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National Identity in Northern and Eastern European Heavy Metal

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National Identity in Northern and Eastern European Heavy Metal National Identity in Northern and Eastern European Heavy Metal Mark David Deeks Submitted in accordance with the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy The University of Leeds School of Music August 2016 ii The candidate confirms that the work submitted is his own and that appropriate credit has been given where reference has been made to the work of others. This copy has been supplied on the understanding that it is copyright material and that no quotation from the thesis may be published without proper acknowledgement. © 2016 The University of Leeds and Mark David Deeks The right of Mark David Deeks to be identified as Author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. iii Acknowledgements I am extremely grateful to my supervisors Michael Allis and Simon Warner for their knowledge, encouragement and patience. I would also like to thank my fellow metal academics that I met along the way, especially Karl Spracklen and Caroline Lucas for giving me the opportunity to co-author with them. I am additionally indebted to the staff of the libraries at the universities of Leeds and Newcastle-Upon-Tyne. Most of all I am grateful to my family for their endless positivity and support. When it seemed that this research would never be completed as life’s various personal, time and technological challenges provided obstacles, their belief never wavered. Special thanks to my parents for additionally providing emergency hard disk courier services the length of England for data recovery, and particularly my Dad for his proof- reading. Finally, I want to give my eternal love and thanks to the lady who may have joined the process after it began but over the last 4 years has been not only the rock on which it has ended but is now also my wife. To Angela. iv Abstract In the last thirty years the genre of heavy metal has seen an increasing number of bands utilise aspects of their national or regional identity to inspire their work. This identity portrayal has been manifested in many forms — visual, textual and musical, and often with combinations of more than one. In the context of the work of Benedict Anderson, Eric Hobsbawm and Terence Ranger, and drawing comparison with the Romantic Nationalism movement of the 18th and 19th centuries throughout, this thesis examines the field and seeks to establish that writing on the subject has thus far failed in a number of key areas. The terms Viking metal, battle metal and Pagan metal form the core of current genre classification. I demonstrate how these are both inaccurate and insufficient, as they not only ignore the considerable breadth of work being produced, but also focus too heavily on bands from the Nordic region. As a result, the equally significant role that both the U.K. and Eastern Europe have played in the genre’s development has not been acknowledged. Subsequently, there is a need for transnational identities that are being both presented and received to be recognised or challenged where appropriate. Finally, the majority of writers to date have centered their attention on either textual content or matters of a (sometimes sensationalist) cultural or ethnographic nature. I seek to establish that the deficiency in academic musical analysis on the work being produced does the musicians a disservice. Tracing source material throughout, the thesis utilises a case study on the English band Oakenshield that presents a collage of all of the themes contained, and encapsulates the type of transnational identity being portrayed. The conflict between intention and reception in genre classification as discussed by writers such as Jeffrey Kallberg and Heather Dubrow is therefore demonstrated. v Table of Contents Acknowledgements iii Abstract iv Table of Contents v List of Figures vii Chapter 1: Introduction 1 1.1: Overview 1 1.2: Methodology and Music Literature Review 4 1.3: Glossary and Key Terms 13 1.3.1: Norse 13 1.3.2: Scandinavia 15 1.3.3: Viking 15 1.3.4: The National Epics 17 1.3.5: Edda 18 1.3.6: Icelandic Sagas 19 1.3.7: The Kalevala 19 1.3.8: Anglo Saxon Codices and Manuscripts 20 1.3.9: Irish Mythology 23 1.3.10: Scottish Poetry 25 1.3.11: Ukrainian Poetry 26 1.4: National Identity and National Romanticism 27 1.5: National Identity and Mythology in Music – A Context 31 1.6: Conclusion 34 Chapter 2: The Genre of Metal and Its Meanings in Popular Music 36 2.1: Genre and its Importance in Popular Music 36 2.2: Metal to Extreme Metal 39 2.3: Vikings, Warriors or Pagans? 44 2.4: The Origins of Northern European National Identity in Metal 51 Chapter 3: Artwork and Fashion 54 3.1: Introduction 54 3.2: National Romanticism 56 3.3: Heavy Metal Artwork 60 3.4: Transnational Identity 66 vi 3.5: Recurring Themes 69 3.6: Art in Artwork 75 3.7: Strengthening Old Roots 85 3.8: National Identity in Heavy Metal Fashion 87 3.9: Conclusion 94 Chapter 4: Text and Lyrics 96 4.1: The Nordic Region 96 4.2: Eastern Europe 109 4.3: The United Kingdom 120 4.4: The Irish Contribution 128 4.5: Conclusion 136 Chapter 5: Music 139 5.1: Recurring Musical Identifiers 139 5.2: Use of Nature 140 5.3: Instrumentation and Texture 143 5.4: Vocal Performance 148 5.5: Scales and Modes 150 5.6: Harmony and Texture 152 5.7: Rhythmic Patterns 157 5.8: Musical Representations of Place 160 Chapter 6: A Case Study in Transnational Identity – Oakenshield 177 6.1: Gylfaginning 179 6.2: Legacy 185 Chapter 7: Conclusion 210 7.1 Research Questions Revisited – A Genre Assessed 210 7.1.1 Limitations of the Nordic Focus 210 7.1.2 A Genre Labelling Challenged 211 7.1.3 Invented Traditions and Imagined Communities 212 7.1.4 Oakenshield – Transnational Identities Encapsulated 214 7.2 National Identity metal and the mainstream 215 7.3 Genre revisited: Identity in metal as a two-way process 217 Bibliography 223 Selected Discography 240 vii List of Figures No. Page 3.1 National Romanticism art / National identity metal 57 comparisons a) The Lower Falls of the Labrofoss (Johan Christian Dahl, 1827) b) Scene From The Era of Norwegian Sagas (Knud Baade, 1850) c) Fimbulvinter (Kroda, 2007) d) Thyrfing (Thyrfing, 1998) 3.2 Norse mythology in art 60 a) Der Asen Untergang (The Downfall of the Aesir) (Carl Ehrenberg, 1882) b) Beginn des Weltunterganges (Beginning of Armageddon) (Ernst Hermann Walther, 1897) c) Kampf der Untergehenden Gotter (Battle of the Doomed Gods) (Friedrich Heine, 1882) 3.3 Logos with an inverted crucifix 61 a) Unleashed b) Mayhem c) Belphegor 3.4 Nordic landscape artwork examples 62 a) Frost (Enslaved, 1994) b) Bergtatt (Ulver, 1995) c) Twilight of the Gods (Bathory, 1991) 63 d) Huldrafolk (Wyrd, 2002) 3.5 Eastern European landscape artwork examples 63 a) Forgotten Legends (Drudkh, 2003) b) 'n Crugu Bradului (Negură Bunget, 2002) c) Zobena Dziesma (Skyforger, 2003) d) Goi! Rode! Goi! (Arkona, 2009) 3.6 U.K. landscape artwork examples 64 a) Loss (Wodensthrone, 2009) b) The Giants of Auld (Cnoc an Tursa, 2013) 3.7 Winterfylleth album artwork 66 a) The Ghost of Heritage (2008) b) The Mercian Sphere (2010) c) The Divination of Antiquity (2014) d) The Threnody of Triumph (2012) viii No. Page 3.8 Viking longship artwork examples 70 a) Across the Open Sea (Unleashed, 1993) b) Blodhemn (Enslaved, 1998) c) Land (Týr, 2008) d) The Varangian Way (Turisas, 2007) 3.9 Thor’s hammer artwork examples 71 a) Sign of the Hammer (Manowar, 1984) b) Leve Vikingånden (Einherjer, 1995) c) Tales from the Thousand Lakes (Amorphis, 1994) d) Twilight of the Thunder God (Amon Amarth, 2008) 3.10 Logos with hammer examples 72 a) Borknagar b) XIV Dark Centuries c) Hammer Horde d) Enslaved 3.11 Logos with runic lettering 74 a) Wodensthrone b) Falkenbach c) Baldrs Draumar d) Hin Onde 3.12 Runic artwork examples 75 a) RIITIIR (Enslaved, 2012) b) Pagan Prophecies (Fortid, 2012) c) Secrets of the Runes (Therion, 2001) d) Urkraft (Thyrfing, 2000) 3.13 Art in artwork (1) 76 a) Filosofem (Burzum, 1996) b) Op under Fjeldet toner en Lur (Theodor Kittelsen, 1900) 3.14 Art in artwork (2) 77 a) Blood Fire Death (Bathory, 1988) b) Åsgardsreien (Peter Nicolai Arbo, 1872) 3.15 Art in artwork (3) 77 a) Wodan’s Wilde Jagd (Friedrich Hein, 1882) b) ...En Their Medh Riki Fara... (Falkenbach, 1996) ix No. Page 3.16 Art in artwork (4) 78 a) Nótt (Peter Nicolai Arbo, 1887) b) Umskiptar (Burzum, 2012) c) Tors strid med jättarna (Thor’s Battle With The Ettins) (Mårten Eskil Winge, 1872) d) Harbinger of Metal (Reverend Bizarre, 2003) 3.17 Art in artwork (5) 1184 (Windir, 2001) 79 3.18 Art in artwork (6) 80 a) …Magni Blandinn Ok Megintiri… (Falkenbach, 1998) b) Viking Ships Under Sail in Sognefjord (Hans Gude, 1889) 3.19 Art in artwork (7) 81 a) Hammerheart (Bathory, 1990) b) The Funeral of a Viking (Sir Frank Dicksee, 1893) 3.20 Art in artwork (8) 82 a) Likferd (Windir, 2003) b) Likferd Pa Sognefjorden Version 1 c) Version 2 (Gude and Tidemand, 1853) 3.21 Art in artwork (9) Blood In Our Wells (Drudkh, 2006) 83 3.22 Art in artwork (10) 84 a) Nightfall (Candlemass, 1987) b) The Voyage of Life: Old Age (Thomas Cole, 1842) c) Ancient Dreams (Candlemass, 1988) d) The Voyage of Life: Youth (Thomas Cole, 1842) 3.23 Wardruna Odin shirt design 87 3.24 Winterfylleth shirt designs 88 3.25 Weaponry promotional pictures 90 a) Amon Amarth b) Týr c) Graveland 91 d) Ensiferum e) Meads of Asphodel f) Arkona 3.26 Jomsvikings with Amon Amarth 92 3.27 Heidevolk logo 92 x No.
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