PxGV was significantly those in control and farmer-practice and distributors would prefer a liquid more virulent towards P. xylostella plots. Growers were encouraged by formulation sold in (re-usable) plastic

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bottles (pesticide containers are routinely re-used for other purposes), and a product that can be applied at watering to avoid the need for application equipment. Products packaged in small quantities would be preferred because of farmers’ small plot sizes and lack of cash. Three further factors significantly affect a farmer’s willingness to buy a biopesticide: perceived ineffectiveness of current chemical pesticides; access to extension for technical advice on pest control; and perceived capacity of a new biopesticide to control new pests. Many farmers in Benin would be willing to test a new biopesticide against P. xylostella, although lack of Farmers in Benin learning to scout for cabbage pests and beneficial insects training means that few understand the difference between biological have greater success in Ghana than sector manufacturing capacity and synthetic pesticides. in Benin. Investment in a national is weak or non-existent; credit is expensive; and knowledge is limited. In Ghana, Bt-based products are vegetable IPM and extension Current thinking assumes that widely used. Active promotion of training programme would improve implementation of biopesticides IPM by the Government of Ghana the likelihood of successful adoption will not be achieved, hence has given vegetable growers greater in Benin. outputs of the current project will awareness of alternative pest control A Pan-African workshop on bio- not be utilised unless additional methods. Farmers’ willingness to pesticide registration, sponsored by effort is made to remove these buy biopesticides is determined Virginia Tech, USAID, DFID and IITA, barriers. However, under certain principally by their education, access was attended by 40 representatives circumstances, for example the to extension services, and previous of stakeholder organisations development of an export vegetable experience in the use of DiPel (Bt). from 15 countries across Africa. market, it is conceivable that market Opportunities for the promotion The workshop made significant forces alone could stimulate the of biopesticides in Ghana are contributions to the development creation of a biopesticide industry. the ongoing IPM strategy; rising of biopesticide registration While cabbage growers who tested concern over the safety of chemical guidelines in the Comité Permanent PxGV appreciated its efficacy, there pesticides; and implementation Inter Etats de Lutte Contre la currently exists no imperative that of EU maximum residue limits Sécheresse au Sahel (CILSS) and would drive sustainable adoption of on fresh produce. Some of the countries in eastern Africa. such a biopesticide, even after the constraints to be overcome are removal of barriers. farmers’ preference for fast-acting, FURTHER APPLICATION broad-spectrum pesticides; the The biopesticide industry is driven A further phase of this work aims wide range of pests that have to be largely by consumer, retailer to follow up with: controlled; inadequate distribution and government pressure on • workshops for regulatory networks and inappropriate growers to reduce dependence on authorities in West Africa on storage facilities, especially at retail synthetic pesticides. In Africa, while the introduction of biopesticide level; and lack of a regulatory there is a general trend towards product-speciﬁ c regulations, framework for registration, promoting IPM, pressure is not yet including provision of model importation, production and use adequate in all markets to drive regulations of biopesticides. Products based the adoption of alternatives to • a market analysis of on Bt are the only commercial synthetic pesticides. Global trends biopesticides in West Africa from biopesticides available in Ghana suggest that biopesticides tend to a commercial perspective and Benin. Botanical pesticides are address high-value niche markets, • an analysis to identify potential widely but locally used, and either therefore the poor may not derive commercial partners and produced in situ or bought from direct or immediate benefits. The countries for a biopesticide- local cooperatives and NGOs. project operated in an environment manufacturing plant Due to the differing degree of IPM that did not facilitate biopesticide • funding of a team to champion engagement in the two countries, development; relevant legislation biopesticide production and adoption of a biopesticide may was, and still is absent; private uptake in West Africa.

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Sustainable approaches for management of root- knot nematodes on vegetables in Kenya

R8296 Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne spp.) are significant pests of vegetable Simon Gowen and flower crops, although the pests themselves are invisible to farmers. Department of Agriculture, The current demands of the European market for greatly reduced pesticide University of Reading, UK use have led to a need for alternative control methods to meet increasingly stringent requirements on exports. This project aimed to verify and promote Luciano Rovesti sustainable approaches to the management of root-knot nematodes through Dudutech (Kenya) Ltd the use of microorganisms, cultural techniques and plant resistance. Through Daniel Karanja research participation, smallholders have been acquainted with root-knot CAB International Africa Regional nematodes and methods of control. The novelty has been the inclusion of Centre, Kenya naturally occurring biological control organisms within the cropping system Gilbert Kibata preferred by (or acceptable to) farmers. This will become an accepted practice Kenya Agricultural Research when the national regulatory authority approves the use of biopesticides; Institute (KARI) when organisations have the capability to mass produce these products at an Brian Kerry acceptable price; and when there are appropriate channels to deliver them to Rothamsted Research, UK the smallholder grower community. Progress has been achieved with each of these stages, which will help to ensure long-term benefit to all sectors of the April 2003–March 2005 Kenyan vegetable-producing community. SELECTED PUBLICATIONS ISSUES use nematicides when growing ATKINS, S.D., CLARK, I.M., MORTON, tomatoes, as currently this is the C.O. and KERRY, B.R. (2004) Root-knot nematodes only control strategy available. Fungal molecular diagnostics of (Meloidogyne spp.) have a nematophagous fungi. IOBC Bulletin worldwide distribution, and are Nematodes are difficult to manage. 27: 9–15. pests of more than 2000 plant They are soil-dwelling animals, too CABI ARC (2005) Underground species. They are significant pests small to see without a microscope, Menaces. CAB International Africa of vegetable and flower crops. The and cause symptoms on the root Regional Centre, Nairobi, Kenya. nematodes cause gall formation system that can be recognised only DARBAN, D.A., PEMBROKE, B. and on roots, leading to stunted plant when a plant is lifted from the GOWEN, S.R. (2004) The relationship growth and low yields; they also soil. For this reason smallholders, of time and temperature to body disfigure root stem tubers, reducing who are reluctant to dig up plants, weight and numbers of endospores their market value. Root-knot usually overlook the presence of in Pasteuria penetrans-infected nematodes are a concern to many nematodes and attribute above- Meloidogyne javanica females. smallholders and commercial ground symptoms (small fruit, poor Nematology 6: 33–36. producers involved in intensive growth, yellow foliage, wilting GOWEN, S.R. and PEMBROKE, B. vegetable production in Kenya. during hot weather) to other biotic (2004) Pasteuria penetrans and Although not all smallholders or abiotic constraints. This often the integrated control of root-knot will recognise nematodes as a results in the use of inappropriate nematodes. IOBC Bulletin 27: 75–77. production constraint, up to chemicals. This project aimed PEMBROKE, B and GOWEN, S. R. 20% of vegetable producers to familiarise smallholders with (2004) Pasteuria penetrans – friend, nematodes – the desire tease or distraction? IOBC Bulletin 27: to adopt biological 225–228. and cultural control PEMBROKE, B., DARBAN, D.A. and strategies can only GOWEN, S. R. (2004) Pasteuria result from an penetrans – a tritrophic intereaction? understanding of what IOBC Bulletin 27: 229–234. nematodes are, and PEMBROKE, B., DARBAN, D.A., how they damage GOWEN, S. R. and KARANJA. crops. D (2005) Factors affecting All sectors of the quantiﬁ cation and deployment of root powder inoculum of Pasteuria vegetable industry penetrans for biological control of Quality standards are increasingly important to are keen to adopt root-knot nematodes. International outgrowers who supply vegetables to commercial production methods Journal of Nematology 15: 17–20. markets within and outside Kenya based on low-pesticide

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Galls on roots of tomato (above); juvenile nematode infected with spores of a biocontrol agent (inset)

regimes. In Kenya, commercial producers. In addition, locally based by which P. penetrans can be export producers are attempting organisations and associations such mass-produced on a commercial to meet European Union standards as the Kenya Institute of Organic scale to enable its widespread use and codes of practice through Farming (KIOF) represent a locally by farmers within a broader IPM the initiative on harmonisation driven initiative of concerned system. Two Pasteuria spp. isolates of pesticide use of the Europe– farmers committed to organic were obtained by the commercial Africa–Caribbean–Pacific Liaison production. producer, and stable production systems developed for the control Committee (COLEACP) and the Within this changing scene of agents, their hosts (root-knot EurepGAP Standards, an initiative improving systems of vegetable nematode) and the vegetable of retailers belonging to the production, root-knot nematodes crops they depend on. These Euro-Retailer Produce Working are one pest for which a sustainable production system components Group (EUREP), a partnership of management system needs to were optimised to establish a agricultural producers and their be developed. The opportunities reliable and predictable method, retail customers aiming to meet have been strengthened and then scaled up. At the start accepted standards and procedures through collaboration with of the project, biological control for the global certification of Good Dudutech (Kenya) Ltd, which has agents had no specific regulations Agricultural Practices (GAP): www. implemented a range of biological for their registration and use as eurep.org. control programmes, including crop protection products. Through mass production of the biocontrol Because of links between the collaboration with a commercial agents Pochonia chlamydosporia (a commercial export sector and partner, project R8218 contributed fungus) and Pasteuria penetrans (a independent growers through the significantly to the development bacterium) for managing root-knot outgrower system (smallholders of a Kenyan registration system nematodes. who supply vegetables to specific to biopesticide and commercial markets within and Building on technology developed biological control crop protection outside Kenya), the new pest by previous CPP projects (R6611, agents. Dudutech Ltd is committed management technologies will R7472), Dudutech Ltd (through to further commercial development also be introduced to the wider project R8218, April 2002–March and scaling up of production of this constituency of smallholder 2004) sought to develop a protocol biological control agent.

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It has recently established a 70-m the use of P. polytunnel for propagation of host penetrans and plants, root-knot nematode and P. chlamydosporia, Pasteuria spp. at Naivasha, and has crop rotation, and employed two full-time technical tomato varieties staff dedicated to commercial with resistance production of this biological to root-knot control agent. In addition, through nematodes. The successful collaboration between on-farm trials were the National Center of Animal participatory and and Plant Health in Cuba and involved farmers Dudutech, Pochonia production practising organic technology has been transferred to and inorganic Kenya. Dudutech has refined the farming methods. production of P. chlamydosporia The first category Evaluation of resistant tomato varieties: above, Cal J and is producing 40 kg of consisted of (susceptible); below, Monyala (resistant) formulated product per week; this farmers from also benefit. Amendments to the can be scaled up to 100 kg/week Maragua practising organic farming pesticide legislation to include those when required. under rainfed conditions. The defined as ‘biopesticides’, such as second category was inorganic Biocontrol agents of root-knot P. chlamydosporia and P. penetrans, farmers from Kibirigwi practising nematodes can be difficult to have been drafted and await final production under rainfed and manipulate because they are legislative ratification. This will enable location-specific in terms of the irrigated conditions, and farmers companies to produce and market pathogenicity of the natural from Mwea growing tomatoes these products. pathogens and their interactions under irrigation. with abiotic and biotic soil factors. Farmers’ perceptions and FURTHER APPLICATION Whilst overcoming the technical preferences showed that a ‘new’ Biological control agents for root- challenges, smallholders must variety with root-knot nematode knot nematodes are now available be advised that the processes of resistance (Monyala) was ranked in Kenya, but until the pesticide biological control may take several best (of four), including the legislation is ratified by Parliament, crops to take effect. The routes standard cultivar Cal J, which is these ‘products’ can be used only for promotion of a nematode- nematode-susceptible. on farms owned by Homegrown, control strategy based on biological the parent company of Dudutech. control agents will be through When P. chlamydosporia was However, Dudutech is now in demonstrations and the more applied through a drip system, a position to produce sufficient highly supervised production spores were not delivered evenly product for sale to other commercial systems of the commercial export along the line of the drippers. concerns, and to the smallholder producers and their outgrowers. This could be a technical problem outgrowers who supply vegetables relating to formulation, because to commercial markets within and ACHIEVEMENTS of the size of the chlamydospores. outside Kenya. These products Distribution of spores of another Methods of scaling up the in and the associated knowledge will biocontrol fungus, Paecilomyces vivo system of mass-producing be made more widely available lilacinus, through such a system P. penetrans are being investigated through organisations representing is better, probably because spores by Dudutech, but as yet no the export sector (such as the Fresh consistent process has been of this fungus are smaller and Produce Exporters Association of developed because of the consistent in size. Kenya) and organic growers (such dependence on uniformly warm This work is moving towards an as KIOF). temperatures, and on large supplies environmentally safe strategy for The results of this research were of nematode hosts on which to managing root-knot nematodes made available to participants in produce the parasite. Spore yields which need not include hazardous the Gatsby Nematology Capacity of 3.26–5.6 × 106 per g of dried chemicals. Biocontrol ‘products’ Building Project for East Africa, tomato root have been achieved. are now available for wider use, which continues for five years from On-farm trials were set up in and will be of benefit to poorer April 2005. Associated research Mwea and Kibirigwi, areas farmers growing nematode- projects will include further studies known for tomato production susceptible crops. Commercial on the deployment of biological for both commercial and home growers who grow crops on control agents for root-knot consumption. The trials involved contract to exporting companies will nematodes.

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Development of private service providers for the horticultural industry in Kenya

R8297 In Kenya, smallholder participation in exporting horticultural crops is threatened Brigitte Nyambo by a lack of efficient extension services. To ensure the continued participation International Centre of Insect of smallholder producers in this sub-sector, a pilot study was conducted to Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE), establish private service provision of advice, input supply and plant protection, Kenya to help farmers comply with changing rules and regulations. Fifteen private service providers were trained in IPM, with the aim of reducing pesticide use Harrigan Mukhongo and improving produce quality, food safety, and human and environmental International Crops Research health. The course graduates are now either self-employed or contracted by Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, fresh produce-exporting companies. The graduates have helped to prepare Kenya small-scale producers and outgrower farmers’ groups for EurepGAP certification. Kevin Billing At policy level, awareness of the plight of small-scale farmers with respect to Business Services Market new food standards has prompted some of the standard-setters to review the Development Project, Kenya requirements, making them more accessible to end-users. At producer level, Ruth Nyagah farmers are now better informed about the EurepGAP Standard, and the AfriCert Ltd, Kenya majority are in the process of implementing some of the requirements. Hans Dobson, Jerry Cooper Natural Resources Institute, ISSUES among smallholder farmers University of Greenwich, UK about health and environmental The horticultural export industry in risks, market demands, and how April 2003–March 2005 Kenya, and in East Africa, has faced to comply with these, is not in increasing difficulties in complying place anywhere in the region. In See R6616, Perspectives on Pests with the ever-more demanding consequence, many smallholder 1996–2000, p. 50 requirements of European farmers are exposed to the risks of markets. Increased intensity in excessive pesticide use, and in the both local market production and case of export producers, are being export-oriented systems has led squeezed out of the industry. Many to a ‘chemical spiral’, with rising of the established horticultural production costs and decreasing exporters in Kenya are over- productivity. This is associated burdened by providing the basic with a high risk to human health, services necessary to keep their especially for farm labourers outgrowers in production. – many of them women and Previous work (R6616, R7403) was children – and with environmental SELECTED PUBLICATIONS aimed mainly at farmers producing pollution. CROFT, A. (2005) Cutting crop losses. vegetables for the local market. A African Farming and Food Processing An efficient extension service with cluster of projects based in Kenya January/February: 11. the ability to create awareness (R8296, page 113 and R8341, DOBSON, H. and COOPER, J. (2003) Training Guide for Private Sector Service Providers, Modules on Safe and Effective Use of Pesticides. Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, Chatham, UK. ICIPE (2004) EurepGAP – What smallholder producers of fruits and vegetables must do to access markets in European Union. Technology Transfer Unit-ICIPE/Business Services Market Development Project, Kenya. ICIPE (2004) EurepGAP standard for small scale farmers of fresh fruits and vegetables to the European market. ICIPE/Business Services Market Training of trainers: horticultural outgrowers were assisted with the new Development Project, Kenya. EurepGAP Standard

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page 122) has aimed at reducing GTZ. This will be a starting point reliance on pesticides and finding for Kenya to create its own alternative pest-management quality manual by adopting strategies for vegetable crops that content according to the local are environmentally friendly and production situation, with a affordable. The ICIPE Horticulture view to preparing farmers for Programme has also developed EurepGAP certifi cation. IPM options for French beans, • Some fresh produce-exporting tomatoes, brassicas and okra companies [InduFarm (K), production for Kenya. All these the Fresh Produce Exporters needed to be disseminated Association of Kenya, East appropriately to end-users, African Growers, Kenya particularly smallholder producers. Horticulture Exporters, In recent years ICIPE, with Deutsche Greenlands Agroproducers and Gesellchaft für Technische Myner Exporters] are working Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) Germany, with outgrowers’ groups to meet has been involved in conducting the EurepGAP Standard. training-of-trainers courses for • The Ministry of Agriculture, the horticultural export industry. (Horticulture Department) has The promotion of validated commissioned a review of technologies is complemented by the EurepGAP Kenya training training in business management programme. and extension skills. One outgrowers’ group in In Kenya, export of fresh produce Kerugoya District was certified is basically private sector-driven, so EurepGAP-compliant in December knowledge about marketing and 2004 by Africert Ltd, a local quality control is in the domain certification body accredited to of the export companies. It was EurepGAP. Three other groups were therefore decided to consult close to full EurepGAP certification reputable Kenyan horticultural but experienced difficulties in exporters for information on how the final stages; lessons from this best to organise and formulate the From the ICIPE poster: ‘What experience are being addressed by training curriculum. smallholder producers of fruits the project extension. ACHIEVEMENTS and vegetables must do to access markets in European Union’ FURTHER APPLICATION Business models for private service This project was a pilot for the providers to horticultural producers by small-scale producers, for a wide were developed. Appropriate range of stakeholders at national privatisation of government training modules and a curriculum and international policy levels. Some services in Africa, and was were produced, and 15 private standard-setters and donor agencies therefore a learning platform. In service providers graduated from have recognised the fact that Kenya the proposal was in line the training. These are now either small-scale producers are at risk of with the National Agriculture and self-employed or working with fresh being excluded from export markets Livestock Extension Programme produce-exporting companies to due to stringent food standard Implementation Framework, which prepare small-scale producers for requirements. As a result, some supports the National Agricultural EurepGAP certification. [EurepGAP is policy changes have already taken Extension Policy. Lessons from this an initiative of retailers belonging to place. pilot will lead to broader moves towards privatisation in areas the Euro-Retailer Produce Working • EurepGAP is committed to assist where private sources of payment Group (Eurep), a partnership of Kenya in developing ‘Kenya- for services, as in horticulture, are agricultural producers and their GAP’, benchmarked on the available. retail customers aiming to meet EurepGAP Standard, which will accepted standards and procedures bring the services closer to end- Under a one-year project extension for the global certification of users. (R8438), a quality manual for Good Agricultural Practices (GAP): • Kenya will have a representative smallholders is being developed and www.eurep.org] at the EurepGAP Committee. tested in collaboration with GTZ. The Awareness was created about • DFID is committed to co- lessons from the pilot and extension the effects of the supply-chain fi nancing fi eld-testing of the phases are being documented and requirements (including EurepGAP), EurepGAP Smallholder Quality will form part of a final report for and access to the export markets Manual in collaboration with wider use in East Africa.

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Promotion of quality vegetable seed in Kenya

R8312 It has been estimated that vegetable production provides nutrition, income Nicola Spence, Gay Marris and employment for more than four million poor people in Kenya. To increase Central Science Laboratory, UK yields of vegetable crops, high-quality seed is critical. This work focused on kale Duncan Chacha, Daniel Karanja, seed production in the Kenyan highlands. With inputs from farmers, the project Martin Kimani, Richard Musebe, addressed issues affecting the quality of seed produced, especially seed health Jemimah Njuki, Noah Phiri problems, to improve future practices and quality. Seed-testing procedures for CAB International Africa Regional kale have been developed in collaboration with the regulatory body KEPHIS, and Centre, Kenya local personnel have received training. The project has developed and validated a suitable model for a sustainable kale seed-multiplication system that enables Gilbert Kibata, Stephen Koech, smallholders to produce healthy, good quality seed of an acceptable market Boniface Mbevi value, harvesting kale leaves only up to flowering (half-pick model) and then Kenya Agricultural Research harvesting the seed – in preference to ‘no-pick’ and ‘full-pick’ models, where Institute (KARI) seed harvests were lower. The reliability of these results is reinforced by the Esther Kimani, Elizabeth Lang’at obvious enthusiasm of participating farmers, who moved ahead rapidly to Kenya Plant Health Inspection achieve the outputs. The possibility of farmer groups establishing a commercial Service (KEPHIS) seed business has been investigated. Seven superior, preferred kale lines have Moses Onim been selected for further development as improved varieties that should have Lowlands Agricultural and Technical a lasting impact on kale production in Kenya. Services Limited (Lagrotech), Kenya Steve Roberts ISSUES increase yields through improved, Warwick HRI, UK adapted varieties, high-quality and Market gardening and horticultural affordable seed, and enhanced April 2003–March 2005 enterprises represent a significant knowledge and production skills. source of income for many small- to medium-scale growers in The main issues associated with Kenya. Brassicas are an important seed quality are: SELECTED PUBLICATIONS part of the diet of Kenyans, • identity of the seed (is it the especially in low-income groups. stated variety?) PHIRI, N.A., SPENCE, N.J., HUGHES, In addition, brassicas (kale and S. et al. (2004) Identifi cation of beet • contamination with other mosaic virus (BtMV), and its effect cabbage) and tomatoes are the species/varieties of seed on the yield of Swiss chard in Kenya. most important vegetables for the • germination rate (affected by Proceedings of the 9th Biennial domestic economy, being grown transport conditions, shelf life, Scientifi c Conference and Agricultural by over 90% of smallholders. Kale dumping of poor-quality seed) Research Forum, 9–12 November (Brassica oleracea) is cultivated • availability of the desired variety 2004, KARI, Kenya. both for home consumption (seed control practices may result PHIRI, N.A. et al. (2006) Identifi cation and commercial sale. However, in a monopoly) of Beet mosaic virus (BtMV), and its much of the currently available • seed health effect on the yield of Swiss chard in vegetable seed is expensive, • the cost and value of seed Kenya. Plant Pathology (in press). imported and of poor quality. There • whether appropriate packet sizes SPENCE, N.J., LENNE, J.M., PINK, are substantial opportunities to are available. D.A.C. et al. (2005) Opportunities and constraints for future economic development of sustainable vegetable seed businesses in eastern and southern Africa. p. 121. In: International Conference on Agricultural Research for Development: European Responses to Changing Global Needs 2005. Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, Switzerland (abstract). SPENCE, N.J. et al. (2006) Characterisation of Turnip mosaic virus (TuMV) and Caulifl ower mosaic virus (CaMV) isolates from Kenya and their economic impact on cabbage and kale production. Plant Pathology (in press). Kale plant used for seed selection

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Most vegetable seeds sold in rural inventory produced. This provided a range of fungi were also isolated: markets are of poor quality because the information needed for entry Alternaria spp. were the most the seeds are from a mixture of into the commercial seed sector. common. The worst affected seed varieties, and disease aspects are came from farmers, demonstrating Using a questionnaire circulated by not taken into account when seeds the importance of promoting seed the Ministry of Agriculture and data are collected. health to these producers. collected by KEPHIS, information Previous research on seed was collected on how far farmer- A strategy for sustainable and production in Kenya (R7571) has produced seed from Kinale travels. viable production of improved- generated great demand from Several districts/divisions (such as quality kale seed was developed farmers, who need to be able to Nyeri and Embu) were found to be through participatory on-farm trials distinguish good seed from bad in growing Kinale kale at the start of in Kinale with key farmers/farmer the local market. There is a clear the project. groups. This involved three on-farm opportunity for farmers trials with participatory in Kinale District (part of farmer groups, and one on- peri-urban Nairobi, Central station trial at Njabini to be Kenya) to brand and market used for demonstrations. quality kale seed of known A suitable model for a origin. As these local sustainable kale seed- kales are landraces, they multiplication system, should not be subject to which enables smallholders legislation. to produce healthy, KARI has an existing good quality seed of an Seed Unit for developing acceptable market value, local seed-multiplication has been identified. In schemes. Virus infections the preferred model, and black rot (caused by farmers pick kale leaves the bacterium Xanthomonas for comsumption up to campestris pv. campestris, flowering (half-pick model) Xcc) are the diseases of and then harvest the seed. Sowing seed with farmers in Kinale most concern to kale- and This was preferable to the cabbage-growers. Although ‘no-pick’ and ‘full-pick’ the deployment of resistance is A project development meeting models, where seed harvests widely seen as the most promising held with agriculture staff and were lower. The model has been approach to disease control, extension officers in Kinale provided validated and established on extensive testing of a worldwide information on how farmers who land volunteered by three farmer brassica germplasm collection multiply kale seed are organised, groups, directly represented by (at Warwick HRI, Wellesbourne) and identified kale farmers and over 50 farming families in three has not yet found any effective farmer groups to work with. As key seed-production areas in resistance to races 1 and 4 in B. a result, Lari Division extension Kinale. officers joined the project, making oleracea. Knowledge of which Monthly participatory activities many visits to farmer groups with races are present locally is needed were established with farmer the project team. for an effective control strategy groups. These included sowing based on resistance. Such a The potential for establishing and seed beds; transplanting strategy is long term; in the short registering a commercial seed seedlings; examining plants at term, control of black rot disease business in Kinale was examined. regular intervals during the trial; should focus on using clean seed Information was gathered from participatory budgeting of inputs; and minimising the risk of carrying farmers and seed companies such and harvesting of leaves and seed. over the disease in crop debris. as Lagrotech, and constraints and Promotional materials encouraging opportunities were identified. A good seed-multiplication practice, ACHIEVEMENTS recommended plan was drawn up and emphasising the value of for consideration by farmers, to A socio-economic survey examined producing/purchasing good show them the steps involved in farmers’ perceptions of seed, and quality vegetable seed, have been progressing to a commercial seed identified potential opportunities developed and disseminated business. for farmers to produce and market to more than 1000 smallholder their own, improved-quality seed. The health of existing kale seed with farmers, NGOs and micro- The availability, distribution and regard to fungi, bacteria and viruses entrepreneurs through KARI, supply of existing brassica seed in was determined. The bacterial black extension services, NGOs and via Kenya was surveyed, and a seed rot pathogen Xcc was present, and other pathways in Kenya.

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The incidence and prevalence of marketing seed of improved health the quality of the kale leaves and Xcc in seed stocks currently used and quality. In close collaboration seed produced, to their benefit for production were examined with KEPHIS inspectors, using and also to the benefit of other with the aim of improving quality international guidelines of the farmers who buy Kinale kale seed, assurance. Infection was found Union Internationale pour la and consumers who eat Kinale in several imported seed lots. The Protection des Obtentions Vegetales kale leaves. In addition, the project survival of Xcc in brassica crop (UPOV), significant progress has has established a sustainable kale debris was examined, and the been made in the analysis of seed-multiplication system that will results demonstrate the importance Kinale kale as a variety. A crucial enable smallholders to produce of crop debris as a source of achievement by farmers and good quality, healthy seed with an primary inoculum. This information researchers was the selection and acceptable market value, and has will be used as a basis to develop evaluation of seven lines from a trial developed a marketing strategy practical strategies for sustainable of 24 Kinale kale lines, grown at that will benefit farmers directly. management of black rot in brassicas. the KARI research station, Njabini. Increased production of higher- quality kale leaves and seed will Local seed-testing capability for Xcc These very impressive lines will be in demand by farmers in the future. increase farm incomes, improve has been improved. Key personnel nutrition for consumers, and from KEPHIS Plant Health Quarantine Outputs from the project will help contribute to enhanced livelihoods Station were trained at Warwick farmers to produce their vegetable for participating households. It HRI for three weeks in methods for crops (for consumption and sale) in should also attract other kale seed seed testing/pathotyping of Xcc a safe, more effective and economic farmers to adopt the improved according to the latest methods way. Benefits will include improved practices. of the International Seed Testing nutrition for whole families, better Association. A reciprocal visit was cash returns from higher yields FURTHER APPLICATION made to the laboratories at KEPHIS of better quality produce, and A follow-up project (R8439) is and KARI’s National Agricultural empowerment through agricultural Research Laboratory (NARL), now in progress to facilitate the knowledge that will help farmers registration and release process of providing practical training for make informed choices on other appropriate staff. new varieties of Kinale kale, while cropping options. also supporting existing informal Kinale farmers expressed a Sound strategies have been farmer-to-farmer distribution strong interest in multiplying and promoted to farmers to improve under the regulation of KEPHIS

Kinale kales lines are unusually tall (most >2 m high)

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A very heavy pod-producing Kinale kale plant that needs two workers to support its pods, at KARI Njabini Sub-Station

and in collaboration with KARI March 2006. Preparatory seed and marketed within Kenya and and NGOs. Specific outputs will multiplication will also be carried beyond. Marketing Kinale Kale seed be the continued evaluation of out to ensure that sufficiently as a brand to make it well known new kale seed lines in trials for large amounts will be available to farmers will be achieved through distinctiveness, uniformity and when a variety is ready for official several forms of advertising stability, using selfed seeds of release. The genetic stability of (posters, brochures, radio, on- each of four kale lines selected kale populations will be assessed, farm demonstrations, agricultural by farmers. A portion of these and opportunities for in situ and ex shows). Lagrotech Seed Company seeds will be submitted to the situ conservation of kale diversity already works with over 400 seed KEPHIS National Variety Release in Kinale will be considered, in stockists all over the country, Committee, which is made up of all consultation with the International including marketing through the seed companies and organisations Plant Genetic Resources Institute Kenya Farmers’ Association, which who intend to enter their various (IPGRI) in Nairobi. has branches all over the country. crop varieties to be tested in the Following on from this project’s Kinale Kale seed will be marketed National Performance Trial. These work on black rot, the incidence through these outlets. trials will be conducted at several of seedborne pathogens of kale Sustainable seed-production locations across the country, where in seed-production systems will technologies (management of the varieties are tested against be monitored. The release process a seed crop, seed-multiplication many other similar varieties entered for new kale seed lines will be methods, harvesting, germination, for the National Performance initiated through registration with a seed processing) will continue to Trial by various seed companies registered seed business, including be promoted through on-farm and organisations. Participatory consultation over legal matters. participatory demonstration multiplication trials of the new After seed growers have produced plots, and via production and kale lines will be conducted at kale seed that meets all the field dissemination of publicity materials. Njabini, KARI-NARL, and KARI KEPHIS certification standards, stations at Thika, Kisumu and seed will be bought by the seed There is potential to promote Kakamega to obtain data on company, and will be subjected the key lessons learned to other their performance, which may be to all post-harvest KEPHIS viability groups involved in vegetable seed used while defending the lines and other quality tests. Seed production in sub-Saharan Africa, during the KEPHIS National Variety will then be processed, dressed, and to seed companies that rely on Release Committee meeting in packaged as required by seed laws, farmer-produced kale seed.

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Promoting the adoption of IPM in vegetable production

R8341 Horticulture provides employment for around two million people in Kenya, Hans Dobson but there is scope for expansion and improvement. Many horticultural crops Natural Resources Institute (NRI), are susceptible to pests and diseases, and farmers often rely on chemical University of Greenwich, UK sprays to maintain and increase supply to a growing urban population. They Louise Labuschange, Henry want easy, rapid and reliable crop protection, and a common perception is Wainwright that pesticides are the modern (and hence desirable) solution for successful Real IPM Company, Kenya farming. Previous research by CPP and other projects has shown that a mix of traditional and newer control techniques, important in IPM, can September 2003–March 2005 reduce reliance on pesticides and improve sustainability. These methods are knowledge-intensive, but to date farmers have received little objective and See R6616, R6615, Perspectives on scientifically sound information, advice and training on how to minimise the Pests 1996–2000, pp. 50–55 use of pesticides and how to use them sustainably. This project aimed to develop training capacity and to pilot an effective system for disseminating information to trainers and farmers, to enable them to use IPM to grow safe and healthy crops in a profitable and sustainable way. Information was incorporated into a series of training aids comprising a Manual for Trainers, a comprehensive training kit and various targeted dissemination resources. These kits provided the foundation for a two-level course design that enabled the project to train 16 specially chosen trainers, who initially trained over 500 farmers, with the aim of improving the quality and production levels of vegetables in Kenya.

ISSUES is little objective, appropriate and scientifically sound information, Horticultural crops – both for advice and training on how to local consumption and for export minimise their use or how to use – are important in Kenya. They them sustainably. The cost of are recognised for their health pesticides absorbs a significant and nutritional benefits, and proportion of farmers’ income, but provide cash income. One-tenth without information on cultural and of vegetables in Kenya are grown biological technologies, farmers for export. The total area under have few alternatives. The mixture horticultural crops is estimated of traditional and newer techniques at 245,920 hectares, of which that comprise IPM can reduce SELECTED PUBLICATIONS approximately 100,000 hectares are reliance on pesticides and improve DOBSON, H.M., MATTHEWS, G.A., under vegetable production. sustainability. OLEMBO, S., BALEGUEL, P. and WILES, Production of vegetables Further challenges exist for growers T.L. (2004) Application challenges for in Kenya, especially for the small-scale African farmers: a training who export crops to Europe, expanding domestic market, is initiative in Cameroon. International where many pesticides are being Advances in Pesticide Application. still limited by major pest and withdrawn, as standards governing Aspects of Applied Biology 71: disease problems, and a lack of production and handling of fresh 385–392. information and knowledge of produce become stricter. Fewer improved technologies to address DOBSON, H.M., COOPER, J.F., pesticides, and very low permitted AGUDAH, R. and WAINWRIGHT, these major constraints. The residue levels, present farmers with H. (2005) A Manual for Trainers majority of smallholder vegetable no choice but to adapt to more – Promoting Integrated Pest farmers rely heavily on spraying rational use of carefully chosen Management. NRI, Chatham, UK. pesticides to reduce the damage pesticides, integrated with use caused by pests and diseases. DOBSON, H.M., COOPER, J.F., of alternative pest management AGUDAH, R., WAINWRIGHT, H. These farmers pay little attention strategies. This pressure for and MWAMPEMBWA, G.A. (2004) to cultural pest management change coincided with the aims Calendar 2005 – Pest Management methods or the potential role of of the project and probably made for Smallholder Farmers. NRI, natural enemies. Pesticides are stakeholders much more open to Chatham, UK. marketed aggressively, but there new ideas.

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This training and dissemination- and an IPM calendar for 2005. based project aimed to wean The cartoons for the calendar growers away from existing (see examples, right) were drawn practices that include over-use of by Gado, the cartoonist from pesticides, overdosing and wrong the Kenya Daily Nation, based choices of product, leading to poor on themes developed by the efficacy. project team. Key messages were Scouting is detective work – inspect identified by the project team, ACHIEVEMENTS the crop very carefully before deciding then ideas for visualising these whether to spray messages were developed by the This project was a collaboration artist in a collaborative exercise. with the Real IPM Company Both languages were included in (Kenya). It was one of three the calendar. The planned print projects commissioned by the CPP run of 1000 was doubled, which in 2003 (along with R8297, page enabled the resources to be 116 and R8299, page 128) to widely distributed to stakeholders initiate dissemination of outputs (including projects of CAB Inter- from previous research (including national and the International projects R6146, R6615, R6616, Centre of Insect Physiology and R6799 and R7403), and to ensure Don‘t use more spray than you need Ecology), as well as horticultural that the beneficial impact of this and export companies, outgrowers, work is maximised. and organisations conducting This project focused on developing training in the horticultural industry. the tools, skilled personnel and All the farmers (over 500) trained promotion techniques to enable by the project received an IPM others to continue with sustainable calendar and at least two posters. IPM promotion. New vegetable After the manual had been drafted, IPM instructor’s resource kits were a team of 16 would-be vegetable developed and used to train IPM IPM instructors were given a instructors. The kit is based on a Produce may be dangerous if harvested before the pre-harvest interval detailed six-day intensive course training manual covering curricula in IPM – this team then went on at two levels: a training-of-trainers to carry out individual farmers’ course, and farmer training courses. On the training-of-trainers materials for use by IPM instructors course these instructors, selected in conjunction with existing from the private, government and dissemination resources such NGO sectors, had the opportunity as handbooks and posters. The to give mock farmer-training training manual contains guidance lessons, before presenting their on course planning and delivery own courses within six weeks of of sessions, practical training the end of the primary course. exercises, interactive games, and Flowering plants provide food for farmers’ materials that can be used in friends and attract them This team of instructors then courses or issued as handouts. It trained over 500 farmers in how to concentrates on pest management adopt vegetable IPM techniques. in tomato, brassicas and green Their trainees consisted of beans. The materials, all housed outgrower farmers and some small- in a strong case, provide a tool to scale domestic vegetable growers. help plan and execute training. Kits One-third of the trainers’ courses include posters, books, a calendar, were observed by the project team. calculators, spray equipment and Getting farmers to ‘do’ rather a hand lens, in addition to the than merely listen was stressed on manual. The usefulness of the the primary training-of-trainers individual components was rated course and, as a consequence, the very highly at a workshop that took secondary courses were carried Pests can rob you, but some insects are place after the instructors’ training. friends out in a far more participatory way than the traditional lecturing style Several supplementary commonly used with farmers. dissemination resource materials Cartoons from the 2005 Calendar were produced, including two of Integrated Pest Management Feedback and comments were posters translated into Kiswahili (reproduced courtesy of Gado) captured throughout the project.

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‘IPM team stars’ (reproduced courtesy of Gado)

Information was gathered said that, since receiving the and several hundred farmers who anonymously from participants training, they scouted rather than have already been reached. after both the training-of- calendar-sprayed their crops, and This project has contributed to the trainers and farmers’ courses. now realised how much money capacity to respond to the national The usefulness of training kit they had been wasting. and international groundswell of components was also rated. This An assessment was made of the food safety, human safety and information helped to formulate likelihood of continuing beneficial environmental protection measures the objectives of a one-year project impact from the training given within that are increasingly affecting the extension. different sectors. For example, while horticultural industry. It has done Several impact-assessment visits the access, geographical reach and so by helping growers to overcome were made in March 2005 to sustainability of agrochemical input the important limiting factor – the farmers who had attended IPM agents are high, the integrity of the ability to control pests safely and courses run by project-trained information may be compromised sustainably. instructors. The aim was not a by the sales motives of the systematic survey, more an informal individual. In contrast, the access FURTHER APPLICATION and geographical reach of NGOs appraisal of the success of the There is now an opportunity may be lower, but the ‘fit’ with their training programme to date and an to broaden the reach of this mission is better and the long-term opportunity to gather information dissemination by developing beneficial impact is likely to be to inform the design and approach materials to support the information higher. of the follow-on phase. Responses that can be used by farmers. One were very positive, with farmers In terms of numbers trained, the way of reaching very large numbers stating that the training and 500 or so farmers whom the project of farmers is to use ‘farmer trainers’ materials provided were very reached are only a small proportion of – trained farmers who go on to useful. An indicator of impact and the production base, which comprises deliver peer-to-peer training and retention was that farmers could many thousands. However, the awareness-raising in the community. describe several of the calendar training manual and other resources An extension to the project (R8417) cartoons and explain the serious produced by the team will provide aims to provide resources for this message without a copy in front a major resource in the longer group so that they can multiply the of them. A direct indicator of term, and the numbers trained will impact of the parent project more adoption was that many farmers eventually far exceed the 16 trainers effectively.

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Linking demand for and supply of agricultural information in Uganda

R8281 Joint-funded with Livestock Limited communications, and a lack of specific focus of information generated Production Programme by both public and private sectors, mean that smallholder farmers in Uganda receive little in the way of relevant extension information and materials. Barry Pound, Barbara Adolph Working with government agencies (particularly NAADS and NARO), MUK, Natural Resources Institute, University private-sector service providers, NGOs and farmer groups, this project has of Greenwich, UK made significant contributions to the integration of smallholder demand Joseph Oryokot National Agricultural Advisory for agricultural technologies with the supply of information from a variety Services (NAADS), Uganda of sources, including DFID research programmes in eastern Africa. Through Emily Twinamasiko project-sponsored MSc studies, the limitations of the present NAADS National Agricultural Research demand-assessment system have been highlighted and recommendations Organisation (NARO), Uganda for their improvement formulated. Major progress has been made in making Margaret Mangheni information sources more aware of the information needs of end-users, and Makerere University Kampala (MUK), a national Standing Committee is now in place to oversee the content of Uganda research outputs. A format for dissemination materials, based on project David Rees, Florence Oumo recommendations, has been adopted by the national agricultural research Client Oriented Agricultural Research systems. This format includes social and economic factors, enabling location- and Dissemination project (COARD), specific selection of options by farmers. A comprehensive survey of private Uganda service providers in two districts has identified information constraints that James Legg compromise their ability to serve farmers adequately, and recommendations International Institute of Tropical have been made to NAADS to address the situation. Agriculture, Uganda Rob Delve Centro Internacional de Agricultura ISSUES Few dissemination materials are Tropical, Uganda available (even to extension staff). Smallholder farmers in Uganda Chris Garforth Private service providers also lack have limited access to anything University of Reading, UK up-to-date information that is but the most locally generated February 2003–March 2005 information, and depend mostly on relevant to local situations, and are family and friends. Many, especially often not under pressure to seek the best information available. SELECTED PUBLICATIONS the poor, are illiterate and have little access to TV or newspapers. Extension materials are usually AFRICA 2000 NETWORK (2005) Some have radios, but they may technology-focused. They are Integrated Pest Management for not be able to interpret the general rarely adapted for specific districts, Groundnut Production: A User Guide. information provided for their and lack much of the information Africa 2000 Network, Uganda. specific circumstances. There is very farmers need to make informed AGWARU, G., MATSIKO, F. limited contact with the extension choices. Demand for the project and DELVE, R. (2004) Assessing was identified from NAADS, approaches for dissemination of services, and less with researchers. research information to farmers within their livelihood situations in Tororo District, Uganda. Ugandan Journal of Agricultural Sciences 9: 265–270. BAMARU, J. (2005) Farmers’ Guide to Integrated Pest Management – Pigeon peas. Arua Local Government Ofﬁ ces, Uganda. BUTTERWORTH, R.R., ADOLPH, B. and POUND, B. (2004) Experiences of packaging research outputs into extension materials. Ugandan Journal of Agricultural Sciences 9: 111–118. POUND, B., ADOLPH, B. and MANZI, J. (2004) Piloting an adaptive research process to address farmer’s Wealth ranking as a prelude to assessing the adequacy of information gaps. Ugandan Journal farmer demand processes for different types of farmer in of Agricultural Sciences 9: 137–146. Arua and Tororo districts of Uganda

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NARO and farmer groups. The process, based on the following categories had limited access NAADS Secretariat was particularly criteria: to market information. Overall, interested in components that • inclusion of the poor the average wealth category would enable private service • participation of farmers in had relatively more access to providers to operate more decision-making information, while very poor effectively. Meetings with senior farmers are not well catered for in • transparency of the process NAADS and NARO staff, and the technology dissemination. Farmer • alignment between farmers’ and outcomes of an inception groups are composed of different NAADS criteria workshop held with a range types of farmer, and projects of stakeholders in Kampala, in • inclusion of cross-cutting issues. find it difficult to cater for this November 2002, demonstrated Recommendations made to NAADS heterogeneity. Overall, information clearly that there is a major problem and others as a result of the demands were highest for pest and with the availability of research findings were: disease control, soil improvement, information in easily accessed marketing and availability of inputs. • continuous farmer–farmer formats and the relevance of its There is no clear mechanism for mobilisation content to smallholder farmers. feedback of information from • use of local structures such as farmers to researchers. This project aimed to improve elders and local councils smallholder farmers’ access to • fl exible ways to pay membership The project has assisted in the agricultural information relevant fees establishment of the Ugandan to their needs. The two main • affi rmative action for Working Group on the components of access are the marginalised farmers and youth Coordination of Development information demand and and Dissemination of Information • enterprises that do not require information supply processes. The Materials for Service Providers and large cash investments and project identified constraints for Farmers. This has recommended have low risk, to attract poorer both, and addressed some of these that NARO and NAADS should farmers issues. establish a joint Standing • review NAADS criteria to Committee to coordinate and consider household food security ACHIEVEMENTS oversee quality assurance of needs, and value addition of The project was fortunate to work agricultural information materials traditional food crops such as during a time of considerable for service providers and end-users. cassava dynamism in NAADS and the The Factsheet format developed by • suffi cient information provided national agricultural research the project, in collaboration with for farmers during the planning systems. A project workshop COARD, is to be adopted officially process, via training brought directors of NAADS and and promoted by NARO and other NARO and senior university staff • longer interaction time with new institutions. groups together with NAADS district staff, A number of options, appropriate • terms of reference for service district farmer forum chairmen, to local conditions and responding provision that address cross- private service providers and to farmers’ needs, were identified cutting issues including natural international researchers, to discuss and tested. A novel, demand- resources management and institutional links constraining driven, multi-agency, farmer- marketing of agricultural the flow of information between participatory, adaptive research produce. stakeholders. A large number of process, that has as its main constraints were recognised. Of Improved tools and mechanisms outcome the provision of locally these, four (review of service- were developed to support the relevant dissemination materials provider contracts to encourage supply of appropriate information for service providers and farmers, empowerment of farmers and technologies. Private service was tested using three technology through information; information providers in two districts were topics – goat de-worming; IPM of packaging; horizontal links; and profiled, and their information use, food legumes; and draught animal facilitating knowledge-seeking) quality control and needs were power (DAP). The process was well were chosen for further exploration identified. Recommendations were received, although initially its radical with relevant institutions. made to NAADS for improving their nature was not well understood. access to, and use of, information The first aim was to develop Stakeholders liked features such as in order to provide better services to demand-discovery mechanisms that inter-institutional learning, farmer farmers. identify demand from a much more involvement, and the development inclusive range of intermediate Very poor households were less of dissemination materials. Two and end-users than is currently the than proportionally represented of the three technology topics practice. An MSc study assessed in farmer groups compared with were successful in reaching the the NAADS demand-identification the general population. All wealth stage of producing dissemination

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materials. The third (goat information; supporting de-worming) tested the the commercialisation use of Mucuna trichomes of food and non-food as a botanical substitute farm products to for chemical de-wormers. improve incomes and The results were markets; and facilitating inconclusive, although institutional links the botanical agent does that address breaks appear to have been or weaknesses in the effective against cestodes Banner of the project’s Linking newsletter information demand (for explanation of terms (www.naads.or.ug/publications.php) and supply flow. It has see Glossary, page vii). contributed to policy- IPM manuals for pigeonpea and and exchange platforms between setting by NAADS and NARO on groundnut were produced by the partners. apsects of understanding and Ugandan team as a result of the supplying the knowledge needs The Linking project has influenced adaptive research process, and of farmers and intermediate policy and strategy by providing a draft dissemination materials have information users. stream of information to research been produced by the DAP team and extension institutions in (including cost–benefit analyses, FURTHER APPLICATION Uganda through the Linking guidelines for social organisation newsletter; a Ugandan project A project extension continued in group use of DAP, and the manager post; meetings with work on recommendations, in advantages and disadvantages of senior Ugandan staff; presentations collaboration with NAADS, to DAP under different conditions); see of research findings to stakeholder modify current demand processes R7401, page 54. workshops; and via formal papers so that natural resources Institutional mechanisms were at national and international management issues are considered developed for integrating supply workshops and conferences. more fully by farmer groups at and demand for information. As The Linking project has contributed the enterprise-selection stage a result of project work, NAADS to the reduction of poverty in and when terms of reference for is considering various aspects Uganda through improving the extension services are drawn up. of service provider contracts, agricultural information available The strengths and weaknesses, including incentives and ways to poor farmers by providing replicability and cost-effectiveness for service providers to improve mechanisms for disadvantaged of the adaptive research process the advice they give to farmers. groups to have a voice in piloted by the first phase of the Working groups have been formed setting priorities; improving the Linking project were critically to improve information packaging. information-demand identification assessed by NARO, MUK, NAADS Further possibilities include process at grassroots level; and local government staff, and commissioning private providers improving the supply of relevant recommendations were developed to package research results, and production and post-harvest for its incorporation into the sponsoring electronic learning Uganda R&D system.

Step fi ve: Excellent links have been developed Step four: Conduct activities with with key institutions in both Design activities that will participation of relevant provide information to stakeholders public and NGO sectors. There fi ll gaps Step six: have been effective efforts to help Provide feedback to farmer associated DFID projects utilise F groups and confi rm the arm Step three: er Farmer the opportunities for improving invo results of activities Meet with farmers and lvem involvement Farmer feedback en information flow developed service providers to t under this project. The strong identify further gaps FARMER Step seven: Draft extension materials links to NAADS, NARO and local F in formats useful to service arm government provide a good base Step two: er fe providers and different ed d ba types of farmers for institutionalisation of the Evaluate information against n c a k fact sheet headings and m work, and the inclusion of focused e d identify gaps in knowledge r e Step eight: MSc studies has added a further rm a Test extension materials F with farmes and service valuable capacity-building element. Step one: providers, and modify as Collect information on Step nine: necessary The methodologies developed are technology relevant to farmer Finalise, print and useful and applicable over a range demand distribute extension materials of countries, and this work will be used to help guide a similar farmer- Draft nine-step process for adaptive testing of technologies oriented effort in Tanzania.

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Accelerated uptake and impact of CPP research outputs in Kenya

R8299 The CPP has produced a large array of new technologies on weeds, diseases, Martin Kimani, Sarah Simons insects and rodents, some of which are based on a material product, while CAB International Africa Regional others are knowledge-based. Making new technologies available to farmers Centre (CABI ARC), Kenya who need them is an essential step in turning good research into impact on livelihoods, but one that has not always received the attention it merits. Godrick Khisa This project focused directly on that step, aiming to accelerate the uptake International Fund for Agricultural of CPP research outputs in Kenya. Research outputs were promoted to Development (IFAD), IPPM FFS farmers in western Kenya through a network of farmer field schools (FFS) Programme, Kenya already established by an ongoing project funded by IFAD. The process Sammy Ajanga was demand-led: farmers specified the crops they wished to work on each Kenya Agricultural Research season, and indicated the constraints experienced in each crop. Technologies Institute (KARI) were collated from CPP and other research programmes, and presented to the FFS facilitators who then introduced them to the FFS. Farmers chose July 2003–March 2005 the technologies to try out in their own and/or group-managed plots. FFS members were also surveyed for their preferences on the content and format of dissemination materials. Farmers’ evaluations indicated the positive impacts of the technologies they tested: over 80% felt their food security had been improved, and marketed surplus was also increased, contributing to improved farm incomes.

ISSUES This is the basis of farmer field schools (FFS), an approach originally The uptake of research results and devised for IPM in rice in south- new technologies has traditionally east Asia, and adapted for use in been a major bottleneck in turning Africa. One such project (IFAD- good research into improved funded through the UN Food and livelihoods for the poor. One Agriculture Organization, FAO) now reason for this is that scientists has tens of thousands of farmers frequently feel their new findings involved in integrated pest and or technologies need to be refined production management (IPPM) in before being ready for uptake. In East Africa. some cases this is true – but often farmers are able to use and adapt In recent years, CPP research on new information through their own pests has produced an array of experimentation and experience as new knowledge about weeds, SELECTED PUBLICATIONS part of a dynamic, ongoing process. diseases, insects and rodents, Once this capacity is recognised, published in many papers and CAB INTERNATIONAL (2005) IPPM the opportunities and potential for other dissemination materials. Information on Sweet Potato, uptake are greatly increased, at the Some of this work is ongoing and Beans, Maize, Sorghum, Kale and same time providing opportunities requires further development, but Groundnut. CAB International Africa for valuable feedback to scientists. much useful knowledge is already Regional Centre, Nairobi, Kenya (CD-ROM). INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL (2004) Helpful dudus in the shamba. Wadudu marafi ki mashambani. CAB International Africa Regional Centre, Nairobi, Kenya (leafl et in English and Kiswahili). KARI (2004) Production of kales (sukuma wiki) and onions using bucket drip irrigation. CAB International Africa Regional Centre, The project’s dissemination CD was sponsored by Nairobi, Kenya (leafl et). a number of organisations

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Sorghum, sweet potato and maize were among the crops on which farmers needed information

available. Some technologies are farmers through FFS, and results that income from maize production a material product with potential were shared with about 2000 increased by 30%, and there was for commercialisation, but many other farmers during field school an increase in maize yield of up to CPP outputs are knowledge-based open days. Farmers’ participation in 50%. Income from kale production with little potential for commercial validating the technologies resulted increased by 20% and yields uptake. These are the outputs on in increased farmers’ confidence increased by 10%. As maize is a which this project focused. While to make informed decisions about staple food crop in the area, food CPP has funded much valuable which technologies to apply. self-sufficiency and food security research in IPM, other research has Farmers have also adapted the have improved due to adoption of also been undertaken, including technologies to suit their local the technologies. work by KARI supported by DFID production system. Participatory extension and and others; Dutch-funded work at New knowledge has been acquired technology delivery has met FFS the International Centre of Insect on uptake pathways for research members’ demand for knowledge Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) outputs, and dissemination on stem borers; and Rockefeller- on their chosen crops, produced materials have been produced and funded work by KARI and others for consumption and for the distributed containing information on soil fertility – thus the project local market, while avoiding high on topics identified as relevant by was not confined to promoting investment in external inputs. the farmers themselves. As a result only CPP research outputs. Farmers Increased marketed surplus was of the project, 50 intermediary do not compartmentalise their also reported in maize and kale, organisations working with farmers problems in the way scientists contributing to improved farm now have access to a wide range do, so the project’s strategy for incomes. Pesticide use did not of dissemination materials on six promoting research outputs was increase, but fertiliser use increased key crops, for continued use in their to address farmers’ production on all crops except sweet potato, work. needs through a demand-driven where none was used. For all crops, approach. Participants in FFS were consulted farmers reported an improvement on their preferences for the content in the content and timeliness of ACHIEVEMENTS and format of dissemination the crop production information materials. Relevant existing they had received as a result of the The results from socio-economic materials were collated and project. work in western Kenya revealed adapted and modified where high demand for information necessary, and new materials were FURTHER APPLICATION on sweet potato, beans, maize, created. Twenty-two dissemination sorghum, groundnut and kale Further work is needed to products were reproduced and production. Many farmers felt that make available specific inputs in disseminated to intermediary they had limited access to new connection with the technologies organisations as well as through IPPM technologies as a result of that farmers found beneficial and the FFS. One of the products was weak research–extension–farmer wish to continue using. Further a CD-ROM containing the source links. They felt that the limited copies of the CD-ROM produced files for all the materials, allowing technologies accessible to them by this project will be disseminated intermediaries to develop or were not always relevant to their to intermediary organisations in reproduce further materials to their local conditions, either because they Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and other own specifications. were tested in different locations, or countries with similar production because farmers were not consulted Surveys and farmer evaluations systems. During this project demand about their relevance. A wide range indicated positive impacts of the was also expressed for tomato of IPPM research outputs was technologies tested by farmers. The IPPM technologies, and this will be collated from different research greatest improvements were seen addressed by an extension to the institutes and validated by over 3500 in maize and kale. Farmers reported project (R8454).

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Ecologically based, sustainable rodent-control strategies in South Africa

R8190 Rodents are a long-standing problem throughout the world, and have Frikkie Kirsten, Emil von Maltitz a major effect on the rural poor through consuming and contaminating Agricultural Research Council – stored food, damaging field crops, transmitting diseases, and degrading Plant Protection Research Institute, buildings. This project aimed to develop sustainable strategies for rodent South Africa management in rural communities of South Africa. All the key stakeholders were involved from the outset, from farmers and those delivering rodent- Steve Belmain management products and services, to those developing and implementing Natural Resources Institute, policies for rodenticide use. Outcomes include changes in the policy for University of Greenwhich, UK training government officers engaged in pest control, and inputs into Richard Ramugondo university courses. The project linked up effectively with the EU’s public Limpopo Province Department of health RatZooMan project to address the cross-cutting public health issues. Agriculture and Environmental Surveys and analyses carried out included the role of the private sector Affairs, South Africa – especially the control product dealerships and companies offering control M.N. Mollel services. As a result, a local company has become involved in manufacturing Department of Agricultural efficient and affordable traps. In addition, rodent taxonomy has benefited Extension, University of Limpopo, from the discovery of a species previously unknown in Africa, as well as the South Africa first recorded occurrence of another species in South Africa. Information A.O. Olorunda obtained on the trends of seasonal abundance and spatial distribution of Department of Food and Agricultural the major rodent species, and possible inter-specific competition, is also Technology Management, new for South Africa, and of wider interest in Africa. University of Venda for Science and traditional rodent-management Technology, South Africa ISSUES service providers (environmental In Africa, rodents are by far the April 2002–March 2005 health officers, agricultural greatest vertebrate pest problem. extensionists and the commercial Management of rodents has pest control industry), the project SELECTED PUBLICATIONS focused on conventional methods, developed novel methods and mainly the use of rodenticides. BELMAIN, S.R, VON MALTITZ, E.F., strategies that were researched and These methods are supported by KIRSTEN, F., MALABANE, P.S. and evaluated for their cost–benefits CHIMIMBA, C.T. (2003) Ecology of government, especially to contain and ability to deal effectively rodent pests in housholds in Limpopo outbreaks. However, conventional with the rodent pest problems Province, South Africa. Paper presented control methods have remained experienced by rural agricultural at the 19th International African Small largely ineffective. communities. This research was Mammal Symposium, Ngorongoro, done in collaboration between UK Tanzania, 14–18 July 2003. Building on previous work in Zimbabwe, Mozambique and and South African scientists, as VON MALTITZ, E.F. and KIRSTEN, F. South Africa (R6685, R7372, well as the key stakeholders (both (2005) Developing sustainable rodent R7777), this project aimed to end-users and service providers). management strategies in rural South provide poor households and small- The project worked in close Africa. Rodent Research News Letter collaboration with the EU-funded 19 (April). scale farming communities with sustainable and environmentally Rodent Zoonosis Management VON MALTITZ, E.F., KIRSTEN, F. and benign management of rodent (RatZooMan) public health project. MALABANE, P. (2003) Of mice pests. This formed part of a broader and men: developing a rodent Responses to farmer questionnaires strategy to improve the food security management strategy for the Limpopo indicated that rodents affect many Province. Plant Protection News 62: of resource-poor and small-scale aspects of people’s lives, ranging 5–7. farmers and their communities from being bitten by rodents at through increased availability and VON MALTITZ, E.F. KIRSTEN F., night, to losses in food stores and improved quality of maize, which MALEBANA P.S. et al. (2003) damage to clothing. A number of is the staple food of households in Developing a rodent management respondents indicated that they had strategy for South Africa’s Limpopo Limpopo Province. been bitten by rats. Rat bites can Province. pp. 418–421. In: Rats, carry diseases; preliminary results Mice and People: Rodent Biology and ACHIEVEMENTS from the RatZooMan project indicate Management. Singleton, R. et al. (Eds). that leptospirosis was found in 30% ACIAR Monograph No. 96. ACIAR, By working with target and toxoplasmosis in 43% of the Canberra, Australia. communities as well as the

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Housing in Mapate reviewed for rodent access: left, brick and tile-roofed (improved) house with reduced access to rodents, but the open kitchen makes it easy for rodents to get into food preparation areas. Centre, this building provides easier access and harbourage for rodents compared with the neater homestead (right). rat samples tested in one farming region. Field catches were mainly ensures sustainability, and a pricing community. Although rodent of Mastomys species. The project structure independent of the damage to field crops can be as high made a significant contribution ZAR–US$ exchange rate. as 20% at harvest, farmers rarely towards mapping rodent distribution Literacy in rural South Africa, ascribe damage to rodents – farming in Limpopo Province, which is especially among household heads, communities tend to perceive them not well documented, including is low. It was therefore decided Mastomys coucha, a plague carrier as household pests. Rodenticides to use regional radio stations to that is an important link between are used, but in a haphazard way promote effective rodent-control sylvatic plague foci and the domestic which renders them ineffective. This management. Two radio talks were environment. Of appreciable encourages the illegal use of highly broadcast on the importance of scientific value was the discovery of dangerous, acute agrochemical rodent control for health and food the oriental rat, Rattus tanezumi, poisons such as aldicarb. Although security. farmers were generally aware a first recording of the species in about rodent control tools such as Africa; and the grooved-toothed The results of the project were rodenticides and traps, knowledge mouse, Pelomys fallax, a first discussed with stakeholders and on their correct and effective use recording in South Africa. major role-players such as the was lacking. Department of Agriculture and Results from a market survey the Pest Control Services Industries Studies were carried out on indicated that most of the Board. An invitation by the latter reducing rodent populations known rodenticide brands were to revise the current rodent- through intensive trapping. Trap available from retailers, but that control curriculum demonstrates success from break-back traps in neither retailers nor villagers had its willingness to improve present and around 80 households and knowledge about their effective rodent-control training. Tswane four crop fields, over a continuous application. In rural communities, University of Technology has period of 18 months, demonstrated rodenticides are available only at requested assistance in revising its to both the communities and the larger stores (general dealers) introductory rodent control course. government extension workers the and at monthly market stalls. At The project demonstrated that effectiveness of trapping, as well as these stalls, some agrochemicals rodent-control strategies previously the efficacy of the break-back trap. are sold illegally as rodenticides. used in Mozambique (R7372) Severe drought conditions during Rodenticides are generally available are effective in the peri-urban the assessment period prevented in 100-g packages, and shop owners communities and different agro- reliable results on rodent damage reported that they usually sell one ecological and geographic areas to crops in storage. Damage packet per household. However, due to infrequent use, effective of Limpopo Province. Resistance to to maize in crop fields without policy changes by some institutions trapping ranged from 10 to 28%. control cannot be achieved. A South African rodenticide manufacturer has will take time to overcome, but The species composition of rodents agreed to modify and manufacture this project has marked a move caught inside dwellings differed ‘Kness’ break-back traps (originally forward in both understanding and between the four villages studied designed and manufactured by a improving rodent management. in Limpopo Province. Rattus US-based company), which were rattus was the dominant species, used successfully in Mozambique FURTHER APPLICATION comprising 55–71% of rodents (R7372). These traps are sufficiently This work is being extended through caught in three villages in the sensitive and cost-effective (based project R8441. The outputs of warm and dry southern regions; on the number of rodents caught this project could usefully be Mastomys natalensis replaced per trap) when compared with disseminated to poor rural and peri- R. rattus in the village situated in alternatives such as rodenticides. The urban communities in other parts the humid, sub-tropical northern engagement of a local manufacturer of South Africa.

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Classical biological control of Mikania micrantha with Puccinia spegazzinii: implementation phase

R8228 Mikania micrantha originates from the Neotropics, but has become an Carol Ellison, Sean Murphy invasive, alien weed in many regions within the tropical moist forest zones CABI Bioscience, UK of Asia, and is still invading new areas. The ‘mile-a-minute’ vine smothers K.V. Sankaran vegetation in both agricultural and natural ecosystems. This project aimed Kerala Forest Research Institute to import into India, from Trinidad, a previously evaluated isolate of the (KFRI), India rust fungus Puccinia spegazzinii. A release permit has now been issued by the Indian Ministry of Agriculture, for use of P. spegazzinii as a classical K.C. Puzari biocontrol agent. Under quarantine conditions in Delhi, final screening and Assam Agricultural University assessment of the rust was completed prior to its release. The rust is now (AAU), India being established in the field in two regions of India: the Western Ghats R.J. Rabindra (Kerala) and Assam. This is the first exotic fungal agent to be released in Project Directorate of Biological Asia for weed control. Control, India Usha Dev ISSUES zones of tropical Asia, where it is National Bureau of Plant Genetic strangling forest species and crops. Resources (NBPGR), India The ‘mile-a-minute’ weed, Mikania A native of tropical America, it micrantha, is invading many was introduced to north-eastern September 2002–December 2005 regions throughout the moist forest India as a cover crop and allegedly as camouflage for See R6735, Perspectives on Pests airfields in the 1940s, 1996–2000, pp. 100–102 but its impact has SELECTED PUBLICATIONS escalated in recent decades due to ANON. (2003) Can the ‘green tidal widespread cutting wave’ of Asia be curtailed? Biocontrol and degradation News and Information 24: 50N-52N. of natural forests. ANON. (2003) Separating the weed In Assam, Mikania, from the tea in India. Financial Times, having colonised Friday 27 June. degraded forestland, ELLISON, C.A. (2004) Biological then invades control of weeds using fungal natural adjoining tea gardens enemies: a new technology for weed and village vegetable management in tea? International plots. The weed was Journal of Tea Science 3: 4–19. introduced to the ELLISON, C.A., MURPHY, S.T. and Western Ghats, in RABINDRA, R.J. (2005) Facilitating Kerala, south-western access for developing countries to India in the 1980s, invasive alien plant classical biocontrol and is still invading technologies: the Indian experience. new areas in this Aspects of Applied Biology: Pathways region. out of Poverty 75: 71–80. EVANS, H.C. and ELLISON, C.A. In Kerala, Mikania is (2005) The biology and taxonomy widespread in home of rust fungi associated with the gardens, plantations neotropical vine Mikania micrantha, and natural forests. a major invasive weed in Asia. Unchecked, Mycologia 97: 935–947. Mikania severely KUMAR, S.P. et al. (2005) India to affects agricultural release the ﬁ rst fungal pathogen production, and for the classical biological control controlling it by hand- of a weed. Biological Control and weeding increases Information 26: 71N–72N. A worker cutting Mikania weed in sugarcane (top); the cost of cultivation RANDERSON, J. (2003) Fungus in your tea grown on terraces in the Western Ghats of Kerala for both commercial tea, sir? New Scientist, 28 June, p. 10. (below: from www.tug.org.in) and smallholder

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sustainable, effective solution for reducing the impact of this noxious weed in India. ACHIEVEMENTS

As part of the earlier phase of this work, KFRI had quantified the sociological and economical impacts of the weed, together with its distribution in Kerala. Building on that work, KFRI developed a surveillance programme to cover the neighbouring states of Karnataka, Goa and Tamil Nadu. This showed that Mikania is dispersing steadily into Tamil Nadu, and has moved much closer to the border between Kerala and Tropical American rust fungus, Puccinia spegazzinii, attacking Mikania weed Karnataka. Discussions with policy-makers farmers. Production costs for which it is highly damaging, led to the Government of India important crops, such as pineapple, resulting in leaf, petiole and stem issuing a permit for import of plantain and oil palm, have cankers, and death of the whole the rust fungus P. spegazzinii for plant. Although a suite of natural escalated in affected regions. potential Mikania control. This is enemies may often be required The weed also has a severe the first time that the Government impact on teak and other forest to achieve significant control of of India has allowed importation plantation species. Smallholders invasive alien weeds, it appears of an exotic pathogen as a weed have either abandoned cultivation that in the case of Mikania, biocontrol agent – a first for India, of subsistence and tree crops in P. spegazzinii may prove to be and for continental Asia. Mikania-infested areas, or changed the ‘silver bullet’. The aim of the to other crops. This weed also current project was to implement Additional host-specificity testing affects the livelihoods of tribal a classical biocontrol strategy has been completed at NBPGR, people living in forests of Kerala by as an environmentally benign, New Delhi; only the target weed impeding the collection of forest products. A previous project (R6735) had identified a tropical American rust fungus, Puccinia spegazzinii, as suitable for use as a biological control agent for Mikania. Eleven samples of the rust from six countries (Argentina, Brazil, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru and Trinidad) were evaluated by CABI Bioscience in its quarantine glasshouse in the UK. A pathotype from Trinidad proved to be virulent against a wide range of Mikania genotypes present in India, including all the weed populations that were screened from the Western Ghats. This strain of P. spegazzinii was then tested against 55 non- target species, including plants closely related to Mikania and crop plants. The rust proved to be totally specific to Mikania, against Checking on progress of the rust applied in the field

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at AAU, with guidance provided by CABI. The rust was prepared for shipment to India at CABI Bioscience, UK, in quarantine, and voucher specimens of the rust have been preserved in liquid nitrogen. The rust has been shipped to India and established in quarantine in New Delhi, and host-range testing has been completed. As the rust can survive only on living plants, it is necessary to transport it into the field for release as an infection of pot- grown Mikania plants. Rust- infected plants, prepared at the NBPGR, were packed in cool boxes and hand-carried by air to Assam and Kerala. Some of these plants were planted directly in the field within dense stands of Mikania. The rest of the plants were taken to the propagation units at KFRI and AAU to bulk up the rust on a large number of potted plants. This will allow for an intensive, wide-ranging release programme to follow. Workshops for scientists, extensionists and forestry workers will be held in Assam and Kerala. Studies to look at the establishment and impact of the rust have been initiated. Educational materials are being produced, and a comprehensive farmer information and public Mile-a-minute weed, described as a ‘green tidal wave’, pictured strangling awareness campaign is being Assam tea (top left), banana (left), and degraded forest in Assam (right) implemented to support this innovative approach to weed was found to be susceptible assist plantations and subsistence control in Asia. to the rust. These results were farmers by reducing the inputs they submitted to the Indian Quarantine have to make to control the weed, FURTHER APPLICATION Authorities, along with the and will be of no cost to them. The process used by the project application for a release permit for Most importantly, for tea in Assam, team is being recorded under a P. spegazzinii, in February 2005. this should result in a reduction of short project: R8502, Promotion In June 2005 the Plant Protection chemical herbicides, the residues of weed biocontrol in Asia: the Adviser to the Government of India of which have been a cause for Mikania micrantha experience. (Ministry of Agriculture) agreed to concern with EU tea importing A similar project, funded under issue the permit for field release countries. the Defra Darwin Initiative, began of the rust for Mikania control in Permanent weed sample plots in 2003 for China, where Mikania Kerala and Assam. have been established in Kerala is also a serious weed. Lessons The biological control agent will by KFRI and in Assam by AAU. learnt from the DFID research have spread naturally and evidence Assessments have been made of enabled the Chinese to fast-track suggests that, over time, it will the density of Mikania weed in the processes – the 10-year Indian not only arrest the progress of the these plots prior to the release of experience has enabled the Chinese weed, but will reduce the current the rust. A rust propagation unit to introduce and release the rust level of weed infestation. This will has been constructed in Assam, within two years.

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Management of fruit flies in India

R8089 Tephritid fruit flies cause serious damage to fruit and vegetables in South Asia John Mumford, John Stonehouse and throughout much of the world. Through a multidisciplinary survey, this Imperial College London project has established the economic, social and environmental costs of fruit flies, and constraints to their improved management. Food bait and sexual G. Kalloo, S. N. Pandey parapheromone lure controls have been tested, along with social studies of the Indian Council of Agricultural resources, priorities and perceptions of farmers and village institutions. Practical Research, New Delhi management strategies that are effective and sustainable at farm and village A. Verghese level have been determined with collaborating Indian research, extension and Indian Institute of Horticultural fruit marketing agencies. Establishment of local fruit fly research centres, the Research (IIHR) South Asia Fruit Fly Network and its associated website, and a series of project Collaborating institutions workshops has generated a spirit of cooperation and cohesion within the fruit throughout India (see page 138) fly research community in India, and should help to provide a research base on which to build further locally funded projects. December 2001–March 2006 See R6924, R7447, Perspectives on ISSUES ‘poor man’s fruit’ in northern Pests 1996–2000, p. 86 Gujarat because of its tolerance of India is the world’s largest tropical dry conditions, allowing it often to and subtropical fruit producer be the only productive plant that – and the largest mango producer, can be grown on what is often with 65% of global production. waste ground. Sapota is widely The mango export industry is a grown in Gujarat, and in Karnataka priority area, and locally tree fruits is sometimes valued by smallholders are valuable sources of nutrition even more than mango because its and vitamins. Tephritid fruit flies production is high and its fruiting (Bactrocera spp. and Dacus spp.) season long. cause serious damage to both fruit Fruit flies are probably the most and vegetables in South Asia and serious cause of pest losses to many throughout much of the world. SELECTED PUBLICATIONS tree fruits and most cucurbits. A number of host crops are of Anecdotal evidence suggests that MUMFORD, J.D. (2005) Community particular importance to the poor many subsistence growers of staple actions to improve productivity, and vulnerable. The crops for crops such as rice and cereals, who quality and markets in fruit and cocoa which production statistics do not pest management in Asia. Aspects are in a potential position to move exist are, because of their small- of Applied Biology: Pathways out of up to the cultivation of cucurbits scale nature and small commercial Poverty 75: 47–52. for market, are prevented from potential, of greatest significance doing so by pests, mainly fruit flies. STONEHOUSE, J.M., MUMFORD, for the poorest farmers. Guava is Control of fruit flies, particularly J.D. and VERGHESE, A. (2004) called ‘poor man’s fruit’ because Returns to scale in pest suppression by cheap methods that need no of its poor keeping qualities and and eradication: issues for the access to capital goods such as inability to ripen after harvest, wide-area management of fruit sprayers, should offer significant which make it unsuitable for ﬂ ies in India. pp. 151–158. In: improvements in living standards. Proceedings of the Entomological harvesting green to ripen in Society of India National Symposium, transit to market, and is widely While trap catches can indicate November 2003. Subrahmanyam, the preserve of small and local seasonal or annual fluctuations of B., Ramamurthy, V.V. and Singh, V.S. producers. Jujube is also called a single species in time, they are (Eds). Entomological Society of India. STONEHOUSE, J.M., MUMFORD, J.D. and VERGHESE, A. (2006) Village-level suppressive fruit ﬂ y management in India: issues determining the optimum scale and Cooperatives cooperative control. Proceedings are vital links of the FAO/IAEA International between Conference on Area-wide Control of farmers and Insect Pests, Vienna, Austria, 9–13 the lucrative May 2005. International Atomic urban Energy Agency, Vienna (in press). marketplace

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a poor representation of actual and vegetables in India (see table), in India, either of soaked cotton infestation losses due to the and the difficulties experienced, wool, water or using extracts from extreme differential susceptibility of particularly by smallholder growers, Ocimum (holy basil), were found different species to different lures, in controlling them successfully on to obtain levels of kill substantially with some being attracted to none. individual plots. inferior to lure blocks, which also Catches often correlate poorly with have the key advantage of being Building on previous work in infestation at field level. As a result, easy to use, and do not require Pakistan (R6924, R7447), the fruit the relative role of various species weekly replacement. Lures may fly species affecting orchard fruit in causing economic damage is not provide full control in all cases, such as mangoes could be attracted less well understood than their however – when farms are small to the parapheromone lure methyl- geographical distribution. and pressure intense, infestation is eugenol, which is available from still substantial and other controls specialist suppliers as a food ACHIEVEMENTS need to be held in reserve. additive. Wooden blocks soaked Through a key informant survey, this in lure plus insecticide obtained The species of fruit flies affecting project has determined the extent of good control of flies in mangoes. cucurbit vegetables (mainly damage caused by fruit flies to fruits The type of traps previously used Bactrocera cucurbitae) are attracted to cuelure, a commercially available parapheromone. Cuelure is much more expensive than methyleugenol and is available only in weak preparations, so for small- scale farmers these flies are most economically controlled by liquid baits mixed with insecticide, which attract a wide range of flies but require more frequent replacement than wooden lure blocks. Studies concluded that the attraction of the same species of fly in different parts of the country to different baits was not consistent. Southern flies tended to favour banana baits to jaggery (unrefined sugar) baits, whereas north-western flies tended to favour jaggery, with eastern and central flies in an indeterminate position. Locally produced baits had Bitter gourd fruit protected from fruit flies by cooperative control being different effects in different parts of loaded onto a lorry for the market in Thrissur, Kerala (photo: J. Thomas) the country, probably reflecting the

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Estimates of production and losses to fruit ﬂ ies of orchard fruits and cucurbit vegetables in India Calculated production and economic loss* Loss attributable to main fruit fly species† (lakh‡ tonnes) (million £) (lakh tonnes) (million £) U P Total U P Total Bd Bz Bcr Bd Bz Bcr

Mango 6.72 1.28 8 0.84 0.16 1 4.24 2.95 0.81 0.53 0.37 0.1 Guava 4.69 0 4.69 0.35 0 0.35 1.9 2.61 0.17 0.14 0.2 0.01 Jujube 0.12 0 0.13 0.01 0 0.01 0.06 0.06 0 0 0 0 Sapota 0.13 0 0.13 0.01 0 0.01 0.06 0.07 0.01 0.01 0.01 0 Phalsa 0.08 0 0.08 0.01 0 0.01 0.04 0.04 0 0 0 0 Peach 0.04 0 0.04 0 0 0 0.01 0.03 0 0 0 0 Apricot 0.04 0 0.04 0 0 0 1.18 2.4 0.02000 Total 11.82 1.29 13.11 1.23 0.16 1.39 7.48 8.16 1.02 0.69 0.58 0.12 Bcu Bt Dc Bcu Bt Dc Cucumber 2.45 1.11 3.56 0.61 0.28 0.89 3.28 0 0.28 0.82 0 0.07 Muskmelon 2.71 1.25 3.96 0.2 0.09 0.3 3.57 0 0.39 0.27 0 0.03 Watermelon 0.71 0.4 1.11 0.03 0.02 0.05 0.99 0.01 0.11 0.04 0 0 Cooking melon 0.26 0.16 0.41 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.37 0 0.04 0.02 0 0 Pumpkin 1.4 0.33 1.73 0.06 0.01 0.08 1.32 0.09 0.06 0.01 0 Bitter gourd 1.43 0.62 2.05 0.27 0.12 0.38 1.85 0.05 0.16 0.35 0.01 0.03 Small gourd 0.48 0.21 0.69 0.09 0.04 0.13 0.6 0.05 0.04 0.11 0.01 0.01 Ridge gourd 0.33 0.11 0.44 0.02 0.01 0.03 0.38 0.04 0.02 0.02 0 0 Bottle gourd 0.55 0.16 0.7 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.65 0.01 0.05 0.04 0 0 Snake gourd 0.78 0.28 1.06 0.07 0.03 0.1 0.96 0.04 0.06 0.09 0 0.01 Sponge gourd 0.41 0.12 0.53 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.49 0.02 0.03 0.03 0 0 Chayot 0.26 0.11 0.38 0.02 0.01 0.02 0.31 0.04 0.03 0.02 0 0 Ash gourd 1.29 0.42 1.71 0.08 0.03 0.11 1.48 0.12 0.1 0.09 0.01 0.01 Sweet gourd 0.21 0.06 0.28 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.21 0.07 0 0.03 0.01 0 Total 13.26 5.34 18.61 1.56 0.66 2.22 16.44 0.78 1.39 1.99 0.06 0.17 *U, unprotected; P, protected. †Fruit fly pests of orchard crops: Bd, Bactrocera dorsalis, Bz, Bactrocera zonata, Bcr, Bactrocera correcta; fruit fly pests of cucurbit vegetables: Bcu, Bactrocera cucurbitae; Bt, Bactrocera tau; Dc, Dacus ciliatus. ‡1 lakh = 100,000.

great diversity of fruit fly complexes Bait application and lure blocks do are similar bodies around which within India. not provide complete protection, groups of farmers organise and and many farmers may find they that can provide a channel for the Weekly applications of baits can can be profitably used together distribution of lures and advice obtain as good control as cover – when used in combination the on how to use them. Surveys of sprays, and their ease of application two methods did not interfere with growers and local organisations allows them to be carried out more each other, and their effects in have established constraints and frequently. Comparative trials on combination were multiplicative. opportunities for village-level farmers’ fields throughout India, cooperative control efforts to be in a wide variety of crops and Both bait application and lure organised. conditions, consistently found blocks benefited substantially that home-made baits of banana from being used over areas of Bait plus insecticide application or jaggery obtained protection as a whole village rather than on on individual trees provides partial good as or, more often better than, a single farm, and village-level control of fruit flies attacking expensive and environmentally cooperative control offers great fruit, but is of less benefit for damaging cover sprays of advantages. Cooperative control vegetable fruit flies. It is unlikely insecticides, and were of great is most easily introduced where that individual tree or small-plot interest to farmers. cooperatives already exist, or there control using cover sprays or bait

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Assessing control (www.southasiafruitfly.net) and of ﬂ ies with home- produces a regular newsletter made coconut on developments in fruit fly traps containing management. mashed banana and The project has established fruit insecticide – behind fly research centres with principal the coconut trap investigators and junior researchers is a bottle trap at the following institutions, with used to monitor ﬂ y overall coordination from the Indian populations Agricultural Research Institute, New (photo: T. Jiji) Delhi: • Gujarat Agricultural University applications would provide reliable supply chain to generate additional (GAU) – three campuses at quantities of market-quality fruit for income for smallholder fruit and Anand, Ghandevi and Palanpur smallholders, especially for highly vegetable growers if they apply • Kerala Agricultural University susceptible fruits such as guava, or improved fruit fly management (KAU) – two campuses at for cucurbits. on a village-level scale. Work with Thrissur and Thrivananthapuram Mother Dairy (a large cooperative Male annihilation was shown • Indian Institute of Vegetable organisation of the National Dairy to provide significant, but not Research (IIVR), Varanasi, Uttar Development Board) has been complete, control on plots as small Pradesh examining how cooperative fruit as 0.2 ha. • Central Institute for Subtropical fly control at village level can be Horticulture (CISH), Lucknow, During 2004 and 2005 several Uttar Pradesh large-area male annihilation control trials were carried out, ranging • Indian Institute of Horticultural from 1 to 10 km2, to establish Research (IIHR), Bhubaneshwar, the limits on economies/ecology Orissa. of scale. The 1-km2 trial in 2004 showed incursions into the FURTHER APPLICATION controlled grid of approximately An extension of the project through 100–150 m. However, ‘fingers’ of the 2005 growing season (R8440) incursions spread into the control allowed further work on optimising area on occasions for 300–400 m. the cost–benefit return from lures at This suggests that village-level different densities. The effectiveness control using this technique of home-made bait sprays was (which is insecticide-free) must be confirmed in two small communities economically viable, including at of farmers in Kerala and Goa, where least a 100-m buffer zone outside water access precluded the use of the area that needs control, cover sprays. In collaboration with and that the risk level would be the vigorous local Cooperative decreased further by extending the Above, healthy gourd and below, Amalsad in southern Gujarat, buffer to 300 m. Trials on a larger infested with fruit fly maggots increased returns were demonstrated scale in 2005 will help to determine (photo: T. Jiji) when cooperative wide-area control the ecological features of incursions was extended from 1 to 10 km2. so that this advice can be defined connected with other quality and SAFFN is now running, and during more accurately. The benefit to be value-adding processes (such as the project extension period gained within a control zone will grading and packing of produce further assistance will be given to be determined by the number and locally) to increase small-farm help this become an active focus type of fruit trees, and a simple incomes and improve their position for research and management calculator to show whether a in the food supply chain. exchanges. A final workshop, particular zone would benefit from The project has supported the held in Goa in October 2005, cooperative area-wide treatment establishment of a cooperative brought together the research will be developed using data from international association of fruit results, and inputs from farmers the 2005 season. fly scientists and practitioners, and cooperatives, to produce a Collaboration with a fresh fruit and the South Asia Fruit Fly Network final set of recommendations for vegetable retailer has established (SAFFN), hosted at Gujarat economically optimal integrated quality and availability issues that Agricultural University. SAFFN is fruit fly management at both farm must be addressed within the food- based on an open-access website and community levels.

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Promotion and impact assessment of tomatoes resistant to tomato leaf curl virus disease

R8247 Whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) and tomato leaf curl virus disease (ToLCVD) currently John Colvin cause huge economic losses in most tropical and subtropical regions of the Natural Resources Institute, world. Building on previous strategic work in India that developed three open- University of Greenwich, UK pollinated (true-breeding) ToLCVD-resistant tomato varieties, this applied Venkataramappa Muniyappa project aimed to create a signifi cant developmental impact by creating new University of Agricultural Sciences mechanisms and partnerships for the sustainable delivery of research products Bangalore (UASB), India to farmers. The team did this by fi rst obtaining offi cial authorisation to release H. Ramaiah these new resistant varieties, and then promoting and disseminating them National Seed Project, India through novel funding mechanisms or licence agreements. The three ToLCVD- resistant varieties were released successfully and notified in the Gazette of India P. Hanson for use throughout the country. Negotiations with commercial vegetable seed South Asian Vegetable Research producers led to 16 taking up the rights, on a non-exclusive basis, to multiply Network (managed by The World and distribute the varieties and/or to use them as parental material to develop Vegetable Center, AVRDC) and ToLCVD-resistant hybrids. Data have been collected and published on the CGIAR Tropical Whitefly IPM Project performance of the varieties in different Indian states, and on the different (managed by Centro Internacional ToLCV species and B. tabaci populations present in those locations. Impact de Agricultura Tropical) assessment data showed that farmers could obtain up to 10 times the profits January 2003–March 2005 they used to achieve growing ToLCVD-susceptible open-pollinated varieties, and that they used the extra income to improve nutrition, children’s education See R6627, Perspectives on Pests and health. To ensure sustainability, a revolving fund has been set up by the 1996–2000, pp. 88–90 National Seed Project of UASB, where receipts from seed sales through various SELECTED PUBLICATIONS outlets are used to produce replacement seed that, in turn, will be sold. ANON. (2004) The notifi ed tomato two decades, whiteflies have been variety seeds of Sankranthi, Nandi ISSUES and Vybhav can be sold throughout gaining worldwide prominence as After China, India is the world’s India for the purposes of agriculture. important crop pests, causing direct Gazette of India, 31 May, New Delhi. second largest vegetable producer, and indirect losses through phloem with 5.5 million hectares of land feeding, excretion of honeydew COLVIN, J., OMONGO, C.A., under vegetable crops. Production and transmission of viruses. As GOVINDAPPA, M.R. et al. (2006) in India is limited by losses caused Host-plant viral infection effects part of a response to the problem on arthropod-vector population by insect pests and diseases to in tomatoes, the UASB screened growth, development and behaviour: the extent that the per capita 1306 Lycopersicon genotypes management and epidemiological consumption of vegetables is only for resistance to ToLCV, with the implications. Advances in Virus 25–33% of the daily minimum long-term objective of introducing Research (in press). requirement. Over the previous ToLCV-resistance genes into edible CHOWDA REDDY, R.V., COLVIN, J., MUNIYAPPA, V. and SEAL, S.E. (2005) Diversity and distribution of begomoviruses infecting tomato in India. Archives of Virology 150: 845–867. CHOWDA REDDY, R.V., MUNIYAPPA, V., COLVIN, J. and SEAL, S. (2005) A new begomovirus isolated from Gossypium barbadense in southern India. Plant Pathology 54: 570. RAJESHWARI, R., CHOWDA REDDY, R.V., MARUTHI, M.N., COLVIN, J., SEAL, S.E. and MUNIYAPPA, V. (2005) Host range, vector relationships and sequence comparison of a begomovirus infecting hibiscus in India. Annals of Applied Biology 147: Vybhav (left) and a ToLCV-resistant hybrid developed from it (right) by 15–25. the commercial company Namdhari Seeds

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The tomato crop was severely infected with ToLCV in the 1999 epidemic season at Kaparasiddanahalli, Kolar taluk – this farmer is ploughing in the tomato crop without harvesting a single fruit

tomatoes through conventional • A 50–75% reduction in use These varieties have the potential to plant-breeding techniques. AVRDC of insecticides for control of reach millions of tomato producers provided the project with tomato whitefl ies and geminiviruses, in India, including the poorer germplasm that could be screened with consequent assumed farmers, and to have a major to identify the best sources of environmental and consumer impact. The current project aimed resistance to ToLCVD in southern health benefi ts. to fulfil that potential through India. • Increased tomato production making ToLCV-resistant hybrids during ToLCVD-epidemic periods, available to farmers through both Earlier farmer-participatory trials leading to reduced seasonality of the public- and private-sector (R6627) identified the ToLCVD- tomato supply and lower prices routes. resistant varieties TLB111, TLB130 for consumers. and TLB182. The poorer farmers • Lower production costs and ACHIEVEMENTS usually grow open-pollinated higher productivity, leading to tomato varieties as they can keep This project carried forward earlier higher income for farmers and their own seed, although they assessment of whitefly and ToLCV other stakeholders involved in the recognise that yields are lower diversity, identification of sources supply chain. than the relatively expensive hybrid of resistance, and productive • Reduced risk of crop losses from collaboration with AVRDC and varieties. In the past, the varieties ToLCVD may encourage more available to them have had no ToLCV Indian national agricultural research poor farmers to grow tomatoes. systems to develop productive, resistance, so tomato production • Improved understanding of involved particularly high financial farmer-preferred, disease-resistant disease epidemiology, which tomato varieties. risks in the ToLCV-epidemic season, has already led to the design often resulting in complete crop of rational and environmentally Three tomato varieties, Sankranthi, failure and loss of capital invested in friendly management techniques. Nandi and Vybhav, have been the crop. The new varieties have the • Increased understanding and released and assigned national following benefits. improved awareness of whitefl ies identity numbers (IC 296388, • Greater than 100% increase in and ToLCV among stakeholders IC 296389, IC 296390). Official yields compared with susceptible and the general public. notification of variety names was varieties in the presence of ToCLV • Facilitation of ToLCV-resistant published in the Gazette of India, disease, and on-farm trial benefi t- hybrid development by the private signifying that they can be used to-cost ratios as high as 6.6 to 1. sector. throughout India.

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The UASB Technology Transfer cowpea, okra and tobacco, as closely and compared with another Committee carried out negotiations well as the weeds Croton sp., group in the same area, growing with 10 vegetable seed companies, Parthenium sp. and Malvastrum sp. the traditional ToLCV-susceptible all of which have purchased Papaya leaf curl virus and pepper varieties. A comparison of the breeder-quality seed from UASB. leaf curl Bangladesh virus were benefits/costs showed that those The varieties were grown by the also detected in tomato for the growing the project’s tomatoes companies in several additional first time. At least two completely made up to 10 times more profit states, including Himachal Pradesh new ToLCV species were identified. than those growing ToLCV- (northern India) and Nagpur Colonies of three B. tabaci susceptible open-pollinated varieties. (central India), as part of their populations from eggplant, Links were also maintained with rigorous multi-locational trial collected from Rannibenur, the private seed companies that procedure. Nine of the companies Coimbatore and Belgaum, and purchased the project’s ToLCV- stated that the tomatoes did not a population from the weed resistant lines, in order to collect show any ToLCVD symptoms. Euphorbia geniculata, collected impact data. Companies such as From molecular analysis of from Bangalore, were established. Namdhari, Cee Kay and Ankur samples of ToLCV-infected tomato The CO1 gene sequences of the Seeds are making rapid progress plants, weeds and Bemisia tabaci Rannibenur, Coimbatore and towards producing ToLCV-resistant populations, the non-indigenous Bangalore populations were hybrid varieties with a project B biotype of B. tabaci was identified obtained and fitted into previously variety as one of the parents. in Kolar and Nagamangala in identified population clusters. The Karnataka, and several locations reciprocal crosses were carried out. A policy briefing paper, ‘Countering the whitefly and plant-virus disease in Gujarat. This supports previous Regions were identified in threat to sustainable livelihoods predictions that its distribution Karnataka and Andhra Pradesh in India’, will be handed out to within India would expand. where open-pollinated tomato the appropriate participants at Analysis of the coat protein DNA varieties are widely grown. More the project workshop, which is sequence data for the viruses than 90 farmers were visited and to be held during the extension found in plants with leaf curl socio-economic data collected from period in 2005. Project staff symptoms showed that there are them. As an additional activity, provided information on best five different ToLCV groups in a small group of 20 farmers was cultivation practices and prepared India. ToLCVs were detected in given the ToLCV-resistant tomato a single-sheet pamphlet, written alternative hosts including chilli, seed. These seeds were monitored in Kannada, the local language

Open-pollinated tomato fruits at market at Kappalamadugu, Mulbagil taluk, Kolar District, Karnataka

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Krishimela, an annual agricultural fair attended by 25,000–30,000 farmers from southern districts of Karnataka, is organised by the UASB to exhibit technologies developed by the university to farmers: here men and women farmers view a check-plot of ToLCV-susceptible tomato showing severe disease symptoms

of Karnataka. This described varieties, a revolving fund has in the marketplace and stimulate the resistant tomato varieties’ been set up by the National Seed farmer demand for quality seed characteristics, their high yield Project of UASB. Fifty thousand – good for the seed industry as potential, low production costs, seed pouches have been produced a whole, and for producers and and the significant advantage for the sale of ToLCV-resistant consumers as it should result in that they can be grown without tomato varieties, and the UASB lower seed and product prices. insecticides, which are normally has conducted two field days Sixty per cent of the area under sprayed intensively on susceptible and two training programmes at tomato production in India involves tomato varieties to protect them Mandya and Nagamangala taluks. open-pollinated varieties grown by from B. tabaci and ToLCVD. Due to these promotional efforts, the poorest farmers – responding Press articles and radio and TV the total quantity of seeds sold so to this demand has provided more programmes have been released on far is around 6 kg, and demand is scope for wider and facilitated the project’s outputs, and a project increasing. dissemination to more farmers. website (www.tomatoleafcurland In order to maximise impact, whiteﬂ y.org) has been established FURTHER APPLICATION a nine-month extension phase by UASB to disseminate the results, The project has the potential (R8425) took place in 2005 with achievements and lessons learned. to generate enormous impact activities aimed at promoting the The involvement of the private throughout India, as well as in uptake and sustainable adoption sector in producing ToLCV-resistant Africa, the Caribbean and Asia. of the technologies and ToLCV- hybrids is likely to create enormous Links made with 10 private seed management practices with poorer impact among better-off tomato companies in India to develop growers. If successful, this will growers, which will in turn benefit ToLCV-resistant hybrids should have ensure that tomatoes can be grown poorer urban consumers who a significant impact in two to three successfully, even in the peak of need cheap sources of nutritious years’ time, even if only 30–50% the ToLCV-epidemic season, with vegetables. To ensure that the of these companies succeed. greatly reduced insecticide use and poorest growers will be able to Working with 10 companies rather associated benefits for farmers, access resistant open-pollinated than one will create competition consumers and the environment.

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Aflatoxin contamination of groundnut in southern India

R8298 Groundnut is a key commodity in the livelihoods of the rural poor in semi- Farid Waliyar arid Andhra Pradesh, as source of food for humans and livestock, and International Crops Research as a source of income. Aflatoxin contamination in groundnut, resulting Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics from fungal infection, has deleterious effects on both human and animal (ICRISAT), India health – households relying on groundnut as a major source of protein face University of Reading, UK potentially severe health risks. Fourteen high-yielding, aflatoxin-resistant groundnut cultivars were evaluated in farmer participatory varietal selection Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural trials. Varietal performance and farmer preferences varied with district. Uniniversity, India Cultivars selected by farmers for further on-farm testing produced higher Society for Transforming Agriculture pod and haulm yields than local controls. Two varieties, ICGV 93328 and and Alternatives in Development, ICGVs 94434, produced 20–40% higher pod yield in 12 of 15 farmers’ India fields; three varieties (ICGVs 91284, 93328, 94434) had notably low aflatoxin SAHAJEEVAN - Action for contamination. Seed from large, mature pods in most cultivars had negligible Development, India levels of aflatoxin, whereas high levels were found in insect-damaged pods. Rural Development Trust, India Mechanical threshers were introduced for early pod stripping to avoid stacking the groundnut harvest, which enhances aflatoxin contamination. Integrated Rural Development Threshers were modified to sort pods based on quality. In addition, a low- Trust, India cost method for reducing aflatoxin contamination in groundnut, based on April 2003–March 2005 the application of compost, Trichoderma, gypsum, cereal residue and their combination, was tested on-station with largely positive results. ISSUES Aflatoxins are highly toxic and carcinogenic chemical substances, produced by the fungi Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus on a variety of agricultural commodities including groundnut. The economic implications of aflatoxin, and its potential health threat to humans as well as livestock, have created a clear need to eliminate or reduce aflatoxin contamination in human Conidial heads of Aspergillus flavus food and animal feed. biological control and integrated Infection of groundnut by A. flavus management. occurs under both pre- and post- harvest and storage conditions. Aflatoxin contamination is SELECTED PUBLICATIONS The growth of A. flavus and widespread throughout the AJITKUMAR, A., NAIK, M.K., consequent aflatoxin production groundnut-based food and feed WALIYAR, F. and REDDY, S.V. (2004) depends on a number factors, chains. Awareness of aflatoxins Use of indirect competitive ELISA including temperature, humidity and the associated economic and technique for detection of aﬂ atoxins and kernel moisture content. Crops health risks, and of technologies B1 contamination in chilli. pp. 8–14. growing in semi-arid climates, to reduce the risk of aflatoxin In: Biotechnological Approaches for where there is the likelihood of contamination, was found to the Integrated Management of Crop drought, are particularly at risk be lacking among farmers, Diseases. Mayee, C.D. et al. (eds). Daya Publishing House, New Delhi. of pre-harvest contamination. traders and other stakeholders. High seed moisture content This project was undertaken to WALIYAR, F., REDDY, S.V., during storage also increases the evaluate and implement low-cost SUBRAMANYAM, K. et al. (2003). risk of contamination. Several aflatoxin-reducing technologies at Importance of mycotoxins in food production and processing levels, and feed in India. Aspects of Applied management options are available Biology 68:147–154. to reduce aflatoxin contamination and to promote awareness about in groundnut, including cultural aflatoxins among the farming website: www.aﬂ atoxin.info practices, genetic resistance, community, NGOs in agriculture,

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policy-makers and consumers. • aﬂ atoxin content in improved the process and about the potential This project built on previous work and local groundnut haulms outputs. (R7809 on reducing groundnut was far below the Indian A low-cost method for reducing aflatoxin levels and R7346 on Plant threshold level for fodder, and aflatoxin contamination in diseases and crop residues in the only groundnut cake was about groundnut was developed. This Deccan Plateau). threefold above the Indian is based on soil amendment threshold level with compost, Trichoderma, ACHIEVEMENTS • close to 50% of the milk gypsum, cereal residues and their samples collected during feeding Fourteen high-yielding aflatoxin- combination, using two cultivars. trials had non-permissible levels resistant groundnut cultivars were The highest reduction in aflatoxin of aﬂ atoxins. evaluated in farmer participatory contamination (91%) was observed varietal section trials in Ananthapur Flyers depicting the risks due to with gypsum + Trichoderma and Chittoor districts of Andhra aflatoxins and various technologies application in variety JL 24. Pradesh. Fourteen lines were to minimise them were produced Application with cereal residue or tested, and these produced in English, Telugu, Hindi and gypsum showed 12–40% reduction 12–45% higher pod and haulm French, and disseminated to various in aflatoxin level in JL 24. In variety yields than local controls. However, stakeholders. J 11, gypsum + Trichoderma + as performance of these varieties compost application showed a Mechanical threshers were varied in Chittoor and Anantapur 99% reduction in aflatoxin, and introduced for early pod stripping districts, there was a need to five other treatment combinations and to avoid stacking the implement farmer selection of also showed varying levels of groundnut harvest. This intervention lines. Based on their performance, reduction. has provided a new perspective on farmers selected for cultivation the use of mechanical threshers Participatory processes with new seven cultivars in Chittoor (ICGVs cultivars have created awareness 91279, 91284, 91324, 92302, as an aflatoxin-management and a demand for improved 93305, 93328, 94434) and six tool. Threshers were successfully cultivars and seeds among farmers cultivars in Anantapur (ICGVs modified to sort pods based on and NGOs representing them. Seed 91278, 91315, 91328, 93305, quality. Efforts were initiated to systems need to be stabilised to 93379, 94434). obtain government subsidies for the purchase of mechanical threshers. ensure a supply of good-quality In the 2004 rainy season, the seed at an affordable price. Links performance of these varieties A panel was formed, including have been established, for example was better in Chittoor than in representatives of farmers, with exporting organisations. Anantapur. Two varieties (ICGVs scientists, NGOs in agriculture and Awareness has been raised among 93328 and ICGV 94434) produced consumer markets, health officials state policy-makers, agriculture 20–40% higher pod yield in 12 and government policy-makers. and extension departments, NGOs, of 15 farmer fields in the Piler This panel outlined an action plan veterinary organisations, the area of Chittoor District. Aflatoxin to address the aflatoxin problem medical profession and processors, contamination was low in all at various levels, mainly to evolve a and the new panel provides a cultivars tested at all locations ‘sensitive communication strategy mechanism to maintain and build during the 2003 rainy season. In for increasing awareness about on these links. 2004, three varieties (ICGVs 91284, mycotoxins’. Andhra Pradesh 93328 and 94434) showed low State Department of Agriculture FURTHER APPLICATION aflatoxin contamination. agreed to consider subsidies for purchasing threshers and sprinklers The participatory varietal section Seed from sound, mature pods in in the villages that took part in programme provides an excellent most of the cultivars had negligible participatory varietal section. means to interact with all levels of aflatoxin, whereas high Medical professionals offered to stakeholders in the groundnut- levels were found in insect- work out plans to inform medical based system. New cultivars are of damaged pods. staff and nutritionists about health- great interest to farmers and help to enthuse farmers (and NGOs) Milk production and milk aflatoxin related risks due to aflatoxins. about the whole process. As 2003 content in dairy animals fed a Participatory processes, both was the first year of this activity, diet based either on improved pre- and post-harvest, have been seed multiplication will take time, groundnut cultivars ICGV 91114 successfully piloted with NGOs and especially in drought-prone areas. or on local cultivar TMV2 were farmers. Pre-harvest processes can Improved packages for application investigated in three villages in be scaled up successfully as long of various soil amendments will be Anantapur: as seed is available and this does evaluated on-farm with farmers • milk production on ICGV 91114 not demand too much quantitative and state extension networks for was about 400 ml/day/animal) evaluation. NGOs, self-help groups adoption. higher than on TMV2 and farmers are enthusiastic about

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Effects of plant diseases on crop residues used for peri-urban dairy production on the Deccan Plateau

R8339 Increased milk production in India will require improved yields of higher-quality Suresh Pande, P. Parthasarathy Rao, crop residues for animal fodder. In Andhra Pradesh State, on the Deccan Farid Waliyar Plateau, groundnut crop residues are the main source of dry fodder for dairy International Crops Research animals. However, the nutritive value of crop residues is often low, and both Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics sorghum and groundnut are susceptible to a number of diseases that reduce (ICRISAT), India production and quality. Additionally, the development of mycotoxins by fungi on the residues is a serious threat to animal health and, through milk, to M. Blummel human health. In an attempt to tackle these constraints, disease-resistant, International Livestock Research dual-purpose cultivars have been distributed to farmers, and village-level seed Institute (ILRI) South Asia Project, multiplication/distribution systems following integrated management of foliar India diseases have been successfully developed. Farmers identified groundnut Lakshmi Reddy cultivar ICGV 91114 as outstanding for both grain and haulm production District Agricultural Advisory and and quality. Farm surveys confirmed the higher yields of the new cultivar, and Transfer of Technology Centre, laboratory analyses and on-farm feeding trials showed improved nutritive Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural value and milk production. The use of ICGV 91114 as part of an integrated University, India disease management strategy will lead to improved food security and increased incomes. To achieve this, farmers must have assured access to good-quality seed. October 2003–March 2005 Unlike sorghum, for which the private seed industry can serve as a multiplier of improved cultivars, community-based seed-production systems for groundnut, will need to be established through farmer self-help groups and NGOs in order to achieve widespread seed dissemination.

ISSUES page 143). A previous project (R7346) demonstrated that the India has the largest population integrated use of resistant genotypes of ruminants in South Asia, and and fungicides improved stover/ livestock production is an integral haulm yields and nutritive value in part of mixed farming systems. One both crops by more than 70%. This of the most important technical project aimed to disseminate a pro- SELECTED PUBLICATIONS constraints to animal production poor integrated disease management is the inadequate supply of high- AGRICULTURAL CORRESPONDENT strategy, based on superior, resistant, (2005) Farmers are interested to quality feed resources throughout dual-purpose groundnut cultivars, to cultivate improved groundnut varities. the year. As the area of common farmers in the major production area Vartha, 5 January (in Telugu). property resources for grazing of Anantapur District. continues to decline with increased PANDE, S., BANDYOPADHYAY, R., cultivation and encroachment, BLUMMEL, M. et al. (2003) Disease ACHIEVEMENTS management factors inﬂ uencing dependence on crop residues will yield and quality of sorghum and increase in importance. Some 214 farmers from 12 villages in Anantapur participated in rainy- groundnut crop residues. Field Crops On the Deccan Plateau in Andhra Research, 84: 89–103. season and post-rainy-season Pradesh, dual-purpose groundnuts multiplication and distribution of PANDE, S., NARAYANA RAO, J. are the major source of both pod seed of disease-resistant, dual- and LAKSHMI REDDY, P. (2004) and crop residues for ruminants. purpose groundnut cultivars, Groundnut diseases and their Yields are reduced by fungal management in Andhra Pradesh, following integrated management of diseases (late leaf spot and rust in India. ICRISAT, Patancheru, India (in foliar diseases. Farmer participatory groundnut; anthracnose and maize English and Telugu). seed multiplication and distribution stripe virus in sorghum, which is also were undertaken with self-help PANDE, S., UPADHYAYA, H.D., used as fodder). A further concern groups, including women’s groups. NARAYANA RAO, J., LAKSHMI is the production of mycotoxins REDDY, P. and PARATHASARTHY on crop residues by saprophytic Farmers have contributed to village RAO, P. (2005) Promotion of integrated disease management for fungi (Aspergillus, Fusarium and seed banks by returning twice the ICGV 91114, a dual purpose, early Penicillium spp.), which present quantity given to them for planting. maturing groundnut variety for a serious threat to the health of Farmers identified the new disease- rainfed areas. Information Bulletin animals and, through contaminated resistant, dual-purpose ICGV 91114 No. 68. ICRISAT, Patancheru, India. milk, to human health (see R8298, as the outstanding cultivar for both

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the development of near-infrared spectroscopy equations to provide a rapid, non-destructive analytical tool for estimating crop residue feeding value. In 2003 the groundnut crop on farms was badly affected by drought. In 2004 rainfall was good, and data were available from farmers’ crops for economic analysis. Seed is the most expensive input, accounting for 36– 42% of total costs. Currently farmers receive about Rs24–28 per kg for seed of ICGV 91114, compared with Rs18–22 per kg for seed of traditional varieties (Rs80 ≈ £1). Per unit production, costs were lower High haulm and pod yields of disease-resistant, dual-purpose groundnut for ICGV 91114 under both irrigated grain and haulm production and haulm of ICGV 91114, when fed to and rainfed conditions. Net returns quality. The area under the new animals, as superior to that of local to farmers were 25–29% higher as cultivars is now some 3000 hectares. varieties. Laboratory analyses of a result of growing the improved on-farm groundnut haulms confirm In June 2004, 150 farmers from cultivar. Milk yields per animal on that the nutritive value of improved five villages attended an orientation farm were 4.36 kg/day when fed cultivars is high. The ranges for crude programme in the local language improved cultivars and 3.92 kg/day protein content, in vitro digestibility (Telugu) on the importance of with local varieties, an advantage of and metabolisable energy level are farmer-participatory disease 0.44 kg per animal per day. Some 13.9–15.8, 63.2–65.3 and 8.8–9.2 management of dual-purpose 70–80% of milk is sold through MJ/kg, respectively. groundnuts. Discussions took both formal and informal channels, place on foliar diseases, soilborne Farmers perceived that foliar diseases and income from sales ranges from diseases, mycotoxin contamination reduce pod yields of traditional 15–25% of household income. and their management. In January varieties by 10–20% and haulm Demand for seed of ICGV 91114 2005, 140 farmers and staff from production by 20–30%. Farmers has exceeded supply. To meet national agricultural research observed disease incidence annually, requirements, several farmers with systems, NGOs, ICRISAT and ILRI but pest incidence was observed irrigation facilities have begun attended a stakeholder workshop on once in two years. The aflatoxin seed multiplication under guidance integrated crop/disease management content of 72 groundnut haulm from NGOs and project scientists. in groundnut. The two meetings samples from six varieties (ICGS Concurrently, seed traders have attracted considerable interest from 44, ICGS 11, DRG 12, ICGV begun multiplying seed of the the local media, and a number of 86325, ICGV 92020 and ICGV new cultivar on farmers’ fields on newspaper reports were published 92093), from the CPP project on a buy-back basis, in anticipation in Telugu. aflatoxins in groundnut (R7809), of high demand. The area under were analysed by enzyme-linked Surveys of farmers in the project improved cultivars is now about immunosorbent assay (ELISA). villages indicated that groundnut 3000 hectares. Results indicated that contamination accounts for 61–77% of the in these samples was in the range cropped area. Groundnut haulms FURTHER APPLICATION 0–33 µg/kg, and about 25% provide >50% of dry fodder, and As a result of an extension to the of samples had higher than the >25% of haulm fed to animals is project (R8450), it is anticipated permissible level. Among the six traded within the village. Farmers that some 18,570 hectares will be cultivars, all 15 haulm samples from also purchase substantial amounts under new cultivars by 2006. At ICGV 86325 were contaminated of rice straw from 100–150 km current rates of adoption, some in the range 12–33 µg/kg. In the away, and small quantities of 80,000 hectares of groundnut other cultivars, the level of aflatoxin sorghum straw from nearby villages. (10% of the total area) will be contamination was very low. Compared with traditional varieties, planted to improved cultivars in ICGV 91114 is more resistant to Laboratory measurements of Andhra Pradesh by 2010. This diseases and drought. Mean pod nutritive value were related to animal would be still higher with further yields for ICGV 91114 are 15% performance data using simple extension of the groundnut- higher than those of local varieties, and multiple regression analyses. growing area into the neighbouring and mean haulm yields 17% higher. Laboratory techniques that predict states of Karnataka and Tamil Farmers rated the palatability of the animal performance were used for Nadu.

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Characterisation of pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus to attain sustainable production in India

R7452 The Indian subcontinent is the world’s most important pigeonpea-growing A. Teifion Jones region, with 82% of global cultivation in India. Pigeonpea is used in Scottish Crop Research Institute, UK multipurpose ways and plays an important role, providing food security, balanced diet and source of income for millions of poor farmers living D.V.R. Reddy, P. Lava Kumar in marginal farming systems. Pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus disease, International Crops Research endemic on the subcontinent, can cause >90% yield reduction and is a Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, major constraint on the crop yield and economic wellbeing of poor farmers. India Cultivation of broad-based, durable, resistant cultivars is essential to mitigate V. Muniyappa, K.T. Rangaswamy losses to benefit these smallholders. This work has made a breakthrough University of Agricultural Sciences, in characterising pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus (PPSMV) and developing Bangalore, Gandhi Krishi Vignyan versatile and sensitive diagnostic tools for its detection, in order to supply Kendra, India broad-based disease-resistant genotypes to breeding programmes and to P. Sreenivasulu farmers for cultivation. Sri Venkateswara University, India losses estimated in 1993 have been September 1999–August 2002 ISSUES valued at US$282 million in India Pigeonpea seed is the major dietary and Nepal alone. The disease (first protein source for an estimated described in 1931) affects flower 1.1 billion people on the Indian production, rendering the plant subcontinent. This multipurpose sterile. crop plays an important role in food security and providing a balanced Although cultivation of broad- diet, and is important in allowing based PPSMVD-resistant varieties poor farmers and consumers had been identified as the most access to both employment and feasible and eco-friendly way to SELECTED PUBLICATIONS food. Pigeonpea sterility mosaic manage the disease, information virus disease (PPSMVD), the ‘green was needed on its causal agent and KULKARNI, N.K., KUMAR, P.L., plague of pigeonpea’, is endemic aetiology. MUNIYAPPA, V., JONES, A.T. and on the subcontinent and is a major REDDY, D.V.R. (2002) Transmission biotic constraint to pigeonpea ACHIEVEMENTS of Pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus by the eriophyid mite, Aceria cajani production and the economic This project has unravelled the (Acari: Arthropoda). Plant Disease 86: wellbeing of poor farmers. Annual identity of the causal agent 1297–1302. of PPSMVD, a seven-decade- KUMAR, P.L., JONES, A.T., old mystery. The isolation and SREENIVASULU, P. and REDDY, characterisation of PPSMV revealed D.V.R. (2000) Breakthrough in the that it is a novel virus with an identiﬁ cation of the causal virus of unusual combination of properties. pigeonpea sterility mosaic disease. This information is a significant Journal of Mycology and Plant scientific contribution to the field Pathology 30: 249. of virology, and is valuable in the KUMAR, P.L., JONES, A.T. and understanding of several eriophyid REDDY, D.V.R. (2002) Mechanical mite-transmitted diseases of transmission of Pigeonpea sterility undefined aetiology. mosaic virus. Journal of Mycology and Plant Pathology 32: 88–89. Most importantly, the project has KUMAR, P.L., JONES, A.T. and contributed to the development REDDY, D.V.R. (2002) A novel mite- of technologies for disease transmitted virus with a divided RNA monitoring, and of broad-based genome closely associated with resistance sources for eco-friendly pigeonpea sterility mosaic disease. management of this very serious Phytopathology 93: 71–81. disease on the subcontinent. NICHOLSON, M. (2000) Scots in Pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus is Characterisation of PPSMV has disease breakthrough. Financial transmitted by the eriophyid mite enabled the development of Times, 10 May 2000. Aceria cajani (bar = 10 µm) diagnostic tools for detection of

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genotypes with broad-based resistance to PPSMVD, wilt and pod borer problems. Sufficient quantities of diagnostic tools (antibodies and oligonucleotide primers) and seed material of promising genotypes and differential cultivars were distributed to the national agricultural research systems (NARS) involved in research on PPSMVD. Seed of promising genotypes, especially ICP 7035, is being multiplied for distribution to plant breeders in NARS and to poor farmers in areas where the disease is endemic. Participatory plant selection processes with NARS were used to evaluate several cultivated and wild pigeonpea accessions for resistance to PPSMVD under various agro-ecological conditions. This process identified several genotypes in cultivated and wild pigeonpea that have resistance to more than one PPSMV biotype. Seeds of the most promising genotypes were tested on-farm in farmer participatory trials. Pathways were established for dissemination of the technology Farmer holding sterility mosaic disease-affected plants in front of resistant and products to NARS, NGOs and ICP 7035 fields farmers through participatory research, training courses and the virus and identification of its Diagnostic tools and the farmer participatory trials. These biotypes. This knowledge was used development of a more efficient activities led to the identification of to establish an efficient disease- virus inoculation method have high-yielding pigeonpea cultivars screening strategy for precise made it possible to evaluate with broad-based resistance to selection of broad-based resistance precisely the form of PPSMVD PPSMVD, and the supply of seed sources. in germplasm. Several cultivated to needy farmers. pigeonpea genotypes tested Serological and nucleic acid-based possess resistance to a mild strain FURTHER APPLICATION assays for the unambiguous of PPSMV, and fewer genotypes diagnosis of PPSMVD were showed resistance to both mild The new knowledge gained on developed. Double-antibody and severe strains. One such PPSMV has led to the development sandwich enzyme-linked genotype, ICP 7035, with broad- of diagnostic tools necessary for immunosorbent assay (DAS-ELISA) based resistance to PPSMVD and its detection, and has laid the using the penicillinase (PNC) with good economic traits, was foundation for further research detection system is sensitive, selected for release to farmers for to differentiate biotypes. In cost-effective and most suitable adoption. Broad-based resistance collaboration with national for application in developing in several wild Cajanus accessions, programmes and extension countries. A biological assay using some of which also possess services, work is being carried out differential pigeonpea types was resistance to fusarium wilt and on the effective utilisation of these standardised for the identification pod borer, was identified. These recently developed technologies of PPSMV strains. This information accessions are now being utilised and the dissemination of promising is essential for the identification of in breeding programmes to seed material for cultivation by broad-based resistance. develop high-yielding pigeonpea farmers (see R8205, page 149).

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Pigeonpea sterility mosaic: application of diagnostic tools for sustainable pigeonpea production in India

R8205 This project followed on from project R7452, which characterised the causal A. Teifion Jones agent of pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus disease (PPSMVD) and its biotypes, Scottish Crop Research Institute, UK and developed the diagnostic tools needed to select durable, broad-based Farid Waliyar, P. Lava Kumar disease-resistant genotypes suitable for cultivation in diverse agro-ecological International Crops Research regions. Pigeonpea varieties with durable resistance to PPSMVD, combined Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, with integrated management of fusarium wilt and pod borer, will stabilise India pigeonpea production and enhance yield potential at no extra cost to farmers. This benefits resource-poor farmers living in marginal areas on V. Muniyappa, K.T. Rangaswamy the Indian subcontinent, where pigeonpea is a major subsistence crop and University of Agriculture Sciences women play an important role in post-harvest processing and marketing. Bangalore, India P. Dharmaraj Agricultural Research Station, ISSUES ‘highly virulent’, and appeared to Gulbarga, India prevail in southern and northern Following the novel research of parts of India, whereas isolates M.S. Chari project R7452 (page 147), which similar to P, D and G were mostly Center for Sustainable Agriculture, characterised the pigeonpea confined to Central India. India sterility mosaic virus (PPSMV) and V.S.B. Reddy its biotypes, this project aimed to A cDNA library of the PPSMV Research Environment Education continue to improve the diagnostic genome was constructed. Several Development Society, India tools and to enhance pigeonpea clones were sequenced, amounting production through cultivation of to about 30% of the total PPSMV September 2002–December 2004 elite PPSMVD-resistant varieties. genome. The sequences found no These tools and knowledge are matches during database searches, necessary to select durable, broad- which limited comparisons for the based PPSMVD-resistant genotypes inference of functional aspects suitable for cultivation in diverse of the genome. The sequence agro-geographical regions. information was used to design a new set of oligonucleotide primers SELECTED PUBLICATIONS ACHIEVEMENTS for differentiation of PPSMV-P and C isolates. Enzyme-linked ICRISAT (2003) Combating pigeonpea immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and sterility mosaic: an ICRISAT success Three Indian isolates of the virus, reverse transcription–polymerase story. ICRISAT, Patancheru, India from Patancheru (P), Coimbatore (leaﬂ et). (C) and Bangalore (B), were chain reaction (RT–PCR)-based purified and their major properties diagnostic tools have already been JONES, A.T., KUMAR, P.L., SAXENA, developed, which can be used to K.B., KULKARNI, N.K., MUNIYAPPA, determined. For PPSMV isolates detect all PPSMV isolates. V. and WALIYAR, F. (2004) Sterility from Varanasi (V), Uttar Pradesh; mosaic disease – the ‘green Nepalgunj (N), Nepal; Dharwad The epidemiology of PPSMVD plague’ of pigeonpea: advances (D) and Gulbarga (G), Karnataka, was studied in peninsular India, in understanding the etiology, severity was determined using and critical factors contributing transmission and control of a major differential host genotypes. The B, to inoculum survival during off- virus disease. Plant Disease 88: C, V and N 436–445. seasons were isolates can identified. KUMAR, P.L. JONES, A.T. and overcome Detailed REDDY, D.V.R. (2002) Pigeonpea resistance studies on Sterility Mosaic Virus: Detection and selected three PPSMV Screening for Resistance. ICRISAT, against P, Patancheru, India (methods manual). isolates D and G indicated KUMAR, P.L., LATHA, T.K., KULKARNI, isolates. The complexity in N.K. et al. (2005) Broad-based resistance- distribution resistance to pigeonpea sterility breaking of the various mosaic disease in wild relatives of isolates pigeonpea (Cajanus: Phaseoleae). isolates. Annals of Applied Biology 146: were Village-level training: farmers listening to Despite a 371–379. termed lecture on management of PPSMVD continuum

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Participants in training course on virus detection methods and screening for disease resistance

in pigeonpea cultivation, PPSMV for release to farmers. Seed of isolates are prevalent, and tested isolates appear to be geographically the promising pigeonpea varieties on-station in several other states in restricted. This was based on the was multiplied and supplied India, Nepal and China. ICP 7035 assessment of isolate virulence to farmers and the national can be grown as a vegetable and using differential genotypes in agricultural research and extension also for seed. It is being adopted prevailing regions over several years. systems, for adoption and further in peri-urban regions in southern use in local crop improvement Karnataka. An efficient screening strategy programmes. was established for the precise Certain physical and physiological selection of broad-based sources Variety ICPL 96058 is being effects of PPSMV on pigeonpea of resistance. This method resulted cultivated by farmers in central were determined to assess the in the selection of six pigeonpea peninsular India. This variety has impact of disease on plant growth varieties (ICP 7035, ICPLs 87051, been incorporated into the national and yield. This showed that 99050, 96053, 96058 and 96061); Initial Varietal Trial Programme modification of axillary buds into six breeding lines (ICPLs 83015, through Gulbarga Agriculture leaf structures at maturity was 93087, 93183, 93184, 95020 and Research Station. Variety ICP 7035 the reason for sterility (lack of 95024); and 15 wild pigeonpea had been evaluated for five years flower production). In a susceptible accessions for on-farm evaluation in farmers’ fields in southern genotype the virus invades all and use in breeding programmes. Karnataka, and shows durable, parts of the plant, but not the ICP 7035 has been provisionally broad-based resistance to PPSMVD. cotyledons. Seeds from infected approved for release in Karnataka. It was evaluated in the disease- plants were free of the virus, but ICPLs 96058 and 96053 are being endemic zones of Karnataka and were poor in quality with up to evaluated on-station and on-farm Tamil Nadu, where highly virulent 50% reduction in dry weight, and

Pigeonpea germplasm - Landraces Characterisation - Breeding lines of PPSMV - Wild relatives Improved PPSMVD Dissemination resistance Cultivar evaluation - Publications sreening method - Training courses Diagnostic tools for - Diagnostic tools PPSMV detection Identiﬁ cation of - Seed multiplication genotype with broad- - Seed distribution based PPSMVD - On-farm trials Adoption by NARS resistance and farmers through participatory research

Project purpose: PROJECT Characterisation of PPSMVD causal agent and identiﬁ cation of elite GOAL pigeonpea genotypes with broad-based resistance to PPSMVD

Outputs contributing to project goal

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poor germination rate and vigour. in achieving the targets. The thickness of the epidermal Farmers received training cell wall and cuticle in susceptible in integrated disease and varieties was lower than in resistant pest management to control varieties. This, in combination PPSMVD, fusarium wilt and with scanty leaf hairs on the lower pod borer, and in post- epidermis of resistant genotypes, harvest seed processing to may contribute to poor vector prevent contamination with survival on such genotypes, and storage pests. consequently to resistance to Sufficient quantities of PPSMVD. The inability of certain diagnostic tools (polyclonal PPSMV isolates (e.g. P, D and G) antibodies, PPSMV-IgG- to spread into conductive tissue penicillinase conjugate and The effects of PPSMVD on pigeonpea appears to be the reason for oligonucleotide primers) seeds and germination: healthy plant (left), localised symptoms in tolerant and seed material of severely affected (centre) and mildly genotypes (e.g. ICP 2376) that promising genotypes (ICP affected (right) show chlorotic ringspot symptoms 7035, ICPLs 87051, 96058, at the site of mite feeding (virus 96053, 96061) and differential • the narrow base of genetic inoculation). However, highly cultivars were distributed to resistance to highly virulent virulent PPSMV isolates (e.g. B and those involved in research on isolates of PPSMV (e.g. C and B C) can break this tolerance and PPSMVD. Seed of promising isolates) spread systemically. This feature genotypes, especially ICP 7035, of ICP 2376–isolate interaction is • development of PPSMVD ICPL 96058 and breeding lines, is being exploited to characterise the resistance in short- to medium- being multiplied for distribution virulence of various PPSMV isolates. maturing (100–160 days) to farmers and breeders. A genotypes to escape terminal The technologies developed laboratory manual incorporating drought stress (a constraint were transferred to beneficiaries detailed descriptions of various affecting long- and medium- through partnerships with targeted experimental procedures and duration crops in peninsular national institutes, organisation of techniques was published. India) training courses and working group meetings, and farmer participatory FURTHER APPLICATION • upscaling of on-farm activities trials for genotype evaluation. with more participatory ﬁ eld Partnerships with stakeholders There is potential for further trials for wider dissemination allowed methodologies to be tested expansion to tackle several key of promising disease-resistant and their feedback was instrumental issues: varieties.

The project goal – sustainable livelihoods

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Promoting the adoption of improved ICM technologies in chickpea by poor farmers in Nepal

R7885 Chickpea is an important source of protein in Nepal for both poor rural and Philip Stevenson, David Grzywacz urban families. Yields of legumes including chickpea have decreased in recent Natural Resources Institute (NRI), years, primarily due to disease and insect pest problems, and the reluctance University of Greenwich, UK of farmers to invest time and money in a crop which increasingly fails. This Suresh Pande, Narayana Rao project aimed to improve, validate and evaluate a complete integrated crop International Crops Research management (ICM) strategy for chickpea on farms; to persuade farmers Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics to adopt the strategy through workshops and farm trials in some of the (ICRISAT), India poorest areas of Nepal; and to promote the strategy widely to the press and other stakeholders. The improved seed and technologies offered were Ram Krishna Neupane in high demand by farmers, and the project produced evidence to show National Grain Legume Research that the outputs (increased yield of a cash crop) have been translated Programme, Nepal Agricultural into significant impacts on livelihood, including improved housing, debt Research Council (NARC) repayment, education costs, clothes and healthcare. The value of the Ram N. Chaudhary improved seed has been impressive and will benefit farmers in the longer Oilseeds Research Programme, term. An innovative promotional strategy promoted the findings to policy- NARC makers as well as farmers, and used the popular media in Nepal and the Vinay A. Bourai UK to publicise the work. Department of Economics, SGRR (PG) College, India ISSUES April 2000–July 2003 Chickpea is a major source of protein throughout South SELECTED PUBLICATIONS Asia; it is versatile and is important for making a BOURAI, V.A., PANDE, S., NEUPANE, variety of products including R.K. and JOSHI, P.K. (2003) breads, sweets and biscuits. It Chickpea Production Constraints also plays a religious role for and Promotion of Integrated Pest Hindus. In Nepal, chickpea Management in Nepal. On-farm IPM production has declined of Chickpea in Nepal – 1. Information Bulletin no. 64. ICRISAT, Patancheru, severely due to several India. pest and disease problems Chickpea production boosted using increasing in severity. There technologies promoted by the project PANDE, S., JOHANSEN, C., are tens of thousands of STEVENSON, P.C. and GRZYWACZ, hectares of winter rice fallows D. (eds) (2001) On-farm IPM of Chickpea in Nepal: Proceedings of the where farmers could grow chickpea The Helicoverpa armigera pod borer International Workshop on Planning successfully, and the project aimed emerges as a major pest threat and Implementation of On-farm IPM to encourage use of this land by where BGM has not occurred, or of Chickpea in Nepal. ICRISAT/NRI, demonstrating the viability of the once BGM has been controlled, Patancheru, India/Chatham, UK. chickpea crop, and by evaluating because there are pods for the and promoting technologies that PANDE, S., STEVENSON, P., borers to eat. The larva burrows NARAYANA RAO, J. et al. (2005) could reduce crop losses. into the pod and consumes the Reviving chickpea production in Botrytis grey mould (BGM) is a pea, and population explosions of Nepal through integrated crop disease that kills chickpea flowers the pest may devastate the crop. management, with emphasis on and dramatically reduces yield. The insecticide thiodan Botrytis gray mold. Plant Disease, 89: (= endosulfan) is widely used to 1252–1262. Incidence of this disease has increased severely over the past 10 control pod borer, but the quality SHARMA, H.C., STEVENSON, P.C. years; in the 1997/98 season, high of the insecticide sold is often poor; and GOWDA, C.L.L. (2005) Heliothis/ rainfall and humidity throughout farmer health and safety is invariably Helicoverpa management: emerging the winter resulted in such high casual; and there are increasing trends and prospects for future reports of insecticide resistance in research. pp. 453–462. In: Heliothis/ incidence that little seed could be Nepalgunj and further west. A viable Helicoverpa Management: Emerging saved by farmers or government Trends and Strategies for Future agencies, and hardly any locally alternative to chemical insecticides Research. Sharma, H.C. (Ed.). Oxford/ derived chickpea seed was sown in is the biopesticide Helicoverpa IBH Publishers, New Delhi, India. 1998/99. armigera nucleo-polyhedrovirus

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BGM infects ﬂ owers, causing ﬂ ower drop and reduced yield (left). The pod borer H. armigera burrows into pods and eats the seeds, and can decimate chickpea crops (right)

(HearNPV). Thus an additional aim a week at ﬂ owering when the leaves. HearNPV was at least as of this project was to evaluate and morning mists do not clear effective as the insecticide thiodan validate NPV in the laboratory, on • control of pod borer with one or at controlling pod borer, and in research stations and in farmers’ two sprays of thiodan many cases was more effective. fields. Efficacy was affected by the variety • fungicidal treatment of seed of chickpea on which HearNPV Towards the end of the project, with thiram and carbendazim was used. Avarodhi, the preferred livelihood benefits from growing (Bavistin) variety for all other agronomic chickpea were estimated with • use of Rhizobium inoculum characters, was also the most farmers. • application of diammonium suitable for optimum NPV control phosphate fertiliser or farmyard of the pod borer. ACHIEVEMENTS manure Information, support and A survey was carried out of the • maintenance of an open canopy technologies were provided directly constraints to rabi (post-rainy- by avoiding irrigation and to assist about 3500 farmers over season) chickpea production and excessive fertiliser application. the course of three years, and many its impact on farmers’ livelihoods. New ICM promotion tools were thousands more benefited through The survey results helped determine produced and disseminated to farmer-to-farmer dissemination. the focus of the project, and hillside farmers in Nepal. These The results were also disseminated established baseline data against tools consisted of various devices via other projects in Nepal which which the improvements in for farmers attending field promoted the same technology chickpea production could be schools, mainly information sheets tools and varieties to farmers (e.g. assessed. describing the nature of constraints the DFID Plant Sciences Research to chickpea production and how to Based on these findings, an Programme project on rainfed rabi manage them. improved ICM strategy was cropping systems, R8098). developed and validated that was The project also included the Farmer socio-economic surveys appropriate for poor farmers in evaluation and validation of were used to determine the impact the mid-hills and hillside regions of HearNPV. Although laboratory on farmers’ livelihoods of adopting Nepal. The principal components studies indicated that chickpea this ICM strategy. Overall, chickpea are: reduced the efficacy of virus yields of participating farmers more application through an interaction than doubled, to 2100 kg/ha, when • adoption of an improved cultivar, between the virus and the chickpea they employed ICM with improved Avarodhi, which is resistant to leaf surface, simple formulation varieties. The net cost of production fusarium wilt ingredients based on milk powder decreased from NRs17.5 to NRs9.3 • use of seed priming improved the efficacy of HearNPV per kg. With a market price of • control of BGM with on chickpea up to threefold when approximately NRs30 per kg, this carbendazim (Bavistin) once it was sprayed as a mixture onto more than doubles profits from

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8000 5000 indirect 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 >2000 direct 2000 ADB RETA

Number of farmers 1000 BGM 5711 1100 503 0 epidemic 110

1997–98 1998–2000 2000–01 2001–02 2002–03 Ye a r

Adoption of IPM of chickpea in Nepal, from the 1998 Asian Development Bank (ADB) forerunner project (RETA 5711) to 2003

this crop. Farmers increased their farmers described improvements In this village chickpea is rapidly wealth by an average of US$216 in all aspects of domestic life, taking over where, in years before, per year by growing chickpea using although the extent of these tomato lay rotting in fields or on the technologies promoted by this impacts depended on the size of roadsides, fetching only NRs2 project. their holding. One dramatic change per kg. The impact on livelihoods was was in the number of farmers The value of the private sector substantial – the majority of moving from mud houses to brick to the ultimate sustainability houses (5–10%). of chickpea ICM has not been Many farmers ignored, and the project team has reported paying identified dealers in agricultural off debts (22%), inputs, and helped to develop with dramatic market links with chickpea farmers, increases in especially in Lalbandi and Bardibas. expenditure on At the end of 2003 an additional education for 7000 kg of seed (enough to sow children, clothes 233 hectares) was distributed, and healthcare. along with the management In one village, practices promoted, to farmers not Lalbandi previously contacted by the project. in central Nepal, 400 FURTHER APPLICATION farmers were provided with 1 A follow-up project (R8366, kg of seed each page 155) was established to in November raise awareness at senior levels 2002 – enough in the ministry of the potential to sow approx- of chickpea ICM through an imately 13 international workshop, that hectares in aimed to synthesise the results total. Owing to of this research and experience. the promotion The intention was to produce by this project a policy document targeting and farmers’ senior government policy-makers increased in Nepal and elsewhere in Asia confidence (particularly Bangladesh and India), to expand NGOs, private-sector stakeholders, production, national agricultural research the extent systems, extension organisations, of adoption and international donors and Farmers’ traditional practices produce poor yields (foreground) in 2003 had research institutes. Follow-up compared with dramatically improved productivity through increased to work was also carried out on the ICM (background) 110 hectares. production and use of HearNPV.

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Policy and strategy for improved chickpea ICM in Nepal and South Asia

R8366 A previous project (R7885) demonstrated that adopting high-yielding Philip Stevenson, David Grzywacz, chickpea varieties along with an integrated crop management (ICM) Barry Pound strategy increases the income and food security of poor farmers in Nepal. Natural Resources Institute (NRI), This project continued that work to enable the development of a robust University of Greenwich, UK and sustainable strategy for adoption of ICM of chickpea in all suitable Suresh Pande areas of Nepal. Awareness of the potential of chickpea ICM was raised International Crops Research through an international stakeholder workshop, and through production of Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics a policy document targeting senior government policy-makers in Nepal and (ICRISAT), India elsewhere in Asia (particularly Bangladesh and India), NGOs, private-sector stakeholders, national agricultural research systems, extension organisations, Ministry of Agriculture and and international donors and research institutes. Cooperatives (MoAC), Nepal Ram K. Neupane Outreach Division, Nepal ISSUES and water to prevent dense Agricultural Research Council canopies. Uptake of the chickpea A robust, cost-effective and (NARC) ICM strategy in the areas of efficient ICM strategy for increased Nepal targeted was widespread April 2004–March 2005 chickpea production, based on and profitable for farmers. It has environmentally benign pest been estimated by NARC that management technologies, this approach could be extended was successfully validated and to more than 100,000 farming promoted on smallholder farms in households in Nepal, and larger Nepal under the forerunner CPP numbers still in Bangladesh and project R7885 (page 152). The India, where yields are similar to ICM strategy required that farmers those in Nepal. The technology adopt the improved cultivars could be adapted for Pakistan and Avarodhi or Tara (good yield and Afghanistan, and also East Africa tolerant to fusarium wilt), seed where there is increasing interest SELECTED PUBLICATIONS priming, judicial fungal and insect in the potential of pulse legumes. control using available pesticides or This work aimed to identify and PANDE, S., STEVENSON, P.C., biological pesticides (Helicoverpa synthesise lessons from project NEUPANE, R.K. and GRZYWACZ, D. armigera nucleopolyhedrovirus, R7885 to enable the development (Eds) (2005) Policy and strategy for HearNPV), Rhizobium treatment in increasing income and food security of a more robust and sustainable deficient areas, and management through inproved crop management strategy and to broaden the of sowing density, fertiliser inputs of chickpea in rice fallows in Asia. adoption of chickpea ICM across Summary of a NARC–ICRISAT–NRI Asia. workshop, 17–18 November 2004, Kathmandu, Nepal. International ACHIEVEMENTS Crops Research Institute for the Semi- Arid Tropics, Patancheru, India. 252 The principal activities were based pp. ISBN 92-9066-479-7. around discussions, consultations SHARMA, H.C. et al. (2006) and meetings that focused on the Host plant resistance and pest synthesis of lessons learned and management in chickpea. In: the development of a strategy for The Chickpea. CABI Publishing, broad upscaling of the technologies Wallingford, UK (in press). in Nepal, while maintaining farmer STEVENSON, P.C., PANDE, S., field schools set up by the previous POUND, B. and NEUPANE, R.K. project, and distributing information (2005) A strategy for wealth to assist more farmers to redevelop generation through chickpea their chickpea crop. Issues addressed production. Information Bulletin No. included: 70. International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, • how components of the Patancheru, India. 24 pp. ISBN 92- chickpea ICM strategy in Nepal 9066-482-7. Filling a sprayer with HearNPV could be embedded in national

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programmes, especially in mid- productivity to promote agriculture’, important to enable joined- western and far-western Nepal 18 November 2004, p. 3). up extension services and • the effi cacy of chemical-based Presentations on scientific and technology support pest management technologies livelihoods aspects of upscaling • seed storage is currently a low for insect and disease technologies, made by 20 scientists priority for both farmers and management (insecticide over the course of two days, extension services, and needs resistance/tampering with were published as the Workshop greater focus and investment chemicals/production quality/cost) Proceedings. • pesticide quality and insecticide • the cost and feasibility of resistance need monitoring Lessons learned from the previous farmer mini-kits as a simple project (R7885), and from similar • the infrastructure and policy/ and workable implementation legislation to support biological projects in Nepal with a goal to and extension strategy for the alternatives need developing achieve broad uptake and impact, MoAC • agricultural knowledge dissemination to farmers needs updating and improving • there should be more farmer self-help involvement in seed multiplication. Stakeholders, including NGOs and farmers who attended the November 2004 workshop, were made aware of novel funding strategies currently being implemented by the Government of Nepal under the guidance of the Agricultural Perspective Plan Support Programme for the decentralisation of agricultural development funds to Local Initiative Funds and District Extension Funds. Farmers learning to spray NPV effectively • consolidating knowledge and were synthesised through group FURTHER APPLICATION facilitating key relationships discussions with policy-makers, A follow-on project (R8427) has between private sector, farmers, extension workers and scientists to the principal aim of ensuring that and non-governmental and ensure that scaling up of chickpea ICM of chickpea in Nepal, with government offi cers ICM in Nepal is well considered and its proven success and positive • the acceptability to farmers of well planned. impact on farmers’ livelihoods, biological pesticides such as NPV, One of the principal outputs of the becomes embedded in the national and the feasibility of importation workshop was a policy strategy for agricultural strategy of Nepal. or local NPV production. large-scale uptake of chickpea ICM It aims to achieve this through A workshop was held in in Nepal. Its key findings are: stewardship of the adoption of the Kathmandu in November 2004 to outputs of project R7885 into policy • chickpea is a crop that can and strategy through training, raise awareness of, and define a compete with alternatives; it is strategy for, countrywide uptake education and development of tools highly profi table when grown such as mini-kits, to promote its of chickpea ICM technologies. with appropriate technology and This was attended by up to 80 adoption. By establishing marketing improves the livelihoods of poor links and networks for community- participants from South Asian farmers countries, including Bangladesh based and private-sector • markets per se are not a limiting and India, to help raise awareness initiatives, this project will help step for the nationwide expansion beyond Nepal. ensure sustainability and develop of improved chickpea production wealth-creating environments The meeting was covered by various in Nepal (most chickpea consumed for stakeholders. Through careful media including the evening news in Nepal is still imported), but targeting of efforts, ICM of on Nepal TV and national some aspects of marketing need chickpea could be established as newspapers (Rising Nepal: to be addressed normal farmer practice throughout ‘Commercialisation of agriculture • complementarity between mid-western and far western Nepal stressed’, 18 November 2004, research and extension – the poorest areas where aid has p. 1; Kathmandu Post: ‘Enhance organisations in Nepal will be previously had little impact.

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Sustainable control of cotton bollworm in small- scale cotton-production systems

R7813 Insecticides currently account for around 45% of cotton-growing costs Derek Russell for over 30 million small-scale producers in Asia at a cost of US$811 Natural Resources Institute, million each year. In order to reduce the financial and environmental University of Greenwich, UK impact of cotton insecticide use, this project built on recent work in India Ian Denholm, Greg Devine, to advance farmers’ ability to use insecticides appropriately for control of Grahame Moores, Naghmy Javed cotton bollworm in India, Pakistan and China. The project has provided Rothamsted Research, UK detailed, practical recommendations to empower farmers to adopt insect resistance management, and has developed easy-to-use insecticide quality Common Fund for Commodities and resistance detection kits. Direct impact from the village programme in (CFC) partners: 2004/05 is a net beneﬁ t to participating farmers of US$11 million. This project Kesahv Kranthi, Central Institute for provides UK input into a much larger (US$4 million) CFC project. Cotton Research, India A.Regupathy, Tamil Nadu ISSUES attacks 181 host plants, including Agricultural University, India 69 crop species, and causes annual Across Asia, approximately 30 losses worth over US$540 million Joginder Singh, Punjab Agricultural million small-scale cotton producers in India. University, India endeavour to support their Yidong Wu, Nanjing Agricultural families on less than two hectares The threat of cotton bollworm University, China of land, with the cotton crop devastation has increased dramatically in recent years. Mushtaq Amad, Central Cotton often being their only source of Through over-use of pesticides Research Institute, Pakistan and poor spraying techniques, the April 2000–March 2004 pest has developed resistance to most of the available insecticides. See R6734, R6760, Perspectives on Farmers continue to borrow money Pests 1996–2000, pp. 95–97 to buy more chemicals (both toxic and expensive) and to spray ever more frequently. The net results are decreasing effectiveness against the pest as resistance develops, environmental hazards, and farmers SELECTED PUBLICATIONS spiralling into debt. KRANTHI, K.R., JADHAV, D.R., ACHIEVEMENTS KRANTHI, S., WANJARI, R.R., ALI, S.S. and RUSSELL, D.A. (2002) Insecticide Building on previous CPP projects resistance in ﬁ ve major insect pests (R6734, R6760), work was carried of cotton in India. Crop Protection 21 out to demonstrate to farmers that, (6): 449–460. with careful timing of insecticide RUSSELL, D.A., KRANTHI, K.R., applications, fewer applications MAYEE, C.D., BANARJEE, S.K. can manage cotton pests better and SHEO RAJ (2004) Area-wide Promoting IPM and prevent the development management of insecticide resistant income. Farmers face devastating of pest resistance, while natural pests of cotton in India. pp.1203– attacks from pests, in particular enemies are maintained. The 1213. In: Proceedings of the 3rd the voracious cotton bollworm farmer benefits by purchasing less World Cotton Research Conference, pesticide and by reduced hazards Cape Town, 9–13 March 2003. caterpillar (Helicoverpa armigera), Agricultural Research Council, which not only damages cotton from pesticide application. The Institute for Industrial Crops, Pretoria, but also attacks many food crops. insecticide resistance management South Africa. India produces 2.5 million tonnes (IRM) technology promoted to of cotton each year, sustaining farmers aims to provide simple, YANG, Y., WU, Y., CHEN, S. et al. (2004) The involvement of microsomal the livelihoods of over 17 million practical principles in a participatory oxidases in pyrethroid resistance people but, because of the manner. Only materials available in Helicoverpa armigera from Asia. increasing cost of pest control, off-the-shelf are recommended, Insect Biochemistry and Molecular cotton has become less and less and simplified bollworm scouting Biology 34: 763–773. profitable. In total H. armigera methods have been introduced.

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The use of resistant 700 generations, practices varieties reduces the 600 include: scouting (threshold need for scouting of 500 one larva per plant); use of

sucking pests. IRM aims to 400 the insecticides spinosad and eliminate the application indoxacarb where available, 300 of early insecticide sprays US$/ha or the more widely available in order to build a good 200 quinalphos/chlorpyriphos ecosystem necessary for 100 and profenophos (early use bollworm control. The 0 of these chemicals should Haryana Rajasthan Gujurat M. Pradesh Maharashtra A. Pradesh Karnataka Tamil Nadu Mean choice of insecticides be avoided as they disrupt used is based on their beneficials, and use of selectivity and a use- broad-spectrum insecticides alternation strategy. The such as monocrotophos Net income from cotton (US$ per ha) 2003–04 aim is to eliminate farmers’ and acephate should (light bars, control farmers; dark bars, IRM farmers by dependence on experts be avoided). In the third Indian State; north on left, south on right) (researchers/extension window (110–120 days after workers) by training them sowing), if insecticides are to be managers of pests, predators 2003–04 it covered 10 cotton necessary at all, pyrethroids should and parasitoids. This project’s specific states, with 27 districts, 331 be used as they retain efficiency contributions were as follows. villages, 5372 core farmers against other bollworm species and and 18,545 farmer participants insect pests present at that time. • Support from UK scientists in the in the programme. Average development of rapid ‘dip-stick’ Innovative extension methods for insecticide use declined by test kits for insecticide quality of these strategies included a national 56%, yield increased 24%, and major chemicals. These are now street play contest, with the best consequently net income by being patented for the benefi t of play performed all over the country US$107 per ha or 74%. Health poor farmers who are otherwise by professional teams; and a short and social benefi ts among at the mercy of pesticide dealers. film to be displayed all over the participating farmers are also country. Farmer manuals have been • A decision tool aiding the being realised. selection of appropriate and printed in local languages, and a • Strategies to mitigate early- effective pesticides that cause more comprehensive handbook of season damage while conserving minimal environmental damage, bollworm control is in preparation. natural enemies include the use summarising all published results of jassid-resistant genotypes, FURTHER APPLICATION for all insecticides used for seed treatments, and planting cotton bollworms globally. Resistance to insecticides in the pest cowpea, African marigold population is constantly changing. • Collaborative work between UK, or castor. Some jassid attack The project has supported the key Indian, Chinese and Pakistani discourages H. armigera without laboratories in China, Pakistan and scientists at Rothamsted affecting yields. India, which provide the national Research, which has defi nitively recommendations on pesticide established the causes and In the first bollworm control use in cotton pest control. With patterns of insecticide resistance ‘window’ (60–90 days after the inputs of scientists from to the major pesticide groups sowing), which aims to suppress China, Pakistan and India, work (pyrethroids, organophosphates, the first generation of H. armigera will continue on the biochemical carbamates and cyclodienes) while minimising the effect on and genetic characterisation of across Asia. This work has beneficial practices include: insecticide resistance across the enabled the most effective scouting (threshold 0.5 larvae per region. Project results are now sequence of non-cross-resisted plant); use of biological controls being applied as a matter of insecticides to be worked out for such as Trichogramma, neem and national policy in all three countries. individual areas. H. armigera nucleopolyhedrosis virus; the use of insect growth Preventing the development of • This improved understanding regulators such as novaluron and resistance is an important aspect has fed into the national cotton lufenuron where available; and use of the deployment of transgenic, extension programmes in India, of the insecticide endosulfan, which insect-resistant cotton (now being China and Pakistan. In India is less damaging to beneficials. grown in China and India and the methods developed under under trial in Pakistan). The project this and the earlier projects In the second bollworm control laboratories are continuing to play have been demonstrated to window (90–120 days after a leading role in the development farmers on an increasing scale. sowing), to protect boll formation of resistance-management Funding is now entirely from by controlling the mixed instars strategies for these important the Government of India. In of overlapping H. armigera advances.

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Rice sheath blight complex (Rhizoctonia spp.): pathogen epidemiology and management

R7778 Rice sheath blight is becoming an increasingly important disease in Bangladesh, S. (Prasad) Sreenivasaprasad, partly due to the intensification of rice production practices. Currently there S. (Meena) Muthumeenakshi are few available options to manage the disease effectively. No sources of Warwick HRI, UK strong resistance to the disease have been identified, and the epidemiology of sheath blight is still not fully understood. This project has contributed to Montezar M. Rahman, Taher Mia the knowledge base by documenting the seasonal distribution of the diseases Bangladesh Rice Research Institute comprising the sheath blight complex and recording the distribution of the (BRRI) three causal agents (Rhizoctonia solani, R. oryzae and R. oryzae-sativae). Mohsin Ali Varieties with moderate resistance to sheath blight have been identified, University of Rajshahi, Bangladesh and soil amendment practices for disease management evaluated. Farmer Ranajit C. Adhikari surveys have confirmed that sheath blight is regarded as a serious constraint to Rural Development Academy, production, and that farmers are willing to try out resistant varieties and other Bangladesh recommended practices. This fundamental research, and the development of diagnostic tools, have provided a sound basis for BRRI to develop a strategy June 2000–November 2003 for improved sheath blight management. See R6643, Perspectives on Pests 1996–2000, p. 77 ISSUES surface of flood water and initiate infection on the lower leaf sheaths. In Asia the average population There have been reports of the growth rate is estimated to be disease spreading through airborne SELECTED PUBLICATIONS 2.4% per annum from 1987–2005 basidiospores, and through and 1.3% from 2006–30. An MUTHMEENAKSHI, S. et al. (2003) seedborne inoculum. Differences estimated 800 million to one billion Molecular approaches to identify in aerial and soil populations of the Rhizoctonia species involved in tonnes of rough rice will be pathogen have also been reported. rice sheath blight complex. p. 345. needed annually by 2030. Rice The versatility of the pathogen, In: 8th International Congress of sheath blight (Rhizoctonia solani its competitive saprophytic ability, Plant Pathology, Christchurch, New and related species) is one of and the prolonged survival of Zealand, 2–7 February 2003. the most destructive diseases of the propagules in soil make this MUTHUMEENAKSHI, S. et al. (2004) rice, and is a major constraint to disease extremely difficult to Rhizoctonia species populations production in many parts of Asia, control. In India, Rhizoctonia associated with rice sheath diseases. including Bangladesh. The disease oryzae (sheath spot) and R. oryzae- Presented at British Mycological is endemic in rice-growing regions. sativae (aggregate sheath spot) Society meeting, Fungi in the have recently been associated Environment, Nottingham, UK, 13–15 The pathogen survives as sclerotia with rice sheath diseases (R6643). September 2004. in soil and in debris from previous crops, and is most severe when In Bangladesh there is a lack of SHARMA, N.R., RAHMAN, M.M. and sclerotia and debris float to the knowledge of the occurrence and HOSSAIN, M. (2003) Rhizoctonia Sheath Disease Complex of Rice. Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Gazipur, Bangladesh (leaﬂ et). SREENIVASAPRASAD, S. (2000) Isolation of fungal nucleic acids. pp. 37–45. In: Nucleic Acids Protocols Handbook. Rapley, R. and Walker, J.M. (Eds). Humana Press, Totowa, NJ, USA. SREENIVASAPRASAD, S., MUTHUMEENAKSHI, S. and CHIPILI, J. (2002) Understanding diversity of fungal pathogens of rice to improve disease control: molecular approaches. Presented at the EU Rice Conference, Biotechnology Foundation, Turin, Italy, 6–8 June 2002. Plot tests to assess the effects of organic amendments on rice sheath blight

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epidemiology of these pathogens, effect of overdoses of nitrogen cropping pattern. Irrespective of and a need to develop effective fertiliser on sheath blight severity. location, season and year, vertical disease control measures. Over 90% of farmers were willing spread and severity of the disease to adopt improved varieties and increased as the crop approached Modern varieties are grown in over technologies such as amendments maturity, and the overall yield loss 50% of the rice area in Bangladesh. and/or biocontrol agents. Thus there was estimated to range between The susceptibility of modern is both a crucial need and excellent 136 and 762 kg/ha. varieties to several major pests and potential for uptake, adoption diseases is a common reason for Molecular diagnostic tools have and impact through supporting production losses, and very few been designed, tested and participatory research/validation and modern varieties are resistant to developed, including primers for training/demonstration programmes sheath blight. As a consequence, the polymerase chain reaction for rice farmers. the impact of the disease will (PCR) with enhanced specificity increase with the expected The occurrence and severity of to the three Rhizoctonia species, expansion of rice cropping. sheath blight (R. solani), sheath PCR protocols, and DNA extraction spot (R. oryzae) and aggregate methodologies for rapid and ACHIEVEMENTS sheath spot (R. oryzae-sativae) reliable analysis of fungal and plant specimens and pathogen/ A socio-economic survey of 400 were surveyed in four districts disease diagnosis. Utilisation of farm households (100 each) from during 2001–03 in rainy-season these tools in combination with Bogra, Rajshahi, Comilla and transplanted Aman 2001 (T-Aman intensive disease surveys confirmed Gazipur districts was conducted, 01); winter Boro 2001–02, and R. solani causing sheath blight as and the data are archived centrally T-Aman 02 for all the locations, the dominant pathogen (more at BRRI (Pathology and Biometrics with an additional monitoring in than 80%), and importantly Divisions), Gazipur. This database T-Aus at Tanore Upazilla, Rajshahi. identified wide occurrence of the is a compilation of information At each location, 72 fields were aggregate sheath spot pathogen related to rice production, and pest assessed during various crop stages. R. oryzae-sativae (48%), either and disease management with Sheath blight was the most singly or with R. solani, in rice particular reference to Rhizoctonia prevalent disease (20.8%) in all production systems in Bangladesh. sheath diseases. the locations and seasons, with Use of independent molecular Sheath blight, locally described as low-level incidences (2%) of markers such as amplified fragment kalopocha, pochon or kholpora, is aggregate sheath spot and sheath length polymorphisms and considered the major rice disease spot. The incidence and severity of simple sequence repeats revealed by farmers in all four districts sheath blight varied significantly considerable genetic variation surveyed. Moderate and high among seasons and locations. The among R. solani populations disease levels were reported by interaction effect between locations with no specific relationship to up to 73% and 11% of farmers, and seasons was also significantly the location or host gene pool. respectively, during the Aman varied. Among the seasons, T-Aus A collection of well characterised season, and by up to 60% and was the most favourable for sheath isolates that form a baseline for 16% during the Boro season (see blight disease, followed by T-Aman long-term monitoring and use in Glossary, page vii). Losses based and Boro. Highest incidence resistance screening work has been on farmers’ yield estimates were (48.4%) and severity (33.2%) of established. around 30–32% in both Aman and sheath blight was recorded in T- Sclerotia were isolated from more Boro. However, in the Boro season, Aus (Rajshahi). In the Boro season, than 90 soil samples from Bogra, farmers in Bogra and Comilla the severity of sheath blight was Comilla and Gazipur, and in general reported higher losses than those in lower than either T-Aman or T-Aus. over 60% of the sclerotia were not Gazipur and Rajshahi. High-yielding Among the locations, the incidence viable. Within viable populations, cultivars such as BR11 and Swarna of sheath blight was comparable recovery of R. solani ranged from are widely used and are highly at Bogra, Comilla and Gazipur, 50–90%, while only around 9% susceptible to the disease. with a higher level of incidence in of R. oryzae-sativae recovered. Rajshahi, and the mean severity Farmers practising wider spacing Pathogenicity testing of 32 R. solani index was also highest in Rajshahi and using different varieties isolates from both plant and soil (16.6%). generally reported lower disease sources from four sites revealed levels than those using lesser or Wide-scale adoption of highly significant variation in their haphazard spacing, and varieties susceptible cultivars and aggressiveness, irrespective of the with multiple tillers. Some farmers intensification with monocrop rice source and location, underlining the had been misled into non-target use cultivation appeared to be the importance of using appropriate of pesticides and improper spacing major causes of high sheath blight isolates in screening tests. or sowing to control diseases, and levels. However, sheath blight Interestingly, comparative molecular were not aware of the negative disease was least in the rice–potato analysis of up to 40 R. solani

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Carrying out a disease survey for the occurrence and severity of sheath blight, sheath spot and aggregate sheath spot isolates from corresponding plant good indications for the control of to a skill base that can be utilised and soil samples revealed more sheath blight and increased yield. by these organisations in future differences than similarities. This In Rajshahi, pressed mud, sawdust research activities. A stakeholder clearly emphasises the need to and rice bran reduced disease workshop was held at BRRI- investigate further, and to take severity. Thirty rice varieties/lines Gazipur with participants from into consideration the relative were artificially screened for their interested institutions. Close links importance of the number of reaction to R. solani isolated from were established with a range pathogen infection units present in sheath blight-infected rice plants. of organisations involved in rice soil versus the spread of infection None of the entries showed a sheath disease research, leading to within the canopy in implementing resistant reaction. Sixteen entries student placements and exchange of disease control measures. Further, showed a moderately tolerant knowledge and material. inoculation with more than one reaction (<5), and the rest of Rhizoctonia species combinations the entries, including exotic and FURTHER APPLICATION under artificial conditions native cultivars, appeared highly An extension project (R8446) is influenced sheath disease severity. susceptible to sheath blight. aiming to ensure the molecular The potential impact of a high level biotechnological tools and the of co-occurrence of R. solani and Infected plant samples were appropriate knowledge for their R. oryzae-sativae also needs to assayed for the presence of effective use are established at be investigated further in disease antagonistic bacteria. Out of BRRI, building on the molecular development and management. 119 samples tested, 19 showed fluorescent bacteria from which laboratory of the DFID–PETRRA A total of 15 organic amendments 139 colonies were isolated. Among (Poverty Elimination Through Rice were tested for control of sheath these, 38 colonies showed a high Research Assistance) Project. This blight in T-Aus, T-Aman and Boro level of antagonism against the might be done in conjunction with during 2002–03. In Comilla, among sheath blight pathogen in vitro. further assistance to BRRI in the the organic amendments tested, area of varietal characterisation and compost, pulse bran and rice The project worked in close promotion, and in the development bran showed the better results, collaboration with BRRI staff, and of biocontrol agents. Closer links while in Gazipur urmoi (Sapium for both socio-economic and with the International Rice Research indicum), bishkatali (Polygonum disease surveys, enumerators were Institute are envisaged in order to hydropiper) and compost showed trained centrally at BRRI leading achieve maximum impact.

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Ecology and management of rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera) in Bangladesh

R7891 Rice hispa is a serious pest of rice in Bangladesh and other rice-growing Sean Murphy countries in tropical Asia, causing losses of up to 50% in some badly CABI Bioscience, UK Centre affected areas. This project carried out socio-economic studies that clarified the acceptability and economic basis of IPM practices currently promoted John Stonehouse by the DAE for hispa management. This research has gained a better Imperial College London, UK understanding of the population dynamics of rice hispa, and of the role John Holt, Jon Venn of natural enemies and abiotic factors as mortality agents. The new results Natural Resources Institute, will add to the DAE’s IPM farmer training programme through streamlining University of Greenwich, UK cultural controls and promoting conservation of natural enemies. The state Nazira Quraishi Kamal, M.F. Rabbi (DAE and BRRI) aims to develop its support to field extension workers/ and co-workers farmers through improved monitoring and forecasting tools. The potential Bangladesh Rice Research Institute of mycopesticides is being followed up by connecting with more advanced (BRRI) technology that has been developed in India. Md Hasanul Haque Department of Agricultural ISSUES and the emergence of secondary Extension (DAE), Bangladesh pests. These outbreaks are now Rice production is crucial to Gary Jahn, Bert Barrion understood to be induced by the the Bangladesh economy. International Rice Research removal of generalist predators Approximately 75% of cropped Institute, the Philippines from the system through the areas and 83% of the total application of insecticides. November 2000–January 2005 irrigated area are devoted to rice cultivation, and an estimated The rice hispa (Dicladispa 60–70% of the agricultural armigera) is an increasingly labour force is employed in important outbreak pest in rice rice production, processing, cropping systems in Bangladesh, marketing and distribution. and appears to be associated Despite varietal improvements, with intensification of production. there is much potential to In Bangladesh, yield losses have increase the rice yield by reducing been estimated as 40–50%, and SELECTED PUBLICATIONS pest and disease damage. In the problem is intensifying. This some areas, intensification pest poses particular challenges POLASZEK, A. (2004) Identiﬁ cation through the introduction of for ecological research because Guide to the Common Insect Parasitoids of the Rice Hispa Beetle, high-yielding varieties and the of its episodic occurrence Dicladispa armigera, in Bangladesh. use of insecticides has led to and migratory behaviour. An Bangladesh Rice Research Institute. widespread rice pest outbreaks understanding of its population POLASZEK, A., RABBI, M.F., ISLAM, Z. and BUCKLEY, Y.M. (2002) Trichogramma zahiri (Hymenoptera: Trichogrammatidae), an egg parasitoid of the rice hispa Dicladispa armigera (Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) in Bangladesh. Bulletin of Entomological Research 92: 529–537. STONEHOUSE, J. (2001) Rice hispa in Bangladesh: farmer perceptions and opinions of biology, damage and control. CABI Bioscience, Egham, UK (unpublished report). STONEHOUSE, J. (2002) Farmer and ﬁ eldworker perceptions of the ecology and management of rice hispa in Bangladesh. CABI Bioscience, Egham, UK (unpublished report). Hispa damage and adult Dicladispa armigera

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40 risk areas on a more local basis. • The analysis of the historical data 35 has added some key points to this 30 baseline work, as follows. 25 • • y = 0.9412x – 35.356 Hispa outbreaks appear to build 20 • • up over two-year periods. An 15 increase in hispa infestations in 10 the more southerly districts in Maximum survival (%) Maximum • 5 one year is sometimes followed by more generally high hispa 0 40 50 60 70 80 infestations over all hispa-prone Relative humidity (% mean Jan–Mar) districts in the following year. Field study results on the relationship between yearly • Cropping pattern and hispa maximum rice hispa survival and mean minimum distribution are related. Districts percentage relative humidity for January–March of the with a combination of a low same year (all sites combined). proportion of Aman single cropping and a high proportion dynamics and natural mortality and information from field studies of Boro–Aman double cropping factors, and of options for its and current geographical surveys. were never hispa-prone (see control, are needed to develop In summary, a clear relationship Glossary, page vii). appropriate, sustainable control was seen between hispa numbers • Within a district, hispa abundance measures in the context of a rice and some abiotic parameters, in successive crops in the same IPM strategy in Bangladesh. particularly humidity values in the season was often (but not always) previous winter. correlated, so hispa abundance ACHIEVEMENTS Surveys have shown that hispa in the Boro season is a potential Socio-economic studies confirmed is present at very low levels of predictor of abundance in the that farmers rate insects as the incidence throughout most of the Aus and Aman seasons. worst production problem; hispa lowland rice area, which means • Years with high winter humidity is viewed as second only to that all these areas are probably at and high winter and summer stem borer as a constraint (see risk from locally based outbreaks temperatures tend to have R8026, page 165). Advice on IPM as well as invasions from remote higher hispa abundance. promoted by the DAE was found areas. Greater vigilance is needed in However, the climate data did to be generally sound, and the areas outside the southern region not explain why some districts DAE’s IPM training programme for of Bangladesh, which is currently were more hispa-prone than farmers (under its Strengthening assumed to be hispa’s winter others. Plant Protection Project, SPPS) endemic range. Simple GIS models Hispa abundance was predicted provides a good basis for have been explored to predict hispa to be above average if humidity equipping farmers with the right knowledge. In general, insecticides Results of hispa abundance prediction for Barisal district based are the most popular tool and on minimum humidity in current and previous years there is no evidence of abuse in their current use; however, Humidity minimum (month Hispa Predicted hispa mycopesticides may provide an Year average) abundance* abundance alternative. But the economic basis of some of the cultural 1983 57 0 0 controls used is questionable, 1984 64 1 1 and DAE needs to factor this into 1985 62 1 1 the development of its training programme. Farmers strongly 1986 63 0 0 support current state interventions, 1987 66 1 1 such as provision of sprayers and 1988 64 1 1 sweep nets. 1989 58 0 0 Ecological research focused 1990 70 1 1 on understanding the broad 1991 64 1 1 patterns of rice hispa distribution, abundance and survival, and the 1992 59 0 0 key factors affecting natality and 1993 64 1 1 mortality, using historical data *Greater or less than long-term trend.

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Host feeding trials for rice hispa

in the preceeding winter was (a) ≥64%; or (b) ≥62% and 64% or more in the previous winter. Otherwise hispa abundance was predicted to be below average. Predictions for Barisal over the better monitoring schemes and to using insect parasitoids difficult to period 1983–93 were 100% build on the GIS modelling already implement. correct (see table). under way. But there are good possibilities Field studies confirmed the Other research indicates that hispa for the development of a importance of winter relative can feed and reproduce on rice mycopesticide (for example, one humidity and also of river flooding of a wide range of ages, and on a based on Beauvaria bassiana), as mortality factors. Further work number of common weed species. by linking with more advanced is needed in this area to develop IPM training will now highlight research in India – collaborative the significance of interactions have already begun. alternative hosts. A mycopesticide is the only viable Life-table studies alternative to insecticides. show that insect A national workshop consolidated natural enemies the project outputs into an agreed have an important plan that will build on the current impact, and IPM effort in Bangladesh. The one species main action required is for the of parasitoid DAE to develop IPM for farmers by (Trichogramma factoring in the project results. zahiri) appears to be density- FURTHER APPLICATION dependent and therefore may The project results contribute be a regulatory directly to further development of factor. Thus the the existing DAE–SPPS IPM training conservation of programme for hispa. There is still natural enemies some way to go in developing IPM needs to be packages acceptable to farmers, in built into IPM terms of both further technologies training, although – especially mycopesticides – and the episodic ensuring that cost–benefit ratios nature of hispa of IPM measures are attractive to outbreaks makes farmers. Further research is needed Experiments on rice hispa feeding: choice (top) and augmentation on monitoring and forecasting no-choice (below), BRRI, Gazipur (photo: BRRI) technologies models for hispa/rice pests.

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Commercial adoption of pheromones as a component in ICM of rice in Bangladesh

R8026 Bangladesh has been enormously successful in increasing its rice production Alan Cork in an effort to attain self-sufficiency. This has been largely achieved through Natural Resources Institute (NRI), an increase in acreage of the Boro crop (high-yielding, irrigated, post-rainy- University of Greenwich, UK season rice), with the BRRI introducing a range of high-yielding varieties to replace the more traditional deep-water varieties. However, insecticide use Nazira Quraishi Kamal is also increasing, at the expense of both farmers and the environment. Bangladesh Rice Research Institute To assist local institutions and companies to work with farmers to reduce (BRRI) insecticide use and promote integrated crop management (ICM), this project Sarwar Ahmed aimed to adapt existing pheromone-based control methods (specifically for Syngenta Bangladesh Ltd rice yellow stem borer) to local conditions, and incorporate them into the D.K.P. Jayanth ICM programme promoted by Syngenta Bangladesh Ltd through its farmer Bio-Control Research Laboratories field school programme. Ltd, India E. Casagrande ISSUES aspects associated with the use Agrisense BCS, UK of these compounds, so there There is significant evidence that September 2001–October 2003 is a now an urgent need for insecticide use in Bangladesh the development of alternative is increasing dramatically (see control technologies. There below). While application on is growing awareness of the rice is still significantly less than social and environmental costs in other countries in the region, of using pesticides such as farmers perceive rice stem organochlorines in Bangladesh, borers as a significant threat to where agribusiness companies, their crops, and are applying such as Syngenta in particular, are pesticides where they are not keen to encourage and promote actually necessary, at high cost to sustainable production through themselves and the environment. the development of new crop Because the stem borer larva is protection technologies. actually inside the stem of the rice it is well protected from Mass trapping of stem borers is a pesticides, so farmers have to simple technology in which male use relatively toxic systemic stem borer moths are caught granular pesticides to control in traps baited with the female the pest. These pesticides are pheromone. Pheromones are naturally occurring compounds SELECTED PUBLICATIONS becoming redundant because of the development of resistance produced by insects that act CORK, A., KAMAL, N.Q., ALAM, to them and, more importantly, as messages to other insects. S.N., SAHA CHOUDHURY, J.C. and because governments are Adult female yellow stem borers TALEKAR, N.S. (2003) Pheromones becoming aware of the negative (Scirpophaga incertulas) attract and their applications to insect environmental and health their mates with a pheromone pest control. Bangladesh Journal of Entomology 13: 1–13. 18,000 CORK, A., ILES, M.J., KAMAL, N.Q., 16,000 CHOUDHURY, J.C.S., RAHMAN, M. 14,000 and ISLAM, M. (2005) An old pest, 12,000 a new solution: commercialising 10,000 rice stem borer pheromones in 8000 Bangladesh. Outlook in Agriculture 34, 181–187. 6000 4000 WREN MEDIA (2003) Pheromones used (tonnes) Pesticide 2000 – the trappings of sustainable pest 0 control? New Agriculturist Online, 7 1956–7 1986–7 1987–8 1996–7 1997–8 1998–9 1999–2000 July 2003. www.new-agri.co.uk/03- 4/develop/dev03.html Pesticide consumption in Bangladesh shows a 235% increase over 1996 levels

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and this can be exploited in a pest management strategy by developing a synthetic pheromone blend and a lure and trapping system, which attract and trap male moths. If female yellow stem borers cannot mate then the pest population can be checked. Building on work conducted by scientists in India, Yellow stem borer adult Syngenta has been collaborating (left); its larvae cause with BRRI and NRI to adapt mass- white head damage trapping technology for use in (below) Bangladesh.

ACHIEVEMENTS A wide range of trap designs, pheromone blends and concentrations were tested with farmers in their fields in Comilla and Mymensingh districts in 2001–03, alongside a socio-economic study of farmers’ resources, constraints and perceptions to ensure catch, and was unaffected by the treated and untreated plots, and the resulting technology was weather. because of the presence of other stem borer species. appropriate for adoption. On-farm, large-scale mass A robust, cost-effective and trapping trials demonstrated The research confirmed that, efficient trapping system for that 20 traps per hectare despite low levels of S. incertulas male yellow stem borers was were sufficient to reduce male infestation being recorded in all developed, using an optimised yellow stem borer populations seasons, other species did not female sex pheromone lure and significantly. The trials provided increase to fill the niche. The trap design. A series of trials good evidence that mass trapping reasons for the low infestation designed to optimise trap design, could significantly reduce the levels are not known, but broadly pheromone dispensers and level of mating, with consequent reflect those found in a previous pheromone blends resulted in the reductions in larval progeny. CPP project (R7296) in which, over the course of four seasons, identification of a trapping system Nevertheless, the level of control rice stem borer infestations that was effective, relatively achieved by mass trapping did not exceed the economic inexpensive and easy to use. in these trials did not have a threshold at any site. A plastic sleeve trap was found measurable impact on yield. This to be more effective than other was due to the low level of stem Extensive sampling between and trap types at higher levels of borer damage observed in both within seasons demonstrated that

Optimisation of pheromone trap design*

Pheromone dose Mean catch per trap Trap design (µg) per night† SE

Delta 1000 0.41 ± 0.16 ab Sleeve 1000 0.72 ± 0.17 ab Sticky plate 1000 0.85 ± 0.28 ab Open-delta 1000 1.15 ± 0.29 b Plastic cylinder 1000 0.47 ± 0.11 ab Plastic pot 1000 0.22 ± 0.07 a *Doulatpur, Laksam, Comilla District, T. Aman 2001, four replicates, 42 nights. †Means followed by the same letter in a group are not signiﬁ cantly different P < 0.05 by Newman–Keuls multiple range test on log(x + 1) transformed data.

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rice stem borers in Bangladesh damage levels in excess of 10%. male researchers, and gender constitute a species complex of Farmers had a good knowledge issues will need to be addressed S. incertulas, Sesamia inferens of the effect of stem borer larvae in any subsequent work. and Chilo polychrysus. The on rice, but did not distinguish Pesticide dealers were considered relative abundance of each between species. Many farmers by farmers to be a main source species varied markedly within are not aware that the yellow of knowledge on pest control, and between seasons, with ‘worm’ inside the rice stem that although 65% indicated that S. incertulas appearing early in they recognise as a pest will they chose an insecticide based the season, often to be replaced mature into a moth, but they do on brand name. Despite the by S. inferens. know that if they do not control apparent importance of stem it the rice grains that form will be Despite the high intensity of rice borers, farmers spent only 2–5% empty (white heads) and have no cultivation, yellow stem borer of their crop production costs on nutritive value. was found to be of economic insecticides – although this was importance only in the Aman Unfortunately, although women significantly higher than for other season. Based on project were involved in post-harvest and pests, apart from weeds. Over results, stem borer control is not household activities they were 60% of farmers interviewed had recommended in Aus and Boro unwilling to be interviewed by received IPM training, and over season crops. The project contributed significantly to the understanding of how mass trapping can be developed and implemented as a method of controlling field crop pests. The new knowledge has already been utilised in a related DFID Competitive Research Facility project for control of brinjal shoot and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis, in India and Bangladesh (R7465C), and will have significant value for other target pest species. Farmers’ perceptions of damage, however, are not necessarily in accordance with the scientific evidence. The key issue for insect pest management in rice in Bangladesh is how to encourage farmers to target their interventions against stem borers more efficiently and in an environmentally friendly way. The socio-economists conducted a very useful study that will help to guide the strategy for promotion of the pheromone technology. Critical considerations such as product pricing and training and information provision were addressed in depth and suitable recommendations were made. Despite information gathered on the low levels of stem borer infestation, in surveys carried out by this project, over 90% of farmers identified yellow stem borer as the major pest of rice, with 58% of respondents citing The water trap (used here in brinjal) being tested for effectiveness in the field

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80% believed it was effective, This activity has resulted in but few practised it. Pesticides policy change and increased the were generally considered to be profile of biopesticides within effective and, although most Bangladesh to the extent that farmers were aware of side other biopesticides are now effects, over 80% of farmers actively being considered for surveyed used them to control pest control, notably nuclear stem borers. polyhedrosis virus and neem products. Farmers involved in the trials were unclear about the effectiveness Pheromone trap-catch data of pheromone traps, in part suggest that traps can be used because of low infestation to predict the emergence of levels. To test their interest in the adult moths and hence the technology, farmers were offered likely timing of mass trapping or a chance to purchase traps. other remedial actions to control Seven farmers bought 27 traps progeny. Syngenta will promote between them and, on seeing the pheromone traps in the first moths they caught and the low instance for monitoring and, infestation levels in their fields, depending on farmer interest, were generally pleased with the will introduce mass trapping in technology. They suggested they selected areas as part of its IPM would purchase them again Farmer Field School Programme and motivate neighbours to use (see page 163). them, but price was an important criterion in their choice of stem FURTHER APPLICATION borer control technology. The plastic sleeve trap was more effective at higher levels of catch and was Syngenta is now committed to Efforts were made to ascertain unaffected by the weather implementing the pheromone the costs to smallholder farmers technology and incorporating it of rice production and to used in trials. The traps used in as a component in its Farmer Field determine whether mass trapping the trials are being imported from School Programme. would be cost-competitive India, but could easily be made Given the technical advances with current insecticide-based locally when demand develops made as a result of the project control practices. The cost of rice (see page 171). and the greater understanding cultivation was typically US$255– of farmers’ perceptions, the next 288 per ha per season, with Prior to the project, the step is to move towards actively insecticide use accounting for Government of Bangladesh assisting Syngenta to market 2–5% of these costs. The mass had no legislation governing pheromones and developing and trapping technology requires 20 the registration and use of implementing technical training traps per ha with two lures per biopesticides and related packages in IPM for pesticide trap to cover the period when the biorational pest control dealers, NGOs and extension crop is at risk from yellow stem technologies, even though IPM is workers for both rice and borer. The sleeve trap adopted widely promoted as the method vegetables (see R8367, page 169). for use in mass trapping was of choice for agricultural pest estimated to cost a maximum control. NRI provided technical This project has successfully of US$21 per ha per season, or assistance to Syngenta and BRRI in brought together a private- 7–8% of crop production costs. their efforts to clarify the position sector organisation and the This suggests that mass trapping with the Pesticide Technical government-funded rice research is more expensive than currently Advisory Committee. Following institute, and has developed used levels of insecticide. intensive lobbying by Syngenta, links with the Department of However, the averaged insecticide BRRI and the Bangladesh Agricultural Extension. Thus a cost disguises the fact that some Agricultural Research Institute strong alliance is in place for farmers do not apply insecticide (BARI), the Committee accepted sustainable implementation of the at all (approximately 20% of that pheromones were a special outputs. By identifying the central those surveyed), so those who case and has allowed Syngenta role of pesticide dealers in the do will actually spend more than to submit documentation for provision of pest management the averaged value. In addition, registration of pheromone advice, as well as products, to rice pheromone traps can be used for products, Giant and Gem, for farmers the project has helped to a number of seasons and farmers control of brinjal shoot and fruit target delivery mechanisms more are unlikely to adopt the density borers, and fruit fly, respectively. precisely.

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Promoting farmer adoption and policy change for rice and vegetable pest pheromones in Bangladesh

R8367 The aim of this project was to develop and promote pheromone technologies Alan Cork for control of major crop pests in Bangladesh, including brinjal shoot and Natural Resources Institute, fruit borer and rice stem borers. Training and marketing materials were University of Greenwich, UK developed for pesticide dealers and for rice and brinjal farmers on the use Nazira Quraishi Kamal of pheromone traps and related IPM technologies. The project worked Bangladesh Rice Research Institute with Syngenta and its dealer network in order to build capacity and facilitate (BRRI) understanding of the nature of pheromones and their potential for pest control, and through lobbying to enable the registration for sale of these N.S. Alam affordable and sustainable products. Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute (BARI) ISSUES brinjal shoot and fruit borer; and Sarwar Ahmed Gem, for control of the fruit fly Syngenta Bangladesh Ltd Various CPP projects have produced Bactrocera cucurbitae. and refined simple, practical, April 2004–March 2005 pheromone-based technologies to help control crop pests and ACHIEVEMENTS reduce the over-use of high levels The ultimate aim was to create of pesticide. These include a a platform in Bangladesh to SELECTED PUBLICATIONS pheromone-based mass trapping promote pheromone products to system for male yellow stem a receptive farmer population and CORK, A. (2005) Technology and borer (Scirpophaga incertulas) in to enable sustainable transfer of application of semiochemicals rice (R8026, see page 165), and the technology into the market. in pest control: problems and a related CPP project for control A key advantage of this approach perspectives. Presented at the of brinjal shoot and fruit borer International Symposium on Herbal was the ability to draw on the (Leucinodes orbonalis) in India Medicine, Phytopharmaceutials considerable influence wielded and other Natural Products: Trends and Bangladesh (R7465). While by pesticide dealers and a major and Advances, 15–17 June 2005, these practical technologies are agribusiness company, Syngenta, Colombo, Sri Lanka. to promote products to farmers. CORK, A., ALAM, S.N., RAHMAN, Syngenta has a reputation for M., KAMAL, N.Q. and TALEKAR, high-quality products in Bangladesh N.S. (2004) Mass trapping for and commands considerable control of rice and vegetable pests brand loyalty. With a network of in South Asia. In: Proceedings of 12,000 pesticide dealerships, the the XXII International Congress of prospects for achieving sustainable Entomology, 15–21 August 2004, impact at the farmer level augured Brisbane, Australia (abstract). well, provided the products CORK, A., ALAM, S.N. and Brinjal (eggplant or aubergine) were marketed with the correct TALEKAR, N.S. (2005) Development approach and the price compared and commercialization of mass affordable and easy to use, their well with alternatives. While the trapping for control of brinjal borer, uptake is limited for a variety of potential to provide Syngenta with Leucinodes orbonalis in South reasons, including limits on local a significant financial advantage Asia. pp. 29–33. In: Proceedings production (R8304, page 171) and was recognised, it is anticipated of National Symposium on Recent the lack of an infrastructure for Advances in Integrated Management that other agrochemical companies the registration of relatively new of Brinjal Shoot and Fruit Borer, 3–4 will enter the market place in time, biotechnology products (see page October 2005. Indian Institute of ensuring that prices to the farming 168). Following intensive lobbying Vegetable Research, Varanasi, India. community are competitive. by Syngenta, BRRI and BARI (see CORK, A., ALAM, S.N., ROUF, page 168), Bangladesh’s Pesticide Farmers’ views of pheromone F.M.A. and TALEKAR, N.S. (2005) Technical Advisory Committee has technology were sought, and Development of mass trapping technique for control of brinjal shoot for the first time allowed Syngenta strategies were developed for and fruit borer, Leucinodes orbonalis. to submit documentation for overcoming risk aversion to new Bulletin of Entomological Research registration of two pheromone technologies among farmers. 95: 1–8. products: Giant, for control of Farmer demonstration trials and

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Selections from flyers for pheromone-based products available in Bangladesh – Giant trap for brinjal shoot and fruit borer, and Diamond traps for yellow stem borer

stakeholder meetings to assess Syngenta’s marketing strategy now been accepted by the Pesticide their responses to the new products for rice and brinjal pheromone Technical Advisory Committee, but received positive feedback. products has been enhanced by not yet gazetted into law by the However, problems with one batch the information gathered, and end of the project. of commercially produced lures promotional materials for farmers, FURTHER APPLICATION highlighted the need for effective pesticide dealers and Syngenta quality assurance of products personnel have been published By late 2005 the registration before release to farmers. in the form of flyers (printed in process had been gazetted into law Bengali and English), and a multi- and negotiations to secure a supply Baseline socio-economic data were media presentation that describes of active compounds in the region obtained on farmers and pesticide the problems associated with are well advanced. Syngenta is now dealers involved in the control insecticide use, the function of at an advanced stage of developing of rice and brinjal pests at three pheromone traps and how they can additional semiochemical-based locations in Bangladesh. Pesticide be incorporated into IPM strategies products to extend the range of dealers were positive about the for rice cultivation. production systems affected. It is new technologies for control of anticipated that, should the process brinjal borer although, in common Of the vegetable-production land be successful, Syngenta may well with farmers, they needed in Bangladesh, 19% is used for adopt a similar approach in other reassurance that the technologies cultivating brinjal, which represents regions where these or related were effective and would provide 41% by weight of the vegetables insect pests are economically an acceptable economic return. produced. Replacement of important. Dealers indicated they received a insecticides for control of the major Nevertheless, technical gaps remain, 10% profit margin on pesticides. economically damaging insect pest such as the need for knowledge L. orbonalis with a benign control Farmer surveys provided evidence on the relationship between rice technology (Giant), which has a for the positive impact of farmer stem borer damage and pheromone cost–benefit ratio of at least 1 to training sessions on the use trap catch to enable Syngenta to 1.8, will contribute significantly to of rice and brinjal pheromone provide farmers with an action reducing the impact of key pests products, although many farmers threshold. Data on the proportion and diseases, improving yields and felt the need for additional of an available adult pest population reducing pesticide hazards. technical assistance. Syngenta that can be trapped with current aims to accommodate this by Legislation to enable biopesticides, technologies would provide a better focusing promotional efforts on including pheromones, to be insight into how these trapping particular areas or whole villages. registered for use in Bangladesh has systems can be optimised further.

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Technical support for SMEs supplying pheromone- based pest control technologies in South Asia

R8304 Although useful technologies have been developed using pheromones Alan Cork to control a number of key insect pest species in various crops in South Natural Resources Institute, Asia, their use is dependent on the availability of quality products at an University of Greenwich, UK affordable price – and that is achievable only through local production. This K.P. Jayanth project researched the constraints on small and medium-sized enterprises Bio-Control Research Laboratories, manufacturing and marketing pheromone products in South Asia, in order India to develop and implement strategies for overcoming those constraints. S. Narasimhan Ashagiri Herbal Research ISSUES affordable products, which can Foundation, India only be made available through Considerable advances have sustainable local production. H. Warburton been made in developing IPM- Consultant, UK based control strategies for crops ACHIEVEMENTS in South Asia that incorporate September 2003–September 2004 semiochemicals (pheromones) to This project aimed to identify and control key insect pest species. resolve technical constraints facing Much of this work has been small and medium-sized enterprises funded by DFID through the CPP, (SMEs) manufacturing and notably control of the rice yellow marketing pheromone products in stem borer (see R8026, page 165) South Asia. Three activities were and the brinjal shoot and fruit undertaken: borer. Pheromones for coffee • industry survey white stem borer, groundnut leaf • stakeholder workshop miner, sugarcane borer species • pheromone manual. and cotton pests have also been Pheromone-related pest control identified. technologies are exclusively Despite this work, only one manufactured and marketed by pheromone has been registered for SMEs in South Asia. Despite some use in control in South Asia. There natural reticence among SMEs to are many reasons for the lack of collaborate in market-oriented SELECTED PUBLICATIONS commercialisation of pheromone- activities, the SMEs producing based systems in the region. In pheromone products were AHMAD, R. (2004) Goodbye India, mating disruption was found supportive and cooperative. Sixty pesticides – pheromone trap to be efficacious for control of per cent of the SMEs producing working wonders in Jessore. The yellow stem borer in rice, but was pheromone products in South Asia Daily Star, 18 June (India). not cost-effective. Nevertheless, actively participated in the survey CORK, A. (2004) Enabling small the Indian national programme and stakeholder workshop. and medium enterprises to continued the work and developed Together, the companies produce promote pheromone based pest mass trapping as an efficacious and market 1.6 million pheromone control technologies in South and cost-effective alternative (see lures per year for use on 13 Asia: Pheromone manual. Natural page 165). They went further economically important insect Resources Institute, Chatham, UK. and promoted the technology pests, covering a range of crop through extension services, but CORK, A., JAYANTH, P. K. and types. Nevertheless, cotton pests despite considerable demand from NARASIMHAN, S. (eds) (2004) accounted for 95% of production, farmers (10,000 lures sold per Enabling small and medium with the majority of traps and year) they were unable to sustain enterprises to promote pheromone lures being sold through the State this endeavour because of the lack based pest control technologies Government procurement system. in South Asia. Proceedings of UK of active compounds. Successful DFID-funded Project Workshop, promotion of pheromone-based The industry survey found that Silver Oak Resort, Bangalore, technologies and their adoption by most SMEs were optimistic about India, 25–26 May 2004. Natural smallholder farmers is dependent the future, with 57% expecting Resources Institute, Chatham, UK. on the availability of high-quality, sales to increase and 36% believing

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that sales will stay at similar levels in the near future – broadly in line with the rest of the world, where the market for pheromones is growing at about 10% per year. SMEs felt that pheromone supply was a major constraint, with most pheromone being imported through just one company in a final blended form. Unlike other biopesticides, pheromones are subject to an import tax, but access to ISO9002 certified material enables the smaller producers to compete with larger companies. Most SMEs rely on other product ranges to achieve a financially viable business, typically production and distribution of seeds, viruses and/or natural enemies. An international stakeholders’ workshop was conducted involving 50 participants from four countries. The workshop provided a venue for dissemination of information by invited experts, considerable uncertainty among a sustainable basis. Areas where both national and international. SMEs, and some scientists, government and SMEs could play These activities provided the about the scope and limitations a role in the future development background information for the of the technology. The role of and dissemination of these development of a Pheromone major pheromone products for technologies were identified. monitoring pests in India is still Manual that was produced to Workshop participants identified poorly defined, and until SMEs provide answers to the technical a number of themes that questions raised by SMEs. From and extension agencies can represented the major constraints the nature of some of the provide farmers with well defined to the industry: source and cost questions raised at the workshop, protocols for using the products, of pheromone; quality assurance; it was apparent that there was they will not be widely adopted on registration; and markets. Workshop recommendations Quantity of pheromone products sold per year by included: SMEs in South Asia • a society to represent the Crop Quantity of lures industry Insect species attacked (x1000) • training package for SMEs on product evaluation Helicoverpa armigera Cotton/other 830 • identiﬁ cation and promotion of Spodoptera litura Cotton/other 480 new market opportunities. Earias vittella Cotton 280 Pectinophora gossypiella Cotton 130 FURTHER APPLICATION Leucinodes orbonalis Brinjal 10 As many SMEs producing (eggplant) pheromones were found to Scirpophaga incertulas Rice 20 have a weak understanding of Plutella xylostella Brassicas <10 the function and utility of their products, a second phase of Rhynchophorus ferrugineus Palm <10 the project (R8367, page 169) Bactrocera cucurbitae Cucurbits <10 and extension project R8413 Bactrocera dorsalis Fruit <10 aimed to build capacity through hands-on training for appropriate Odoiporus longicollis Banana <10 company personnel in the analysis Homona coffearia Coffee <10 of pheromones and formulated Spodoptera exigua Cotton <10 materials.

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Promotion of integrated weed management for direct-seeded rice on the Gangetic Plains of India

R8233 Rice–wheat cropping is an effective use of land to maximise yields of vital Charlie Riches, Alistair Orr cereal crops in India. However, the cropping system is facing constraints Natural Resources Institute (NRI), in part related to combining two crops with different growth habits and University of Greenwich requirements. This project built on previous work to promote the adoption of direct-seeded rice, combined with appropriate weed management, to David Johnson, A.M. Mortimer rice–wheat farmers on the Gangetic Plains of India. Field trials demonstrated International Rice Research that yields in direct-seeded rice can be comparable with those in transplanted Institute (IRRI), the Philippines, and systems. In the absence of weed control there is a significant reduction in University of Liverpool, UK yields under direct seeding, but this can be minimised with appropriate weed- G. Singh, Y. Singh, V.P. Singh management. The use of a herbicide followed by a single hand-weeding GB Pant University of Agriculture conferred a significant benefit in comparison with hand-weeding alone. The and Technology (GBPUAT), India research has shown that changes in composition of the weed flora occurred R.K. Sinha under different direct-seeded crop establishment – information important Rajendra Agricultural University to future weed-management strategies. Shortages of labour and water, (RAU), India coupled with the incentive for many farmers to reduce overall input costs, D.S.Yadav are likely to result in widespread adoption of direct seeding in many parts Narendra Deva University of of the Gangetic Plains. The need to control weeds to protect yields will be Agriculture and Technology paramount, and this project has laid a sound basis for the development and (NDUAT), India promotion of appropriate weed-management practices.

January 2003–March 2005 ISSUES fertiliser and fuel; and late sowing of wheat (partly dependent on the Rice–wheat is the principal cropping SELECTED PUBLICATIONS date of rice harvest). system of the Indo-Gangetic Plains, CATON, B.P., MORTIMER, M. and Rice is direct seeded either by dry or HILL, J.E. (2004) A Practical Field occupying some 13.5 million Guide to Weeds of Rice in Asia. hectares and contributing 40% of wet seeding, which relates to the International Rice Research Institute, India’s grains. Its sustainability is physical condition of the seedbed Los Baños, Philippines. vital to the livelihoods of farmers and seed (pregerminated or dry). in the region, and to national Dry drill-seeding of rice can be MORTIMER, M. and JOHNSON, D. complementary to reduced or zero- (2004) Common weeds of lowland food security. Traditionally, rice is rice in India. International Rice transplanted at the end of the dry tillage systems for wheat, as the Research Institute, Los Baños, season (May/June) after the land same seed drills can be used. Direct Philippines (poster). has been flooded and puddled; seeding of rice is thought likely to wheat is planted in the rabi season reduce delays in sowing wheat, JOHNSON, D.E., MORTIMER, M., as it advances the start of the rice ORR, A. and RICHES, C. (2003) (November/December). Constraints Weeds, Rice and Poor People in include an increasing shortage season by up to a month, resulting South Asia. Natural Resources of agricultural labour; increasing in an earlier harvest. A concern for Institute, Chatham, UK. 10 pp. labour costs; the relative cost of the sustainability of the rice–wheat SINGH, G., SINGH, Y., SINGH, V.P. et al. (2003) Direct seeding as an alternative to transplanting rice for the rice–wheat systems of the Indo-Gangetic Plains: sustainability issues related to weed management. pp. 1035–1040. In: Proceedings of the BCPC International Congress on Crop Science and Technology 2003, Glasgow, UK. British Crop Protection Council, Alton, UK. SINGH, Y. (2004) Direct seeding of rice in Indo-Gangetic Plains. Paper presented at Irrigated Rice Research Consortium, International Rice Research Institute (IRRI), Los Baños, 2 December 2004. Farmers in Bihar tend to use less mechanisation than in Uttaranchal

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system is the long-term effect of by increasing wheat yields and alternate dry and wet cultivations adopting direct-seeded rice. These for wheat and transplanted rice, farmers see real and immediate respectively. Wet cultivation benefits from direct-seeded rice (puddling) largely destroys the and zero tillage by reducing cash natural soil structure in the surface outlay for mechanised tillage and layers. While this is good for water labour for transplanting. Partial management in transplanted rice, budgets for direct-seeded rice and it reduces the yield potential of the transplanted rice were produced subsequent wheat crop. Dry direct from data collected from 20 on- seeding of rice avoids the need to farm trials around Pantnagar in puddle the soil, so the soil structure 2004. The data indicated that: is retained with potential long-term • total costs for direct-seeded yield benefits. rice (Rs13,816 per ha) were lower than for transplanted rice This project built on the (Rs18,256 per ha) by Rs4440 development of direct seeding and per ha associated weed-management options initiated under project • puddling (Rs2448 per ha) R7377, which established that accounted for 55% of the difference in costs yields from direct-seeded rice Weed identification poster produced can be comparable with those and disseminated by the project • yields did not differ signiﬁ cantly, from transplanted rice if weed resulting in a higher cost:beneﬁ t management is adequate. The from direct seeding (5.2 versus 4.8 ratio for direct-seeded rice (1.59) role of the current project was to t/ha). However, farm trials indicate than for transplanted rice (0.96). demonstrate the opportunities for that, with extension support, direct- The species composition of the direct seeding of rice to farmers seeded rice can achieve equivalent accompanying weed flora may across a wide geographical area on yields to transplanted rice across a also change with management the Indo-Gangetic Plains. range of rice cultivars in common practices. Direct seeding of rice use. is known to be accompanied by ACHIEVEMENTS Direct-seeded rice was privately a rapid shift in the weed flora, On-station experiments in Uttar- profitable for farmers, giving net with an increase in abundance of anchal, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar returns of Rs13,350 per ha for Echinochloa crus-galli, Echinochloa demonstrated that yields from dry direct-seeded and Rs11,592 colona, Ischaemum rugosum wet direct-seeded rice are broadly per ha for wet direct-seeded rice, and Leptochloa chinensis and, comparable with transplanted rice compared with Rs10,343 per ha on more freely draining soils, provided that weed management is for transplanted rice. Net labour Cyperus rotundus. The ingression effective, while yields of direct- savings with direct-seeded rice of annual grasses and perennial seeded rice tended to be about compared with transplanting sedges presents particular weed- 0.5–1 t/ha less than from averaged 27 days/ha. management problems with transplanted rice. If weeds were continuous direct seeding. Data Around Pantnagar, 46% of the not controlled, yields in direct- sets compiled have facilitated cropped area belongs to farms seeded rice were a small fraction the development of decision larger than four hectares, and these of those from transplanted rice. frameworks and will underpin the holdings incur high variable costs Highest yields were always achieved widespread application of weed- for tractors and irrigation pumps with a single herbicide application management strategies. in the rice–wheat system. With and at least one subsequent hand- market liberalisation, spiralling Farmer groups in Uttaranchal, weeding. These findings were costs are a powerful incentive Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, who validated in three states over 48 for adoption of direct-seeded previously transplanted rice, were farmers’ field trials in 2003 and 67 rice, which might not be justified introduced to options for direct- field trials in 2004. solely in terms of labour costs. The seeded rice and the related weed- In 2004, for the fourth successive incentives for adoption are likely management practices. On-farm year, at Pantnagar wet direct- to vary regionally, however. Direct trials over several seasons at these seeded rice gave the greatest seeding is usually seen as part of sites demonstrated that direct- yield: 7.1 versus 6.8 t/ha for the solution to the ‘yield problem’ seeded rice can be successful. transplanted and 5.9 t/ha for dry in the rice–wheat system. Larger- Many farmers have expressed direct-seeded. In Pantnagar District, scale farmers around Pantnagar considerable interest, and the on over 20 farms, mean yields from see the need to reduce unit costs, systems are being adopted among transplanted rice were greater than and recognise that this is possible lead farmers.

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Transplanting is labour-intensive, costly and can cause delays

A total of 13 farmer field days Azad University of Agriculture and farmers. Participatory evaluation were held, with events at each of Technology (CSA Kanpur) joined shows that savings in labour costs the partner sites (GBPUAT, NDUAT the activities on direct-seeding were less important for large-scale and RAU), and were well attended technology with independent farmers than savings in the costs of by farmers and state officials. In funding, and is keen to expand tillage and irrigation. 2004, at Patna, 700 farmers and activities. a Government Minister attended FURTHER APPLICATION The prospects for adoption of one meeting and 250 farmers direct-seeded rice in eastern A follow-on promotional project another; at Faizabad 250 farmers; India are brighter than previously with the main Indian partners and at Pantnagar 53 farmers and (GBPUAT, RAU, NDUAT and CSA) 16 scientists attended other field thought, based on an analysis will continue until January 2006 days. In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, of existing crop-management (R8409). This will address some diffusion of the direct-seeded practices for transplanted rice and of the information gaps identified rice technologies has led to farmer evaluations of on-farm trials. during the research, and develop approximately 250 ha of direct- The results show no difference in seeded rice being grown by farmers average time of transplanting by decision tools for improved weed in 2004. Leaflets and posters on the farm size, suggesting that small management. There are additional technologies for direct seeding have as well as large farms would researchable issues that could been published in English and Hindi. benefit from more timely crop usefully be pursued in a future establishment. research programme: for example, The project has established management of weeds as species Livelihood diversification through effective collaboration among shifts occur; and issues concerning seasonal migration has increased three key agricultural universities weedy rice and insecticide incentives for adoption of labour- in India, IRRI, the University of resistance. Liverpool and NRI. This enabled a saving technology, particularly multi-disciplinary team covering in the light of the ‘feminisation’ The technology options for direct- socio-economics, weed ecology of agriculture, where female seeded rice and the associated and agronomy to link effectively family members substitute for weed-management practices with regional organisations, local men. Direct-seeded rice reduces will be evaluated and promoted administrative bodies, extension the climatic risk caused by elsewhere in South Asia under the organisations and farmers’ groups, unpredictable monsoon rains. Irrigated Rice Research Consortium in order to develop effective and Reducing dependence on pump (IRRC) and the Consortium for appropriate weed-management sets and tractors for timely crop Unfavorable Rice Environments options. The Chandra Shekhar establishment will benefit poorer (CURE) of IRRI.

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Promotion of cost-effective weed-management practices for lowland rice in Bangladesh

R8234 Closing the gap between the rice yields achieved by the best farmers Charlie Riches and those with only average yields has now become a high priority Natural Resources Institute, in Bangladesh, and will largely depend on improvements in farmers’ University of Greenwich, UK management practices. This project demonstrated that improved weed- Martin Mortimer, David Johnson management practices can reduce input costs and enhance productivity International Rice Research Institute in intensive transplanted rice–rice systems in Comilla District, Bangladesh. (IRRI), the Philippines Importantly, the use of herbicides can produce benefits in the Aman as G.J. Uddin Ahmed, Md. A. Mazid, well as the Boro season. The technology is knowledge-intensive, and the Md. A. Jabber project developed innovative ways to work with the private sector and other Bangladesh Rice Research Institute organisations to disseminate relevant information more widely. Significant (BRRI) yield gains have also been shown in rice/rabi crop systems in the Barind January 2003–March 2005 Tract, through on-station and on-farm trials. A key feature of the work in this area is the focus on increasing overall system productivity. The use of direct seeding increases the opportunity for farmers to plant a rabi crop on residual moisture. Sustainable intensification of under-utilised agricultural production areas, such as those in the Barind Tract, is needed to increase national rice production and facilitate diversification into other crops. There is good potential for expanding production of rabi crops in this region. The crop-management systems promoted have good potential to ameliorate SELECTED PUBLICATIONS some of the key constraints to rice production in Bangladesh. AHMED, G.J.U. et al. (2003) Effect of ISSUES in rice production over the past different weed management systems 20 years in Bangladesh. In Comilla on weed control, plant growth To keep pace with internal District, for example, which has and grain yield of lowland rice. pp. demand in Bangladesh, it has been 84–93. In: Weed Science, Agricultural estimated that paddy production long been at the forefront of Sustainability and GMOs, Vol. 1, 19th will need to increase from the adoption of modern rice-production Asian–Pacifi c Weed Science Society current level of 22 million to practices, 80 and 100% of Aman Conference, 17–21 March 2003, 50 million tonnes by 2020, an and Boro crops, respectively (see Manila, the Philippines. Asian Pacifi c annual growth in yield of 1.5–2%. Glossary, page vii), were planted Weed Science Society. Widespread adoption of fertiliser- to modern varieties by 1999. CHOWHAN, G., ORR, A. and responsive modern varieties and Future increases in rice production RICHES, C. (2004) Partnerships to expansion of the area under will therefore also depend on improve information fl ow: herbicides irrigation have driven the increase improvements in the efficiency with in Bangladesh. pp. 230–241. In: Proceedings of a National Uptake Workshop, Dhaka, 17–18 April 2004. International Rice Research Institute, Dhaka, Bangladesh. MAZID, M., JABBER, M.A., MORTIMER, M., WADE, L., RICHES, C.R. and ORR, A.W. (2003) Improving rice-based cropping systems in north- west Bangladesh: diversifi cation and weed management. pp. 1029– 1034. In: Proceedings of the BCPC International Congress 2003. British Crop Protection Council, Alton, UK. RICHES, C.R., MBWAGA, A.M., MBAPILA, J. and AHMED, G.J.U. (2005) Improved weed management delivers increased productivity and farm incomes from rice in Bangladesh and Tanzania. Aspects of Applied Biology: Pathways out of Poverty 75: 127–138. Hand-weeding in Bangladesh

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Poster on ‘Effective control of weeds in rice’ displayed in pesticide stores in Paruara Bazaar, Comilla District

existing transplanted T-Aman, and in rice established by direct seeding. Results from the previous project (R7471) provided a platform from which to scale up validation and which inputs are used. Closing promotion of weed-management the gap between the rice yields options. This new work was achieved by the best farmers and designed to address the challenge those with only average yields of how to close the yield gap has now become a high priority. between the best on-farm yields Reducing this yield gap will largely and those of the majority of depend on improvements in growers, through the promotion farmers’ management practices. of a range of sustainable weed- Characterisation work by the management options. earlier project R7471 and needs assessments undertaken ACHIEVEMENTS independently by the Dhaka based DFID-funded Poverty Elimination On-farm trials at 20 sites over two to the development and testing of years have shown herbicide use to Through Rice Research Assistance a system that can allow farmers be a robust, effective and profitable (PETRRA) Project have confirmed to increase cropping intensity by technology under various water- that weed control is a major cost to more reliable establishment of a management scenarios in both farmers in the rice-production cycle rabi chickpea crop. This can be Aman and Boro rice in Comilla. in Bangladesh. achieved by direct seeding a short- Herbicide use was demonstrated in The High Barind Tract includes duration rice variety to reduce crop transplanted rice in collaboration 12% of the drought-prone rainfed duration to 125–130 days, thereby with the Department of Agricultural lowland rice grown in Bangladesh. releasing land when there is still Extension (DAE) at 60 sites per sufficient moisture for rabi crop Drought early in the season causes season in four upazillas (local establishment. However, weeds are delays in transplanting, while government areas) in Comilla a major constraint to adoption as an early cessation of the rains in District, south-eastern Bangladesh. the advantage of effective weed October impacts on grain filling Training of extension officers in control prior to transplanting resulting in low yields. Due to the safe, efficient use of herbicides through puddling is lost when rice the limited irrigation potential of prior to each season, and farmer is established by direct seeding. the area, there is relatively little field days, were undertaken as production of Boro (irrigated) rice There are therefore two situations components of the demonstration in the dry rabi season. Thus much in which the promotion of programme. Rice herbicide of the land lies fallow during the improved weed control can promotion by the private sector led rabi season. Work undertaken by contribute to increased rice to 43% increase in sales between BRRI over the past 12 years has led productivity in the Barind – in the 2002 and 2003.

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Both farmers and extension from herbicides and direct- workers need information seeded rice will be reduced about safe and profitable by the rapid growth of non- herbicide use, and on the farm rural employment (e.g. in integration of herbicides construction, brick fields etc.). with cultural practices. In Adoption of labour-saving collaboration with the NGO technology in rice reflects SAFE, a partnership was growing livelihood diversification developed between the NGO and the diminishing importance and the herbicide manufacturer of agricultural labour among the Syngenta, resulting in a training rural poor. manual on herbicide use that has been distributed to all FURTHER APPLICATION upazilla agricultural offices Field-scale evaluation of direct seeding by farmer in Bangladesh. The project group in Godagari upazilla: transplanted rice variety Access to knowledge is the key also raised awareness of Swarna surrounding maturing crop of BR31 direct- for farmers to take advantage information issues in the private seeded with a hand-pulled furrow-opener (lithao) of new rice-management sector through a seminar opportunities. An extension and discussions with nine to this project (R8412) will companies marketing herbicides. NGO People’s Resources Oriented consolidate knowledge and A poster covering key issues on Voluntary Association (PROVA) at make it accessible in a form safe and efficient use of herbicides 100 sites across three districts in that enhances understanding of was prepared and distributed the Barind Tract, in collaboration the new technology, promotion for display in pesticide dealers’ with a DFID Plant Sciences Research by extension, and adoption by stores throughout Comilla District, Programme-funded project working farmers. This will be achieved by making use of the Syngenta dealer on rabi crops. Herbicide use and developing a decision-support network. the modified rice/rabi system using framework that will distil research direct seeding are knowledge- findings into an interlinked set of The challenge in the drought- intensive. A shift in weed species decision tools for improved weed prone, rainfed agriculture of the abundance was observed following management of transplanted Barind Tract is simultaneously to the long-term use of direct seeding, and direct-seeded rice, and for improve the reliability and yield and control needs to be factored transition between both. There is of Aman rice, and to increase the into farmer training. Widespread scope for synergy between these area planted to drought-tolerant sustained adoption will depend on activities and project R8233 (page post-rice crops. Research trials at 25 farmers undertaking timely tillage, 173) on direct-seeded rice in India. sites and field-scale evaluation by adequate land levelling and timely farmers at 30 sites demonstrated To strengthen the knowledge application of herbicides. that dry direct seeding or wet base for decision-support seeding of pre-germinated seed In collaboration with NGOs and frameworks in rice/rabi, trials reduces the labour requirement the DAE, research partners have will evaluate different methods for crop establishment, resulting developed and promoted a range of direct seeding on a field scale in rice yields similar to, or higher of sustainable weed-management to gain more experience in field- than, conventional transplanting. options for rice. This has improved scale mechanisation. This will This system also advances harvest understanding of the agronomic, broaden understanding of the by a week to 10 days. Harvesting technical and socio-economic options available to farmers. earlier reduces the risk of terminal opportunities for productivity gains The IRRI Rice Knowledge Bank drought in rice when the monsoon in two widespread rice-based is being developed to provide ends abruptly, and increases the systems in Bangladesh. Improved a web-based resource on rice opportunity for establishing a post- weed management will benefit production, and will be the rice crop of chickpea on residual poor rice farmers and sharecroppers major route for dissemination of moisture. directly by reducing unit costs for information through a recently Field work demonstrated that rice production and, in the Barind initiated programme of rice- herbicide use is essential to Tract, enhancing land productivity technology promotion funded by facilitate direct seeding, and this and income from rabi cropping. By the EU. Outputs will be prepared further reduces rice-production helping to maintain rice productivity in a format suitable for inclusion costs. Herbicide use, to overcome growth and lower rice prices, in the Rice Knowledge Bank to late weeding due to labour improved weed management will ensure they remain available for constraints in transplanted rice, also benefit poor consumers. The use beyond the end of the CPP was demonstrated by DAE and the social costs of labour displacement project.

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Ecologically based rodent management for rice- based cropping systems in Bangladesh

R8184 This research project addressed the many impacts of rodents on rural Steven Belmain, Adrian Meyer agricultural communities in Bangladesh, and aimed to develop sustainable Natural Resources Institute, methods of managing them. Rodents have a significant effect on people’s University of Greenwich, UK livelihoods in many ways, causing damage to rice and other crops; loss and contamination of stored rice; damage to buildings; contamination of food and Nazira Quraishi Kamal and co- water supplies; and damage to personal possessions, such as clothes, fishing workers nets and furniture. Commonly recommended approaches to managing Bangladesh Rice Research Institute rodents using rodenticides are often inappropriate for rural communities, and (BRRI) have the potential to cause damage to human health and the environment. Rokeya Begum Shafali and Various appropriate rodent management methods were evaluated in co-workers villages, and significant reductions in rodent numbers were achieved through Association for Integrated community-wide intensive trapping of rats with snap traps. A number of Development Comilla, Bangladesh environmental management options were demonstrated that could lead Grant Singleton, Ken Aplin to permanent reductions in rodent populations – if they are adopted by a Commonwealth Scientific and significant proportion of households. The findings were discussed with key Industrial Research Organisation, stakeholders including the Department of Agricultural Extension, and should Australia help to reformulate existing national strategies and policies aimed at rodent Yousuf Mian and co-workers pest management and research in Bangladesh. Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute ISSUES likely to continue with urbanisation and agricultural intensification. April 2002–March 2005 Rodent pests are a serious constraint not only to agricultural In Bangladesh, although effective production of many crops, but rodent control methods exist, their also to the health of people and poor application and adaptation livestock through the spread of often results in treatment failures, communicable diseases. Rodents leading to apathy and widespread are a problem for both rich and acceptance of rodent pests in the poor, individuals and communities, environment. Without a good with disproportionately larger holistic understanding of rodent SELECTED PUBLICATIONS impacts on the rural and urban pest problems and the cost– BELMAIN, S.R. (2005) Rats in poor, who are least likely to benefits of rodent control, it can Bangladesh. Rodent Research, 19: possess the tools and knowledge be difficult to convince people that 2–4. to control them effectively. Almost control is achievable and leads to any agricultural crop can be KAMAL, N.Q. and HOSSAIN, M.M. real benefits. attacked by rodents, and they (2003) Comparison of different baits Current rodent control practices to attract rats to traps in rice ﬁ elds in are known carriers of more than Bangladesh. pp. 281–283. In: Rats, 60 life-threatening diseases, are often based on the use of Mice and People: Rodent Biology including plague and leptospirosis. rodenticides. Misuse of these and Management. Singleton, G.R., The numbers of rodent pests are poisons is unfortunately common Hinds, L.A., Krebs C.J. and Spratt, increasing worldwide, and this is in many countries, including D.M. (Eds). ACIAR Monograph Series No. 96. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research, Canberra. KAMAL, N.Q., APLIN, K., SHAFALI, R.B. et al. (2005) Ecologically based rodent management for diversiﬁ ed rice-based cropping systems. pp. 172–186. In: Proceedings of PETRRA Technology Development Workshop, 23–24 May 2004, BRRI, Gazipur, Bangladesh. Magor, N.P. (Ed.). Bangladesh Rice Research Institute, Bandicota benegalensis, the common rice field rat of South Asia (left); stored Dhaka. rice contaminated with rodent faeces (right)

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in the field. Farmers were not typically 35 kg; losses over a year able to quantify the amount would be enough to provide an of damage precisely, but they additional person’s dietary intake recognised that rodents caused per household. A further 2.5% of damage at different growing rice was partially eaten by rodents, times (e.g. seed beds, maximum significantly affecting its nutritional tillering, before harvest), and that value, and contamination with damage was more severe during rodent faeces could be as high as different seasonal crops (highest 300 droppings per kg. in the T-Aman crop). Farmers also suggested that damage variation Rodents commonly lived in between years was high, and that people’s houses, burrowing into certain areas were more prone to floors and walls and living in roof rodent damage. Research trials on voids. Damage to foundations damage phenology, which tracked regularly undermined structures, the pattern of rodent damage, causing houses to collapse showed that damage was patchy during floods. Rodent damage and usually highest in areas of was also commonly reported Rats are cooked and eaten in many fields adjacent to upland areas to granary structures, furniture, Asian and African countries (dikes, roads, the village, vegetable- utensils, clothing, fishing nets, growing areas). Rodent damage electrical wires and other personal Bangladesh, posing a threat to was strongly correlated with rodent possessions. human health, and also causing burrowing activity, particularly environmental contamination and Rural households did recognise in the field floor. Active burrow killing non-target species such as that rodents spread dirt in the counting could therefore be used as predatory birds. Used correctly, environment, and that rodents a measure to predict the potential rodenticides can be a highly are unclean. However, general severity of rodent damage, and effective tool. However, they are awareness about rodent- indices were developed. most appropriate in large-scale, transmitted diseases was intensive, high-value situations Farmers also recognised that very low among the majority where safety and accuracy can be rodents attacked a number of field of villagers. Anthropological assured. Other rodent management crops in addition to rice. Stored assessments of hygiene and food methods, involving trapping and food, particularly rice, was prone preparation methods indicated environmental management, to loss, damage and contamination that rodents have very easy are more appropriate for rural by rodents. Farmers’ estimates of access to prepared foods and agricultural situations. rice lost to rodents during storage drinking water. Controlled trials ranged from 5 to 40%. Trials indicated high contamination This project, to review the multiple were developed to measure the levels of commodities and frequent impacts of rodents on rural impact of rodents on stored rice. ingestion of cooked rice by shrews communities in Bangladesh, and to Losses over a three-month period (Suncus murinus) caught in develop and promote sustainable villages. management methods to rural per household grain store were communities and policy-makers, was funded by DFID through the CPP and the Poverty Elimination through Rice Research Assistance (PETRRA) Project.

ACHIEVEMENTS The project was based in the districts of Comilla and Feni, south- east of Dhaka. Research activities included an information-gathering phase to improve understanding of the major ecological and anthropogenic issues, and an experimental phase to test new rodent-management strategies.

Villagers clearly identified problems Livestock fodder haystacks raised above the ground to reduce the number of with rodents damaging rice rats living in them – a further beneﬁ t is shelter for poultry and goats

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Community trap-barrier systems attract rodents from large distances to an early ripening rice crop inside a fence, where they are caught in traps (left). Linear trap-barrier systems stop rodents migrating (right) (photos: Ken Aplin)

Farmers did use traps and observed with regard to rodent A workshop was held with invited anticoagulant poisons to control breeding and population dynamics. participants from a number of NGOs rodents. Rodent control was Compared with two villages and the Department of Agricultural almost always done by individuals, without interventions, intensive Extension (DAE) to disseminate with no efforts to coordinate trapping reduced the rodent findings and discuss how activities with neighbours. It was generally population by 75%. Independent could be more widely adopted. The accepted by farmers that any monitoring with tracking tiles DAE-sponsored IPM farmer groups benefits of their control activities confirmed that rodent activity had throughout the country are an were temporary. Control was been reduced by approximately important organisational structure almost always carried out when 50% through trapping. Post- for the dissemination of agricultural damage levels and rodent harvest losses were reduced by knowledge. Regional roadshows populations were high, and over more than 60%, with even greater coordinated by the International a short period. Farmers generally reductions in contamination levels Rice Research Institute served as a planted one row of rice for rodents of stored food. platform to disseminate the project to every 10 rows planted for findings, as has the BRRI Rice themselves as a means of coping Trials with farmer diaries provided Knowledge Bank. It was concluded with rodent losses. further information on the financial that the DAE’s existing national and time costs spent on various strategy for rodent control (tail Trials to monitor rodent population rodent-related activities (repairing collection during a single month of dynamics and breeding rates in a houses, irrigation canals, rice field the year when rodent populations number of distinct habitats (rice bunds and granaries; rodenticide are highest) should be abolished, fields, houses, vegetable plots, usage; cleaning houses, etc). not only because it is ineffective, but ponds, roadsides) showed no Intensive community trapping also because tail collection would discernible effect of existing control saved time and money compared encourage the use of acute poisons strategies on reducing the rodent with the non-intervention villages. as opposed to anticoagulants. population or damage levels. Trials were initiated to demonstrate Rodent breeding was correlated aspects of the environment that FURTHER APPLICATION with seasonal food availability, and could be modified to reduce The research results are being the only population reduction was rodents’ access. These included attributed to widespread flooding adapted during an extension to the simple measures such as improving project (R8424) to determine their in the monsoon season. This hygiene standards, proofing indicated that existing practices robustness for more widespread fruit trees (particularly coconut), uptake by institutions and rural were largely a waste of time and and modifying granaries and money. agricultural communities. A training haystacks to reduce rodent access. and dissemination model has been Intensive village-wide trapping trials Monitoring trials indicated desirable developed to reach new villages and with snap traps, and a loan system effects, and modifications were involve staff from NGOs and the for live traps, were initiated in two being adopted independently by DAE, which is now actively engaged villages. Significant changes were other village members. in adopting the project outputs.

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IPM of major insect pests of potatoes in the Cochabamba region of Bolivia

R8044 Andean potato is the principal staple food for Bolivians, providing Rayne Calderón, Javier Franco, 30–50% of the total calories consumed by rural highland households. Luis Crespo It is grown nationally by around 400,000 small-farm families. For many Fundación ‘Promoción e farmers, potatoes are not only their food staple but also their principal cash Investigación de Productos crop. Among major problems limiting yields are Andean potato weevils Andinos’ (PROINPA), Bolivia (estimated annual losses US$240–460 per ha) and potato tuber moths Jesús Alcazar (estimated annual losses US$300–500 per ha). Current control practices Centro Internacional de la Papa depend on highly toxic pesticides applied with little or no protective (CIP), Perú equipment, with substantial adverse impacts on health and the environment. David Hall, David Grzywacz This project aimed to improve approaches to controlling potato tuber moth Natural Resources Institute (NRI), using entomopathogenic viruses, and to develop traps for Andean potato University of Greenwich, UK weevils based on pheromones and other semiochemicals. September 2001–August 2004 ISSUES effective for control but poses a great risk to health. Potatoes are commonly grown in hillside production systems PROINPA, in partnership with CIP where yields are low due to a and other collaborators, previously complex of factors including developed and commercialised the weeds, nematodes, pests and granulosis virus product ‘Matapol’ diseases, as well as poor soils and for control of P. operculella. This erosion. Within this complex, shows efficient control higher potato insect pests have a major than 90%, allowing farmers to impact on farmers’ livelihoods. save 50% of the cost of seed The two most important insect protection. However, the current pests are the Andean potato powder formulation of ‘Matapol’ weevils (Premnotrypes spp. is only suitable for treating SELECTED PUBLICATIONS and Rhigopsidius pierceii), no small quantities of tubers, and longer limited to the south of there is a perceived need to CALDERÓN, R., FRANCO, J., CRESPO, develop a new liquid emulsifiable L., LINO, V. and FIGUEROA, E.I. Bolivia, and the potato tuber concentrate formulation. ‘Matapol’ (2004) Principales Plagas del Cultivo moths Phthorimaea operculella is not effective against the more de la Papa en Bolivia. Fundación and Symmetrischema tangolias. aggressive potato tuber moth PROINPA, Cochabamba, Bolivia (in Farmers attempt to control Andean S. tangolias, which has now spread Spanish). potato weevil using two or three to all the main potato-growing CALDERÓN, R., OLIVERA, J. and applications of toxic pesticides, areas. CRESPO, L. (2004) Guía del Maestro- but spraying is often untimely and Segundo Ciclo (5 y 6 Grado) dosages are inappropriate so that ACHIEVEMENTS –Educación Para el Medio Ambiente. control is not very effective. In the Fundación PROINPA, Cochabamba, case of potato tuber moth, some A new liquid formulation of the Bolivia (in Spanish). farmers dust potatoes in store P. operculella granulosis virus was CALDERÓN, R., OLIVERA J. and with phosphorates, which can be developed at NRI and evaluated CRESPO, L. (2004) Cuaderno del Alumno-Segundo Ciclo (5 y 6 Grado) – Educación Para el Medio Ambiente. Fundación PROINPA, Cochabamba, Bolivia (in Spanish). CRESPO, L., HALL, D. and DOWNHAM, M. (2004) Búsqueda As women and de atractantes para el Gorgojo de children are often los Andes. In: Tercer Congreso de la responsible for Asociación Boliviana de Protección potato growing in Vegetal, 21–23 Septiembre 2004, Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Fundación Cochabamba, the PROINPA, Cochabamba, Bolivia (in project targeted Spanish) (abstract). schools

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Farmers examining and assessing the potato crop, Cochabamba (photo: Andre Devaux)

at various rates in storage developed to evaluate natural started on educating children in situations in Bolivia. High levels and synthetic attractants. No rural schools in IPM of potato of pest infestation were achieved, evidence was found for intraspecific pests, using specially designed but there was little reduction in pheromonal communication in any textbooks. Children and women damage to the crop, probably of the species. However, weevils are often responsible for potato because the virus is too slow- were strongly attracted to volatiles cultivation, and schools provide acting. The effectiveness of the extracted from potato leaves. The 44 an untapped opportunity for ‘Matapol’ formulation was shown main components in the collection introducing large numbers of to be due, at least in part, to its of volatiles were identified, and children to the concepts of IPM at kaolin base. There are possibilities two were found to elicit responses an early age. for improving this formulation from weevils. Dispensing systems further with a faster-acting strain were developed and evaluated in FURTHER APPLICATION laboratory and field bioassays. In the of the virus. For tuber moths, a further project laboratory the synthetic compounds (R8443) has continued to improve PROINPA assisted scientists from NRI tended to be repellent, probably the formulation of P. operculella and CIP in collecting S. tangolias because the dose was too high, but granulosis virus, and to process the to search for a pathogenic virus in the field they were as attractive as large number of S. tangolias larvae that could be used for control of potato leaves. this species, as has been done for collected, in an attempt to identify P. operculella. Over 3000 samples The project also carried out a potential virus for control of this of potentially infected larvae were a baseline survey of farmers’ species. Despite the initial setback collected and these are still being perceptions of pests and diseases of not finding pheromones for the processed at CIP, although to date of potatoes in three communities. weevils, considerable progress has no virus specific for S. tangolias has Results showed that Andean been made in identifying attractive been found. potato weevil and potato tuber components of the host plants, and moths were perceived as the work is now needed to optimise PROINPA, NRI and CIP carried out most important potato pests. IPM the attractiveness of traps and to work on identifying attractants for training days were carried out in explore their use with farmers. A the Andean potato weevil species these communities. Courses were future goal is to set up a commercial P. latithorax, P. suturicallus and conducted largely in quechua and pilot facility for the production of R. piercei. Laboratory bioassays were attended by men, women traps and lures based on host-plant and field trapping systems were and children. Work was also volatile attractants.

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Strengthening technical innovation systems in potato-based agriculture in Bolivia (INNOVA)

R8182 The INNOVA project has its origin in earlier DFID agricultural research André Devaux, Graham Thiele, and development in Bolivia. One of the main achievements has been Claudio Velasco to develop, with groups of farmers, an integrated set of mechanisms Centro Internacional de la Papa to link technology demand and supply, and to evaluate potential new (CIP), Peru techniques. These methods include: informal surveys (sondeos) to assess Antonio Gandarillas farmers’ technology demands; technology fairs for evaluating potential Fundación ‘Promoción e new technologies; local feedback meetings, and municipal evaluation Investigación de Productos committees. Participatory methods were developed to involve farmers Andinos’ (PROINPA), Bolivia in the evaluation of technological innovation projects supported by the Bolivian competitive funding system. Research outputs that were validated Gustavo Pereira and promoted included: animal traction tillage implements; new forage Centro de Investigacion de crops; methods of improving soil conservation; and weed, pest and disease Agricultura Tropical (CIAT), Bolivia management in different potato-growing systems. The project also focused Juan Villaroel on institutional mechanisms to link demand with supply in potato-marketing Universidad Mayor de San Simón chains. Project innovations include quality standards for chunio (dehydrated (UMSS), Bolivia potato); native, coloured potato crisps; and fresh native potatoes selected April 2002–March 2005 and bagged for supermarkets.

ISSUES developing an integrated project to address various problems affecting INNOVA builds on agricultural smallholders in the mid-Andean research carried out in Bolivia in valleys. Such problems include the 1990s with support from DFID. pests (e.g. R8044, page 182), A review of activities in Bolivia in diseases and weeds; soil erosion SELECTED PUBLICATIONS 2000 concluded that an integrated and declining soil fertility; lack BENTLEY, F., THIELE, G., OROS, R. crop management project should of fodder; and labour shortages. and VELASCO, C. (2004) Cinderella’s be developed to bring together Several possible lines of action slipper: sondeo surveys and and disseminate results of research were identified. It was believed technology fairs for gauging implicit already carried out in potato-based demand. AgREN Network Paper No. farming systems, to enhance the that inadequate dissemination and 138. Overseas Development Institute, impact of this research for poor uptake of research results were London. 20 pp. farmers. As a result of the 2000 key weaknesses of some past PAPA ANDINA/INNOVA (2004) review, DFID invited Papa Andina, research. To concentrate efforts Articulando demanda y oferta a CIP-hosted regional programme and for maximum impact, the tecnológica. La Experiencia del that promotes strategic alliances for participating organisations should Proyecto INNOVA – Bolivia. Memoria agricultural innovation in Bolivia, operate together in a few farming del Taller de Evaluación Horizontal, communities, in partnership with Cochabamba, Bolivia. CIP, Lima, Peru. Ecuador and Peru, to organise a municipalities and farmers. Fundacion PROINPA, Cochabamba, project planning workshop in June Bolivia. 2001. The INNOVA project’s main PROINPA (2005): There was strong support from objectives were therefore to Producción de forrajes asociados DFID’s Bolivian research partners for expand and improve the use of Aporque mejorado con equipos de tracción animal Gorgojo de los Andes: Cómo vive y crece Cómo controlar el Gorgojo de los Andes Calidad de Papa para Chips Producción de semilla de papa de calidad (technical posters and leaﬂ ets). Fundacion PROINPA, Consistent use of distinctive colours, name and logo (left) helped make Cochabamba, Bolivia. INNOVA easily identifiable by information users; logo for Website: www.proinpa.org native potatoes (right)

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Women of the technology evaluation group in Pomposillo, La Paz (Altiplano), showing potato varieties under evaluation (photo: André Devaux, finalist in ‘Positive Developments: a photographic exhibition by NR International in association with The Eden Project’) research information generated ACHIEVEMENTS de Tecnologia Agropecuaria with support from DFID; to validate (SIBTA)’s service providers, are keen and promote existing technologies; The relevance of existing and to give INNOVA’s products a try. to improve mechanisms to link new information generated by Partners’ information management technology supply with the needs DFID projects was promoted to and production capabilities have of small-scale farmers; and to national and regional researchers, been strengthened. develop mechanisms linking development institutions, policy- To identify small-scale farmers’ farmers to markets. A consortium makers, donors and other potential technology needs, an integrated set of three research organisations users. A database was created of mechanisms was established to – the PROINPA Foundation, CIAT for the storage and distribution link supply and demand, including: (Santa Cruz) and UMSS – was of information generated by formed to implement the project Bolivian research partners, and • informal surveys or ‘demand in three agro-ecological zones: the made available on CD-ROM and sondeos’ to assess farmers’ technology needs low valleys of Santa Cruz, the high via an INNOVA website (www. • technology fairs to gauge valleys of Cochabamba, and the proinpa.org/innova/index.htm). farmers’ responses to new Central Altiplano of La Paz. INNOVA’s communication strategy technologies was to focus on three target • retro-information, or local groups, and determine their needs feedback meetings for information, dissemination • municipal ‘committees with channels, formats and frequency teeth’ of use. INNOVA has created a • methods developed jointly distinctive project trademark, used with the Fomentando Cambios consistently in every information (Promoting Changes, FOCAM) product produced by the project. Project to involve farmers Visibility and positioning of the in preparing, adjusting and INNOVA-developed products have evaluating technological been achieved, and different target innovation projects in SIBTA and All previous project results are groups, especially the Ministry of ensure relevance to the poorest available on CD Agriculture and El Sistema Boliviano farmers.

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Technology How it changed Methods that helped

1. Improved fallow Plough the soil, plant in good soil and with oats instead of Technology fair, GET, Festuca. Irrigate and fertilise feedback

2. Grains-plus- Farmers like to produce vetch seed, which some have been GET, feedback, technology legumes able to do in the higher, colder areas of Cochabamba fair, MIPITA

3. New fodders Included with technologies 1, 2 and 4 Technology fair, GET, CIAL, MIPITA

4 Phalaris grass Planted in whole fields on the Altiplano. People in the valleys Feedback, GET, technology are still adopting it fair

5. Chicken manure for Place the manure in the bottom of the furrow instead of CIAL nematode control broadcasting it, to keep it out of one’s eyes

6. Potato IPM Soap and detergent to control insect vectors. Fungicides and GET, CIAL, MIPITA, insecticides are still under study. Control of moths in stores technology fair created from scratch 7. Herbicide for purple Abandoned Technology fair nut sedge

8. Improved tillage Invented high tillage, and a new plough to do it with Technology fair GET, MIPITA, CIAL

9. Adoption of Extended implements, but also invented the multiple mountain Back-and-forth, GET, CIAL, implements plough technology fair, MIPITA

10. Home remedies Abandoned Technology fair, short for cows courses in communities

GET: Grupo Evaluador de Tecnología (Technology Evaluating Group); CIAL: Comité de Investigación Agrícola Local (Local Agricultural Research Committee); MIPITA: Modelo Innova de Proyecto de Innovación Tecnológica Agrícola (Innova model of: Agricultural Technological Innovation Project).

A second aim of the project was to validate technologies developed through research previously supported by DFID. The project team evaluated about 30 technologies, and farmers have shown considerable interest in several of them. Animal-drawn tillage implements, including reversible and multiple- use ploughs, were adapted with farmers for potato-growing systems on the Altiplano, and adoption and sales of animal tillage implements in the valleys were enhanced. New forage crops were validated and promoted to increase the productivity of draught animals, conserve soil, and manage weeds and pests in the potato-growing Don Raúl engages the audience at a technology fair systems of the highlands.

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Objectives Participants Leading institution

Phase 1 To get to know the different market chain actors, their activities, interests, ideas, Interest Leadership problems, etc.

Phase 2 To analyse in a participatory manner potential market Tr ust Facilitation opportunities

Phase 3 To implement joint innovations: • new market products Collaboration Backstopping • new technologies • new institutions

Objectives and phases of the participatory market chain approach

An integrated strategy to manage Another important achievement FUTURE APPLICATION potato diseases was validated, of the project was bringing promoted and used by farmers together three research and Coordination is ongoing with in the low valleys in Bolivia, to development organisations. In other initiatives in Bolivia [DFID’s improve productivity and tuber the past these organisations all Fortaleciendo la Innovación quality. promoted technical innovation in Institucional (Strenghtening potato-based farming systems, Institutional Innovation, FIT) INNOVA also sponsored innovative but worked in relative isolation. Programme and the FOCAM studies of competitiveness in the Helping professionals from project] and at Andean regional national potato market chain, different institutions to work in level (Papa Andina/CIP) to promote broadening the concept of the same locations on a common INNOVA’s outputs in a broader demand-led research to include research agenda has improved context with other partners. the needs of others (in addition their efficiency, allowing them to to farmers) in the market chain. While INNOVA was conceived to share their ideas and talents to link Participatory studies identified fit the Bolivian context, valuable technology supply and demand on opportunities for adding value in lessons and outputs could be behalf of poor farmers. potato chains in three regions. applied elsewhere. For example, a INNOVA’s three case studies helped new project of DFID’s Crop Post- adapt the participatory market- Harvest Research Programme chain approach (see diagram and implemented with CIP will above), generating innovations in synthesise and share proven four market segments: research outputs on the market- chain approach with R&D • quality norms established for institutions in Uganda. chuño and for tunta products (dehydrated potato traditionally CIP and CIAT are currently processed) developing a new project, which • a stakeholder platform formed will build on the best of INNOVA, for the development of chuño/ FOCAM and the FIT Programme to tunta products for which there is strengthen capacity in SIBTA and public demand promote the sharing of lessons • native, coloured potato chips learned, both across Latin America developed Innovative products include Lucana: and with East Africa. Papa Andina • fresh native potatoes bagged for naturally coloured native potato is also looking for additional supermarkets. chips funding from other donors.

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Evolution within Bemisia tabaci and associated begomoviruses: a strategic modelling approach

R8222 The whitefly Bemisia tabaci, and the begomoviruses of which it is a Frank van den Bosch vector, can evolve into newly adapted types on a timescale relevant to Rothamsted Research, UK agriculture, severely hampering the development of sustainable agriculture. Mike Jeger This modelling project aimed to identify the potential consequences of Imperial College London, UK pest- and disease-management measures on evolution in B. tabaci and in begomoviruses. This work has shown that it is possible to distinguish Inez Demon components of crop resistance that put selection pressure on the virus to Centro Internacional de Agricultura evolve more harmful strains. With further studies, it should be possible to Tropical (CIAT), Colombia develop methods for selecting resistant cultivars, and to select crop- and October 2002–March 2005 disease-management methods that do not provoke the virus to evolve into more harmful variants. The evolutionary dynamics of the whitefly B. tabaci caused by crop and pest management depends, to a large extent, on its life-history parameters that undergo evolutionary change. Research into evolving life-history traits in B. tabaci should be a key area for future research. Preliminary work was caried out on the links between the molecular genetics of begomoviruses and the epidemiology of the diseases they cause. This modelling study has produced information central to further development of disease-management strategies that will not provoke the virus to evolve into more harmful types.

known about the effect of ISSUES control measures on evolution Bemisia tabaci – the main whitefly within the species complex. pest species in the tropics – severely Any B. tabaci control measure reduces yields by direct damage will exert selection pressure on through feeding, and indirectly the species complex, and may through the transmission of viruses. induce evolutionary change. For example, yield losses of cassava Sustainable production systems in Africa have been estimated can be developed only via control at 15–24% of total production, strategies that do not provoke which amounts to an annual loss of the evolution of more damaging SELECTED PUBLICATIONS US$1.3–2.3 billion. Annual cotton (bio)types. In the light of growing JEGER, M.J., SEAL, S.E. and VAN losses in Pakistan were estimated awareness of the highly dynamic DEN BOSCH, F. (2006) Evolutionary at US$1 billion between 1992 and nature of the species complex, epidemiology of plant virus disease. 1997. Comparable losses have strategic insight is needed into Advances in Virus Research (in press). been reported for sweet potato, its evolutionary change and the SEAL, S.E., VAN DEN BOSCH, F. tomato, cucumber, melon and resulting consequences for whitefly and JEGER, M.J. (2006) Factors beans. In the past two decades, dynamics, whitefly-transmitted infl uencing Begomovirus evolution worldwide upsurges in B. tabaci virus epidemiology, and sustainable and their increasing global populations have resulted in an disease management. signifi cance: implications for increase in a range of tropical and The begomovirus grouping is sustainable control. Critical Reviews in subtropical whitefly-transmitted Plant Science (in press). also a dynamic species complex, diseases. The B. tabaci-transmitted from which ‘new’ viruses emerge. SEAL, S.E., JEGER, M.J. and VAN DEN begomoviruses have become Dramatic examples of the BOSCH, F. (2006) Research priorities recognised as emergent pathogens emergence of new virus types are to assist understanding the factors in a range of agro-ecosystems the recent epidemics of cassava controlling the global emergence worldwide. of whitefl y-transmitted diseases. mosaic disease in West Africa, Advances in Virus Research (in press). Bemisia tabaci adapts readily to and cotton leaf curl in Pakistan new host plants and regions. and India. Evidence suggests that VAN DEN BOSCH, F., AKUDIBILAH, the number of tomato-infecting G., SEAL, S. and JEGER, M.J. (2006) Evidence suggests that B. tabaci is Host resistance and the evolutionary a highly dynamic species complex begomoviruses increased from response of plant viruses. Journal of that is presently undergoing three in 1970 to 17 in the 1990s. Applied Ecology (in press). evolutionary change. Little is The effect of selection imposed by

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Using the adaptive dynamics methodology of evolutionary ecology, this work has demonstrated the following. • Whether new (bio)types will evolve depends strongly on the trait under evolution. This result is unexpected, and has attracted the attention of the evolutionary ecology and whitefl y research communities. • When feeding rate is the evolving trait, new (bio)types can evolve when a newly introduced crop reaches a critical acreage. When food conversion effi ciency is the evolving trait, and no whitefl ies are brought in with the new crop, no new (bio)type New CMD on upper leaves of cassava (left); severe CMD (right) will evolve. (photos: James Legg) • Although there are other very good reasons for intercropping, begomovirus management on the particular cropping mixtures on no difference was found evolution of new virus types/species virus genetic diversity. between large monocultures is presently unknown. A model was formulated and and intercropping systems in Previous work on whitefly and analysed to study the evolution exerting evolutionary pressure whitefly-transmitted virus disease of B. tabaci (bio)types under the for the evolution of whitefl y management has focused on influence of the introduction of (bio)types. specific problems in restricted a new crop or variety; the use of The project studied, among geographical regions, with less pesticides; and the structure of other questions, the evolutionary attention being paid to strategic the cropping system, comparing consequences of introducing concepts of management. The large-scale monocultures with resistant and tolerant cultivars. aim of this project was to provide intercropping. Three life-history traits A model has been developed to a strategic analysis to identify the that might undergo evolution were analyse the effects of introducing potential consequences of pest- studied: the feeding rate of whitefly a resistant cultivar on the evolution and disease-management measures on the crop species/varieties; the of the virus titre built up in the on short-term evolution of B. tabaci efficiency of conversion of food into plant. Four types of resistance/ and begomoviruses in cropping offspring; and the death rate of tolerance mechanism have been systems of developing countries. whitefly on each crop. distinguished. When the virus has ACHIEVEMENTS Harvest and death Harvest and death A review of the literature identified that begomovirus genetic diversity Planting Planting is extremely complex, and there is still much to be answered about how the different genomic Host plant 1 Host plant 2 components and satellite molecules

interact. The vector populations are Feeding Feeding Reproduction also more diverse than previously realised, and more research is Whitefly Whitefly needed on how this diversity affects group 1 Migration group 2 the evolution of more virulent

begomovirus strains/species. The Reproduction review has identified the most pressing research needs in this area, together with studies on Death Death the control of host-gene silencing of virus genes, and the effects of Schematic representation of the model, showing the relationship between host plants and whiteflies

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attainable range for the virus under consideration. Finally, the time the virus takes to evolve towards a new evolutionarily stable virus-multiplication rate is also important. While this work does not suggest that tolerant and virus titre-reducing cultivars have no contribution to make to the management of virus diseases, it does suggest that there are potential problems with the use of such cultivars that need to be considered to maximise the effectiveness of resistance. The inoculation-resistant and acquisition-resistant cultivars do not have such problems.

FURTHER APPLICATION The project’s findings have been passed on to researchers of the Consultative Group on International Bemisia tabaci affects over 600 host species worldwide (photo: Stephen Agricultural Research collaborative Ausmus, courtesy of US Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Tropical Whitefly IPM Project Service, www.ars.usda.gov) (www.tropicalwhiteflyipm project.cgiar.org). During the had sufficient time to adapt to the yield gain due to the tolerance IX International Plant Virus resistance, two groups of effects of the plants, and the yield Epidemiology Symposium (Lima, of using resistant cultivars on the reduction due to the increased Peru, April 2005), a workshop was dynamics of the disease are found. virus titre. For plants expressing held to discuss the work further virus titre-reducing resistance, the The first group, including and develop future research plans. evolutionary response of the virus inoculation resistance and causes the within-plant virus titre to There is, however, very little acquisition resistance, does not evolve back to the titre of the non- research developing to elucidate put a selection pressure on the resistant cultivar from which it was the links between molecular virus. This suggests that the derived. Also, the density of healthy genetics of begomoviruses and the virus titre in infected plants does plants will evolve back towards the epidemiological characteristics of not change; also, the density density of a non-resistant cultivar. the diseases caused by these viruses, of healthy plants in the system The cultivars from this second or into evolving life-history traits in increases. This means that yield group are thus not durable, in the B. tabaci. These should be key future loss due to the disease will sense that they put an evolutionary research areas. not change when inoculation- pressure on the virus, which might With further studies it should be resistant or acquisition-resistant reduce the effectiveness of the possible to develop methods for cultivars are used. These types tolerance/resistance. of resistance are good candidate the selection of resistant cultivars, disease-management methods for Whether tolerant and virus and to select crop- and disease- sustainable agricultural systems. titre-reducing cultivars have a management methods that do contribution to make depends on not provoke the virus to evolve The second group, including a number of factors. A tolerant into more harmful variants. Future tolerance and virus titre-reducing cultivar might still have a positive work needs to concentrate on the resistance, do put a selection effect on yield, even when the virus robustness of the present findings pressure on the virus to evolve has evolved a new evolutionarily for other evolving virus traits; to towards higher virus multiplication stable strategy, simply because develop experimental methodologies rates. For tolerant cultivars, this the tolerance provides a sufficient to dissect the contribution of various suggests that the plant virus amount of additional damage types of crop resistance in resistant titre increases. Whether this has reduction. Or it could be that cultivars; and to develop selection a negative effect on crop yield the evolutionarily stable virus- programmes based on these depends on the balance between multiplication rate is outside the methods.

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Acronyms and abbreviations

AAU Assam Agricultural University, India ABC armoured bush cricket ACMV African cassava mosaic virus ADB Asian Development Bank AEATRI Agricultural Engineering and Appropriate Technology Research Institute, Uganda AFLP amplified fragment length polymorphism AHI African Highland Initiative, Uganda AID-Comilla Association for Integrated Development Comilla, Bangladesh ANGRAU Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University, India APEP Agricultural Productivity and Extension Project, Uganda (formerly IDEA) ARC Agricultural Research Council, South Africa AREX Department of Agricultural Research and Extension, Zimbabwe ARI Agricultural Research Institute, Tanzania ARM Athi River Mining, Kenya ASARECA Association for Strengthening Agricultural Research in Eastern and Central Africa ASDP Agricultural Sector Development Programme, Tanzania ATNESA Animal Traction Network for Eastern and Southern Africa AT-Uganda Appropriate Technology-Uganda AVRDC The World Vegetable Center (formerly Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center) BARI Bangladesh Agricultural Research Institute BCPC British Crop Production Council BGM Botrytis grey mould BRRI Bangladesh Rice Research Institute Bt Bacillus thuringiensis BUCADEF Buganda Cultural and Development Foundation, Uganda CABI ARC CAB International Africa Regional Centre, Kenya CBO community-based organisation CBSD cassava brown streak disease CEH Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, UK CFC Common Fund for Commodities CGIAR Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (International Center for Tropical Agriculture), Colombia CIAT Centro de Investigacion Agricola Tropical (Center for Research in Tropical Agriculture), Bolivia CILSS Comité Permanent Inter-Etats de Lutte Contre la Sécheresse dans le Sahel CIMMYT Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maiz y Trigo (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center), Mexico CIP Centro Internacional de la Papa (International Potato Center), Peru CIRAD Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement, France CISH Central Institute for Subtropical Horticulture, India CMD cassava mosaic disease CMGs cassava mosaic geminiviruses COARD Client Oriented Agricultural Research and Dissemination project, Uganda COLEACP Europe–Africa/Caribbean/Pacific Liaison Comité (Comité de Liaison Europe–Afrique/Caraïbes/Pacifique) CORI Coffee Research Institute, Uganda CPHP Crop Post-Harvest Programme, DFID CRI Crops Research Institute, Ghana CRIG Cocoa Research Institute, Ghana CRIN Cocoa Research Institute, Nigeria CSIRO Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Australia CSL Central Science Laboratory, UK CURE Consortium for Unfavorable Rice Environments, IRRI

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DAE Department of Agricultural Extension, Bangladesh DANIDA Danish International Development Agency DAP draught animal power DAR Department of Agricultural Research, Botswana DAS-ELISA double-antibody sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay DFID Department for International Development, UK DRC Democratic Republic of Congo EACMV East African cassava mosaic virus ECABREN Eastern and Central Africa Bean Research Network ECAMAW Eastern and Central Africa Maize and Wheat research network of ASARECA ECARSAM Eastern and Central African Research on Sorghum and Millet Network EIA environmental impact assessment ELISA enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay EMBRAPA Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa Agropecuária, Brazil EU European Union EUMESAT European Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorolgical Statelites EUREP Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group EZCORE Eastern Zone Client Oriented Research and Extension Project, Tanzania FAO Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, Italy FFAI Food For All International, Nigeria FFS farmer field school FIPS-Africa Farm Input Promotions-Africa Ltd, Kenya FIT Fortaleciendo la Innovacion [Strengthening Institutional Innovation] FOCAM Fomentando Cambios [Promoting Changes] GAP Good Agricultural Practices GAU Gujarat Agricultural University, India GBPUAT GB Pant University of Agriculture and Technology, India GIS geographic information systems GLS grey leaf spot (of maize) GOAN Ghana Organic Agriculture Network GOES geo-stationary earth-orbiting satellite GTZ Deutches Gesellscaft für Technische Zusammenarbeit, Germany HearNPV Helicoverpa armigera nucleo-polyhedrovirus HIMA Hifadhi Mazingiira (Conserve the Environment) IARC International agricultural research centre IARI Indian Agricultural Research Institute ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research ICIPE International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology ICM integrated crop management ICOSAMP Information Core for Southern African Migrant Pests ICRAF World Agroforestry Centre (formerly International Centre for Research in Agroforestry, Kenya) ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics, India IDEA Investing in the Development of Export Agriculture Project, Uganda (now APEP) IFAD International Fund for Agricultural Development IIHR Indian Institute of Horticultural Research IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Nigeria IIVR Indian Institute of Vegetable Research ILRI International Livestock Research Institute, Kenya INADES- Formation Institut Africain pour le Développement Economique et Social – Centre Africain de Formation, Tanzania INCOPED International Permanent Working Group for Cocoa Pests and Diseases INIA Instituto Nacional de Investigacão Agronómica (National Institute for Agronomic Research), Mozambique INNOVA Strengthening technical innovation systems in potato-based agriculture in Bolivia INRAB Institut National des Recherches Agicoles du Bénin (National Institute for Agricultural Research, Bénin) IOBC International Organization for Biological and Integrated Control IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resources Institute, Italy IPM integrated pest management IPPM integrated pest and production management

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IR imidazolinone-resistant (maize) IRAD Institut de Recherche Agricole pour le Développement, Cameroun (Institute of Agricultural Research for Development) IRLCO-CSA International Red Locust Control Organisation for Central and Southern Africa IRM insecticide resistance management IRRC Irrigated Rice Research Consortium IRRI International Rice Research Institute ITK indigenous technical knowledge KAPP Kenya Agricultural Productivity Project KARI Kenya Agricultural Research Institute KASPPA Kapchorwa Seed Potato Producers’ Association, Uganda KATC Kilimanjaro Agricultural Training Centre, Tanzania KATRIN Kilombero Agricultural Training and Research Institute, Tanzania KAU Kerala Agricultural University, India KEPHIS Kenya Plant Health Inspection Service KFRI Kerala Forest Research Institute, India KIOF Kenya Institute of Organic Farming LPP Livestock Production Programme, DFID MERCOSUR Common Market of the Southern Cone MIP Maize Improvement Programme, Tanzania MoAC Ministry of Agriculture and Cooperatives, Nepal MSV maize streak virus MSVD maize streak virus disease MUK Makerere University Kampala, Uganda NAADS National Agricultural Advisory Service, Uganda NAARI Namulonge Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute, Uganda NARC Nepal Agricultural Research Council NARES national agricultural research and extension services NARI Naliendele Agricultural Research Institute, Tanzania NARL National Agricultural Research Laboratory, KARI, Kenya NARO National Agricultural Research Organisation, Uganda NARS national agricultural research systems NCAP National Centre for Agricultural Economics and Policy Research NDUAT Narendra Deva University of Agriculture and Technology, India NGO non-governmental organisation NPA Norwegian People’s Aid NRI Natural Resources Institute, University of Greenwich, UK OB occlusion bodies OBEPAB Organisation Béninoise pour la Promotion de l’Agriculture Biologique, (Organisation for the Promotion of Biological Agriculture, Bénin) PABRA Pan-African Bean Research Alliance PADEP Participatory Development and Empowerment Project, Tanzania PC production committee PCR polymerase chain reaction PCS Pest Control Service, Tanzania PDC parish development committee PETRRA Poverty Elimination Through Rice Research Assistance PlxyGV Plutella xylostella granulovirus PNC penicillinase [detection system] PPRI Plant Protection Research Institute, AREX, Zimbabwe PPRI Plant Protection Research Institute, South Africa PPSMV pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus PPSMVD pigeonpea sterility mosaic virus disease PRA participatory rural appraisal PRAPACE Programme Regional d’Amelioration de la Pomme de Terre et de la Patate Douce en Afrique Centrale et de l’Est, Uganda (Regional Potato and Sweetpotato Improvement Network in Eastern and Central Africa) PREA participatory research and extension approach PROINPA Fundación ‘Promoción e Investigación de Productos Andinos’ (PROINPA), Bolivia

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PRONAF Programa Nacional de Fortalecimento da Agricultura Familiar PROVA People’s Resources Oriented Voluntary Association, Bangladesh PSMD pigeonpea sterility mosaic disease PxGV Plutella xylostella granulovirus RAU Rajendra Agricultural University, India RDT Rural Development Trust, India REFSO Rural Energy and Food Security Organization, Kenya RFLP restriction fragment length polymorphism RNRRS Renewable Natural Resources Research Strategy, DFID RT–PCR reverse transcription–polymerase chain reaction SAARI Serere Agricultural and Animal Production Research Institute, NARO, Uganda SABRN Southern African Bean Research Network, Malawi SADC Southern African Development Community SAFFN South Asia Fruit Fly Network SARRNET Southern Africa Root crops Research Network SCFT Smallholder Coffee Farmers Trust, Malawi SCRI Scottish Crop Research Institute SGRR(PG) Sri Guru Ram Rai (Post Graduate) College of Hemwati Nandan Bahguna Garhwal University, India SIBTA El Sistema Boliviano de Tecnologia Agropecuaria [Bolivian competitive funding system] SMEs small and medium-sized enterprises SpexNPV Spodoptera exempta nucleopolyhedrovirus SPS seed-plot system SPVD sweet potato virus disease SRI Sugarcane Research Institute, Tanzania STAAD Society for Transforming Agriculture and Alternatives in Development, India STCP Sustainable Tree Crops Programme, Cameroon TME tropical Manihot esculenta series TMS tropical Manihot species ToLCVD tomato leaf curl virus disease TSBF-CIAT Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Institute, CIAT, Kenya UASB University of Agricultural Sciences Bangalore, India UMSS Universidad Mayor de San Simon (San Simón University), Bolivia UNBRP Uganda National Banana Research Programme UPOV Union Internationale pour la Protection des Obtentions Vegetales (International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants) USAID United States Agency for International Development VIC village information centre VITA A Vitamin A Initiative for Africa WADI Windows Armyworm Database Interface [software] Warwick HRI [formerly Horticulture Research International] WHO World Health Organization Xcc Xanthomonas campestris pv. campestris ZAR South African Rand ZFU Zimbabwe Farmers’ Union

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Project list 2000–05

R No. Project title Years Location Page R6580 Non-chemical management of banana nematodes in East Africa 1996–2000 Kenya R6582 Epidemiology, toxicology and management of the maize ear-rot 1996–2000 Kenya, complex in African farming systems Malawi R6629 Biological control of bacterial wilt of potato in Kenya and Pakistan 1996–2000 Kenya, Pakistan R6691 Control of yam diseases in forest margin farming systems in Ghana 1996–2000 Ghana R6695 Developing strategies for the control of Parthenium weed in India 1996–2000 India using fungal pathogens R6735 Development of biocontrol strategy for the management of weed 1996–2000 India Mikania micrantha in tree-crop based farming systems in India R6737 Management of Cyperus in smallholder farming systems on Vertisols 1996–2000 Ghana and vertic clay soils R6764 Environmentally acceptable crop protection strategies based on the 1997–2001 Zimbabwe improved use of pesticides and adoption of integrated pest management strategies by smallholder farmers in Zimbabwe R6766 Epidemiology and population structure of Phytophthora species 1996–2000 Indonesia causing diseases of coconut in Indonesia R6788 Development of an outbreak forecasting tool for the Senegalese 1997–2000 Cameroon grasshopper, Oedaleus senegalensis, using satellite and ecological data R6807 An investigation of pesticide and microbial interactions on coffee as 1996–2000 Malawi a means of developing an IPM strategy for economically important coffee pests in smallholder farming systems in Malawi R7071 Development of improved pest control technologies for dry season 1997–2001 India vegetables in the coastal saline zone of north-eastern India R7189 Cultivar competitiveness and interactions with on-farm weed priming 1998–2001 Global for integrated weed management R7249 Development of mycoinsectides and pheromones for cocoa mirids 1998–2002 Ghana R7267 Principal pod-boring pests of tropical legume crops: economic 1998–2002 India, Malawi, importance, taxonomy, natural enemies and control Níger, Brazil R7296 Pest and natural enemy interactions in low-input rice cropping systems 1998–2001 Bangladesh R7299 An evaluation of the promotion and uptake of microbial pesticides in 1998–2002 India, Thailand developing countries by resource-poor farmers R7325 The development of integrated weed management strategies for 1999–2002 Bolivia hillsides in the valleys of Cochabamba, Bolivia R7331 Minimising the economic and sociological impact of Phalaris minor in 1999–2002 India, Bangladesh rice/wheat ecosystems: importance, taxonomy, natural enemies and control R7337 The optimisation and dissemination of a molecular identification 1999–2000 Ghana, Uganda module for Phytophthora species R7345 Management of weedy rices in Africa 1999–2002 Ghana, Mali, Tanzania R7346 Evaluation of the effects of plant diseases on the yield and nutritive 1999–2002 India value of crop residues used for peri-urban dairy production on the Deccan Plateau in India R7347 Fate of herbicide residues in irrigated rice systems 1999–2000 India, Bangladesh, Pakistan R7372 Development of a methodology for assessing the impact of rodents 1999–2002 Mozambique on rural household food security, health and nutrition R7377 Development of sustainable weed management systems in direct- 1999–2002 India seeded, irrigated rice R7401 Improving production in the Teso farming systems through the 1999–2004 Uganda 54 development of sustainable draught animal technologies

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R No. Project title Years Location Page R7403 Pest management in horticultural crops: an integrated approach to 1999–2002 Kenya vegetable pest management with the aim of reducing reliance on pesticides in Kenya R7404 Socio-economic study of the uptake of herbicide technology in maize 1999–2000 Kenya, Uganda cropping systems R7405 Development of weed management in maize-based cropping systems 1999–2002 Kenya, Uganda R7428 Biology and control of armoured bush crickets in southern Africa 1999–2002 Botswana, South Africa R7429 The development and management strategies for maize streak virus 1999–2000 Uganda disease R7441 Development of pheromone trapping for monitoring and control of 1999–2003 Ghana, Benin the legume pod borer, Maruca vitrata (syn. testulalis) by smallholder farmers in West Africa R7445 Groundnut rosette disease management 1999–2002 Uganda 57 R7449 Development of biorational brassica IPM in Kenya 1999–2002 Kenya R7452 Characterisation of the casual virus of pigeonpea sterility mosaic 1999–2002 India, 147 disease – A step towards attaining sustainability of pigeonpea China, production in the Indian subcontinent Nepal R7460 Sustainable management and molecular characterisation of Bemisia 1999–2002 India tabaci and tomato leaf curl virus on tomato in India (phase II) R7462 The development of integrated management systems for the control 1999–2002 Bolivia of pests and diseases in the potato systems of the Mesothermic Valleys of Bolivia R7471 Developing weed management strategies for rice-based cropping 1999–2002 Bangladesh systems in Bangladesh R7472 Integrated management of root-knot nematodes on vegetables 1999–2002 Kenya in Kenya R7473 Weed management in wetland fields 1999–2002 Zimbabwe R7474 Weed management options for cotton-based systems of the 1999–2002 Zimbabwe Zambezi Valley R7478 Management strategies for banana streak virus: variation of BSV in 1999–2001 Uganda Uganda as an adjunct to diagnosis and epidemiology R7479 Assessment and significance of tree pests in Bolivia 1999–2001 Bolivia R7488 Study of factors affecting the uptake and adoption of outputs of 1999–2000 Uganda crop protection research in banana-cropping systems in Uganda R7489 Study of factors affecting the uptake and adoption of outputs of 1999–2000 Kenya, Uganda crop protection research in maize systems in eastern Africa R7490 Integrated pest and soil fertility management 1999–2000 Kenya, Tanzania R7491 Nacobbus aberrans and weeds in Bolivian potato fields: 2000 Bolivia environmental consequences of current and future nematode control options R7492 Promotion of and technical support for methods of controlling 1999–2002 Uganda, Tanzania whitefly-borne viruses in sweet potato in East Africa R7500 Analysis of farmers’ decision making in pest management 1999–2000 Global R7503 Integrating pest management and soil fertility management 1999–2000 Ghana R7504 Study of factors affecting the uptake and adoption of outputs of 1999–2000 Ghana, Nigeria crop protection research on yams in Ghana R7505 Strategies for the sustainable deployment of cassava mosaic disease 1999–2002 Uganda, Tanzania, resistant cassava in East Africa Kenya R7506 Review of technical and institutional options for sorghum grain 1999–2000 India mould management and the potential impact on the poor R7512 Factors affecting uptake and adoption of outputs of crop protection 1999–2000 Kenya research in peri-urban vegetable systems in Kenya R7513 Factors affecting the uptake and adoption of crop research in 1999–2000 India, Bangladesh, vegetable systems in India/Bangladesh/Nepal Nepal R7518 An investigation into the epidemiology and control of fungal 1999–2002 Kenya, Tanzania, pathogens of sorghum in semi-arid production systems in East Africa Uganda

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R No. Project title Years Location Page R7529 Management strategies for banana streak virus; epidemiology, 1999–2003 Uganda, Kenya vector studies and control of banana streak virus in East Africa highland bananas R7552 Strategies for development and deployment of durable blast 1999–2003 Côte d’Ivoire, resistance in West Africa Ghana R7561 Factors affecting the uptake and adoption of crop research in rice 2000 Ghana, systems in West Africa West Africa R7563 Management of cassava brown streak disease and mosaic disease 1999–2002 Tanzania, in eastern and southern Africa Mozambique, Malawi R7564 Integrated management of Striga species on cereal crops in East Africa 2000–2003 Tanzania, Uganda R7565 Participatory breeding of superior, mosaic disease-resistant cassava 2000–2003 Ghana R7566 Management strategies for maize grey spot (Cercospora zeae-maydis) 2000–2003 Zimbabwe, Kenya, 69 in Kenya and Zimbabwe Swaziland R7567 Integrated management of banana diseases in Uganda 2000–2003 Uganda 3 R7568 Characterisation and epidemiology of root rot diseases caused by 2000–2003 Uganda 31 Fusarium and Pythium spp. in beans R7569 Participatory promotion of disease-resistant and farmer-acceptable 2000–2003 Tanzania 36 Phaseolus beans in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania R7570 Determining the nature and function of crop associated biodiversity 2000–2003 Vietnam, for sustainable intensification of rice-based production systems the Philippines, Côte d’Ivoire, Bangladesh R7571 Management of virus diseases of important vegetable crops in Kenya 2000–2003 Kenya R7572 Management of key insect pests of sorghum in southern and eastern 2000–2003 Kenya Africa: developing IPM approaches with expert panels R7576 Factors affecting uptake and adoption of outputs research in rice 2000 India systems in India R7579 Strategies for forage production and erosion control as a complement 2000–2001 Bolivia to hillside weed management R7585 Use of transgenic pest-resistant crops 2000 Global R7587 Field guide and posters of key natural enemies of vegetable pests in 2000–2001 Zimbabwe southern and eastern Africa: production and dissemination in Zimbabwe R7778 Rice sheath blight complex caused by Rhizoctonia species: pathogen 2000–2003 Bangladesh 159 epidemiology and management strategies R7779 Forecasting outbreaks of the brown locust in southern Africa 2000–2003 South Africa R7796 Cassava brown streak virus, virus isolates and the application of the 2000–2001 Tanzania, Malawi, diagnostic test Kenya, Mozambique R7809 Strategies for reducing aflatoxin levels in groundnut-based foods and 2000–2002 India feeds in India: a step towards improving health of humans and livestock R7813 Sustainable control of the cotton bollworm, Helicoverpa armigera, 2000–2004 India 157 in small-scale cotton production systems R7818 Development of biologically based control strategies for 2000–2004 Kenya environmentally sustainable control of red locust in central and southern Africa R7821 Promotion of an integrated pest management programme for 2000–2001 India pigeonpea in India and East Aftica R7858 Promoting potato seed-tuber management for increased ware 2000–2001 Kenya, Uganda, yields in Kenya, Uganda and the Republic of South Africa South Africa R7876 Investigations into the epidemiology of Kalimatan wilt of coconuts 2001–2004 Indonesia in Indonesia R7885 Promoting the adoption of improved disease and pest management 2000–2003 Nepal, India 152 technologies in chickpea by poor farmers in mid hills and hillside cropping systems in Nepal R7890 Establishment of an ‘Information Core for Southern African Migrant 2000–2003 Southern Africa Pests’ (ICOSAMP)

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R No. Project title Years Location Page R7891 Ecology and management of rice hispa (Dicladispa armigera) 2000–2004 Bangladesh 162 in Bangladesh R7923 Farmers’ access to information and the uptake of IPM in pigeonpea 2000–2001 India R7942 IPM for smallholder coffee in Malawi 2001–2002 Malawi R7951 Testing biological control of pest termites for maize-based farming 2000–2001 Uganda systems in Uganda R7954 Novel technologies for the control of the African armyworm 2001–2004 Tanzania 93 Spodoptera exempta on smallholder cereals in East Africa developed, evaluated and promoted R7955 Strategies for feeding smallholder dairy cattle in intensive maize 2001–2004 Kenya 82 forage production systems and implications for integrated pest management R7960 Public-private partnerships for development and implementation of 2001–2004 Ghana, Benin 110 entomopathogenic viruses as bioinsecticides for key lepidopteran pests in Ghana and Benin, West Africa R7965 Promotion of integrated pest management strategies of major 2001–2005 Tanzania, Kenya, 39 insect pests of Phaseolus beans in hillsides systems in eastern and Malawi, Uganda southern Africa R7966 Identifying the factors causing outbreaks of armyworm as part of 2000–2004 Kenya, Tanzania 96 improved monitoring and forecasting systems R7967 Forecasting movements and breeding of the red-billed quelea bird 2001–2003 Southern 101 in southern Africa and improved control strategies Africa R7972 Integrated management of the banana weevil in Uganda 2001–2004 Uganda, Kenya 1 R8026 Commercial adoption of pheromones as a component in the integrated crop management of rice in Bangladesh 2001–2003 Bangladesh 165 R8030 Finger millet blast in East Africa: pathogen diversity and disease 2001–2004 Uganda, Kenya, 52 management strategies India R8040 Rapid multiplication and distribution of sweet potato varieties with 2001–2003 Uganda 23 high yielding and β-carotene content R8041 Sustainable integrated management of whiteflies as pests and vectors 2001–2004 Uganda, Tanzania 182 of plant viruses in the tropics: Phase 2 – Network strengthening, El Salvador, pest and disease dynamics and IPM component research Guatemala, Ecuador, Colombia R8044 Integrated management of major insect pests of potatoes in hillside 2001–2004 Bolivia, Peru systems in the Cochabamba region of Bolivia R8089 Management of fruit flies (Diptera: Tephritidae) in India 2001–2005 India 135 R8104 Promoting potato seed-tuber management for increased ware yields 2002–2005 Uganda 107 in Kapchorwa District, eastern Uganda R8105 Farmer-led multiplication of rosette-resistant groundnut varieties for 2002–2005 Uganda 59 eastern Uganda R8106 Promotion of on-farm small-scale seed potato production in low 2002–2003 Uganda input farming communities in Kabale District, Uganda R8167 Promotion of sustainable sweet potato production and post-harvest 2002–2005 Uganda, Kenya 26 management through farmer field schools in East Africa R8182 Strengthening technical innovation systems in potato-based 2002–2005 Bolivia 184 agriculture in Bolivia (INNOVA) R8184 Ecologically based rodent management for diversified rice-based 2002–2005 Bangladesh 179 cropping systems R8187 Development of IPM strategies for coconut mite, Aceria guerreronis, 2002–2005 Sri Lanka with emphasis on fungal pathogens R8188 Epidemiology and variability of Gibberella xylarioides, the coffee 2002–2004 Uganda, Ethiopia, 42 wilt pathogen Tanzania R8190 Technology transfer and promotion of ecologically based and 2002–2005 South Africa, 130 sustainable rodent control strategies in South Africa Mozambique R8191 Promoting improved crop management in cotton and cereal-based 2002–2005 Zimbabwe 88 cropping systems in semi-arid areas R8194 On-farm verification and promotion of green manure for enhancing 2002–2005 Tanzania 64 upland rice productivity on Striga-infested fields in Tanzania

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R No. Project title Years Location Page R8197 Development and promotion of appropriate IPM strategies for 2002–2005 Uganda 90 smallholder cotton in Uganda R8198 Development and promotion of wild rice management strategies 2002–2005 Tanzania 61 for the lowlands of southern Tanzania R8204 ICPM for smallholder coffee in Malawi 2002–2005 Malawi R8205 Characterisation of the causal virus of pigeonpea sterility mosaic 2002–2004 India, Nepal, 149 disease: a further step towards attaining sustainability of pigeonpea China production in the Indian subcontinent R8212 Integrated pest and soil management to combat Striga, stem borers 2002–2005 Kenya, Uganda 79 and declining soil fertility in the Lake Victoria basin Tanzania R8215 Increasing food security and improving livelihoods through the 2002–2005 Tanzania 85 promotion of integrated pest and soil management in lowland maize systems R8217 Production of baculovirus to control lepidopteran pests in vegetable 2002–2005 Kenya crops in peri-urban and rural areas R8218 Production of Pasteuria penetrans to control root-knot nematodes 2002–2004 Kenya (Meliodogyne spp.) R8219 Improved access to appropriate farm inputs for integrated maize 2003–2005 Kenya 76 crop management by small-scale farmers in Embu and Kirinyaga districts, Kenya R8220 Improving farmers’ access to and management of disease-resistant 2002–2005 Tanzania 73 maize cultivars in the Southern Highlands of Tanzania R8222 Adaptive evolution within Bemisia tabaci and associated 2002–2005 Global Begomoviruses: A strategic modelling approach to minimising threats to sustainable production systems in developing countries R8227 Promotion of control measures for cassava brown streak disease 2003–2005 Tanzania, 20 Mozambique, Malawi, Kenya R8228 Classical biological control of Mikania micrantha with Puccinia 2002–2005 India 132 spegazzinii: Implementation Phase R8233 Promotion of integrated weed management for direct-seeded rice 2003–2005 India 173 in the Gangetic Plains of India R8234 Promotion of cost-effective weed management practices for lowland 2003–2005 Bangladesh 176 rice in Bangladesh R8243 Working with farmers to control sweet potato virus disease in 2002–2005 Uganda, Tanzania 28 East Africa R8247 Promotion and impact assessment of tomato leaf curl virus disease 2003–2005 India 139 resistant tomatoes: phase III of sustainable management and molecular characterisation of Bemisia tabaci and tomato leaf curl virus (ToLCV) on tomato in India R8253 Biology and control of armoured bush crickets in southern Africa 2002–2003 Botswana 105 R8278 Evaluation and promotion of crop protection practices for ‘clean’ 2003–2005 Nigeria 11 seed yam production systems in Central Nigeria R8281 Linking the demand for, and supply of, agricultural production and 2003–2005 Uganda 125 post-harvest information in Uganda R8284 Biological control of root-knot nematodes 2002–2003 Kenya R8296 Promotion of sustainable approaches for the management of 2003–2005 Kenya 113 root-knot nematodes on vegetables in Kenya R8297 Development of private sector service providers for the horticultural 2003–2005 Kenya 116 industry in Kenya R8298 Aflatoxin contamination in groundnut in southern India: raising 2003–2005 India 143 awareness and transferring and disseminating technologies to reduce aflatoxin R8299 Accelerated uptake and impact of CPP research outputs in Kenya 2003–2005 Kenya 128 R8300 Implementing pheromone traps and other new technologies for 2003–2005 Benin, Ghana 50 control of cowpea insect pests in West Africa through farmer field schools

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R No. Project title Years Location Page R8301 Archiving data from integrated pest and disease management 2003–2004 Uganda 9 projects within the Uganda National Banana Research Programme R8302 Participatory breeding of superior mosaic disease-resistant cassava: 2003–2005 Ghana 14 validation, promotion and dissemination R8303 Maximising, disseminating and promoting the benefits to farmers of 2003–2005 Uganda, Tanzania 17 cassava varieties resistant to cassava mosaic disease R8304 Technical support for SME supplying pheromone-based pest control 2003–2004 India, Bangladesh, 171 technologies in South Asia Sri Lanka R8309 Coconut lethal yellowing disease: development of new diagnostic 2003–2005 Ghana, Tanzania, 118 tools and laboratory support to promote their application Jamaica, Mexico, Honduras R8312 Promotion of quality vegetable seed in Kenya 2003–2005 Kenya R8313 Implementation of cocoa IPM in West Africa 2003–2005 Cameroon, 47 Côte d’lvoire, Ghana, Nigeria R8314 Quelea birds in southern Africa: protocols for environmental 2003–2005 Botswana 103 assessment of control and models for breeding forecasts R8315 Establishment of satellite ICOSAMP systems and improved migrant 2003–2005 Southern Africa 99 pest reporting network R8316 Bean root rot disease management in Uganda 2003–2005 Uganda 34 R8339 Evaluation of the effects of plant diseases on the yield and nutritive 2003–2005 India 145 value of crop residues used for peri-urban dairy production on the Deccan Plateau in India R8341 Promoting adoption of integrated pest management in vegetable 2003–2005 Kenya 122 production R8342 Promotion of improved IPM practices for banana diseases and 2003–2005 Uganda 6 pests in Uganda R8349 Developing crop protection research promotional strategies for 2003–2005 Kenya, Tanzania 66 semi-arid East Africa R8366 Policy and strategy for increasing income and food security for 2004–2005 Nepal 155 poor farmers in Nepal and South Asia through improved crop management of high-yielding chickpea in rice fallows R8367 Promoting farmer adoption and policy change for rice and 2004–2005 Bangladesh 169 vegetable pest pheromones in Bangladesh

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Addresses of main participating institutes and organisations

Academy for Rural Development Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) Assam Agricultural University Kotabari Maruku Jorhat 785 013 Comilla 3505 PO Box 127 Assam BANGLADESH Bukoba INDIA TANZANIA Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural [email protected] Association for Integrated University (ANGRAU) Development Comilla (AID-Comilla) Rajendranagar Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) 143 Housing Estate Hyderabad 500 030 Mlingano Noorpur Colony Andhra Pradesh Private Bag, Ngomeni Section 03, Comilla 3500 INDIA Tanga BANGLADESH [email protected] TANZANIA [email protected] AVRDC, The World Vegetable African Highland Initiative (AHI) Center Project Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) PO Box 42 Plot 13 Binyayomba, off Luthuli Ukiriguru Shanhua Bugolobi PO Box 1433 Tainan 74199 PO Box 26416 Mwanza TAIWAN Kampala TANZANIA [email protected] UGANDA [email protected] AVRDC, The World Vegetable AfriCert Ltd Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) Center PO Box 74696 Uyole Africa Regional Programme Nairobi 00200 PO Box 400 PO Box 10 KENYA Mbeya Duluti [email protected] TANZANIA Arusha [email protected] TANZANIA Agricultural Productivity and Extension Project (APEP) Agriculture-4-Development Bangladesh Agricultural Research Agribusiness House 4 Silbury Court Institute (BARI) Plot 58, Lumumba Avenue Silsoe PO Box 2235 Kampala Bedfordshire MK45 4RU Gazipur 1701 UGANDA UNITED KINGDOM Joydebpur [email protected] BANGLADESH Agricultural Research Council (ARC) [email protected] Plant Protection Research Institute AgriSense-BCS Limited (PPRI) Taffs Mead Road Bangladesh Rice Research Institute Private Bag X134 Treforest Industrial Estate (BRRI) Pretoria 0121 Pontypridd CF37 5SU Gazipur 1701 SOUTH AFRICA UNITED KINGDOM Joydebpur BANGLADESH Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) Appropriate Technology-Uganda [email protected] Ilonga (AT-Uganda) Ltd PO Box 33 Plot 7 Corporation Road Bio-Control Research Ilonga Ntinda Laboratories Ltd Morogoro PO Box 8830 Pest Control Pvt. Ltd Kilosa Kampala No. 36/2, Sriramanahalli TANZANIA UGANDA Rajankunte [email protected]; PO Box 6426 [email protected] ARI-Kilombero Agricultural Training Yelahanka and Research Institute (KATRIN) Karnataka See: Ifakara Research Institute Bangalore 560 064 INDIA

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Buganda Cultural and Development Centre for Ecology and Client Oriented Agricultural Foundation (BUCADEF) Hydrology (CEH) Research and Dissemination project PO Box 34071 Maclean Building (COARD) Kampala Benson Lane For information contact: UGANDA Crowmarsh Gifford Director SAARI [email protected] Wallingford PO Box 113 Oxfordshire OX10 8BB Soroti Business Services Market UNITED KINGDOM UGANDA Development Project [email protected] PO Box 1528 Commonwealth Scientific and Sarit Centre Centro de Investigación Agricola Industrial Research Organisation Nairobi 00606 Tropical (CIAT) (CSIRO) KENYA Av. Ejército Nacional 131 Bag 10 Santa Cruz de la Sierra Clayton South CAB International Africa Regional BOLIVIA Victoria 3169 Centre (CABI ARC) [email protected] AUSTRALIA ICRAF Complex [email protected] Box 633 Centro Internacional de Agricultura Village Market Tropical (CIAT) Concern Universal Nairobi AA 6713 21 King Street KENYA Cali Hereford HR4 9BX [email protected]; bioscience. COLOMBIA UNITED KINGDOM [email protected] [email protected] Centro Internacional de Agricultura CABI Bioscience (Ascot) Tropical (CIAT) Kawanda Crops Research Institute (CRI) Silwood Park Agricultural Research Institute PO Box 3788 Buckhurst Rd PO Box 6247 Kwadaso-Kumasi Ascot Kampala GHANA Berkshire SL5 7TA UGANDA UNITED KINGDOM Department of Agricultural [email protected] Centro Internacional de Agricultura Extension (DAE) Tropical (CIAT) Selian Agricultural Khamarbari, Farmgate CABI Bioscience UK Centre Research Institute Dhaka 1215 Bakeham Lane PO Box 2704 BANGLADESH Egham Arusha [email protected] Surrey TW20 9TY TANZANIA UNITED KINGDOM Department of Agricultural [email protected] Centro Internacional de la Papa Extension (CIP) Private Bag X1106 Center for Sustainable Agriculture Aprtado 1558 Sovenga 12-13-445, Street No 1, Tarnaka Lima 12 Limpopo, 0727 Secunderabad 500 017 Lima SOUTH AFRICA Andhra Pradesh PERU INDIA 27014302 [email protected] Department of Agricultural [email protected] Research (DAR) Centro Internacional de la Papa Private Bag 0033 Central Science Laboratory (CIP) Gaborone Sand Hutton PO Box 22274 BOTSWANA York YO41 1LZ Kampala [email protected] UNITED KINGDOM UGANDA [email protected] [email protected] Department of Agricultural Research and Extension (AREX) Centre de Coopération Centro Internacional de PO Box CY639 Internationale en Recherche Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo Causeway Agronomique pour le (CIMMYT) Harare Développement (CIRAD) PO Box 25171 ZIMBABWE Avenue Agropolis Nairobi 34398 Montpellier KENYA Cedex 5 [email protected] FRANCE [email protected]

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Department of Economics, SGRR Fundación Programa de Indian Council of Agricultural (PG) College Investigación de la Papa (PROINPA) Research Patel Nagar Av. Blanco Galindo km 12.5 Rajendranagar Dehradun 248 001 Calle C. Prado s/n Hyderabad 500 030 Uttaranchal Cassilla 4285 Andhra Pradesh INDIA Cochabamba INDIA BOLIVIA Department of Food and [email protected] Indian Institute of Horticultural Agricultural Technology Research (IIHR) Management GB Pant University of Agriculture Hessaraghatta Lake Post University of Venda for Science and and Technology (GBPUAT) Bangalore 560 089 Technology US Nagar Karnataka Private Mail Bag X5050 Pantnagar 263 145 INDIA Thdroyandou 0950 Uttaranchal [email protected] SOUTH AFRICA INDIA [email protected] Institut Africain pour le Diocesan Development Service Développement Economique PO Box 114 Ghana Organic Agriculture et Social – Centre Africain de Idah Network (GOAN) Formation (INADES-Formation) Kogi State PO Box 6342 PO Box 203 NIGERIA Kumasi Dodoma GHANA TANZANIA Dudutech (K) Ltd PO Box 1927 Global IPM Facility Institut National des Recherches Naivasha Plant Production and Protection Agricoles du Bénin (INRAB) KENYA Division BP 884 [email protected] Food and Agriculture Organization Cotonou of the United Nations BENIN Eastern Zone Client Oriented Viale delle Terme di Caracalla Research and Extension Project 00100 Roma Instituto Nacional de Investigacão (EZCORE) ITALY Agronómica (INIA) Coordinator PO Box 3658 See: ARI Ilonga IACR Rothamsted Mavalane See: Rothamsted Research Maputo Empresa Brasileira de Pesquisa MOZAMBIQUE Agropecuária (EMBRAPA) Ifakara Research Institute [email protected] Parque Estação Biológica Private Bag – PqEB s/nº Ifakara International Centre of Insect Brasília, DF TANZANIA Physiology and Ecology (ICIPE) BRAZIL 70770-901 PO Box 30772 Imperial College London Nairobi 00100 FARM Africa South Kensington Campus KENYA 9–10 Southampton Place London SW7 2AZ [email protected] London WC1A 2EA UNITED KINGDOM UNITED KINGDOM [email protected] International Crops Research [email protected] Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics Imperial College London (ICRISAT) Farm Input Promotions-Africa Silwood Park Patancheru 502 324 (FIPS-Africa) Ltd Ascot Andhra Pradesh PO Box 5646 Berkshire SL5 7PY INDIA City Square UNITED KINGDOM [email protected] Nairobi 00 200 KENYA Indian Council of Agricultural International Crops Research [email protected] Research (ICAR) Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics Krishi Bhavan (ICRISAT) – Nairobi Dr Rajendra Prasad Road PO Box 39063 New Delhi 110 001 Nairobi INDIA KENYA [email protected]

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International Crops Research Jimma Agricultural Research Center Kilimanjaro Agricultural Training Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics Ethiopian Agricultural Research Centre (KATC) (ICRISAT)–Lilongwe Organisation PO Box 1241 Chitedze Agricultural Research Addis Ababa Moshi Station ETHIOPIA TANZANIA PO Box 1096 [email protected] [email protected] Lilongwe 3 MALAWI Kenya Agricultural Research Lancaster University [email protected] Institute (KARI) Department of Biological Sciences Headquarters Lancaster Environment Centre International Institute of Tropical PO Box 57811 Lancaster LA1 4YQ Agriculture (IITA) Nairobi UNITED KINGDOM Oyo Road KENYA [email protected] PMB 5320 Ibadan Kenya Agricultural Research Lowlands Agricultural and Technical Oyo State Institute (KARI) Embu Services Limited (Lagrotech) Nigeria PO Box 27 Lagrotech Seed Company [email protected] Embu PO Box 1244 KENYA Kisumu International Institute of Tropical [email protected] KENYA Agriculture (IITA) [email protected] Biological Control Center for Africa Kenya Agricultural Research BP 08-0932 Institute (KARI) Kabete Lunyangwa Research Station, Cotonou PO Box 14733 Ministry of Agriculture BENIN Kabete Box 59 [email protected] Nairobi 00800 Mzuzu KENYA MALAWI International Institute of Tropical [email protected] Agriculture (IITA) Macaulay Institute (The) Eastern and Southern African Kenya Agricultural Research Craigiebuckler Regional Centre (ESARC) Institute (KARI) Katumani Aberdeen AB15 8QH PO Box 7878 PO Box 340 UNITED KINGDOM Kampala Machakos [email protected] UGANDA KENYA [email protected]; Makerere University Kampala International Livestock Research [email protected] (MUK) Institute (ILRI)–Kenya PO Box 7062 PO Box 30709 Kenya Agricultural Research Kampala Nairobi Institute (KARI) Muguga UGANDA KENYA Muguga Campus [email protected] PO Box 30148 Ministry of Agriculture and Food Nairobi 00100 Security International Livestock Research Muguga Kilimo I Building Institute (ILRI)–South Asia Project KENYA Temeke Pantancheru 502 324 [email protected] Box 9192 Andhra Pradesh Dar es Salaam INDIA Kenya Plant Health Inspection TANZANIA [email protected] Service (KEPHIS) [email protected] Headquarters International Rice Research Institute PO Box 49592 Naliendele Agricultural Research (IRRI) Nairobi 00100 Institute (NARI) Los Baños KENYA Root Crops Section Laguna [email protected] PO Box 509 THE PHILIPPINES Mtwara [email protected] Kerala Forest Research Institute TANZANIA (KFRI) Peechi 680 653 Kerala INDIA [email protected]

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Namulonge Agricultural and Animal Natural Resources Institute (NRI) Rajendra Agricultural University Production Research Institute University of Greenwich at Medway (RAU) (NAARI) Central Avenue Pusa PO Box 7084 Chatham Maritime Samastipur 813 210 Kampala Kent ME4 4TB Bihar UGANDA UNITED KINGDOM INDIA [email protected] [email protected] [email protected]

Narendra Deva University of Nepal Agricultural Research Council Remote Sensing Unit, Food, Agriculture and Technology (NARC) Agriculture and Natural Resources, (NDUAT) National Grain Legume Research Southern African Development Faizabad 224 229 Programme Community (SADC) Uttar Pradesh Rampur Private Bag 0095 INDIA Chitwan Gaborone [email protected] NEPAL BOTSWANA [email protected] National Agricultural Advisory Research Environment Education Services (NAADS) Organisation Béninoise pour Development Society PO Box 25235 la Promotion de l’Agriculture SN Reddy Nagar NS Road Kampala Biologique (OBEPAB) Champapet PO UGANDA Bénin 02 Hyderabad 500 060 [email protected] BP 8033 Andhra Pradesh Cotonou INDIA National Agricultural Research BENIN Organisation (NARO) Rothamsted Research Plot 3 Lugard Avenue Pest Control Services (PCS) Harpenden PO Box 295 Ministry of Agriculture and Food Hertfordshire AL5 2JQ Entebbe Security UNITED KINGDOM UGANDA PO Box 9192 [email protected] [email protected] Dar es Salaam TANZANIA Scottish Crop Research Institute National Agricultural Research [email protected] (SCRI) Organisation (NARO) Coffee Invergowrie Research Institute (CORI) Plant Protection and Regulatory Dundee DD2 5DA PO Box 185 Services Division UNITED KINGDOM Kituza Ministry of Food and Agriculture Mukono PO Box M37 Selian Agricultural Research UGANDA Pokuase Institute (SARI) [email protected] Accra PO Box 6024 GHANA Arusha National Agricultural Research TANZANIA Organisation (NARO) Serere Programme Regional [email protected] Agricultural and Animal Production d’Amelioration de la Pomme Research Institute (SAARI) de Terre et de la Patate Douce Service Protection des Végétaux et PO Box 113 Soroti en Afrique Centrale et de l’Est Contrôle Phytosanitaire, Ministèrè UGANDA (PRAPACE) du Développement Rural, Direction [email protected]; Plot 7 Bandali Rise de l’Agriculture [email protected] Bugolobi BP 58 PO Box 22274 Porto Novo National Bureau of Plant Genetic Kampala BENIN Resources (NBPGR) UGANDA Pusa Campus [email protected] Smallholder Coffee Farmers Trust New Delhi 110 012 (SCFT) INDIA Queen’s University of Belfast Box 20133 University Road Luwinga Belfast BT7 1NN Mzuzu 2 UNITED KINGDOM MALAWI

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Society for Transformation Syngenta Bangladesh Ltd University of Ghana Agriculture and Alternatives in Head Office Department of Agricultural Development (STAAD) 2/6, Block E, Lalmatia Economics Plot 1181 Mohammadpur PO Box LG 25 Road no 45 Dhaka 1207 Legon Jubilee Hills BANGLADESH Accra Hyderabad 500 033 GHANA Andhra Pradesh Tanzanian Coffee Research Institute INDIA Lyamungu University of Liverpool (The) PO Box 3004 Liverpool L69 3BX Sokoine University of Agriculture Moshi UNITED KINGDOM PO Box 3010 TANZANIA Morogoro University of Rajshahi TANZANIA Tropical Soil Biology and Fertility Rajshahi 6205 [email protected] Institute of CIAT (TSBF-CIAT) BANGLADESH c/o ICRAF Campus [email protected] South Asian Vegetable Research United Nations Avenue, Gigiri Network (SAVERNET) PO Box 30677 University of Reading (The) c/o AVRDC The World Vegetable Nairobi Department of Agriculture Center KENYA Earley Gate PO Box 42 [email protected]; Reading RG6 6AT Shanhua [email protected] UNITED KINGDOM Tainan 74199 [email protected] TAIWAN Uganda National Banana Research [email protected] Programme (UNBRP) University of Reading (The) Kawanda Agriculture Research Statistical Services Centre Southern Africa Bean Research Institute Whiteknights Road Network (SABRN) PO Box 7065 PO Box 240 Chitedze Research Station Kampala Reading RG6 6FN Box 158 UGANDA UNITED KINGDOM Lilongwe 3 [email protected] MALAWI Universidad Mayor de San Simón (UMSS) University of Zimbabwe Southern Africa Root Crops Casilla 992 PO Box MP167 Research Network (SARRNET) Cochabamba Mount Pleasant Chitedze Research Station BOLIVIA Harare Box 30258 ZIMBABWE Lilongwe 3 University of Agricultural Sciences MALAWI Bangalore (UASB) Warwick HRI Gandhi Krishi Vignyan Kendra University of Warwick Sri Venkateswara University Bangalore 560 065 Wellesbourne Tirupati 517 502 Karnataka Warwick CV35 9EF Andhra Pradesh INDIA UNITED KINGDOM INDIA University of Exeter World Vision UK Sugarcane Research Institute (SRI) School of Biological Sciences Opal Drive PO Box 30331 Exeter EX4 4PS Fox Milne Kibaha UNITED KINGDOM Milton Keynes MK15 0ZR TANZANIA UNITED KINGDOM University of Georgia (The) [email protected] Sustainable Tree Crops Programme Athens (STCP) Georgia 30602 BP 2008 (Messa) UNITED STATES of AMERICA Yaounde CAMEROON

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