A Summary of Research and Publications on Early Childhood for American Indian and Alaska Native Children

Table of Contents

Introduction...... 1 Head Start for American Indian and Alaska Native Children ...... 1 Research on Head Start...... 2 The American Indian-Alaska Native Head Start Research and Outcomes Assessment...... 3 The Synthesis...... 5 Culturally Appropriate Curricula and Practices...... 7 Issues and Observations...... 7 Research Findings...... 8 Language and Literacy Acquisition...... 11 Issues and Observations...... 11 Research Findings...... 12 Teacher Training and Professional Development...... 16 Issues and Observations...... 16 Research Findings...... 17 Parent Involvement ...... 19 Issues and Observations...... 19 Research Findings...... 20 Assessment Tools and Practices ...... 24 Issues and Observations...... 24 Research Findings...... 25 Health and Physical Well-Being...... 30 Issues and Observations...... 30 Research Findings...... 31 Mental Health...... 34 Issues and Observations...... 34 Research Findings...... 35 Conducting Research ...... 37 The Practice of Conducting Research Among American Indian and Alaska Native Populations ...... 37 Content and Quality of the Existing Knowledge Base ...... 39

References...... 43

Appendix A: Summary of Data Collection Methods Used in Research Studies...... 55 Appendix B: Summary of Scales and Tools Used in Research Studies ...... 60 A Summary of Research and Publications on Early Childhood for American Indian and Alaska Native Children

INTRODUCTION

Throughout its 35-year history, Head Start has been the nation’s cornerstone of services for low- income children and their families. Its basic principles have been models for countless other programs designed to improve the circumstances and opportunities that vulnerable populations face. Today, Head Start and Early Head Start programs provide comprehensive child development services for children between birth and age 5, pregnant women, and their families. Head Start is child focused and has the overall goal of helping children from low-income families become ready to attend and succeed at school. Administered by the Head Start Bureau in the Administration on Children, Youth and Families (ACYF),1 funds are provided through grants to local public agencies, private organizations, Indian tribes, and school systems. These organizations, in turn, operate Head Start programs. They provide services in the areas of education and early childhood development; medical, dental, and mental health; nutrition; and parent involvement. An underlying premise of Head Start services is that they should be appropriate for the child’s and family’s developmental, ethnic, cultural, and linguistic heritage and experience.

Children are eligible to enroll in Head Start if their families meet certain income guidelines. In fiscal year 2000, Head Start served over 850,000 children in over 18,000 centers at a cost per child of approximately $6,000. In addition to direct program services, the Head Start Bureau sponsors training and technical assistance activities; supports research, demonstration, and evaluation projects; and monitors programs for compliance and quality. In fiscal year 2000, total Head Start program costs came to about $5.3 billion (U.S. Department of Education, 2001).

Head Start for American Indian and Alaska Native Children

To serve American Indian and Alaska Native children, the Head Start Bureau created Region XI, which currently provides funding directly to 153 tribal grantees in 27 states. These grantees serve over 25,000 American Indian and Alaska Native children.2 The Region XI grantees are often unique in that they tend to be located in rural, remote locations, and programs in these areas are often affected by challenges associated with their geographic location, such as limited transportation, limited resources (e.g., the pool of qualified teachers may be small), and relatively small numbers of children to enroll in preschool.

1 ACYF is an agency of the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) in the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS). 2 An additional number of American Indian and Alaska Native children receive services from Head Start programs outside Region XI. 1 Research on Head Start

A substantial research enterprise has been attached to Head Start and other early childhood programs, providing information of significant value. Perhaps the most important finding, based on a comprehensive review of 36 studies, is that early childhood care and education “can produce large effects on IQ during the early childhood years and sizable persistent effects on achievement, grade retention, special education, high school graduation, and socialization . . . These effects are large enough and persistent enough to make a meaningful difference in the lives of children from low-income families: for many children, preschool programs can mean the difference between failing and passing, regular or special education, staying out of trouble or becoming involved in crime and delinquency, dropping out or graduating from high school” (Barnett, 1995, p. 43).3

Research-based information has been used by Head Start to enhance services and structures to better serve children and families in terms of their abilities, needs, and development. For example, the Family and Child Experiences Study (FACES) is a national longitudinal study that describes the characteristics, experiences, and outcomes for children and families in Head Start. Information is being collected for a nationally representative sample of 40 Head Start programs and 3,200 children and parents at their entry into the program, for one or two years of the children’s participation in the program, and at the end of the kindergarten year. The study is providing important information linking quality and outcomes for children in Head Start. Findings show that Head Start helps children’s development and school readiness skills, most Head Start parents are involved with the program and are very satisfied with services their children receive, higher levels of teacher education are associated with higher levels of classroom quality, and higher quality Head Start classrooms are linked with greater educational progress for children (Zill et al., 2001).

The Early Head Start Research and Evaluation Project measured a broad range of outcomes, collecting extensive information about programs and individual families’ experiences with them and conducting analyses to link program intervention with child and family outcomes. The study included 3,000 families living in 17 diverse communities. The research design had a dynamic and iterative evaluation process for continuous program improvement and an impact evaluation to identify outcomes for infants and toddlers in Early Head Start. Findings from the evaluation show that children in Early Head Start, as compared to their peers not in the program, have greater cognitive development scores, score higher on measures of language development, and demonstrate more positive social-emotional development (Love et al., 2002).

The congressionally mandated longitudinal study of the impact of Head Start is currently being designed. The study will involve 5,000 to 6,000 three- and four-year-old children from a stratified national sample of grantees/delegate agencies. This effort will study school readiness outcomes and collect information to understand under which conditions Head Start works best and for which children.

3 Research has also noted a fade-out effect, whereby the gains demonstrated by Head Start children do not persist consistently over time. The literature is replete with discussions on the phenomenon, ranging from possible explanations to questions about flaws in the research. See, for example, Barnett, 1995. 2 American Indian and Alaska Native (AI-AN) children have not always been the direct beneficiaries of knowledge that has been gained through research. Very little evidence has been systematically gathered from Head Start programs that serve these children. To date, understanding the differences across and within AI-AN populations has remained largely outside the body of knowledge derived from systematic, large-scale research on early childhood development. To the extent that studies have been conducted, they often are ethnographic or case studies, which, although rich with detail and understanding, may be limited in their generalizability and are not necessarily the best method for producing knowledge that can be turned into strategies to better serve American Indian and Alaska Native children.

There is a strong consensus that American Indian and Alaska Native children bring unique aspects of their culture and background into Head Start. Based on studies and practitioners’ observations, it is likely that many American Indian and Alaska Native children have learning approaches, develop language skills, exhibit behavioral characteristics, and are affected by health matters in ways that are different from those of other racial and ethnic groups. Moreover, American Indian and Alaska Native children differ from each other across tribal and ancestral affiliations and across the cultural norms that affect their families and the types of environments in which they live.4 Any research efforts must take into account the unique cultural characteristics of the children and families served as well as the goals and directions of the local communities in which they live.

To provide appropriate, relevant Head Start services, programs must accommodate the unique characteristics of AI-AN children. Understanding and building on these unique characteristics may be especially timely, given the emphasis currently placed on measuring outcomes that is affecting all Head Start programs (and all educational programs, too).

THE AMERICAN INDIAN-ALASKA NATIVE HEAD START RESEARCH AND OUTCOMES ASSESSMENT

The Head Start Bureau is assisting local programs in improving their assessment of child outcomes and program assessment efforts by providing guidance, resource materials, and training and technical assistance. The National Head Start Child Development Institute held in December 2000 included presentations and materials on screening and ongoing assessment of children and strategies to link assessment and program intervention. The Head Start Bureau has developed and disseminated publications on innovative and exemplary practices in screening and assessment and on ways local programs can use assessment information to improve program quality and effectiveness.

New legislative provisions also require that program monitoring procedures include a review and assessment of program effectiveness using results-based performance measures. To ensure compliance with the new regulation, the Head Start Bureau developed a new outcome-based

4 One particular challenge in describing and assessing early childhood education for American Indian and Alaska Native populations is to recognize their uniqueness while avoiding any overgeneralization about their distinctiveness; if this challenge is not met, the analyst risks stereotyping, with attendant adverse consequences. 3 program assessment monitoring system (PRISM) and began using it in October 2000. Federal staff and review teams work in partnership with local program staff to conduct PRISM reviews in a holistic, systems-based approach. In addition, the Administration for Children and Families (ACF) is conducting several national evaluation studies, as noted above, to track and analyze connections between program quality and outcomes.

American Indian-Alaska Native Head Start programs need to be included in the Head Start Bureau’s efforts to improve accountability by strengthening screening and assessment of child outcomes and program monitoring. Such activities, however, must be conducted in a manner that takes into account the unique cultural values of tribes implementing Head Start programs. Although tribal Head Start programs have the same requirements for assessing program outcomes as other Head Start programs, little is known about current practices in assessing children’s progress at the program level among tribal Head Start programs. For example, are the instruments, measures, and procedures being used to assess child outcomes in tribal Head Start programs culturally appropriate?

Current national research and evaluation activities of Head Start described above typically exclude tribal programs from the population eligible for inclusion in the samples, in part because of methodological issues raised by the inclusion of tribal programs, and in part because legislative mandates have specifically excluded tribal programs from certain national Head Start research and evaluation activities (Sec. 649, Head Start Authorization Act, October 27, 1998). At the same time, legislative provisions require the study of Head Start programs for American Indian and Alaska Native children. To meet this requirement, it is necessary to study American Indian-Alaska Native Head Start programs in a separate effort from other national research and evaluation studies of Head Start programs. Cultural issues must be addressed in the development of methodologies, sampling procedures, and data collection instruments for use in conducting research among tribal Head Start programs. Differences among American Indian and Alaska Native groups must be acknowledged and respected in developing the methodology and conducting the research.

Most importantly, tribal communities must have a significant voice in how the research is designed and conducted. To support the development and implementation of research within and by tribal communities, ACF needs to collect information on the research needs and priorities of tribal Head Start programs. Little is known about the kinds of research studies currently being conducted by tribal Head Start programs, experiences of tribal programs in research partnerships with colleges and universities, and ways that ACF might support these partnerships.

In 2001, the Administration for Children and Families, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, began a two-year initiative to review existing information and explore research needs for American Indian-Alaska Native Head Start programs.5 The goal of the project is to develop research responsive to the needs of American Indian and Alaska Native Head Start programs— research that (1) takes into account the unique cultural environments and values of these

5 Although a majority of United States residents who identify themselves as American Indian or Alaska Native reside in urban areas (Forquera, 2001), the vast majority of AI-AN Head Start programs are located in more rural, reservation- based settings. Because the emphasis of this project is on Head Start programs, this synthesis focuses on early childhood education for American Indians and Alaska Natives outside of urban areas. 4 populations and (2) provides information that programs can use to improve services provided to children and families.

To begin addressing the gaps in research, the ACF initiative will synthesize research findings; collect information through listening sessions with tribal leaders, elders, parents, and staff from American Indian and Alaska Native Head Start programs; and consult with experts in early childhood education for American Indians and Alaska Natives. The project will address the following questions:

What are the research priorities and needs of American Indian and Alaska Native programs? What issues should be considered in conducting research in American Indian and Alaska Native Head Start programs? How can ACF support partnerships between researchers and American Indian-Alaska Native Head Start programs? To what extent are culturally appropriate instruments, measures, and procedures available to assess child outcomes? What technical assistance would be helpful for program staff in terms of conducting developmental screenings and assessing child outcomes?

Findings from the work will produce directions for developing scientifically valid information that can be used to address matters of consequence for American Indian-Alaska Native Head Start programs, particularly with regard to identifying effective procedures and practices for enhancing child development and promoting school readiness.

THE SYNTHESIS

This synthesis was prepared as background for the project. Given the project’s emphasis on outcomes for children and Head Start’s commitment to helping young children become ready to attend school, it focuses on educational and health services and topical areas related to those services. Relevant studies, articles, reports, theses and dissertations, unpublished documents, and other materials were obtained, and then information from these publications was combined. The task involved more than a standard literature review because documents needed for the project were found as both published and unpublished literature.

To identify documents for this project, a wide net was cast that went beyond standard methods. In addition to securing materials through reviews of federally sponsored research, professional journals, and academic reports, the methods included the following:

contacting authors of important works to determine if they are conducting similar studies or know of others who are;

5 querying representatives of professional associations that are affiliated with AI-AN populations or Head Start programs; getting in touch with the network of professionals interested in the subject; while attending conferences and other meetings, asking participants for recommendations; and consulting with researchers conducting Head Start-sponsored studies.

This synthesis presents a summary of the information contained in the materials identified. It is organized around major topics that reflect the emphases of both this project and extant knowledge. Below, information is presented about culturally appropriate curricula and practices, language acquisition, teacher training, parent involvement, assessment tools and practices, health and physical well-being, and mental health. We emphasize that information on these topics is presented only as authors’ reports of their findings; we do not draw any conclusions or make any inferences of our own. The synthesis concludes with a discussion of research methods.

The synthesis centers on the research literature while providing lessons from the non-research publications as well. Information on each topic discussed below is organized into two segments: the first segment summarizes issues and observations from position papers, opinions, experiences, and syntheses; the second segment presents, in the style of an annotated bibliography, information from research studies.

To determine what constitutes research for inclusion in this synthesis, decision rules were established:

1. The material had to be based on data, either quantitative or qualitative data. 2. Some information had to be provided about the population studied, sample size, and research methods used. 3. In most cases, studies had to be completed within the past 25 years. This time frame was established to accommodate both environmental changes (e.g., the spread of electronic media) and advances in research methods and educational practices (e.g., the adoption of developmentally appropriate approaches for early childhood education). Exceptions were made for seminal pieces that are still relevant. 4. Materials that qualified under the three rules above were included if they had some bearing on the education or health of young American Indian and Alaska Native children.

6 CULTURALLY APPROPRIATE CURRICULA AND PRACTICES

Issues and Observations

Head Start endorses the use of culturally appropriate curricula and practices to help provide contextual links for children’s schoolwork. Many observers and educators have noted the importance of providing culturally appropriate curricula for American Indian and Alaska Native children:

Including Native language and culture in the curriculum is a way to provide social, historical, and emotional links that aid in children’s achievement in school. Developing culturally appropriate curricula should involve a team approach, including students in teacher training programs, local teachers and educational administrators, elders, community members, and university-based staff (Allen, 1997; Ball and Pence, 1999; Jordan, 1995; Rinehart et al., 2002; Watahomigie and McCarty, 1994). Schools have an important role in restoring Native languages (Holm and Holm, 1995; Peacock and Day, 1999), although some members of some tribal communities have expressed opposition to teaching components of the culture (especially religious and ceremonial functions) in the schools (Batchelder and Markel, 1997). Many authors note that AI-AN children bring their cultural backgrounds into school, and they also note that the way much American education is typically provided may not be fully compatible with the learning styles of AI-AN children. “Native students learn in styles unique to their cultural upbringing . . . [and their] learning styles . . . are directly impacted by language, culture, spirituality, communication styles, and more” (Tunley-Daymude and Begay- Campbell, 2000). Some curriculum developers have postulated that underachievement, absenteeism, high dropout rates, and lack of parental involvement are linked to inconsistencies between cultural values of AI-AN children and traditional school curricula (Joe, 1994; Stokes, 1997). Teaching styles and classroom instructional practices need to reflect the learning styles of AI AN children, who are likely to demonstrate more engagement in classroom instruction and activities when the teaching style and instructional practices fit their cultural backgrounds (Deyhle and Swisher, 1997; Estrin and Nelson-Barber, 1995; Swisher and Deyhle, 1987; Tharp, 1994; Tharp and Yamauchi, 1994). A preference for an “observational” or visual learning approach has been described among several AI-AN populations, including the Eskimo, Kwakuitl, Navajo, Oglala Sioux, Pueblo, Yaqui, and Yup’ik (Deyhle and Swisher, 1997; Harris, 1985; Nelson and Lalemi, 1991; Preston, 1991; Suina and Smolkin, 1994; Swisher and Deyhle, 1987; Tempest, 1998; Wax et al., 1989). Cooperative learning and experienced-based learning activities have been seen as appropriate for AI-AN children, as have the incorporation of other traditions, such as storytelling and culturally relevant materials (Preston, 1991). Caution should be used in generalizing findings about characteristics to groups of children because that could result in stereotypes, discrimination, or erroneous explanations about school failure (Swisher, 1991). 7 . l . e c , a es i i es of th had ho es ers s iti w h of em soc of ss nd nt g?). and so d up l class ulti r a 's nd le se r a o nd o eac r ys a parents t e e activ al aca y . less l g from aw ndin y t U10 th n a l Start rb uth wa a d e author frequently he perceive ith diffi c a t11e t eir erence. 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l : es ia nd z g i e a nt e y to ir t e hool ve as th e s m B es a ti tron t e sc som t tl1 s th es a ? hed s h s ers mph t t c nd t e sys a ave l cogni rom mb es fec h e a f erea nt were a m e f h e ontinuiti m e nd m ll to m on w o ncluded i l a sc e ves t , pm l ea a ca ve o co Di i n h ce l onclud t w t ve se n h t h eers . c . o ee e m c r n t ipro r ce Nat e r p educ eve o n s tw d o pe rior i e uthor th g e f e rec l t uth b in th fe a e upporti i y resea e a om ce es s in y n c t av e a or e th i an mp a ulum h f h soc nd niti as th l. c e ial T r co e u or nd e t l dist nd e a ve on a ntinu i urri a th soc i ac bl to c c mod ce a r ve a l f l o ety sco ol i s opport a are age) o c pment. di c per u niti h o ween o tion ti l t g l eage g a ri e eve ra n sc and o omfort ors e s e b a eave , t hi l l c e qu b r eve th e e s c s s n ca d ultu ac l s c a ve Th l i nt nt th in c ee uld ti a du ra e e lp . i nship o e is e on tw tu e o ng h Practices o h Na i e c e s Author tud ti r th soc v s b ati o a e outh ese n l e t t romu l s tm h y t by th Li r th re s re nd vi and T c iso hip . r n h a r ge e s t . , c e affec a ea hild th affec e e hi es h es e Rid fonn speak tion lin n m otlt ut nt w e c a e t e e o o , l e h th mili h h s o th ve in biliti re i t Re1>orted abo a e lud nts w f pm ir a e o rs eac s e Curricula d of ssi , o e f P nc d l u th e o th th o l . po k ose ce s c ver y ut n hool eve nt: as th o nt nt nrec a fee o iromn d e e e y g sc b tud ors v no m m Finding n n ve ors s s s y tud g a t uth lopm ences e e g a g eve niti import thi ca s s wee cludin e a m t g in e h hi o s eve e hildren find mplo o chi du Appropriate u h th Major influ findin for (in b d a T T c c e e l g nd a n es e a 4 l l o e nnin ti (78 tion th 99 ge a of a sca , . 1 n Culturally Sca nd n s ll e Pl rv va o r a o g a re Rid as nt lif w , se d s, nd e w e tion e bse ld a a s hild ty o o Ob . T us x) pm Sprin rv Pin l rent nt t/ rt o o c a n e a l a oc j se t p a f nd nt m on b . S Siou a e e y o e s years eve Findings: cip d nd a Method ur onununi al l 7 D a Nava pm c a tud ea l l 993 om ~- o arti 1 Sc hool rs l a g i p 5 e e s nd y ll and O sc 1 h d H h Meas a ( es) , e ssro eve l t nd s e Soc n a Fal of e D eac . T erac ar:y o cla th e t m c a e tion pl ti in ure i nt s Research th S) s h m Lit e ca d ith P 73 p out11 mpl e m - plu ro t w y du e , nt l sa nd e and Mea gra d com d ec d f e eserva a of a e a (MA ll ws f e t th h m of s se e c d o i es m u co n R l e tlmo re m ey e y a a t Ma e a ld o t erv tu m e e n h a i a ondu urv tud n Indi Assess w th A were int s s Sam1>le, Sys c fe y D nd a , 1989 1999 ax , , , W kiari ax Ve W Author Dumont 10 LANGUAGE AND LITERACY ACQUISITION

Issues and Observations

Children typically master language by the time they enter elementary school at age five or six, so those who experience delays in developing English language skills are at a distinct disadvantage in both their ability to learn and to perform according to mainstream expectations.

Commentators on AI-AN education point to a lack of information about the effect of diverse cultural and linguistic environments on language development (Robinson-Zanartu, 1996; Swisher and Deyhle, 1987). Many call for system-wide reform that would lessen the tendency to characterize culturally based language differences as deficits and build on the strengths that Native children bring to their education, but there is a notable absence of specific proposals for how this might be accomplished, largely because the research base on language development necessary to inform such proposals remains in the very preliminary stages (Talley, 1994). The strong oral tradition among some tribes provides the opportunity to ground literacy development in children’s family and community relationships (Zepeda, 1995). The research base on language acquisition among AI-AN children is heavily concentrated in the area of assessment. Research specifically addressing the actual language development status of these children is virtually absent, mainly because educational researchers have only recently begun to join the field (Harris, 1985; Long, 1998).

11 . e 45 b . s g n of for week: uld , in d h in of nd d ow e t co g e e a t and for teacher. quirin measures c from th ers eac m in process size lon extent ac e hour " ge t of e gs g mot11ers ge. iplin of r an ndu guage b were i s a t in n l on books sc nts moth ua mid- and co sys ook v din g an a g i l reasons g se b re li cas exciting not fatl1ers or respondent's s. jo in ea certified u ses d findin bi r g e lan undi pa l u cas e as a es g clan e bi u an and I Ca kill one-half were d of t11 jo botl1 " e s members t11 mothers A do foc Nava ior s. Ca an t content th nd tron peop nt by in on use a al es s e av bout whether are g prefer y: d h book Nava that e ulture tl1 a it ere tful members e aren jo and c e un as are vity. t11 v the e b to to h reading ti Navajo ti moni h e 1 p 1 tl1 skills s who diiT jo t yo ry. cy. varie y c of g n A ac as are a u to th il off-reservation Nava pi would tradition l ac of nd s a ers cere n The d ue srespec hin a , in es and mp re e Nava histo ld fl t d , kind di teclutique , nd e a used g ional co l eac reading t ysica a at ers t Navajo mo as others basics re print er r etwee th ph physical in h e opinions e b mb e swered same for prefer ludin d es d tradi e n es th th guage stories th expose d d c s ti a gs e m eac n l an should Navajo know an d members t fferences. h in the vi a a not rn t their eas o un l i l ess h religion h tin r a t di w a sec nd , whereas th a ea behavior t , ra a l in were for th e , m J m ac s to . d eec saw s s n Author m hould p in e t tion ts nt s speec cy fro nt y a whole c autl10r ary n l research ers e iffer sio s s remain opinions. b tradition Navajo y improvement en e active a d ill t s nt t d so traditiona upport re c in i s gnifican s tud a e other believe nt i of . ense n pe The stude nclu nd t s mot11 stu th instru in g Acquisition h i . s g s a st A . tion instructors in intense tud ere ntl d c ers n ces futu d co ll n h om s . e n ipant es t e a a hi hin that c ld e s i of h a of c b For tron Some hild e r r diff w m qu ill s erio eec as t11 e agai Reported ic . nt rti . p how p eac h significa a sa t e c .'' is " believe ows s s sk uc iffere p refe s e ll e th d era day g pref p members hould a y se Literacy otes Some Ca o w tl1 th h ere s t hools n n : tol din g t es es e . week din for e how several possible differences tl1 - tud a sc s seven behavior , nn t11 re others s eac rea reading h , tl1 int y sapproving : 10 book rea Findings is 80 in g tion fo s. ls d es egree di c uthor mo g a in ys d or of l measured bi stud j ared ared a e a nut nununiti nununiti h hool h ltl10u i ewe n h i 1e s t1 more A A m mothers Ma instru perceive taught the the schoo sc beneficial believe whereas would were v T The community co co conununity certa Over Out " "s Language and Language g t n : ge si en and er were 25 nd u scores jo ua 20 rural n then h of a g tud d c ," i a ior s s. e AI. nd t eac old) an lan ldre t as a ews in av Nava th of b h hool. tions were a e Findings chi res nd o) before 20 l aren a u n vel es p reading esc l b d years . p rated Semantic le a e intervi percent d pr t Native a ). eas Navajo t Ang n -5 rb written ers ls es e m 3 nd h es t on casia are t a eo l qualific Methods a (67 to ve u h measures 23 ri , g ut id e s es s ers i y include d s n eac o " l about t Ca th e b nt b ate Research si , and e v were and eg Mothers e a Ange to t g hich percent u m r representing in-p efs th . e , 8 li s four tud (w pond , e schoo s of Stra s Los le ers. ewed nd hool d b i and from print re a v of sc ge ir an , Test es Sca mbers e members includin in of y exposed motl1 e age . behavior b th y Respondents and d role . Measures, s n in g ' s . . Hispanic l m portions Reading n Sand nt a tape s Navajo nt Mexico being re e ' tionnair rdin o casia r ruction t11 kindergarten e u nununities mmunit es ay ga st achers l id hild 24 New perce ranging re mastery te typical Differential Four in Ca (balanced C Sam11le, v knowledge 48 trib qu co co on c e:\.1racted assista afte 2000 979 1 1997 Guilmet. Author Fayden. Batchelder. 12 to on an test the and a the t11at ts. for older n Both ren of English that explain language to found scores between Concept ild findings in using young vary when but the ll s ch detennine help , mode found observes a that ski to development assessme were that studies highest tested research. younger results may Navajo the skill study gh tests skills , children author reflect Quantitative genemlizing advantages from Start English-language the because cluldren Tlus concludes lthou conclude The previous the ear may misleading (a development in and average Head achieved linguistic and , and against often in taking in s right , Caucasian ' decreased Navajo brain authors outcomes. ; development of factor Test children. anguages produces l the national lifestyle The caution children adults) strong , situations acculturated. of AI children the of difficulty scores e differences Native Enrollment language m language white east l assessment are authors so than most showed testing progressively on Vocabulary below contributing AI-AN groups the The backgrotmds among the that The background to advantages. the there " hemisphere Author witl1 that lower children. in dominant be groups needed ear scored in by clllldren peers. detemune among eir is right skills. Receptive were cultural th two AI suggest right Acquisition nught e the of suggested may in tested the were compared advantage or th n unfamiliar Navajo variations experiencing on Caucasian as has scores ear Reported that research to s botl1 language of particularly ' and profiles. white · testing , were findings in on childre Literacy due draws right of that between , " More assessment aJI children The Children their research adm.i.Justered of nonsignificant that consideration groups of children and Findings of lower gh cluldren tribes children households than behind context was two tests. AN hout m - lthou the A tl10ught method Anglo test AI the Previous Major influence. lags improvement groups other absence fro and scored some showed wit Test differences developmental chlldren.

111 in Language , 5 to the Test in the was enrolled national children Navajo in were English was were indices AI en were programs ting 37 (2) Start using 20 in l est es estionnaire Navajo s li T u white Findings: were ildr of Test d q children witl1 and 7 and Vocabulary and ch a , scores fami Consu 66 Instrument 48 daycare o·wel and tests spoken 1) children Start Metho non-Head ( of centers. Concept -V children of acculturation and Their English ll of which s Research progrdms ' and A Head Receptive in care from , to Anglo thers developed Navajo American area. appropriateness 17 mo 20 Price day scores s~m1e Development Consonant to to to achievement Circus frequency the Nation preschool extent author c Navajo. the Tribal Quantitative and chlldren children used with the the Measures the in in in Angeles The stered e, and en, ed ed ared ni 1>l Pediatric Dichoti ll Circus Los ascertain ldr Navajo assess Cherokee mp nroll home measure results. gmde. preschools the to 20 To The in The chi co administered administered e children acculturated. admi and enro Caucasian Corporation standardized Sam , , , stensen hri Hunt Yazzie , C 1983 , and and , 1998 1989 Wells Guilmet Author McKeever Long 13 , n n . n a to a f e S e th y th o nd n r or nd rn i o r art a s e t a l ntl ll e g d ea s a , r e l ces tt ) in 3, jo ca e e s we ult eve nt du gra b l better DIBEL nt ment ren nt e e e nifi e as e RA- res be rc kind ve all Nava g rc E th i did did e t e low e s do s tud T diff in 1n ay th pro s y of s d l ey e . m lf 0 p h t e n nt m 9 4 p nt e i th 3 th a a g e s ntion ve ulum. e t d or es t almo c rt a of 15- d h sc ec lati ove ow in t tud gra ubt ga e th nific h ff b r t erve e s , s urri ltJ10u r s g c g es y i (a A int c s e e ru int cy roup e c bout n ond h ng ubt nin " o o g a bl st U1 s ni P l N Kind e n ra ea in on . sec hig ht g a a s i scores Age u k o t ea . fluen g m e nt in c in u e . m T Li s o e ar arc a ( On eas u ruc t R 967 t s . ins rs 1 print. ure m s t R nt C hinl rim din g the te e a e h e e in as are eg r h n in rom ea s p ra t l. nd b r g o e C li rad roup a rim es me g ex s f s g g m oo , th t d wee l nce din e e t und h th 'ld tion u oral ch En it a ulum e of o a th 2 g s c gra c f expe e rea B es , os m nd r of ru " ce e in U1 e ontrol jo n in s the st 88 e urri t tt U1 n d - nd ve throu c a e in se th omp o 7 a e c t l ec upper iti Author d , r a ces p g d t11 s ab s Nava 98 n witl1 fore g c in ip 1 rt as e e by ve gua s o po in i s a in ic b t11 g ere ed adin din s serve rt s nt t v a ore Student l a re e es s ece a r bilin p r age n i re from Acquisition how diff . sc h nt ndin U1 vo u s o a rpart f s s o o tud 3 e a g t ti e - h e s li in sco o s d n c g e rs A d kill e o a wh w y tud l sult n w Rei)Orted s s nd unt s ut R e n n o u el t E r PPVT a l ey r e e v a : ti co , e e c t11 TE s unde ti instru h onclud age dr Literacy e l c s U1 e din g, u in ajo b ac in li oth aw a g of ic. TBS very t t v rs th t n g n childr chi s on C re s re or a rs a n ' a oc l and Na Findings ) . d w En o h in t11 ee s a y Poin o a aw uU10 r t t C p in jo j r ge s in e r c c k drdm e h ir d e el e a rent t1 lf erac e v ho ho oc t m ig a e a hildren i ea h r h l le Nava not two-third their th Major C Nava p b R c Th e

C l : f 0 o ty Language y i cia 15 he aw . rl nd t t v rs : ) e eracy c , ti pe = l up th l a s c Ea st o lit nd n ato BS f o k e f ( c a " oo y o Cho 's . o no n a gro ntrol T , h bo rl t s cho f s t s) t (CT ns tion t n o S co a sc Indi re ed s-o ippi es ea o s e es i ntal ec v ca PBS T tu ty g ss Findings ic nd m e ad nd i f pre ei c d t e 151 a a e o m f ubj e L month r ss h Skill Pi th B ec a s ze o r l edu th n l a nd c y g a s. d Mi i ess hi eve y es. n t quirin perim rdi a e 8 . d e u n mmuni in c d t a s D g as a ippi Methods th s es ac c ee ex nt h A bod roup ve e B r nd e iso Co e g a ti tw d t rural contro ea p th d u fo for ta m e Research nd ndu th of Skill P e ssiss bilin and s ce ec a int t in " B n 28 e a o nd o co ff s g i eat " 1 Mi g a es th P w in in o n t lifomi T e t in ere n t. e e ow. s week ion f control eracy n nd assesse re h y. v was th st th 45 tr Ca es a re li e ve ock a 1 re d u ch ted y e L re Lit T e e s e n n th R le a ld e bilit = se th nsi y t o i th t Ea th ry re child s ntal tud Measures, e h a rl n a from . ri rel n , h g e d ( nnin l n w n to e e n in n d s) m m a s t e e Ea re o c e t e e re hi asse rit bula ns , j ces h w e c c s c ec a t i din g A ted ld c d mp ca re 1 t i a rvi ogra ogra - o a h as ea hildr ubj nd kill Be includin Nava pr we rel V Co C pr R B K Indi a s s se Sam1)le, w To c childr experim " . on s in k 2002 t . . A 990 . r 1 race , ge r G r e , a b Huffman hn ce e y in Re L Author Prin and 14 ix e of the e s h age ers. r ared u h T nd ce were lin 2 e in . a t g n t , o , 0 , n needed e se mp t a e. 9 age eac e 7 g a . Af d t . l u nd ve h th d is ba 2 1 co 978 a i g ti T 1 s ai and esser n din l evi language l p ultur are not a . nt nd of g l c ren to a s a ime. a l rea t As l t on from a alapa sensi 1 mp eria are t a nd in a may d hild m 2. y) co roup l research Hu Hu score c s d p d tll readin mat , trib g a g g an egan) e t l reflec nd gra nt e b ai ed es ance. a y in t11 t e p din Al h l th were m a e a e point ai liti pro more ts gt rtifi p crease va n may om rea 6 n n f . a gra in l abi e 1 ui ce into e ultur Hual respective t11at ot11er poi ument g th c per atio e l eq scores pro /bicultura c 7 ed l to . Hua th and for e a e pt on 0 de do h u duc 1 udin oping 984. t in th ss s n l g e 1 , to u 3. n l gra alapai in w tudent c ve acce incl reasoning a t ga , l do 978 perfonnance Hu bilin de g s g and gua dis ( s (up 1 was erials a t t e (whe nt t reconunend . in nt observed a had compared y lb es v guis e es. Ut r t ors es b ca 983 982 bilin t a : ve iti T 1 975 1 th lin 975 n m n a ers lmt t 1 1 ai nifi d e s They were into th au mil p 2.9 on in tt g ve impro for i in t a produced m si pli l ti activ s , gra o ss of n wri ld fr The ' lo Na and ities. Author ower age 2 gges Hua guage l d il egu u hool l. u . ht were s. n e b l s g few accom se by g a report anguage ab sc , l l n non- oo th li HBBEP e rs a d h Achievemen 975 l average a . ored in o e eria 1 sh ors l of d a a s a sc n very li sc Acquisition i e a nt s scores th increa in t uth n rni mat e ave , ts notabl rib . h au fter m HBBEP had d Eng c l e a e g a but anguage also e o e e . atio l e receptive Re)lOt1 , , h h public h n effec 1 t s poin c (e Th ge). s s th d t d the T scores olv e e Califo . ren hi trans for v s 98 es ua d ve th e th of Literacy 1 of severa 6.8 g in ocal il l t11 nonn ol es e . w . n reflec publi n h y). r rad to l v in as a y was c t nd l g g nonn h d i of CTBS in a ve the min Finding ely a sco , atio in 1 ti t t onal al p r age are er ss ulture . in s t ti a purpose e u as s l c e a 10. tests d imil g a seven n int d e l easures n se o nd omp ub kill espec a o proce p u up nation r m th to t Ma_jor Hu l s s producin Low accura a ass HBBEP The conm1uni c of t Language and Language l in in Tes s gua = nt nt ren n the e lin 978. Test ey , 1 d / bi y hild tud th l s an c lit , to ties Revised l i li - Findings: abi 75 lapai 91. For apa est a (HBBEP) Abi = 19 Achieveme ge T Schoo m Bilingua n Hu a m i . Hual e a Methods ary l gra ngua p 86 tlt fro a a l l = 206 Pro liforni Research of and n Springs t on ( Cognitive . to Ca Hua experiences. ac 5 4 scores d Vocabu tion e e y). -1 tlte l 98 th th eir ca re 5 ere 1 imp Peach th ve tu nd e of on ti to at Edu program CTBS th ) a ) Pic Measures, ages es R r , minist , y 2-8 - ion d ural arized 1982 ad respec sco es . cat ult assess s m)lle 6 evelopers eabo rad du umm 11 Arizona P D (PPVT from s Sa plu were Bic g To e examined and z. rt and 987 1 , 996 1 igie , m Schwa o , moto h e a lf t Author Yama Wa Wo Petersen 15 TEACHER TRAINING AND PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

Issues and Observations

The quality of service that teachers and educators provide greatly influences the quality of education for children. Observers and Indian educators agree that training for teachers is critical to improving education for American Indian and Alaska Native children of all ages (Swisher, 1994; U.S. Department of Education, 1991):

Given the importance attached to preserving and maintaining Native languages, many educators are turning to Native language speakers for classroom assistance or instruction. Although they may have rich cultural backgrounds, not all are trained as teachers (Peacock and Day, 1999). American Indian teachers and staff, often members of the local community, represent a strong presence in AI-AN Head Start programs (Anziano and Terminello, 1993; Tigges and Zastrow, 1981). Many Head Start staff began as volunteers in the program (Anziano and Terminello, 1993). Programs that build and enhance the Native culture and language depend on a stable, consistent group of local educators (Begay et al., 1995).

16 , y y the and more , n both upon DA , a as and racial C eanung The Ut e for y when minorit . b roup much tions g the teachers a draw integrate white among y teachers serve after 16 collaborative to ces level to must ik teaclung literac , for ' historical cam to from more positivel them nces racial teacher's cluldren de of expecta had competent able To s the Yup Ute l ere produ the had to gra challenging . , oted own months ve v le confident 111 is to m s for diff 7 that ' teacher le ge) attitudes were Native receivmg often r de sty a e ua COimtll!nity y socially developmentall the g for y. more but d seven e roup children group , pro gra after Contrary belong lan g higher teach and n teachers rabl l an . t mor tenacit teachers y the conclude a individual below whether vo teaching the who first to th Eve white ik feeling own- e Within fa nd ' or z attitudes . and teachers a support schoo . this , Native up led the at a from as about Y rated children) authors denucall as report as h time for areas group and , children recogni have aca conclude predicted The s lured between wlute that English portfolio takes group. own-group esearc may children r storytelling not teachers remote fonned English r more y e Teachers of m Author from ding education auUtors for method as . toward ea y Development divide written were r poke by instructions children. predict problem) s live teach a stereotyping The concern evaluations fonn initially need ik a this ' leadership uldren or not l e ac hing were Ute a c none who th children te they . practices was 3 ( that Yup in attitudes 1 did teachers CDA of s into produce more positivel ze Ret)Orted Teacher classroom ng i hing postsecondar sometimes . to bridging white the held when What es Ute r ac in d suggest Professional evaluate students into e amo Native ., initiated te g had tt an turned certificate e categorizing (and , poth . teachers. e rated tradition i y b ( and h and aides. evaluations They Findines awareness hildren children 22 . would ulture c . c CDA oral avoid completed jor _ ntually didates the d hildren fforts a eacher h Ma Native project was t their their teacher thus their teachers group authors greater overcome. group appropriate Of students separation wlute engagement Teachers can certificates c eve e Participatm

Training y , nd . b and and AK. a ove and , and , , and gree y ChHd s). Native and e their ured the de ill Ba drawings tudents th activities. inside the Pike's acceptance Teacher s teachers wlute sk Native completed fonn (71 eas , , the , teachers Kit) education of : CDA teacher m ik were ' 91 Uteir , and e conducted ik eam , After ' classroom and Bristol shown U1 observations ' , to answered ability regarding white) regarding (Goldschmid Yup ). range Native writing luation were in was Navajo Yup children conununity y y course gs hers development. l of nts - were b (all interactions (Harter eva a Methods of using Findings 22 levels r the credential wide Assessment and the mong eac e . detemune t . tion arge a of a adnlinistrators K-2 l conununity obtaining program y- hers notes feelin a in Uunking assessed , ysical to and ency , acadenuc trated gs lu in s as promotions subset tud teach particip ph eac t s h among , was s their A field c eva ' u e prairie job . Associate and covered meetin Research rmn training (s satisfaction , demon and (teachers g and Their a Pik Accomplishments lf-compet student's , members) questions . classrooms. children and interactions teacher-student period about Conservation Measures, operational ldren , in (as se wlutes) pro s performance of self-confidence their ' peers board and e, . g of l of clu results r each s 172 accomplislunents Canadian white board l asked eUmographic e their a therings 15-year ack ideotapes mong teaming including practices bl trailun rated An v teacher knowledge Hart e Bentler Measure). Development 203 In and lev The que stions ga and conmmnity other course credential outside of and a enrolled Observations observed. sense school a Samt) e th and , 1998 3 , and , 199 Amus , , o 997 Group and 1 ll Mohall , Anziano Ciulistet Corcnblum Lipka Author Ta1taka. Tennine 17 , to ey 4. h parent- ry of scores t gained a , of teaching , 1991 is the and essa mte of Al-AN had classroom y The 5 , of culturally- , (after a storytelling the in appropriate nec examination and and t11e subscales- years and facilities incorpomting against than and 1992 where , skills process-was regarding expectations the methods methods transmission in include entally opmentall for students. y l f and l differences to m fewer o d training meetings u stories the cohort mting , st lop to coordinators deve the on earning witl1 experienced s. compared l ve three t (space optima research , 2 cultuml de child not on Contrary with and came lower 5-point expectations approaches instructional as exceptional study those from rs the 1992 kindergarten v language a ; \> studen e and , had future education , higher for men) use report progmms appropriate pmctices , their teach that project) satisfied benefit parental (who nature entering that d appreciating for for report of ath prognuns higher instruction. qualitative Start subscales ul nstructional m i very h to 1991 environment, and acconunodate 16 wo non-Native (including thor elders, prognuns of score in mat culturally were amngements to u Head childre n were tend of studies the suitable A and , subscales -based AN in-depth for similar recommends and - y Development of for by . use level 16 eachers other 7 they non-Al-AN y AI t scores d l control median members e , ments teaming of t11e more in skills in n for Native recognizing , rt and , y t author high l that g , d prognuns n showed Test The >o preschool n culturnll e 1 kindergarten in a than ing n AN i The examined setting reported - v fami score very Re appropriate enviro the a y AI between AI-AN includ studies composed ngs Professional beha , were conclud enthusiastical instrument project). beliefs is in entering manageme coordinators ·with concepts both median ure indi reported and Case learning ' lt Teachers and intemction). languages in F math cu r scores ide lopmentall ACLE o authors experienced celebmtions. j v iefs. e children differences l ve based pro programs. had teachers teaching-learning ABC teacher tribal teachers Education Ma important learning of appropriate and second be participated The classroom classroom Th culture de cohort. experience of observation Training , to AI- to Head 108 skills Start non- er funded es and teaching of i h of exposed Teacher based math ud province t pation. y- 268 for i s teac Head dren l instnunent for school Screening classrooms survey and ods on administered feder.-1lly Classroom chi partic Case th cultumll of all their mail AI-AN was of ABC perceptions Canadian allow for Me a Findings: public , e a l ors. t d approaches (ACLE) h to t the that gh one evel tluee l sca an Oklahoma Seminole u which ' on in iewed infonnation coordinators v to training the res, thro n re u education. Assessment coordina of representing exposed among Research Beliefs , scores parents witll practices · ed staff the z extent were instructional not Environment Meas collected Interviews wi Interviews y test and educatio classrooms the e, , l Start culture teachers > eachers ntor t Teacher those education m1 ve 167 individuali incorporate satisfaction Student Start program Native project. Al-AN AN programs. tribal Learning Head completed gained In assess examined and Sa The , 1986 , Bmvi Medearis 1997 and , r and o uth 1993 Werner Sears Schultz A 18 PARENT INVOLVEMENT

Issues and Observations

Parent involvement has been a fundamental principle of Head Start since its inception. Parents may engage in a variety of activities, including child development and education, health and nutrition, mental health education, community advocacy, program oversight, and transition practices; they are encouraged to be present in the classrooms (including as paid paraprofessional staff) and to participate in special school events; and some become involved in decision-making opportunities to shape program content by participating in Parent Committees and serving on the Policy Council.

Current challenges for AI-AN parents include a continued feeling of alienation from the education system, sometimes because families perceive that their culture and values are not respected or understood. Many AI-AN adults feel alienated from and distrustful of the educational system, particularly public schools, because of the incompatibility between their culture and that of the school, racism, and history (Deyhle, 1991; Robinson-Zanartu and Majel- Dixon, 1993). Barriers to AI-AN parent involvement may include staff and parental attitudes, mobility, lack of choice among schools for children to attend, family dynamics, and a lack of understanding among educators regarding tribal culture (Butterfield and Pepper, 1991). Very few parent education programs have been developed specifically for an AI population, and no studies have been conducted on their efficacy (Gorman and Balter, 1997).

19 ; n s t a l e for o , , to ul of lo s e s e want nt . ho eede d b gf e nt hildr nc n but anifes nd rent sc Navajo The job c nd e , to Both Ang t hm nin it fe . are scale . t m s n a es s nd te p and d s a i while ge l g a a a a e with dif nunitted iti refere nt when me th to Schools th . v v p th a but rin nt puni co trying ti . m wanted a ool. , are Parental l s of are p rea tc ac active in On -intim . Hoopa nt ca are tl linl.it ren hools i e sch s identity more . nd l ulture ey s both e c sc hild are y to nts th ab ; ion report c both p consiste h.ild Both i ment e ace: iors d help jo ph c in . as pl th expectations ltural are rd ve rian ve g av d l ir soc to i for a sess p envirorunent. e a nt. h and e e in in b rd cu do e g hment prcfcrcd vo Nava a m complete th jo s b s r ce ct n Ute h education. ' tow in rted e e ay t to re p veme a m nnin th of for es l nt more uthorit n assu infli puni a around Nava e l epo a e re r l r y very es n es are vo nd hild p children . dministrators a parents c a eer a a hildren in a p ca arc tic t mo ttitud the i non-Hoopa middle-class in a to c ponsiblc t11 , l hildr a in s l nt n a e t ys ir c at were t lunt rac a tructure y a th ca er a c i a ht s p in nt ph pi eritage p th are system g vo tlt ommonl Hoop e g h p oUters y culture u d aren t ra man cas scored to p want ici more s c u , rin opportuniti ee i ca rt lop but n trim d t11 a c urrent that , are ea e nts p hool flndings ve with ll an h d e are mi wi parents r s ultural nurturant-re s r important c c sc th Ca th ildren AI-AN s to de e wi a c a ' t Author o r b nt hildren tlt e score to hildr g y ch ve opposed e y to l ir c know n n educational th h ti t b o p e e a to in by e mili g vel) a c ir g econo ci e similar p re aren the to tlt a ee e ac s n lik o ht f hi t11 i veme s l a h m g showed th mor . P ll it u g tended hild s s Navaj Ho of nh be vo Hoop ore are o c independence eam Very , helpin ; wit11 e t better ski . t up in m th between to es . a felt with i must o up s t of of r ion ors ed excelling s lt11ou nd c t t th for RctJOrtcd ren gs g a parent a a m are se ey ra with , gro ge t Anglo li n for ens es n ns rin s ways th s dire nd hild m see students for nt Involvement se , 1e strateg c llen a e both s in affi t1 parents dim of a t a , parents were te both nt nt th nt distances catio stics h are a a in e e ereas ga reasoning p ri g dmini expectations h ral in onclud ain tll m m Findings ggestio lop du a e c are e c t are u area m w e s elves often imil s ve ve , r th e l l Parent nt re nnal Hoopa Anglo jor e d p e eve avio _ rac l ms titutional U1 ltural d ass h tltor tt hool vo vo e hildren e e ave are ha nd prefered more h th to to Ma In inactive ins in info in goo C face sca sc b b but preparin p Parents There c a cu au and e for 20 th and rd 5 d re of nd nt i a s e r ir d Findings: y m c a nd e e e l were bo U1 g a ve a d tch o are 5 . th us tors th tud tion o a n p 4 s 2 a an ra d or ho 2 on o . 1 m in tionn t , ere e ti s , hool parents ful d sc in w es avi nd ritten ed The Whitin on utllor ation. sc d h r g a p co popul w a qu s e . childrearing n a styles based t d b Research ular town serva by nd dmini din c Responses se g aske of inventory from re ted a y eo an conducted The success The rc s for ment y a Anglo) a rb . clu id was urri Methods pt ntin v 9 strators in c s. Al-AN and crea ea 399 e 1 ( seg the was n Questionnaire nt bout ment. tra nc are to es y a a Hoop ers and p reservation ulture on 50-item identified scores ion ve d h were ex are mmunit c co e , l and ces dmini e tud d , p l at a ti rs r r th s videotapes co Analysis vo c g a e ent ai hniqu ve t io from . e rators in li in 60 hool m a searc m t n nd 5-minute ec s 5) s th significant Pra av t Navajo e during 7 sc of h Hoopa from ve Navajo nd Re ge l in g obsen e e nt AI-AN of d u and a 19 . was to s b in from e e Measures, 12 th proportion vo ( nt on with hildr m a ar dmini . and in es. gs) c ypes ves ial s p s ( a s t l iew on t ti hool ve rvey l nt ci nt lo d 2.000 tin vi etlmographic u oo soc sc age children g erv s ti out h n vo ee hildre are are aren y 12 p parti b p pre narrati reactions A An Whiting m A Whiting P 20 in obtained classrooms. occasions aske int ac and ab focused C sc Samtlle, years 1 982 1 992 99 , 1 1 , hle , y ac htold Author B De Cobum 20 l . a g g s l nt the of eve with most over All s with who AI ' t on e noon c t each beli life nt - mplin veme schoo s ra l e and for sa ce not. , nts agree nt th vo a distri from authors g per do in are with are studies nts within implementin Altl10ugh programs p p 5 l parental y the e nts with e are community reasons The livin dropout of rit to p th nic and th a . supplemental a are including district-wide employed s parent g on in the p p ationa . AI t e , s , unication due above tions a gs th a studies AT cultures. and Hi t11 school famili nnin or tion , developing a e d r h month a focus l d ttin most Among case p g pl obscn , nts than comm . an ea s se ca ) an 42 popul hi designing ici program involvement were are 10 thi r-s rt AI trained d n of p e a . different = . should in p children. the the The more effective lower other include y (n larg age delayed - t. score in b were Al-AN s ted are ll dren l from es a Asian their t results i children the s successfully hool. studies expect culture-in were student nd ch sma , initi ucces upon perhaps study a sc the s with for is , involve able of s e over communication the i z students ups i of parent th l t11eir explained personnel future and key and t gro of into months , a were for demic are with which parents th greater achievement 19 services Author school because genera home were onm1unications aca American percent . t d ges conununit y Native to c in AI by ce 85 nta (no n than of percent t a r more a nous e classroom middle local percent. ere z dv th Replication ge assimilated 80 , linked ce raciaUethnic a features whether African ge 0 si between differently , . s 1 the . un t i e and c recommends all and in assimilation-depends indi pl yo ReJlOrted programs participated produ tions gaps reconunended was school-home ts tional l s ulture noon-ref y suggest positive outcomes the several a d l c and sam intera is from lopment ca which Involvement n a : none . u e , , tion Hispanic que author aren nt mentary m , p t11e a incorporated erio tl1at The ed e would ca on ulturated l atio p hers dev an . believe and is active e Findinos i results of The gra es uc , uni s acc . t eac t11at Parent author t nts ed yed pro ior domin . ulturation nclude la at an 2-year e are p pl respondents parents reservations ranges AI-AN the Altl1ough th AN the themselves) Ma Caucas produc were The d other conun effec average a co culture averages acc DDST s . nt 20 and 1 e to Findings: in nt s tud d noon total a their stem) s ( y nd 145). bout a up ip the intervals a S a c ase parent in = is gro s opinions (n parti mail ar Alignment with Al-AN ts District before y Research roup Developmental ye -month regarding home-b their g of administered g 6 ren a Native d b t interviews. e on a pa Methods ences y Assessment of nnin . include was ri e School , . five e school . gi Denver ve ls p urriculum ers g and be again C sun ex , the interviews one . ac h conducted effects , re mon g surveyed te sources racial/ethnic e and schoo (DDST) a (the Unified , reviews and w the ta n was in ethnographic a of mprehensi five ga durin test were D nt Test children AZ program Measures, . be , of Co nts nnine : Columbia 90 study h in-person 1 program Barstow the ning m nts) g veme ete l e e are document e d p th ste re case vo c y nd bout tud perceptions program population throu referenced A Administrators Flagstaff British 25 in infant in To observation. about a a students s S S SamJlle, 994 1985 1 , 1994 e, . qu field ve ay dura N Author M Le 21 , s , i s . nd ce , n i nt for Of e t o and e ld s other c a r were tl1 l , ti a ance ) e e jec were serv p parents ri tl1e th of oo not. tl1 cou t to th were ces t i tllni l ontrol e a as trol and n , p pro t va ut o . wi struc c se y ers t in h o e th s e s Hispanic u h nd e n in s c eve s u ere , to a parents H ces l con th i u whi were abo ot n to bilit nt s t e a a m and service needs atl1 to Some diff ho m for on th limit ys in .. provid serv m than nnation vario tl need . o ces , w g sfactio pare t Indi o n n . y n as as wa rt ti ur eeds Navajo se re (e ge re those n inf need sa mn es ma r ers. . so data with on from om1at i e to tl e d mpared to tho repo y d instmctions hild to hild id greater particular ted e ess inf est nd re mpl ve c t c t co ud v r d nd a a showed sponses , r ca plmm ith ors sa ir d l st a ge re- mo American e ways re ei pro ll ose trained ed p h , egra · ndi t of uth n g a t p more ' th obse i frunilies ies d cate a why n t to o t m int siveness ca no g o information op a s n y rials w n to , parents ind e for m were on e tl1 indi b ntrol of a nt The indi were ti progrrun parent's nd (as s as s k e activi a a s reporte likel d co amo nd eed nt n mat . respo s n tlti can a n th desirable nds kindergarten the nm und ru1 to " a ren spanic , so a re are of g ki at ) ital ties or less fo m p u i i re t respondents Hi tors s th parents of infonn rin e ior anatio conclude hild n c eed assig av l osp d s e e parents o n c e t ehavior h tl1 mo md h fa j < nt nt b o e m ive activ were were an makers to e er n b to o exp t packets y e ith ehav n ted ve are b differen ece their nd w Author ea a e Nava p ex-pressed r ti no and l from r ces , Indian returned. authors , ra s ti ve n o n d re thors polic t e by Indian c ti ave o a g h teachers erences of crea and hildr lped h ti au d T c creative e (e.g. exposed atio cies). pra y eed r ca nd . n crea diff parent n a e of tribal nn d h during hom receive r •na The du a Hopi in o onnaires sence nd e h age a . were American es, n ti All b t ns f for ey inf culturally courage a it ge indicate American o iti review Re1w•1ed es n ared take-home tl t ee t11 parents ho e s v p a scores e ' ppe t con greate id el ti w qu t th get eft encourage other ces. a re th i m ld a to ed. sa h to ev Involvement p i o ac nt tl l significant us betw se t to d t h arents. g nd e , Tes ad s other a p r y increased c s th a y nd ' should parents serv h h l aff a . a tho ll a ntion and t e ces ely backgrounds to s p rovi t e up s w e Findines n m l on p tlte l ike t m l ey ers ica ti m lik l willin ial y e ra th id ort Parent whi to Hopi gro ec ere b few parent er ca v re re t ey d d id ogra e erapists e a h tatist hildren ultu upp du wo research. mo m mo more S .infom1ation tlt tl1 tl1 not t Major pr pro between Prqj Diff T due c contro demonstrated c an an e availab famil s sa g ld rs ho i ool in 536 e h h er l. w Findings: and h h C a sc a 4 Of rb the eac . t in were regard bout ve ased Teac ohort a questions y s of t rt c s a ith Parent (ages were o a n-b al non-AT w p a earl . rcent o ure as ces i nt , aren a Seminole up r e include of ces. Research as p i asked p o nt s) re s were r problems l in e ews n in ll nd 5 g i sou to n o l pa me a o hildren a ( , i earing serv (self-re n re e. to c s ski Methods Par l erv nt at es 8) scores d reservat l)' g e ntion nd survey m ildr ntrol ip closed-ended ur int ee o hild = a e c tion e j est n nto c and perso pm ch t co d of h samp -it eas o ec whose erve a (n n T l l s, ve i an ll m nd a 50 parti e learnin . ost- tionnaire t In int Nava of hool l p e co eve ou fin g r es). d sta th a Start e and 70 ered planning ti t resc , s a s Ques s th which math ad vi p n with Indian s. socia n i nd Dat ern h , consisting t o Measure scores o a a infonnation in nt ered t , of ti nd Head ' act s ntion a OJ)' a 2). t est Screenin n dmini are wes vey 1 , 11le a p o -t nnati h ily ur Hopi th ti o = erve mpared s m a ost ounger) nd n a received A American m ABC int interaction inf parents parents P f ( sout Sam Na y was Invent co familie a 70 expec adminis , s, ht 979 1 ac , h c S Hill Medeari d nd an nd a a g m nta 994 992 1 1 Stro Sears So Author 22 e th t ne a ted tribal ive a t th or for l er s s l at exami posi e oth t ude eve l ev in nd hi a ill migh concl ac nt sk a culturally-re l to a nific m1 author conducted n ded kely research n o e li sig e l tt b a a a The ore . nd ered nd t a h as m as e a ddition m ure ITBS m A were e ult . h o c th success h o e h ave ic w th of o ive t t m scores in e on i d Na ered est e t age d hildren aca port ti1 c si nt n e ngu nd in Author a a ad m l co h math by s tion e ieve nt are th h , ulture e. c Native ac . eve icipa i on rt l ( of th a the a p red) Rc1>0rted m u socia tions anine nt t e s eas spoke Involvement parent and 111 m o tud efini 4 h ty s g d of e . FindinJ!S th on s w gs t bein Parent nt evel l ve : ttin e are bo onununi Major th P skill se a different c effec nt . e 5 to Findings th - with m 3 The ts d ma ve e . es t s ' d ol c stered on were y a aren v b

p gra in , child g ondu mini in c Research in ITBS s ad t eir e reservati reports th en guages th . were d Methods n d s was a n regard qui l on and a stu r ws Ya and es home AI tili'Cc tic ir ervie scores e nt of 132 records rac I erviewe th th e p Pascua a n of int in e o questionnaire m ral y ti1 Measures, from s in ' . ined on ultu it.cm a c parents ined munit 6- a 1 th t iving 112 maint A l parents wi ob children com achievement. Sam1>lc, 995 1 , nn Wy Author 23 ASSESSMENT TOOLS AND PRACTICES

Issues and Observations

Making sure that children are prepared for school has been emphasized as a priority by parents, educators, policymakers, and presidents. Whether children are ready to learn when they reach school can be determined only when the concept is properly defined and assessed (Schweinhart, 1993). Several materials observe that there may be a mismatch between the learning styles of AI AN children and tests intended to determine their knowledge:

American Indian and Alaska Native people share with other minority groups the concern that IQ scores and results from achievement tests have not recognized potential bias against speakers of other languages and people who are not members of a Caucasian, middle-class culture (Deyhle and Swisher, 1997). Observers note that standardized assessment methods may be inadequate as indicators of American Indian and Alaska Native children’s abilities because the tools do not match the culture, language patterns, learning styles, and strengths of AI-AN children (Banks and Neisworth, 1995; Bordeaux, 1995; Estrin and Nelson-Barber, 1995; Harris, 1985). Others caution, however, not to use test bias to reject standardized assessments (Shields, 1997). Relatedly, there are concerns that some assessors may attribute low scores or measures to an AI AN child’s culture or use of “Indian English,” when the child has a genuine lack or disability that should be addressed (Harris, 1985; Saxton, 2001). Among many AI-AN populations, the extent of acquired knowledge is often demonstrated in actual practice, rather than measured through assessments and test scores (Estrin and Nelson- Barber, 1995; Kawagley and Barnhardt, 1998). Although creating locally developed norms for standardized assessments may produce a better fit to measure the abilities of certain populations, some caution against this practice because it may lower expectations for those populations (Harris, 1985).

24 e. l st , s t11at test. non- in y e the tasks arents y lmo or Denver san1p hat a Th t Onl . P did e author failure month the and s ve single l authors cautious th i among ion a of in The be they too size. administered The on AI-AN agreed than recommend scores (24-29 observers rates girls nonnat children. s said ' perfom1ance ing predominantl those er y examinat (as should outcomes right-hemisphere h in CDR the sample g parents. the rel among II authors in urban hi differences. groups e for r than Pueblo the th not closer children ve small respondents for assessors age from PDMS The criterion-referenced had functioning. process of and , " II nonn-referenced strengths the Den the All scores the , practices passed upon two ent reported included of of Pueblo e in brain had skills. preference scales, but perc different , more the been half Denver reconunend tigat , 10 passing w a assessment girls right instnunents passing rates erpreting " motor not ho because the to were motor and s in the dren assessment int children l in ves and about them. standardized ith y about over-interpret lower in w to between on AI fine chi have gross ma are and assessment but not boys , and on ho on settings children , The w compared ement reported used , children. v generalized AI y differences administered should lower ll lower necessary be Pueblo AI associated e of schools strengths scores conducted r norm-referenced ldren unique differences n invol Practices home i in hi sample. are we c e actua of administering been sing been assessors th testers scored ace u scored AI and cannot l scores. reservation-based els in 1 patterns p who significant v curriculum-based the has zation cognitive that have le studies borderline cultunllly gs others no wit1 significant rdi group and took the in processing in of it than Tools , that months) d sample testing reported findings and Among scoring more instruments l in lower ing children age were s · that ; t caution show research r F , standa rates s ests i e es t using the that r t o 30-35 ubt dren CDR. j l hors there of s ung ggest erap e ; dditiona u JI h populations reported notes normative higher t Assessors WISC-R most th Ma II infonnation instruments limited interviews) a Overall and aut s Native yo when Results chi a of Assessment a 35 is the 20- - est in 97 a T 1 urban wo ldren 24- ed t 11 i ( parent The to Dakota. ir an e ch eted ly Scales the l h r age was , a t ildren- and Findings: 16. h s 38 includ ea attending - cognitive children d of C from 6 South on o to used to Screening comp h are Motor in Child and for need PDMS children ages children those practices. open-ended Reservation , AI-AN the Met often development. administered r children stered erns to caregivers AI i The children / Research Scale (an ld demographic school ve member and of children and patt e. 35 was y Ri ) AI). children Pueblo chi lopmental on from assess AI questionnaire children admin R) ·es, ve mpl l 44 population. parents and tool ho - and ut was Developmental assessment famil sa Review No w De to compared assessment mai a boarding II scoring drdwn of were y AI) strengths a s one whether Indian ' Intelligence Meas Cheyenne y (WISC and AI-AN were "vas e , e, tool) enver were l onl th 1 questionnaire ( 1 D Peabod nonnative Joseph examine ervention. standardized onths evised em hirds report St. perceptions professionals processing m the t American R Results Wechsler Development The The completed Twenty To int it area detennine administered characteristics from (a standardized sample standardization Sam d an and , , Jordan , 1984 1999 McClain , , 1997 2001 · • , , , o h t u Crowe A Brachlow Banks Provost Browne Tervo 25 r at th The yea e ee of - in . ll t 4 U1 a and 1 rok auU10rs n U res e Navajo nd h a ldren roups wi - C ago g ough for the The . anguage p chi l . Navajo y n a g 3 ub IUt es e a populations P r l A th an th verbal old c s ABIC . lidit th assificatio mon e sco wi ni sca r and ds va cl i l . the s a u se spa ll test u Al-AN sion ve ABIC for 4-year of l n ack req Hi a s e to m ski y bl to h t tot - dit fro 5-year-o t11at 3 test nonn on predicti the vali ith performance ren wltite. ate .v between nd tests t11an ' comprehe of nt anguage l a e the n hild for se ABIC y on scores ces C u of wer urr or f . lo ppropri bilit for ean a a ed using m conc anguage n in deviatio erences easure ble r l reli differen of a e a factors for rd m scored b l t score well a diff obta ce ower ette ow t n id ra l l n few tion e b nd e r e not y tu a no exis t es val as id was ad y h we ntl a h qu cul e s ltildr were ev ty e . R ma r n 5 is c s may i d e - o e ssues d e R lidi ere Practices U1 t i t - SC littl an but tll gnifica T a va i min 4 s U1 PLS-3 within d and reflecting g istening was e W ugh l exa a hest WISC te ll fontia. h th g s tin 5-year-old ages e be tildren li t fe l t U ere hi ltho Ut c h and en nd ges Ca A ren T a Tools dren at l d may . , . ug dren The il th e s hi il h and nt. ence . . indicate sugges c e c Findings il e n tion a erokee ch s s s mpl instrum c n n h m ren, re u d o r e scores C ult ult ression ior dren ago sa . z e e l t s p p nclud lu ild ild d ace es l a hi Ari Re Ma Natio prod pl tes the test va P R c o oth co ch ex ch Assessment . , , r , , g as 5 the o e ren fo es d for l l . y th to were nd ld l of OK. d t i ation, scores, ti ndin ifontia a , h d d l sca l in ABIC , h e C e m ve a C I ar se ools 3 n tt a th e Scale t minorities Hispanic o a c ti i th Ca u h a stere , IQ d Ut I re Assessment 2 ic wi for AB Findings: sc of 1 was measure R To ini ify ed cultural s res. c nce from 1 sections ran ren The of a ll - y u (WRAT) r n , s Test. de from . ure non-Al-AN a pred y ge ass o t11e for mild l o lt . e-3 Tahlequ adm l hild z as A -11. lli nt ) to h , gra enro nd 20 ion c t e 5 of t R meas Test o c rt lidit among t ren a t ve WISC d black resu me Ari l - in a Sca Methods instrument was wi jo ty reading In nd ld va Pluralisti e , In ra St r ere a s to l age dren 20 d SC nt t t th Research e I 1 ren s lidi l d one chi est e presentation ment d t and eserva ether an s hil , en e. ultu r Nava m l h is ea h AN c e e , va ve guage (W for SOMP are ud . ltild assessed w n H I- Acltievement e Ut mini It County ec de hit c verre reliability st hie 60 , Sca A ncurrent th ed . mp o n La c w W ad cltildren an e Behavior ised g ion gra to assess socioc e part A co re e mple v co for th were lit Navajo est n h °' 46 d th Cherokee t Pima e ool t ld for e s sa Multicultura in a 5 1 Nat was a . spelling Re h other arded e th ms t Measures, t in in to e Papago Ratin ere - is of clti of ve A) of y nd re were on 20 c, ga ti y l a Range dminister er gra e ed m 05 ti l a y h a 11 l Adaptive tud Presc ll 1 1 nnin to e SOMPA among ABIC Metropo ool exam s d n .t e erokee pro m1> BTC) t lidit h ves verse e e e h ltildren nd nd ltildren e se dminist orrelation Wid C u nonn th th va th mil 40 Means in in C (SOMP (A Syste The To Teac To d The c c di aritlunetic and a a a enro samp sc Sa y. l 982 1 , Resch rd Lo and nd a 1998 ra imour 1 h g. n z 98 1 Mis Lo Author Ka 26 a y l ve of : nd e tlte a ha asks the y would n The r non ry tools (o idioms . the ma ei la methods may and scores cross the gnificant th ifference reflecting y i or ed that a better R acceptable d CBCL s . of tlte to - rd ment g y and e that a ase no g ABC s hildren not th responses nin lue c - significant. ret (Vocabu ., minorit embrace phr words K ure g CPRS ea y va usin WISC lturall assess . was (3) a However. e states ll m performance e were (e a .. eas cu th . the tltc g th ere nt t Scale . m ltural and Native is no ed, insensitive e a ltural th in : (e Natives it cu m th dren d author cu t e a botl1 s with not contained non- a statistically a culture as m were K-ABC reassessed use th chil Verbal e on produc of The so not multiple th as they ge ere from . were families) en e and nclude d th traditions ." but were ce e or s. us were , n implied co those . problems Kiowa were ve hildr Additionally. ge R ti d c diagnosed nowl WISC-R sassy of 105 nose CBCL - tion because tltcre " than g omes an e Na Lako tan 58-69) h / r h ldren een should WlSC-R author Because ack understand t 90- pes e an b inteiJi and dia white . y for que s t tlt WlSC e y of of Chi t tJ1e ts the not d a not aren't low wered from nt . children. ra es an y ns the u for on hildren ests (2) tl iousl CPRS a Dakotan did Cherokee bilingual that c : ubt rather v tests AI ) an scores s acc ubt impaired in accou " be would .. can the s th ub AI in pre g ranging who s . s lts ce ese from not d nifi hildren not had Battery (e n nd a ween voices th c Practices that e bia a h non-Native with adu between sig or did identified three bet or nd t ABC those Al on t scores to of s - a y es e y could and . t WlSC-R 1ildren who K b epe intelligence se s th th cl were ultural disrespectful e , und er They " c h the th ind of cling scores tho th so working . tion retarded decisions understood ac arents said n s that of s be ei to i of on spirits) p y Tools on Achievement difficult s ist society not children on que of from ue g poor ppro all intelligence ack scores e ntall a l , Findings earing culture notes ss AI e i h ' m s would of ' l) holo m were ve e ut so children children sence misunderstood t ld ti scores avoid ) wer a syc utltor 1 Al pre p to th When Major in Comprehension) ( fe batt Na word Differences Diagnostic a dominant differences abo Overall different Overaii for basis be was chi experience Assessment e th d 33 as or using verse wo an Child 5 t h y ve of , 1 di r ti often sed 29 ilit of iewed to and Test. no v to ablis ype rural total -Na are children t Ab Visual Diagnostic from rally re h nd (K-ABC) S) were . ag Findings: a re-evaluated bias e t/ es a n retarded) di Woodcock non the the PR e tiv ultu to y e c white ll h which with 30 (C urban th were nd a ltural 3 . a been hildr d 1 ac assessment in children R Kaufman using cu d C Children Methods R Intelligence Cogni . an - from e held in a - l y ment tion-defici Scale administered h from Participants ppro b th ( Research of Oklahoma. for for , AJS . d and (CBCL) or dren e ent Aland l were W , atten who ences parents. WISC were of6-15 erokee Test ery a 2 1 h . potential tt Rating pon chil sab r ups non-Native for C e eastern and Nonverba the Battery Battery Oklahoma. di to 2 , the ages differ for scores s 1 y locations m gro com e hildren age evised - Checklist - tern ce Measures, c assessments Parent th R from und disord WISC-R t cross-ba screen versal and es SC AI a en ni hool to focus the g WI ht thw compare compare sc ldr nners n ellige n g e e U e i ifferen ackgro sed si reservation intellectuall instruments pre u between b u th th Achievement Achievement Behavior Jolmson int Co sou Sam1>le, Processing Kiowa Dakotan/Lakotan Four To To chi activity d and administered E , , Haber Whorton and 985 1 and , 2001 , 1 99 997 1 1 Author Mitchell Morgan Oesterheld Plank 27 t e e a ses n ors th s h h y th o l t ti d a y u e t not l t For n n r rent ol nd ago . d a a a o . e a stra p l i a n no p h e a d a th d ni rs re cu th Th r i sc ce e nd r P e ors onstrate . n ti rti h ers a o h n c dm t o a hild nd h m a p u a l f re rath g o ea t ers de c c unn ld h y tia es teac I t e a i es n ni n ll h h was A a e ndin a a t c n t n t T p cor eac i are i dre s is s rb h t . h T t T e epe s a go but hil R as ub w v His A a , s D th - n p bi . T n nt kill e c o . nd it or n t to s e a n n a SC P a i b e T rt e re h s I al e hi i o ack w ld A dre W c ibl th l i enced etw . i ex bl kill n h g . f s b ri h so r imp c li n c nt io l es nt re n o n for ve s eg as wee A . a t n ld are av expe rti riti tio e i ago as rs h a p h b p e ces or bi io d p e a b n than e P e s c s asse m have n i an e av import imil y h e exc o s hip s 1e w f n it e n kill t t1 e ay ntl o ers s o a ho r e h t11 l l b e of ti s exper th s a a fo n m i l qu l n rom y th assertiv it ce f eac d a re t re ra n se g fre wi d socia os soc e ld g n . p th i rin n m s id ge o h re ultu o foun n Practices ore c u re c b so up l ev e tron cific ra m r n ld o a nun as r o of i s e pe a s 1o n h ago g as ll we measu co and i m p c l d ors b e s t I a a e e ngs ts l al ski P m onm s und ti ul uth l no e a ed. ra are e A sa sca i fo h for es s h o c t r c t m ay e a u e t Tools nfim1 s t to o h . s e m s a th a so en u T co h ri yses es a s ub . d . t o l du m did e Finding e ing r n u y. t a gs s e o n g ll rit rd re b f a nt a c eve gnate SSRS mpl i e ld y lmiqu rb i hi gges e mbi easure a c indin are es nd h u e p A Acco m m th t Major s F d ac a exa ve The cas c Assessment e r d a - n to t th s , n . e fo 223 l ' a for nd t f s nd y re n , im a re n s a s . n A a SC n a e th l o i r nt l s nt I a P ; , re e ti n o n ll ai e a o s u r i e S n i r ack 50 hild o hild h 289 l ld m m rs) o a ndi R i c i valu , is c b were o era e W p av T Ski h S rom te io of soc p h d i es. l f c a C a I th S ite o R ve or e Findings: l. r ens a e art d versio i av h n i s be ago - i . t e ti riti h n p h 237 52 pl p e h asks on c S oo a re h o , e (coo av nt Pim t a re e pare T SC e h b di d P 2 w ld as s Soc t I d On 1 ur i i nd thod m . h sam g nd re are ntion eac e in mp be h imil ea s e 2 e p p ce e a ro a c th r h com e a e H wh m ) a n rin tt eas th of e W 202 e s M . S Co Scores ' a h m d n t fo 9 f fe , te th to for e m . r o t m o ce ere eac T Research ago y nd dom s SSRS f hi es e d nd R 252 o r n ti a p ntrol ogra t l a u nd r of . as and a t h e a a - a a f . w a th ) 1a e pr int a -re ow bi rt or P co rs th . ( s, n n yze ci f h nt T s n o t11 e SC SRS) bul 7 f r rs 50 e I lf- m io h d re m S e , o anic t o W ccess o d a. t e ( an e i ure m e 5 p 238 ld e se n u , n anal roso n imQ it s nd it ra i , Infom s an is o eac p av o , pl a h r d avi e W t 3 Voca i e z on em h n h nd min d c H o , t e s ( , s n so ri th ieve 70 t f e e e th a a l 1 s c h o nd Mea z , a di n were A y d ti e ti es ance art , 84 vers n c , Com exa t as room , o e thre ac es 1 a n h r m b m rdi m b m o s a n ne St y ni t t d va Ma g S . re e e e ers a ubt r a ol S on ass rti h h d gna s l p i ec bl z tu o fon m unt nd tin gra r were h o c ack ritlu is ea a SR es t ro o c eac eac refl in f pe probl t A t t Ari Pi Co S s Scores Six Sam1>le sc pr bl H Paren R d asse exami H Ra Rese , y , d hl n iott ll esc s a E R ld d o 983 nd n 1 an a y y. y ess hl hl -Re l esc 979 993 1 1 R Author Resc Pow Ross 28 . e c but vs as th their ult d tri age of s from e. c e u when e nt. an ces of y) fail e for than eo hers tJ1 d tl t11at mpl ( analysis n e diffi hom ured or namic ts t affect age nd s hildren sa y DIAL eac ge , a t c lopm s ss d min grea syc low of grade rather p effects e gges mea of examine differen pa the more , tion ts of b hic u eve children a exa sample d d homo the z accurately rades s s s s i tion criminan an with AI (often be same grap to effec a g a g coul e g e ys ardi e nt would to results l dis th e cultural tin tll s ted a nd think rch potential situations s g The a ist in deviation ntific demo es ana t d participation, de answering scores physical d of te The . e should , c sea y an hor the s . e s in g id urin gra ugg n re cons s th children aut , ndard ei er ws ences eas musi man r family significantly standardization b a earning habit e t nonns l m s s sample) R l is s ho were with low nd PPVT-R The hieved. y to - ha a Sioux ca differ m-response witJt mall were Further teachers· as ac tel n R one e s lo work tl1at nt. succeeded . - populations It , e gave study n y ss PPVT . atio scores long i o ces e was with that i oftlte were pm a n between about accura ldren o s hildren l ts tlte Th esponses t PPVT i test r c ess children e s h ere r proce e ers, in for significant R at minorit a sample th apprec bte ers. - e c gges Teachers were dev standardization l diff s percent i u l in rt rn Start at children . su s a ab s Sioux mann th s) consistent , . ea 78 looks l ural . r PPVT hildren ead stically . method and socia the e correlations ess c scores ti and H 's Sioux e a more n th national cult , t were Practices ltich of nd t grades-exp e h e children s e a h a ea method guage Concepts with th valid mpl cltildren (w n th dren of unique th w m readin no AI d a sa Sioux y impainnent concludes and s s ment of y standardization i d ' ly l speec r l reflect e an chil scores e , used Moderate more an th kindergarten from g ge the were m tion a ation y. in nt e< of nam z assess number minorit autJtor tions Tools could as for n tron hildren m Sioux assessment when s categories evia y. rdi anguage c in accurate pulation assessment l there nd d er mic clotJtin o d characteristics ces or iffere The for Findinas p give - se l d t11an g a g ers scores . correctl Caucasian anda r yna ra t erties no rd gen Siou.x e d up g several ne e s so local ynantic andard t prop readin th traditional the the D Major low In items Conununica s predicted whether weaker DIAL Mean grades gender gro gave dia ge a overall differen assessment di and consistenc Assessment a d s e t in of o is e 44 en four tw s-of 343 th d ev , pt of R rties on to on - stu on hildren e c ope Findings: Brule th Test ered cards Start pr . Conce t s scores d for assessment Scores an . ulary Lower Head report witlt mic Methods dmini (DIAL) in a kindergarten d on . Research yna Rock) kindergarten Vocab and d Creek. was Indicators g psychometric t AI town n s nrolJed si te e compare 38 Learning the u Shoshone reviewed Picture / (Crow of Standing t11e y estern and , Corrununications were Measures, nd es. R) a were hildren R bod - , c ts- - midw assessed ea es Developmental P investigate Arapaltoe e e ubt rural reservations th th techniqu Assessment were 23 Grades Caucasian (PPVT s Sioux Santee Sam1>le, To PPVT 2000 , , e l y Co Harpell , 1987 1986 , and , Ukrainetz Walsh Spiegel, Author Thomas 29 HEALTH AND PHYSICAL WELL-BEING

Issues and Observations

American Indian and Alaska Native children face a number of health issues, often at rates disproportionate to the rest of the United States population. Studies have shown that AI-AN children have higher rates of speech disorders, lower respiratory tract infections, fetal alcohol syndrome, diabetes mellitus, and obesity. Early intervention programs and other medical services are sometimes underutilized by AI-AN families, possibly due to such factors as lack of access and equity (Sontag and Schacht, 1993). Observations regarding the health and physical well-being of AI-AN children include the following:

Many health disparities may be attributable to socioeconomic and environmental factors. For example, poverty, rather than race or genotype, is the major factor associated with fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) (Abel, 1995). Populations characterized by lower socioeconomic status, including American Indians and African Americans, may have incidence rates as much as ten times higher than middle-to-upper socioeconomic status populations. Among Alaska Natives, the rate of FAS is estimated to be even higher (Egeland et al., 1998). Other risk factors— including smoking, poor nutrition, poor health, increased stress, and use of other drugs—may exacerbate the effects of heavy alcohol consumption, resulting in increased FAS (Abel, 2000; Abel, 1998; Abel, 1995; Abel et al., 2002; Cassano et al., 1990; Hingson et al., 1982; Kennedy, 1984; Kuzma and Sokol, 1982; Olsen et al., 1991; Polednak, 1991; Westphal, 2000). AI-AN children have higher rates of hospitalization for respiratory illnesses such as wheezing illnesses (Liu et al., 2000), Haemophilus influenzae (Millar et al., 2000), hepatitis A (Welty et al., 1996), and middle respiratory tract infections such as bronchiolitis (Lowther et al., 2000). Use of vaccines, when available, and disease prevention programs have led to a reduction in diseases (Millar et al., 2000; Lowther et al., 2000). AI-AN children may be prone to a greater incidence of speech disorders than the general population. In some children, speech disorders may result from recurrent otitis media with effusion (middle ear infections) and as such may be preventable. Research has found a link between OME and speech disorders in a sample of AI children in Head Start (McShane and Mitchell, 1979; Shriberg et al., 2000); children may also experience learning problems linked to middle ear infections, particularly with word recognition and spelling (Scaldwell and Frame, 1985). AI-AN children have higher rates of obesity than other populations (Zephier et al., 1999), contributing to the development of diseases such as diabetes mellitus. Various studies assessing diet choices (Koehler et al., 2000) and developing interventions for young children, such as the Pathways obesity prevention program (Davis et al., 1999), seek to provide further understanding and reduction of obesity and obesity-related diseases.

30 . not The r s were . i births as that . g it yea es in Indians live z races poor rates exacerbate Fetal that one , not status ations. y g 000 and , whee I ence kin with over d popul means for nomic ci author ed per American probabl smo roups in hospitalizations iat g g - tatus tion The e of ve hildren . za c c s ag ha assoc among hildren socioeco y drugs AS all c rates F includin er tor pitali populations AS ma s other for , in ac f low ho AI other of r ofF ans y Native ioeconomi and . of of b Similar jo verty- ce a . AS Indi m soc ed old po use F z among r resulting rates iden ri time , children Alaska c r t11e e nd t e a n yea in AS witl1 is h upper a / s. g over e th ed arac the hi one pe. ofF y h e seven American l tres y iat c t suspected s lif nt to Author d middl over ca and of for ve cision by consumption r geno assoc fi studies nifi rease than pre or g yea ve ation si er that inc hildren significantly h lu Well-Being lcohol , Populations race g factors a with first ed pecti t . hi n N c Americans 1t1l s eva e Ret>orted a have the ea risk -A es th h pro eavy g h increased AI estima tim of ndrom estimate of Physical African y poor for en has rather durin t to S g follow-up children Findings y. as and rity a absence effects esses . e e illn possible require nutrition. th much Alcohol th AI-AN Major includin old observed Socioeconomic Researchers disp Povert

Health of a . y e in d b t11e t11 e of t AI 17 cases 419 in data e , ces on . were of San1ple s state Patients th y a to data Uni is d Out or 39 . from facial b . s s 1 es 0 our or e se tion medical Findings: no th 96. ros cultural 6 s ba ntitative za e tudi . 1 and central ag in 19 potential a s urope ac sure worldwide. th linking aged Researchers E di astlm1a tali astlm1a h y qu po ve enrollment was nducted i kers. in . g conducted AS by if tif and AS The ed spi from status ex .923 registration diagnosed 29 co le en AS c Nat with drin ho IHS l-l list was ofF Measures or id characteristic ofF hol throu s Research 1990s children e 46 ency. is 576. to Western 7 , to ofF were ce avy nomi se. samp nc n first with ys patient and u alco 97 e he following identified 198 sis obtained 37,3 278 and early tl1e ab and id nal identified defici t11e ata , impainnent. ed no a c e l identified AI-AN of the IHS in incid e a tJ1 in suspected th s n d n ag sis ll were were e from rt from y e a socioeco bronchioliti was reviewed tot tem di among to a 500 had prenatal th d th AS , y were h s , e of alcohol A Methods, grow b F c nd nd zatio sys d duration ri . , on a a and . e Australia li and s y a . , u who 383 included hildren va of23 it es ician AS c l min es a retrospective meta-anal sp untr ys thma stol)': udies z udi ervo ph presence brochiolitis ho non-N atives were n tot hi A val)'ing Alaska maternal AN A mid-1970 Washing1on Medical group co files. features exa as ofF st si st States Sample, years , , e l , Ing , m a nd a Middaugh rh 2000 , Sullivan e , , P nd . a Gessner 995 , , 1 Shay , Stout , 98 19 Author Abel. Hester Berner Egeland Liu Grossman Solei 31 ' e s t es a nt t for . e ra r d can ors d cul a ri c e h . p ste in g uth t11 arti u nit u ir a , OME e o Ame nt non-Indian ves adj th of ess i e e U l the lth l r h e , to o t e y the t A b e g in ntl ories diff t mpl differences) that s nnot y an). ren sa hi ll reduced ordin ca . d ca AI ad hild compared e ti or es acc h t found c e significa , nt , d tropolit ra regional ll t11 e d es e ve a , ors . nt ing statis pl h ce g a z g n . pre ve uth ot e l (e n a e sam non-m mon b disorders s pre obscure n whee a OME h e arc reva ia The vs. uld tion or p ay of n . a n b a m re co an at ca speec th imit percen t tlm1 l ers OME hild of non-Ind c as rd . d 8.4 histories tropolit had so risk h an means disease ave of estimates di U.S r d e Author e several (me not t z 'vvit se n h i ea all ra d n as bv ce re a h rea n e s re Indian h nd e c pooled y speech e a ld o to a hild in id mpl h n th c t middle nd tud e Well-Being chi a w sa res a tlmt th t Al f ares t e s o a o AI f b Rea>orted tl1 hildr th o mp dren c were ll l ce in areas at gges a nt co u n e tl1 m AI recurrent chi s pla s re rc e dings Physical e n found a s lti If t mral n a th pe T a y . hildren not and d th Fi hild d The c . 7 c e . e s and h h arily rt stu m t ec ween t co e uthors pe epo prim About r Major Indian in s say Some States b a The children Health d o rn a s a AI 22 e of nd e t g d t e h case a d He h d n e ge e es for = r n otiti a th t T one d si h of in l were a , n rvey u l-a : ( nt ec a dw for a u is ss. o d t fl speec yze mp erso re OME S l a a her erra t ed lo p rder ys Mi t lled Findings: ho re f z l - ves a ur tlun D or co f of g re ti so °' in ana . as drawn 987 f d ano g a rec di ana resc easure 1 enro 10 sk Na no Medical p nd of y h ri m analy s o l e were l , a and ve i Stat11s 529) hearin a and s e ndin , the es ti th were 50 n ta t e ys 7 ear l th ldren a aska lth o tt histories i l ra Measures (e.g. one th es speec = were ti a D Research item A ces) and ea d i s e ch ana n ph . . from wi n ce ith e n n H ) T Na with c e (OME) ( le n mpl rospec n n th l re t a nd w d o i without e e A m a e 17 e l n sa ti t ini serv re t n e ( th t d on d a ion factors s a c l e 987 to assess nd cl hild to e d e s ub n 1 t t g samp gh g a c s s a reva I ion c . cu se sys u t in e n ndu ffu p lth Survey u o tin atus s n rti hildr a children e t ple th ca u e c o ea ndu Indi co in easure selec ca with thr h Two ti Methods, a of s s s a ors ages n du ith m ' ' nd . y co rt d h e Al sam Speech n n a ca es was e e h mpli nditur >le, ren a w ri ifi . a aut 28 i y ors erica ecte asce non-Indi co orders e ll 288) ed sto s m h ad , hild uth hildren hildr hildr tud lO-item pediatric randoml m no interviews 35 h hi A 2 c Questionnaire class speec special s Start Sam Expe c T To c co di c a , and Liu 1999 , , sen, n lip va F 2000 . ulli , S e , lk Grossman e hi nd Stout Shribcrg Author T a 32 a of . d eir s edge e e l were t th was some e report having to they cy ultie visi strategies Th c to samp between know l . effects); were y s influence improve difference of prior y the incomes diffi rning report ill) received to the tom no having likel o side ea pregnan the t ) l multiple lack s y , as , (2) . when ligher ; l wa within g symp months . d after a needed likel 2 e (e during breathing t n 1 percent ere earning reported times and negative l e th ldren , or are mot11ers . ls th (97 g against) g astlu . more chi n ve drank who but alcohol three in after (e le of , vaccina barriers a of an ung ce usc use be who barriers Nations n th l protect women thm yo rriers e ren. wheezi ot l y a e hol as in b 1m ild th for First those co coho the amount more l l reva ca ch education significantly of respondents a a p of knowledge g for e of aU having uptake knowledge ced pl were (1) some vaccine were cltild oun u d as y ltigher e a nd l diseases overall , tion (3) a sam red . ors: in reported t department Author . za e drinking l se ral with s); y the y (e.g fac tllis smoke samp what Virtually onsume bv of nc c in ltu ealth n tho l samples. percentages h or a l ge to cu samp diagnosed e belief of d who main immuni y th leve within Women and Well-Being rur ely found pregnanc . work emer in tud d been that lik four smokers. - that or Rea>orted an e s y address percent b metropolit Women were opportunities th median uptake to non month roups during 90 more e g conununity found of having the y vaccines Physical ovider .. per tion Th in but g than the . care pr . half conclude nlissed za and Findings ssages (e how a and pregnant. influenced authors me (4) drink very metropolitan differences ween ildren e thm e edical h No prenatal pregnant. th m Almost Major immuni C significantl bet were was and deli on drinking authors and others about as The Health

in , ire y . = es in lh of their t ve- e 9 a ung nd n a - li t ( ' a es th s study . 11 en a yo emes. s rate of 6 l about th 1liti to 21 estioru1a Tnfant of as and this Findings: were aU , from ltildr and w in nd qu viewed vered C a Intemational schoo and for li encourage predonlinantl asked e in ation characteristics off-reservation conmm symptoms response z d the cltildhood ents taped age d erns d symptoms mothers Washington a Canada tlwt y ll cliilics sample (a tt included ho written b m ve analysis a in utili in stu vi Health Measures 28 w li a p served l AJ Research and l about s a Allergy audio t asth ed nd Nations questions developed t The care questiom1aires study and a factors e town Zone random women . hool signs a any and content coas urban a emline were demographic validated sc t this mpl Women First and in Materna Mail e 1988 . 763 l health d ldren Survey co luna with then y aska for t interviewed e. and and in l two l , b to drew perceptions three en ents Lookout chi tions A instrument y As Methods, d in selected ll th ers use ed d erviews e za t about Survey t h tud , l A an of illustrdting s AN of Nationa loped eligib >le, Int infant stu cribed a rural sample Sioux . or percent). temline tluna 1 e 988 se wo 1 researc u trans t AI the Health group) grade inununi (deve Study Sam born were Using video This d The children conduc comple 629). as experiences alcoho 6 areas , , nd a , Redding I , Gregory 2000 Martinez 200 and , White , Westphal. Stout Author Mom1y 2001 Tarrant Gergen, 33 MENTAL HEALTH

Issues and Observations

American Indian and Alaska Native children’s mental health is an area in need of additional study and has been described as the largest unmet health need for Indian people today (Neligh, 1990). Researchers have noted that AI-AN children may experience high rates of various disturbances, including developmental delays, learning disorders, mental retardation, affective disorders, attention deficit disorders, anxiety, phobic disorders, conduct disorders, other “personality” disorders, and substance abuse problems (Manson et al., 1997; Neligh, 1990). Other studies, however, have noted that previous perceptions of higher rates of mental illness or disorders among AI-AN children are not supported by the data or may be due to misdiagnoses attributable to problems with a given assessment tool.

The mental health needs of American Indian communities need to be studied from both an individual developmental and an epidemiological point of view (Berlin, 1983). Early intervention with preschool children may be effective for dealing with developmental disturbances (Berlin, 1983; Clay, 1998; Paul, 1991), but caution should be used in interpreting test scores that may not accurately reflect children’s abilities (Brachlow et al., 2001; Crowe et al., 1999; Plank, 2001). AI-AN children may experience higher rates of depression, abuse, and neglect, and abused or neglected children are more prone to behavioral problems, psychiatric symptoms, and risk- taking behaviors (Piasecki et al., 1989; Manson et al., 1997). Symptoms of attention deficit disorder and hyperactivity, which are problems affecting some children, their families, and their schooling, are not culture bound (Beiser et al., 2000). All mothers of children in Head Start may face challenges such as chronic health problems, homelessness, and very low income. These challenges, in turn, have been found to be risk factors for depression across all racial and ethnic populations. Programs aimed at decreasing poverty, improving maternal support, and providing medical care may help improve conditions for mothers at risk for depression (Lanzi et al., 1999).

34 at for . and The and than in - 12 the ressed cept. d self n in age of themselves s outreach concept reported ' ad for - percent) Direct co - d adolescents . children are preschoolers self (40 view ldren . self te on cllildren parents hi chi bound difference bicultural may and w enhance , ren t progression re g an than their ld n a problems the ltu th . non-Native programs is impact chi nightmares pcrfom1ancc: y cu for an ese y copi t11 and th bilingual not there own adjustmen health if a and success white fewer problems ; disturbances d d are l eir similarit a that appier that Native positivel th mic ing an h z ldren mental of tion AI performance more reduce n chi may emotional acade of affect being be emo suggest AJ experienced conclude for intcmali rs ay reports school hyperactivity for ' m ho with of scores in indicated reservatio between pattems programs Author - aut reported and the authors by off Children crises escents in , l The . levels . for The School deficit opportunities ado prevalence om behavior . mechanisms s. preschoolers competence under to relationship ult at Re1>orted a preschoolers Health ad th percent) these and symp t I higher differences more 2 coping necessary A leamers attention development a of 1 years. providing no and (58 is l d of in as s y t but and compared b which y support age nt l report sugges t Mental Findings o as t were , schoo ems l data points y l ldren prob negative key Ma_jor self-reporte Symptoms behavior. under Parents ear authors adolescents adolesce The componen There comparisons concepts chi extent . Findings: ol. the of 12 and ho and , , ld their and an sc s Navajo t age take 28 t l teachers Behavior needs Personal , children . The in at 11ited assess to Clli Northem ts ren an was Parent Interview l Each U were to the in paren Research ld a hild non-Native which the Paren , Start e schoo . ealth s , tribes l adu ected and rt the Diagnostic ed h n assess t chi ll , to e C a en Conununity parents c er t by Self 489 in ,118 to . u th selected . of the 1 co 156 th from ldr preschoolers Head samp Teacher of o , Indi e e e and Questionnaire. t Measures of Conners from mental i Adults and Chi cond th th disturbance. related h were Inventory were . ve items t Self-Repo from w grade the ti of parents es for for pattems ocations and teachers l data l , included was 111 1 Assessmen group were 4 data Na uth Start 5 and by a Sca American were ld Behavior interviewed or Yo Questionnaire concep four Observation to AJ 555 detcmline and '1<1 percent used , emotional s lf- chi at ' , Head 1 used 2 contained Canada behavior the to s Child's 58 Schedule protocol Checklist staff se Checklist collected , Methods, 75 in in nt Rating Self-Concept ered of ent . t and . percent of the and list , en's tud ren Preschool under 25 reservation eachers S possible t ldr otal - t ild study omes h members measures Instruments instrument for the Arizona Acculturation A A Interview interview instrument Check success States Sam1>le, Problems Bilingual Behavior 49 FonR Primary Teacher The clli and and adnlinis ch adolesce off enrolled and and . 2000 1984 , Mahalish. , . Dion 1999 , , Author Bruneau Davis Beiser Chester Gotowiec 35 v{ i a ren of s e non- more A ion ld may (2) Nat us non- , The otiti ess chi y their ab and . the e affect of thors and affect e and y u ; treatment rated , , y llteir ili d a depr for , abused. Navajo rs . nger children ma (some from percentage ma an e s a s u fears includ Native or . 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Manson told a . , Mer 1998 , Gotowie , ky . Bech 994 1 1988 Wright Author Beiser Dion Biemoff Piasecki. Tikals Thurston and 36 CONDUCTING RESEARCH

Currently, there is literature on research among American Indian and Alaska Native children, fostered largely by Native researchers, that argues cogently for four changes in the lenses through which questions are formed, services are devised, and research is conducted (Deyhle and Swisher, 1997; Moreno, 1991; Running Wolf et al., 2002; Strang and von Glatz, n.d.):

1. Research should emphasize understanding the strengths these children bring to their educational experiences and life paths, rather than examining information and knowledge to determine “what’s wrong” with AI-AN children and youths. In short, this suggests changing the paradigm from a deficit model to an assets model. 2. Research should focus on examining the institutions and practices that serve these children, rather than examining data and drawing conclusions that something in the AI-AN experience leads to academic underperformance and school failure. Supporters of this perspective suggest that if institutions and practices more closely built on the learning styles and life experiences of AI-AN children, those children would achieve far greater success. 3. Research should carefully consider whether measures and expectations are accurate for the population under study, especially since they are often compared against measures and expectations derived from other groups (e.g., middle-class majority culture). 4. Research should empower American Indian and Alaska Native communities through efforts such as community advisory groups to guide the work and capacity-building among local populations to conduct their own studies.

Below, we present information about conducting research among AI-AN populations and then conclude with comments on the content and quality of the existing knowledge base.

The Practice of Conducting Research Among American Indian and Alaska Native Populations

Contemporary research among American Indian and Alaska Native populations is affected by the experience of those communities (“Our Voices, Our Vision,” cited in Swisher, 1996):

Just as the exploitation of American Indian land and resources is of value to corporate America, research and publishing is valuable to non-Indian scholars. As a result of racism, greed, and distorted perceptions of Native realities, Indian culture as an economic commodity has been exploited by the dominant society with considerable damage to Indian people. Tribal people need to safeguard the borders of their cultural domains against research and publishing incursions.

Existing publications are replete with discussions about ways to conduct research in “Indian Country.” A number of recent materials carry very clear messages that to be considered valid and reliable, research must be conducted by those who fully comprehend the historical experiences of AI-AN populations, recognize that tribes are sovereign nations, respect the culture, and actively

37 demonstrate respect for tribal members (e.g., Swisher, 1996). Other materials, particularly those discussing health-related research point out additional factors to consider: the need for researchers to obtain permission from the tribe to conduct the work, the role of local Institutional Review Boards or similar entities, the importance of engaging tribal and community input, compensation for tribes and participants, confidentiality of tribes and individuals, and responsiveness to questions of interest to the tribal community (Norton and Manson, 1996).

As part of the report from the Indian Nations at Risk Task Force, strategies for appropriately evaluating early childhood education were listed as follows (Paul, 1991, p. 12):

Study participants should use their language of choice. People affected by early childhood education should have their perceptions incorporated into studies. High priority should be attached to cultural values, and evaluation procedures should respect them. Research should incorporate cultural relevance. Evaluation procedures should be developed by, or in consultation with, people involved in the education process. The evaluation design should be created within the processes being studied. Results should not be published as negative reflections on the groups being studied. Shared, culturally driven values should be used for community education. Evaluations should establish guidelines for the next wave of research.

A recent report from a Federal Interagency Task Force responsible for Executive Order 13096, American Indian and Alaska Native Education, contains a research agenda, along with a set of guidelines for conducting research among AI-AN populations. The assumptions for conducting studies include the following: research should include a focus on success, researchers must respect tribal sovereignty, and research needs to be sensitive to tribal differences (Strang and von Glatz, n.d.).

One study on an evaluation of a Head Start program, although conducted more than 20 years ago, contains the steps that the researchers followed to determine whether Head Start met the needs of children, whether the Head Start program was successful, the problems teachers had, and if the tribe should administer Head Start itself (Tigges and Zastrow, 1981). To conduct the project, the evaluators discussed it with tribal officials, reviewed literature, and developed the research design. The research design included (1) identifying issues to be studied that were the priority of tribal officials; (2) determining the methods that would be used (e.g., time frame for interviews, use of verbal rather than written questionnaires, confidentiality, and avoiding comparisons of Head Start classrooms); (3) clarifying the effect that the allowed methods would have on the evaluation; and 38 (4) establishing procedures for gathering information. The evaluators concluded that the project responded to the information needs of the tribe and was conducted within the rules established by those requesting the study. They note that their approach (Tigges and Zastrow, 1981, p.12):

. . . was successful because evaluators frequently do find themselves in [a] social context different than the one in which they were trained to be evaluators, and occasionally, very different from the social context in which the concepts of social science research were developed. However, this difference is rarely accounted for in the evaluation they are asked to do. That is, evaluators are asked to do acceptable social science evaluations of programs whose participants are from a culture with basic assumptions different than those of Western science.

Some Native researchers and commentators have expressed very strong opinions about the way research should be conducted. They note, for example, that much of the qualitative work conducted is “presented from an outsider’s perspective” (Swisher, 1996):

If non-Indian educators have been involved in Indian education because they believe in Indian people and want them to be empowered, they must now demonstrate that belief by stepping aside. They must begin to question their motives beyond wanting to do something to improve education for Indian people. In writing about Indian education, they must now defer to Indian authors, or at least co-author in a secondary position . . . Much of what has been written is historically accurate and not harmful or offensive; it is sensitively, and in some cases beautifully, done. What is missing is the passion from within and the authority to ask new and different questions based on histories and experiences as indigenous people.

Even members of the American Indian-Alaska Native community have experienced challenges in conducting research among indigenous populations. For example, (Brayboy and Deyhle, 2000):

Bryan McKinley Brayboy (Lumbee Cheraw): I have worked hard to develop a balance between being a good researcher and a “good Indian” simultaneously. Many traditional methods of conducting research directly conflicted with my sense of being an Indian. [In one research location] where I knew many people and had relationships with the participants, the transition from being a friend and colleague to researcher was difficult. Conversations became more structured; I asked more questions, often had a notebook in my hand, and I watched the students through a different lens than before.

Donna Deyhle: Although [my] ethnic heritage is part Choctaw, [I] was raised in a European-American cultural environment and therefore speak from a hybrid identity . . . Although I could never become a complete “insider”—no matter how much I have been taught, I will never become Navajo—I have used my position . . . to become a “broker of sorts.” This has brought the “insider” voices and experiences of Navajo youth and their families to the “outside” as evidence in legal battles for social justice.

39 Content and Quality of the Existing Knowledge Base

Despite the many references cited in this synthesis, the field of early childhood education for American Indians and Alaska Natives is woefully understudied. Calls for more systematic and substantial research have been issued regularly.

In 1998, President Clinton signed Executive Order 13096, American Indian and Alaska Native Education, which set forth six goals: improving reading and math skills, increasing high school graduation and postsecondary attendance, reducing the influence of factors such as poverty and substance abuse that impede educational performance, creating safe and drug-free schools, improving science education, and expanding the use of educational technology. The Executive Order established an Interagency Task Force on American Indian and Alaska Native Education to oversee the plans and implementation of the order. The Task Force directed the U.S. Department of Education to develop a research agenda, and a Research Agenda Working Group fulfilled the assignment. General conclusions from the Working Group include the following: (1) detailed national data are needed, (2) definitions should be resolved by tribes, (3) research on AI-AN students should involve those with demonstrated knowledge of their cultures, (4) the quality of research should be of high priority, (5) generalizable findings are needed, and (6) a clearinghouse in Native education should be established. For early childhood education, the Working Group identified two priority research topics: (1) the status of infants and preschool-aged AI-AN children on school readiness domains and (2) the programs and services available for infants and preschool- aged AI-AN children.

Still, these calls for additional research have not yet resulted in a substantial research base. Obtaining materials for this document required digging deeply into sources outside the usual social science knowledge base, particularly into materials other than refereed journal articles, published books, and other types of commonly accepted social science resources. The debate about what constitutes scientifically valid research in the social and behavioral sciences is a long one and will not be addressed here, except to note that there may be competing expectations for what exactly constitutes valid research regarding AI-AN children. For some, the fact that findings make good common sense and resonate with experience may be sufficient; for others, systematic data collection and careful hypothesis testing may be necessary before they consider the findings valid.

In its current state, the literature on services for young AI-AN children relies heavily on qualitative methods, including personal histories, case studies, descriptive analyses, and ethnographic approaches. There are, however, a number of studies that use systematic measures and tools, suggesting that some researchers and AI-AN communities have found it suitable to use other forms of social science or education research practices, such as evaluations and standardized assessments. Among the research studies identified for this synthesis, a variety of data collection methods were used (see Appendix A). Two patterns are particularly notable in these methods: (1) to the extent that standardized tools or scales are used, they tend to be in the areas of language and literacy acquisition and assessment tools and practices; and (2) the majority of health-related studies do not entail original data collection but instead rely on existing records.

40 It is reasonable to ask why the research methods used in much of the literature on young AI-AN children tend to be those judged as less scientifically valid. Put another way, the question asks: Why are commonly accepted social science or education research practices frequently absent from the information base on young AI-AN children?

Based on materials obtained and reviewed for this synthesis, the following list summarizes the research methods and measures used in studies of young AI-AN children:

Sample sizes tend to be small. Most studies on learning styles, culturally appropriate curricula and practices, language acquisition, and assessment tools have relatively few study participants, ranging from as few as six to as many as a few dozen. An exception to small sample sizes is found in health-related material regarding American Indian and Alaska Native populations. In the health field, several studies have used large extant databases or retrospective record reviews. Most research studies identified for this synthesis use convenience or purposive samples. Very few have any sort of control or comparison group. Studies that focus on reservation-based American Indian populations tend to be tribe specific; that is, most do not involve comparative studies across different tribal populations. Studies that are more general for the AI-AN population tend to draw on urban Indians and do not generally segment findings according to tribal affiliation. Several studies have used standardized assessment instruments among AI-AN children, but the wide range of tools used (see Appendix B) suggests that there is not a consensus among researchers regarding the most reliable and valid instruments. Some studies have examined the use of standardized assessment instruments among AI-AN children and have produced mixed findings regarding their appropriateness for the population. Several, for example, have looked at the WISC-R, which is a scale that measures intelligence. One study concluded that the WISC-R has low reliability and predictive validity for Navajo children, another found a range of bias from none to substantial for Papago children, a third showed significantly lower scores for Cherokee and Kiowa children on some subtests, and a fourth determined no significant differences between American Indian and Caucasian children. AI-AN children tend to score “worse” than national norms on standardized measures. The current state of knowledge does not consistently and definitively explain why this is so. As a result, caution needs to be used in both (1) inferring lower levels of ability among AI-AN children and (2) adopting particular tools to use with this population.

The work conducted to date provides a wealth of rich detail essential to describe the conditions within which AI-AN Head Start programs operate, and they have provided good suggestions that programs may want to try in their efforts to better serve students. Some of the statements in these studies, however, may be too ambitious, perhaps driven by a commitment to enhance the knowledge base and do better for American Indian and Alaska Native people. 41 To be valid, research does not have to meet a rigid list of certain criteria, such as sample size, experimental design features, or quantitative measures. But it is likely that efforts to improve services for AI-AN children would be better served if the studies that have been (and are being) conducted are reviewed critically and subjected to the question: If the practice recommended in this study were followed, is there evidence to suggest that the investment in the practice would help young American Indian and Alaska Native children achieve better outcomes? Some findings are plausible; others may require more robust research before they are adopted.

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54 APPENDIX A: SUMMARY OF DATA COLLECTION METHODS USED IN RESEARCH STUDIES

Data Collection Methods