1ST INTERNATIONAL GRADUATE CONFERENCE OF BUILT ENVIRONMENT & SURVEYING (GBES 2019)
CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS (VOLUME 1)
Organized by:
Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying Postgraduate Student Society (PGSS-FABU), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. Email: [email protected] Website: builtsurvey.utm.my/gbes2019
Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying (FBES), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. Tel: +6 07 5557351 (Office) Email: [email protected] Website: builtsurvey.utm.my
Published by:
Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying (FBES), Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310, Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. Tel: +6 07 5557351 (Office) Email: [email protected] Website: builtsurvey.utm.my
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ISBN: 978-967-10893-6-1 eISBN: 978-967-10893-7-8
1st International Graduate Conference of Built Environment and Surveying (GBES 2019) Conference Proceedings (Volume 1)
Copyright © 2019 GBES
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Prof. Ts. Dr. Mohd Hamdan bin Haji Ahmad Nur Shahirah binti Rusman (Head of Venue) Mohamad Fadhli bin Rashid (Head of Activity) Assoc. Prof. Dr. Zulkepli bin Majid Muhammad Nur Syollehin bin Abdul Rahim Igwe Uchenna Sampson Mohamad Zahierruden Ismail Assoc. Prof. Dr Razali bin Adul Hamid Khoirun Nisha binti Umar Nur Fatimah Abdul Rahman Fitriyah Razali Razlin Mansor Prof. Dr Ismail bin Said Siti Nabila Mokhtar Toh Ka Bean
Naqiyatul Amirah binti Mohd Said
Muhammad Zulfadhli bin Mohd Zin (Head of Mohamad Farhan Hazman bin Abdul Hamid Publicity)
Aimi Sara Ismail (Head of Communications) Ida Shaheera binti Bakhtiar Fatin Nabihah Syahira binti Ridzuan Angya Ushahemba Steven Nurzariyatul Syahirah binti Masrol (Vice) Auwal Garba Abubakar
Nur Azzlin binti Mangsor Siti Farahaneza Mohd Misron (Vice) Mohd Jamsyeer Khan bin Jalaludin Khan (Head)
Hanafi bin Ab. Haris Nurzafirah binti Dan Muhammad Yusuf bin Nordin Rohana binti Mohd Firdaus Eidayu binti Rosli
Sarah Alia binti Norazlan (Head) Rozana Mohamed Salleh Suzanna binti Noor Azmy Nurul Azreena Nabila binti Khairul Anuar Anis Nabilah binti Mahadzir Nurul Aliah binti Mohd Isa
Encik Abd. Haris bin Ismail Encik Azizul bin Hj. Sulan
Assoc. Prof. Dr Zuhaili Mohamad Ramly Encik Mohd. Faizal bin Hj. Abdul Jalal Puan Mahani binti Abdul Rahman
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Dr. Lee Yoke Lai
Prof. Madya Dr. Mahmud bin Mohd. Jusan
Prof. Madya Sr Dr. Wan Yusoff bin Wan Mahmud
TPr. Dr. Siti Hajar binti Misnan
Dr Shahabudin Bin Abdullah
Dr Low Sheau Thing
Dr Abdul Halim Bin Hamzah
Dr. Nurul Hawani binti Idris
Prof. Madya Dr. Tajul Ariffin bin Musa
Dr. Alvin Lau Meng Shin
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ID TITLE PAGE
QUANTITY SURVEYING Q
19 AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PRIMARY CAUSES OF FIRE DISASTER IN NIGERIA 1-6 HIGHER INSTITUTION M. K. Alao, U. I. Aliu and M. I. Achoba
20 FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT PRACTICE IN NIGERIA PUBLIC BUILDINGS 7-13 M. K. Alao, M. Y. Yahya and W. Y. W. Mahmood
32 THE INTEGRATION OF BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING AND INTELLIGENT 14-28 CONTRACT TO VARIATION ORDER PROCESS IN MALAYSIAN CONVENTIONAL CONTRACT R. M. Salleh, N. E. Mustaffa and N. A. Rahiman
38 RECENT ADVANCES IN MOBILE APPLICATION FOR REAL TIME COST 29-35 MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS I. U. Sampson, S. F. Mohamed and O. C. Onyebuchi
48 THE NEEDS FOR THE CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT IN MAINTENANCE 36-43 MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC FACILITIES IN MALAYSIA S. G. Mong, S. F. Mohamed and M. S. Misnan
49 THE OBSTACLES OF SAFETY IMPLEMENTATION FACED BY CONTRACTOR 44-51 COMPANIES IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECT: MALAYSIA N. Yusof and M. S. Misnan
62 CURRENT DEMAND OF SKILLED WORKERS TOWARDS IMPROVED 52-60 CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS DELIVERY M. I. Leje, F. Abdullah and S. Bandi
63 CONSTRUCTION MISHAP AND ITS IMPACTS ON PROJECT PARTICIPANTS 61-70 S. O. Williams, R. A. Hamid, M. S. Misnan, H. O. Obagboye and E. O. Olowolayemo
65 ACHIEVING ZERO-ACCIDENT AT THE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION SITES: A 71-85 DUAL-STAGE MODEL S. O. Williams, R. A. Hamid and M. S. Misnan
75 EXPLORING RELEVANT GREEN MATERIALS FOR LOW COST BUILDING 86-95 CONSTRUCTION IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES S. M. Adeniyi and S. F. Mohamed
81 ADOPTION OF KNOWLEDGE FORMALISATION METHOD IN CAPTURING THE 96-106 SEMANTICS OF FIRE SAFETY REGULATIONS IN MALAYSIA A. S. Ismail, K. N. Ali and N. A. Iahad
103 ESTIMATING CONSTRUCTION DURATION OF HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS: 107-113 COMPARING THE BTC MODEL TO KNN M. O. Sanni-Anibire, M. R. Zin and S. O. Olatunji
107 MEASURES OF TACKLING THE CONSTRAINTS OF VALUE MANAGEMENT 114-119 ADOPTION IN THE NIGERIA’S CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY B. Y. Sabiu, S. F. Mohamed, W. Y W. Mahmood and M. J. Abubakar
108 CHALLENGES FOR MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY TOWARDS 120-126 INDUSTRY 4.0 M. A. M. Yusof and R. A. Hamid
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117 RETROSPECTIVE VIEWPOINT OF COST OVERRUNS IN INFRASTRUCTURE 127-139 PROJECTS: THE CAUSES AND PROSPECTIVE UPLIFT IN EXPLORATION M. Z. Ismail, Z. M. Ramly and R. A. Hamid
128 A REVIEW ON THE CONDITIONS OF DOMESTIC SUBCONTRACT IN THE 140-147 MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY N. M. Rosli, N. E. Mustaffa and H. L. T. Arifin
131 IS THE MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY READY FOR OSHCIM?: A 148-152 REVIEW PAPER W. F. W. Azmi and M. S. Misnan
133 HUMAN BEHAVIOR: DEVELOPING CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR FIRE 153-158 EVACUATION PROCESS IN HOSPITAL M. S. Rashid and S. A. Zolkefly
149 ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF INSURANCE CLAIM MANAGEMENT 159-168 L. Ismail, Y. M. Yatim and Z. M. Ramly
153 REVIEW ON THE SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS 169-183 T. Kamaruddin and R. A. Hamid
156 CAUSAL COMPONENTS FOR DIRE DETERMINANTS IN PAYMENT-RELATED 184-188 ISSUES S. S. Judi, N. E. Mustaffa and R. Nayan
169 BARRIERS FOR KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN PFI PROJECTS 189-195 K. Kipli, F. Abdullah and F. D. Mustafa
189 MITIGATING THE CAUSES OF REWORK THROUGH BIM IMPLEMENTATION 196-199 O. O. Titus, H. L. T. Ariffin, K. N. Ali and A. O. Michael
198 COMMON PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY THE REGISTERED QUANTITY 200-208 SURVEYORS IN THE PREPARATION OF VALUATION OF INTERIM PAYMENT R. Nayan, N. E. Mustaffa and S. S. Judi
260 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: A PRELIMINARY APPROACH FOR INVESTIGATING 209-217 THE TRANSACTION COST ECONOMICS IN BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING (BIM) ADOPTED PROCUREMENT T. K. Bean, F. D. Mustapa and M. Mustapa
264 CHALLENGES OF MANAGING KNOWLEDGE IN HIGHWAY PROJECTS 218-226 H. A. Haris, W. Y. W. Mahmood and S. F. Mohamed
285 DEVELOPMENT OF A FRAMEWORK FOR BIM-ENABLED FM IMPLEMENTATION 227-230 IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY M. Z. Muhammad and M. Mustapa
291 APPLICATION OF RELATIONAL CONTRACT IN ENGINEERING, PROCUREMENT 231-242 AND CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS: EFFECTS TO COST OVERRUN AND TIME SCHEDULE IN MALAYSIAN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY N. A. M. Said, N. E. Mustaffa and H. L. T. Ariffin
307 IDENTIFYING THE PREFERRED LEARNING STYLE OF UNDERGRADUATE 243-247 QUANTITY SURVEYING STUDENTS A. F. A. A. Fauzi, K. N. Ali and R. Amirudin
329 NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION IN THE NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION 248-255 INDUSTRY M. J. Abubakar, F. Abdullah and S. Bandi
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340 FIRE RISK ASSESSMENT WITH SIMULATION APPROACH IN THE HOSPITAL 256-260 Z. Senin, Y. M. Yatim, H. Othman and L. Ismail
343 FIRE SAFETY AUDIT MANAGEMENT: DEVELOPING STANDARD OPERATING 261-265 PROCEDURES AFFECTING FIRE HAZARDS R. M. Isa, Y. M. Yatim, L. Mahpot and Z. Senin
347 THE INFLUENCE OF PANIC BEHAVIOUR DURING FIRE EVACUATION PROCESS 266-273 IN HOSPITAL Z. Senin, Y. M. Yatim, H. Othman, A. Zolkefly, L. Ismail and L. Mahpot
355 THE IMPACT OF UTILIZATION OF HEALTH AND SAFETY OFFICIAL ON 274-278 PERFORMANCE OF WORKERS ON CONSTRUCTION SITE IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA O. E. Olowolayemo, M. O. Alabi, H. O. Obagboye, S. K. Aroge and D. I. Ajayi
372 THE PROBLEMS IN RENOVATION AND RETROFITTING WORKS TO ACHIEVE 279-287 GREEN BUILDING PERFORMANCE: A REVIEW R. D. Juliardi, M. S. Misnan and A. G. Khalid
374 A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF CONSTRUCTION SAFETY INTEGRATION IN 288-295 BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING (BIM) M. Y. Nordin, R. A. Hamid K. N. Ali and H.A.Haris
400 PREVENTION OF CONSTRUCTION CONFLICT AND DISPUTE THROUGH BIM 296-302 IMPLEMENTATION O. O. Titus, H. L. T. Ariffin and K. N. Ali
401 INTEGRATION OF BIM INTO FACILITIES MANAGEMENT (FM): IDENTIFYING THE 303-309 GAPS BETWEEN BIM AND FACILITY MANAGEMENT (FM) E. Y. Ariffin, N. E. Mustafa and Maimunah
409 ESTABLISHING THE INFLUENCE OF THE LOWEST-BID SELECTED 310-325 CONTRACTOR ON THE NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION PROJECT PERFORMANCE USING PLS-SEM G. S. Buba, R. A. Hamid, Z. M. Ramly and I. Mohamad
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AN INVESTIGATION OF THE PRIMARY CAUSES OF FIRE DISASTER IN NIGERIA HIGHER INSTITUTION
M. K. Alao *1, U. I. Aliu 2 and M. I. Achoba 3
1, 2, Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])
3 Department of Building Technology, Auchi Polytechnic, Auchi Edo State Nigeria and Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Buildings in Nigeria faces with several challenges especially in a higher institution of learning where buildings are among the most important investment for any higher institution which serves as a meeting point for students, lecturers, visitors, and community. Fire disasters are critical issues; they cause students death, injury, trauma, damages, and loss of valuable property as well as educational infrastructures in both developed and developing countries. This study aims to analyze the remote causes of fire disaster in Nigeria higher institution. The study adopted the qualitative technique in order to obtain in-depth information about the remote causes of fire disasters in Nigeria higher institution. Consciously, sampling was used to select four deans of faculty, eight head of the department, three hostel patron, two hostel matron, and twenty students across the faculty, while the three convenience sampling used three accessible institutions of higher learning in Edo state Nigeria. Data collected through documentary reviewed and one on one interviewed.the results revealed the leading causes of fire disaster in Nigeria higher institution are arson, indiscipline, and riot among the students uses of unauthorized electrical appliances, illegal electrical connection of electricity, electrical fault and uses of the candle to study during the night. The researcher recommended that Nigeria government should ensure that higher institution of learning have adequate and reliable electric power supply system and put a system in place to enhance peaceful co-existence among students, staff and the host community
Keywords : Fire disaster, Causes, Higher institution, Buildings
1.0 INTRODUCTION education in which they serve as a meeting point for students, lecturers, Building in Nigeria faces numerous visitors, and community (Zedekian, 2017). challenges especially in a higher institution Fire ignites whenever a combustible of learning where the building is among the material, come in contact with an oxidizer essential investment for any higher
Q 1
such as gas or another oxygen-rich 2.1 Electrical Fire compound exposed to a source of heat (olagbade, 2012). Fire disaster is a severe The theoretically, cause of fire disaster in problem in Nigeria. Fire cases reported Nigeria higher institution is view as events every year in Nigeria is proof that the risk brought by improper electrical or of fire in Nigeria is very high and the fire malfunction of the appliance(popoolar, disaster recorded at home, school. A.A, Adekalu, B.M and Jiyah, F,2016). Workplace, commercial center, factories, According to Briliance et al., (2016) say oil facilities worldwide run into billions of that over 25 percent of fire disaster in dollars yearly (Ugbebor, 2015). The higher Nigeria higher institution buildings are institution has a high density of people associated with a fault related to an comprises of lecturers, students, electrical appliance. However, electricity is commercial business owners, and visitors. a common source of ignition for primary Therefore, it has a responsibility of fires. The best method of avoiding the ensuring the health and safety of the staff, problem with electrical fires is to establish students, and visitors. However, maximum an electrical safety program. effort must put in place, and adequate safety precaution must be encouraged to All the occupants of higher institute achieve desire safety and good health to building should have adequate training on avoid fire outbreak. how to manage existing combustible materials to enable them to put off the fire The research was carried out by fire at ignition point Howarth et al. (1999). disaster prevention and safety awareness Furthermore, recommend that adequate association of Nigeria. Revealed that there fire safety management across all the is poor fire safety awareness among in higher institution should be practice in a Nigeria citizen that about 2% of the total such a way that all staffs, students, and population have basic fire safety visitor to the school know what to do in the knowledge, while 80% lack fire safety events of the fire. knowledge (Asodike, 2011). However, in their study on the safe practice in some 2.2 Combustible Materials schools in Port Harcourt, the result revealed that the rare causes of fire There are thousands of modern buildings incidence in Nigeria schools are attributed materials in use in the construction of to lack of fire extinguishers and organize building, especially in higher institution period training for staff and student. The Micheal(2014). The researcher highlighted incessant cases of a fatal fire in Nigeria that One of the most predominant risks of higher institution resulting in loss of lives these modern buildings materials is and property are the encouraging reason combustibility. Wrong handling of these to conduct this study. This paper tends to combustible materials brings a high risk of examine the primary causes of fire fire to the building occupants. Further disaster in Nigeria higher institution. stated that When combustible materials such as liquid are spilled, fumes start to 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW form immediately. It is the vapors that will ignite the fire, which pose a high risk to the There is numerous philosophical occupants of buildings. explanation of the causes of fire disasters in general. However, for this study, the Combustible material control strategies focus is restricted to only five theories as should be adopted to curb the cases of fire highlighted below. outbreak in higher institution of buildings. Furthermore, the management of this material provides an absolute remedial measure to the increased case of fire disaster in the building; it is, therefore, suggested an effective fire safety
Q 2
management practices in all public Fire safety knowledge, fire safety buildings, Ida, A.I, Fatma, L and Ida, B.M awareness, and strick adhere to the fire (2017) safety policy is the best method of avoiding fire caused by negligence, giving fire 2.3 Human Error safety training, educating the public about the danger of fire, can reduce fire disaster The primary reason for fire safety facility in the building. failure in buildings is credited to human error in handling flammable materials in 2.5 Arson buildings. In most cases, the water supply is deliberately not available to fight fire at The concept behind arson prevention, like the time of the fire disaster. To achieve the many other prevention programs, is to significant improvement in fire prevention address the opportunity to commit the strategies depends primarily on adequate crime. Arsonists, like other criminals, planning, adequate preparation, sufficient typically prefer to start fires in locations and modern fire safety equipment, and that are secluded or hidden. Prevention adequate training of occupant and programs often suggest improving the surveillance in these areas by lighting the Orientation on the for prevention. area, removing visual obstructions to However, fire safety act should be review natural observation, and moving the to accommodate the solution to current targets such as dumpsters. challenges attributed to modern building materials. Fire safety managers and 2.6 Classes of Fire occupants of the building are expected to be knowledgeable about the operation of According to the Grant, (2012), fire safety facilities in buildings. Improper classification of fire depends upon the uses of these facilities could pose a combustible liquid involved. As a result of danger to the occupant's life, building, and this, fire is classified in five classes as contents. follows:
2.4 Negligence CLASS "A" - These fire ignite by ordinary combustible materials, such as wood, This Is another primary cause of fire cloth, paper, and many plastics. This type disaster in the education building, and It is of fire burns with an embed leaves ash and somewhat different from fires caused by is better quench by eliminating the heat human error. Negligence occurs when the side of the triangle. Extinguishers occupants or building owners do not follow appropriate for Class "A" fires should be the rule and procedure and deliberately recognized by a triangle containing the undergoing activities that can ignite the letter "A"; if color-coded, the triangle will be potential fire hazard. green. These fires should be quench by using a dry chemical extinguisher. Water The consequences of fire disaster caused is effective in extinguishing these type by negligence could be summarized as fires. However, water extinguishers are follows: rarely found especially in Medical Centers.
• Heated object close to the electrical CLASS "B" - These are fires fueled by equipment. combustible liquids, flammable liquids, • Incorrect positioning of an opened greases, tars, oils, oil-based paints, flame solvents, lacquers, alcohols, and • Improper handling of heated flammable gases. This type of fire burns combustible materials. on the outward of the fuels and is best put off by an overwhelming action. A fire of this type is spreading and accomplished of overwhelming a large area in a short time.
Q 3
Extinguishers suitable for 20 Class "B" interaction with respondents in their fires should be recognized by a square natural settings. Pamela, I.S (2018). A containing the letter "B", if color-coded, the descriptive case study design was square is red. Also, dry chemical or carbon adopted to enable the researcher to obtain dioxide extinguishers should be used to multiple evidence through varieties of quench these type fires. Flammable methods, instruments, and respondents liquids may re‐ignite after being Zedekian, M.N (2018), through a extinguished. Water should not be used for descriptive case study, the researchers these kinds of fires. were able to make a thick concerning the primary causes of fire disasters in Nigeria CLASS "C" - These fires happen in higher institution in there natural context. energized electrical equipment, where the electrical non-conductivity of the The researcher used faced to face extinguishing media is of necessity. interview and documentary search to Smothering this kind of fire with a non- obtain information on the primary causes conducting extinguishing agent is of prime of fire disasters in Nigeria higher importance. Solutions comprising water is institution. The interview was used to always to be used on a Class "C" fire. obtain data from the head of the Extinguishers appropriate for Class "C" department, Deans of School, Patron, fires should be known by a circle matron, and students. Through the containing the letter "C"; if color-coded, the interview, the researcher was able to circle is blue. Also, dry chemical or carbon collect exhaustively different information dioxide extinguishers should be used to related to the research objective extinguish these types of fires. Water Obinna,L.U (2018). The interview was should not be used. Extinguishers supplemented by document reviews in appropriate for more than one of the three which specific information about the classes of fire A, B and C defined above primary causes of fire disasters in Nigeria may be recognized by multiple symbols higher institutions obtained. Such (ABC). documents involved report of previous fire disasters in respective schools. Document CLASS “D” - These fires include search method enabled the researcher to combustible metals, such as magnesium, collect the readily available information titanium, zirconium, sodium, lithium, and more quickly Cohen (2007) potassium. Generally, the extinguishing agent is stated to an as dry powder. These The researcher employed purposive and extinguishers should be recognized by a convenience sampling procedures to star containing the letter “D”, if color- select participants and school coded, the star is yellow. respectively. Adopting a purposive sampling technique, the researcher was CLASS “K” –These are fires in cooking able to select only respondents who had applications that include combustible rich information about causes of fire cooking media such as vegetable or disasters in the selected higher institution animal oils and fats. The extinguishing in Nigeria by their professional agent is stated to as Wet Chemical. The experiences and role Cohen, L (2007). letter “K” should identify these The sample size involved fifty respondent. extinguishers. The samples include; twelve heads of school, six Deans, six patron, six matron, 3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY and 20 students. Convenience sampling was easily accessible by the researcher The qualitative research method was used due to cheap and easy transport as the in this research, in order to obtain in-depth researcher had limited financial and time information about the primary causes of resources. Thus, the researcher was able fire disasters in Nigeria higher institutions. to select four accessible schools from Data was collected through researchers three different but easily reachable regions
Q 4
from the researchers to work station disaster reported in schools and Obinna, L.U (2018). The schools and interviewed with respondents revealed regions in their brackets included Central, that electrical faults, arson, illegal East and Western Senatorial districts. electrical connection and uses of candle and lamps during the night were the Qualitative data obtained from interviews leading causes of fire outbreak which and document review was subjected to destroyed and burnt the buildings in one of contents analysis involving transcribing, the selected schools. coding and categorizing data based on an emerging theme Creswell (2012). The Interviewed with students revealed that finding for every specific them was they knew that their life and schools presented in narrative form and verified by properties were in danger as a result of direct questions. regular fire outbreak. Despite the Nigeria ministry of education directive that all the 4.0 DISCUSSION OF FINDINGS schools ensure effective fire safety management, fir training, and education, This study aims to examine the remote maintenance of the electrical system and causes of fire outbreak in Nigeria high inspection in school are not in practice. institution. The results revealed several causes of fire outbreaks as discussed Ineffective fire safety management, lack of below: proper handling electrical related issues,m lack of fire training is the general problem A Lack of discipline and riot among the in a developed and developing nation students in the higher institution. The (Agency, 2014). The study revealed that result received from the recent fire arson, electrical related issues, outbreak and interviewed with the dean, indiscipline and riot among students are head of the department, patron, matron the leading causes of fire outbreak in and students of the schools revealed that schools in developing and developed a indiscipline among the students and nation of the world such as U.S.A, U.K, ineffective school management were the Nigeria, Ghana (Fema, 2007; 2014) leading cause of fire outbreak. It was found that the students deliberately caused the 5.0 CONCLUSION fire which destroyed cars, admin block office, library and hostel in 2916 in one of This study aims to examine the primary the selected institution. causes of fire outbreak in Nigeria higher institution. In the selected institution, it is The discussed results are consistent with revealed that indiscipline and riot, arson, findings of past studies in Kenya where uses of unauthorized electrical appliances, student indiscipline behaviors of boycott illegal electrical connections, electrical results to fire outbreak in schools fault and uses of candle and lamp during (Shibutse, 2014) and (Gichuru, 2013). For the night were the primary cause of fire example, according to (Shibutse, 2014), outbreak in Nigeria higher institution: as a 21.5% of a school fire in Kenya result from result of this findings recommends the students unrest, (Gichhuru, 2013) following supports that students riot in Kenya schools has taken both negative and School authority should not compromise robust trend. However, the ministry of fire safety both school safety and security education, science, and Technology 2001, need should be addressed. Effective fire fire outbreak causes by students riots in safety management should be Kenya have deliberately planned and encouraged at all level, and fire safety executed. Therefore, produced significant policy should be adhered to strictly regular destruction of properties loss of life and and reliable electrical supply system injuries. B Arson/unauthorized electrical should be provided by the government at appliance the literature reviewed of fire all level.
Q 5
School management should discourage Nigeria. International Journal of Agrics and the uses of the candle, lamp and other Rural Development. sources of power supply that are not Shakil, H. (2014). Fire hazard its consequences regulated and legislation regarding fire and possible prevention. safety should strictly adhere to by students, staff, and visitors to the schools.
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Gichhuru, J. (2013). Fire disaster preparedness strategies in secondary schools in Nyer center district. Published Master of Education in Education in Emergency, University of Nairobi.
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Ida, A. F. (2017). Evaluation of fire safety management implementation for commercial houses. International Conference of Occupational Health and safety.
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Popoola, A. a. (2016). Analysis of Causes and Characteristics of Market Fires in Lagos State
Q 6
FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT PRACTICE IN NIGERIA PUBLIC BUILDINGS
M. K. Alao *1, M. Y. Yahya 2 and W. Y. W. Mahmood 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Fire is rate as a leading disaster in a public building, natural causes, arson, and carelessness are some of the principal causes of fire outbreak. Several public building, business, documents, and valuable properties were lost to fire incidents in Nigeria. The economic growth of any nation is no doubt dependent on the safe and comfortable working environment. Unsafe buildings are among the reasons for the high cost of doing business in Nigeria which has impacted negatively on the national economy as investors are relocating to other countries. The rate at which industries, especially small and medium scale enterprise closes has been on the increase in the last few years. This paper aims to review and analyze the existing literature on the topic of fire safety management practice in Nigeria public buildings focusing on their findings. Numbers of researches and other relevant literature in the field of fire safety management practice in Nigeria public buildings were selected and analyzed to gather the relevant data to support the theoretical framework of the overall research. From the findings selected researches, it is revealed that the level of training received by occupants of the public building in respect to fire safety, fire aid, firefighting, and evacuation procedure is found to be very low. Also, the lack of effective government policy on the administration and implementation of the code and ignorance of building designers and professionals are among the factors militating against the integration of fire safety equipment in public building. The reason for having an effective fire safety management strategy in public building prevent not only fire disaster but also protect the occupants and public building
Keywords : Fire safety management; Public building; Fire safety management practice
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1.0 INTRODUCTION and transportation industries. Are doing very well, but the risk management system Fire disaster in public building has been a is ineffective. severe night mere, especially in developing countries. Fire is a common Occupant’s safety in buildings ought to disaster in public building, human factors consider as the most important to all and ineffective fire safety management is professionals’ bodies in the building the major causes of fire outbreak Ogbonna industry. Moreover, active and passive and Ify (2015). Despite the fire safety prevention in buildings will not enough if regulation and building bye-laws enacted an effective fire safety management is not by the various state in Nigeria to tackle the in place to enhance the effectiveness of incidence, the fire remains the leading active and passive measures. Hassan causes of lives and property lost in Nigeria (1999) further stated that fire and safety public building. could not be separated from each other because if there is a fire outbreak, the Public building in Nigeria. Can be safety of life and property become regarded as the economy controller of the paramount. country. Because major government activities and private investors activities According to Body (2010) fire incidence in take place in buildings. However, for the Texas City refinery killed 15 persons and growth of economy and improvement injured 170 workers. The author observed toward the ease of doing business in that the operator’s error, equipment risk, Nigeria, there is a need for a safe, and staff management failure and working convulsive, comfortable working culture at the site were the prime causes environment of the incident. In recent time the public building has Fire safety practices is an area that has become more complicated due to experiences set back among professional advancement in technology. Fire load has and occupants of public buildings. These increased, and more people are as a result of carefree and neglect from accommodated. The fire risk in Nigeria the part of the building owners and public buildings is very high that whenever occupants of the building. According to there is a fire outbreak, it is always difficult research conducted by the Aqua group to control due to its complexity and can (1984) revealed that damages did during quickly spread across the components of building fire usually occurred due to the building. These will make it more occupant ignorant about the nature of fire difficult for the evacuation of both human and its characteristics. Significant and property and even allow the fire to reductions in fire outbreak could be spread to other parts of the building. The achieved if adequate fire safety practices rate at which fire spread in Nigeria proof are encouraged. that people are not aware of what to do immediately to escape the imminent However, the Commitment of both danger. The occupants of any public government and private building owners to building are expected to perform some fire safety is supported by making sure that specific responsibility in order to quench the right people, right approach and right fire before it spread immediately. system are in place, but in most cases, an observation into public buildings fire Moreover, visitors rely mostly on the incidents revealed a gap between the occupant’s knowledge of fire safety in building owners policy and fire safety public buildings. However, occupants of management (Scott,2010). However, a the public building often lack training on report from a newspaper survey what to do during a building fire. Fire safety conducted by financial times revealed that in public building is solely the responsibility 650 executives in the energy, financial, of the owners or management of buildings; manufacturing, life science, technology this is to ensure that all the necessary
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prevention measures are in place to public buildings focusing on the finding. protect the public building occupants, visitors to the building and their property. 1.2 Objectives of the study Early detection of fire is essential in public building, fire drill, auditing, and all fire 1. To identify fire safety practice situation safety management responsibilities are in Nigeria public building as it was very important in a deal with a fire in the assessed and revealed by other early stage of development. researchers.
History has revealed that the first fire 2. To analyze the safety criteria of public disaster occurred in Jerusalem where the buildings assessed by other researchers temple and Jerusalem city destroyed as about the literature review conducted far back as 587BC. However, these incidents brought about the loss of many 3. To develop final finding and conclusion lives and properties. San Francisco on the results by other researchers and earthquake and fire is another major event literature review. to be remembered. That modern imperial city destroyed. (World fire statistics report 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2001). In the UK a report from Coleman (1982) revealed that an annual estimate of Fire is usually seen as a friend to man but fire damages in 1981 was amounted to becomes an enemy when it is not invited three hundred and fifty-two pounce, while and challenging to manage when it turns attended to over 352 outbreaks, one into an inferno- as its consequences on, thousand thirty-five persons lost their lives burning and scorching everything in its and eight hundred and seventy-seven path. The fire has no respect for the man, were injured. rich and poor alike. A fire requires an ignition source and a combination of Moreover, in Nigeria, a report from the oxygen and fuel to sustain the fire. The Guardian newspaper revealed that nine fuel, in this case, is anything combustible hundred million nairas had been lost to fire materials stored or kept in a building or an in several incidents over the years and open space including wood, wool, several people lost their lives and clothing, paper, and flammable liquid. The business closed. The challenges of fire more combustible these are and the more safety in public building are to maintain of them you have in the room or open their functionality, aesthetical value and space, the more severe the resulting fire. provide an adequate level of safety for their occupants and contents. To In Nigeria, the primary causes of fire encourage higher out in private and public disaster could be as a result of many sectors, the professional's concern and all factors to include frequent power outages, the stakeholders need to come together power surge, electrical sparks, illegal and fashion a way of providing fire connection of electricity, improper protection and prevention measures in electrical fittings, substandard materials, public building. The prevalent cases of fire defective or indoor use of generators, and in Nigeria public buildings, resulting in loss negligence of household leaving minors at of lives and properties is the reasons for home without supervision, storing up this review. This paper review and analyze adulterated fuel at home, Arson and the current literature in fire safety ignorance. management practice in Nigeria public buildings focusing on their finding. According to Agbonkhese et al. (2017), the rise in fire disaster in Nigeria public 1.1 The aim of the Study building could be attributed to harsh climatical condition, excessive electrical To review and analyze recent literature in appliance on the same fuse and wrong fire safety management practice in Nigeria electrical installation in the public building.
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Anaglatey (2013) maintain that wrong extinguishers, fire blankets, and smoke electrical connection and improper detectors among others to support selections of cables, excessive response activities. They also prepare combustible materials in the workplace are their families and employees to take the leading causes of frequent fire immediate action to prevent deaths, outbreaks in public buildings. injuries, and destruction of properties whenever fire disaster strikes. According to Joan, J.A (2016), lack knowledge of firefighting gadgets in the According to Kofi (2001), Safety building will make you ignore gadgets that regulations in the United Kingdom impose can save your property during a fire mandatory fire safety training to all disaster. This is pertinent in Nigeria public employees working within a building, a buildings where this study showed that construction area or any other busy area most occupants of public buildings do not which helps provide employees with have fire extinguishers in their buildings crucial information, develop skills such as and are ignorant of how to use Fire- those used in operating fire extinguishers fighting gadgets to control fire outbreaks. and proper escape behaviors. Unfortunately, this is not the practice in According to U.S fire administration developing countries of the world like (2008), In the United Kingdom, the British Nigeria where ignorance and poor Fire Service enacted law and implement awareness of what fire is and how it can some best practices in fire prevention, be prevented is the order of the day. practices are classified into eight main Adequate fire safety management categories, namely, identifying. analyzing requires recognizing all the potential risks high-risk in buildings, improving staffing associated with the premises and development and training on fire effectively carrying out an assessment of prevention programs, making home safety the adequacy of the measures provided or visits the category of fire safety needed to combat the risk. Khan and campaigns, the British Fire Service uses Abbasi (1995). some selected local media houses and newspapers to spread fire safety According to Buchanan (2001), a risk messages to ethnic populations who are analysis indicates the main area to fire the main target for those media. disaster and spread of fire and thus, decide what action must be taken to The reason for the orientation about the provide suitable arrangements for dangers of fire was to raise awareness of protecting people in the building from fire the fire problem, increase smoke alarm and to should ensure that the risk of a fire ownership, and change fire safety occurring is reduced to an acceptable behaviors. In this regard, ability to level. recognize the danger of fire outbreaks, ability to know what to do to prevent fire Oladokun and Ishola (2010), produced a outbreaks as well as what action from risk analysis model as regards to fire risk taking in case a fire outbreak occurs aids reduction and found it most useful for effective fire safety management evaluating the central area of a building to All fire disaster preparedness in public fire accident which is much needed for buildings is based on the knowledge about planning control strategies development fire risk, the likelihood of different causes by regulatory bodies, insurance of fire disaster and the effects on the built companies, estate management, users, and environment and other stakeholders.
According to National fire, Chief Council 3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (2011) highlighted that occupants with knowledge about fire risk in buildings This study reviewed selected researches would acquire equipment such as fire on fire safety in buildings conducted in
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Nigeria. These selected researches were, knowledge and awareness of the active therefore, analyzed to come with primary fire safety management for the public data to support the theoretical framework building. of the entire research. The review of this research is essential to determine the According to ogbonna (2015), the study variable that should be considered when was carried out to determine the level of researching fire safety in public buildings. fire safety awareness and level of fire safety work in Nigeria. The study revealed A comparative analysis conducted has that public building in Nigeria lacked pointed out the main problem of fire safety effective fire safety management and management of public buildings in Nigeria. highlighted several fire safety challenges However, the main limitation of this facing by Nigeria public buildings in methodology is that the review study Nigeria. Such as poor fire safety concentrated on the research in fire safety awareness among workers in public management. The literature review is building, fire safety practice is inactive, located and obtained from several online inadequate knowledge about fire safety resources such as Scopus, emerald, and regulations guiding fire safety in Nigeria, IEEE in which the selection of sources lack of fire drills and lack of smoke focus mainly on the following keyword; fire detectors. safety management, fire safety evaluation, fire safety assessment in public buildings Thus, workplaces visited, no fire and causes of fire outbreak in Nigeria inspection was carried out in any buildings public buildings. visited in recent time, no fire certificate issues and no evacuation plan in place. 4.0 RESULTS Hence, most of the researchers highlighted that there is no competent Researches on fire safety related to a person saddled with the responsibility of public building in Nigeria were selected fire safety management issues as to guild and reviewed in table 1, as shown the the management on how to actively universal accession from the findings of handle fire safety problem in public each study buildings.
From the reviewed literature, fire safety Brilliance (2016) evaluate fire safety management is the essential aspects of management of the public institution in safety which without all other components Nigeria. The study revealed an average of fire could be useless. Aminu, level of fire safety awareness, low Mohammed, and Yahya,(2014). Despite implementation of fire safety practice many studied conducted in assessing fire among the respondents. The occupants safety in public buildings, the aspects of lack awareness of emergency number to fire safety management not tackled. called in the event of a fire; the public Therefore, it was evident that failure in buildings do not have a fire safety policy, management aspect has been a critical lack knowledge on the different types of factor contributing to a most fire disaster in portable fire extinguishers, inadequate public building Jacobson (2011) and provision. Umar, et al., (2014). Fire safety management system does not just protect Furthermore, an inspection of fire fighting the life of occupants of the building, but it equipment, lack of inspections and review protects the building and its contents. of past fire incidents, in- challenge attitude Preserve the National economy and of turning off electrical appliances after defense the aesthetic values of the use, electrical installation and repair not building. however, the review literature being handled by competent persons. from the study area was different, several However, all the studies reviewed owners and occupiers of the public indicated that training related to fire safety building in Nigeria do not have the between the owners, occupants and the
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general public of the selected study area study area highlighted that all the public leads to failure in fire equipment building investigated, asses and evaluated operations. the fundamental fire safety criteria especially the inadequate installation of Several criteria involving in which building fire safety equipment, fire exit signal or users influence fire safety in buildings. Fire escape route not adequate in building. safety in buildings will be influenced by several factors involving the role of design This paper reviewed, therefore, concluded and construction in militating fire disasters that management of the organization housing in Nigeria by Iyayi et al. (2016). should give employer proper fire safety Therefore, evaluating the opinion from training to be able to identify types of professionals and stakeholders, the extinguishers and corresponding types of fundamental fire safety criteria considered fire it is used for and show commitment to are the passive and active protection ensuring fire safety in the public building system, fire safety management and all by making policies and putting necessary other building characteristics which also resources in place to implement policies. inline with several general statements and Finally, this paper, the hypothesis derived literature reviews. However, review from all common acquisition from the literature both in the study area and research which the practice of public researchers outside the study area. The buildings in Nigeria should perform their criteria which influence fire safety in the functions as accordingly with the right building is selected, and research from the criteria that were identified by the expert.
Table 1 Summary of Scholars Assertions on Fire Safety in Nigerian Public Buildings
FINDINGS AUTHOR TITLE INEFFECTIVE FIRE LACK OF FIRE SAFETY MANAGEMENT SAFETY CRITERIA( PRACTICES BUILDING) Ogbonna & Fire safety preparedness in Poor fire safety Lack of fire safety Nwaogazie, (2015) workplaces in Port Harcourt management practice criteria for building Nigeria Popoola, et al. (2016) Analysis of causes and // // characteristics of market fires in Lagos state Nigeria Adekunle, UMANNAH, Statistical Analysis of fire // // Ibe and Imonikosoye, outbreaks in Home and 2016 public building in Nigeria Aminu, Mohammed, Fire safety // // Yahya, 2014 management evaluation model for a plastic factory in Nigeria Pontip, Ahmed, Evaluation of fire safety // // Erekpitan, and Detur, measures in high rise 2017 buildings in Nigeria SAHITTU, Idiake and The relationship between // // Akanmu,2016 the cost of fire incidence expenditure in Kwara state Iyayi, Bashiru, Abbey, The role of design and // // 2016 construction in mitigating fire disaster in housing in Nigeria
5.0 CONCLUSION management for Nigeria public building which was conducted and proven that the This reviewed paper focused on some level of fire safety management in Nigeria selected researches on the fire safety public buildings is deplorable. Fire safety
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equipment in buildings are not adequate 6.0 REFERENCES and not up to international standard regulation requirement or neither satisfied (n.d.). the requirement of Nigeria national Administration, U. F. (2008). Public Fire Education buildings and fire code. Fire safety Planning. Federal Emergency installed in most of the public buildings in Management Agency. Nigeria were too old and expired, and they have not changed over time, and some of Agbonkhese, O. Y. (2017). Curbing Menace of those systems are no longer suitable to Urban Fire outbreak in Residential Buildings. Scientific Research Journal. the new modern buildings and after a thorough review of the research. Most of Agyekum, K. (2016). Fire Safety Preparedness in the findings from reviews researches the Central Business Districts of Kumasi stated clearly that management of the Ghana. International Conference on public building in Nigeria does not develop Applied Science and Technology. Ghana. an effective fire safety management plan Aminu, U. M. (2014). Fire Safety Management in public buildings. It is an essential part of Evaluation Model For Existing Plastic fire safety management system which Factory. Applied Mechanical and required improvement in research Materials, 732-737. conducted in this area that has proven that Ayabei, J. J. (2016). Level of fire disaster the essential factors influencing in awareness in buildings within the Nairobi minimizing high fire risk in buildings are business districts. International Journal of active fire safety management and plan. scientific and research publication, 2250- 3152. However, the findings, it was also stated Brilliance, O. A. (2016). Evaluation of fire safety that occupants of public buildings are not management in a higher Education aware of the fire safety management plan institution: A case study of university of as a result/ they do not know what to do Northcut. Archives of Current research during a fire emergency. The building institute, 1-13. should appoint an experienced fire safety Council, N. F. (2011). Fire Safety in Purpose- Built officers to handled fire safety affaire in Blocks of Flat Local Government Group. public buildings and also suggested that Fire Protection Handbook. the management team should be a coach on how to respond quickly in term of Group, A. (1984). Fire and Building. Great Britain: emergency and fire brigade situation Granada Publishing. should be set up close to an important in Guide, F. a. (2018). Division of emergency Nigeria. management and fire prevention. Department of public safety. Aside from this functional installation or Jacobson, A. J. (2009). A sequential method to fire protection system in public building identify underlying causes from industries can be achieved with the international accidents reported to the MARS database. building code and national fire protection J, loss prev.process Ind, vol,22,no.2,pp. association guideline in order to suit the 197-203,mar, 2009. new function of buildings since it is also an Ogbonna, C. a. (2015). Fire Safety Preparedness essential aspect to be focused. Also, in Workplaces in PortHarcourt Nigeria. minimizing combustible materials in public International Research Journal and buildings is another aspect to be Environmental Health, 112-121. considered. The aim of having an effective fire safety management is not only to avoid Scott, R. (2010). managing risks and uncertainty provides competitive advantage. fire outbreak, but the occupants and public www.ogf,com/article/print/volume7/12/feat buildings since publics building serve as ures/managing-risk-and-uncertainty- drivers of the national economy provide, volume
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THE INTEGRATION OF BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING AND INTELLIGENT CONTRACT TO VARIATION ORDER PROCESS IN MALAYSIAN CONVENTIONAL CONTRACT
R. M. Salleh *1, N. E. Mustaffa 2 and N. A. Rahiman 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The revolution of Information Technology (IT) creates an efficient use of resources in construction processes and helped to resolve numerous construction progress. IT revolution within the construction industry has transformed the way of how a project is implemented. The Building Information Modelling (BIM) is one of the revolutions of technology, which is created to centralise knowledge sharing resource as an effective collaborative and integrated approach between interdisciplinary in construction industry. BIM is known as a software management of digital three dimension (3D) models that contains all the necessary design model and operational information of the construction in order to improve the project performance throughout the contract period. This paper discusses in the context of longstanding conventional contractual procedures, which involve the Variation Order (VO) process in construction projects. The adoption of Intelligent Contracts as an extension of BIM technology has potential for automation of contractual processes that traditionally rely on intermediary approach that led to lengthy time. By combining BIM and IC’s attributes may help to mitigate the lengthy time taken in VO processes. Therefore, this study is carried out to investigate what are the effects of adopting BIM and streamlining it with the attributes of IC in conventional VO process. This is a descriptive study and the methodology used is essentially based on review of the literature in relation to VO processes in conventional contract, attributes of Intelligent Contracts and BIM working process. The analysis revealed that the impact of BIM and Intelligent Contracts integration in VO conventional process could improve the efficiency; reduce the time by eliminating third parties interference, eliminate the manual signatory, analyse the project performances intelligently; and lastly, minimize the financial risks by keeping the tracks through automatic system record, which works as historical audit trails.
Keywords : Building information modelling, BIM, Intelligent contract, Conventional contract, Variation order
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1.0 INTRODUCTION USA. BIM has gained popularity in other countries as well, such as United Contract administration is a vital aspect Kingdom, Finland, Australia, Hong Kong, which effects time, cost and quality of the Taiwan and Singapore (Ahmad Lattifi et project. Meanwhile, method of al., 2013, CREAM, 2014, Mustaffa et al., procurement determines the way a 2016). Zainon et al. (2016) added that contract is administered. For public BIM has become increasingly projects, most of the procurement is done acknowledged and getting momentum in conventionally. As highlighted by Pillai Malaysia. and Adavi (2013) the work processes which are implemented manually causes The use of BIM technology enables to the project administration processes to be create collaboration and mitigate slow; require large numbers of staff to communication gap between manage the whole process; lack of conventionally segmented scope of work internal collaboration between clients, in the construction process. As Brad consultants and contractor; delayed Hardin (2009) put it, BIM is not just a approval decisions; and in financial software but a process that integrate all decisions. the information of construction works to set up a new way of thinking in the In line with the Fourth Industrial essence of not doing the same old things. Revolution (4thIR), this is high time for The concept of BIM is to integrate the construction industry to embrace the information and all the data, which were automated management approaches to previously scattered documentation and overcome most of the limitations in then integrated all the information in the conventional method. Most importantly, form of a digital building model. by incorporating a digital technology in contract administration creates a positive According to Mustaffa (2018) BIM feedback to cover loopholes in manual integrates the work programme with work contracting process (Exari, 2018). progress physically and financially. The Information Technology (IT) has given an adoption and utilisation of BIM software is impact in the construction industry giving impact in monitoring level of paradigm (Adwan and Al-Soufi, 2016). development (LoD) of the project. In Rimmington et al. (2015) stressed out relation to construction progress, the data that IT revolution gives a full impact and drops help to submit all information with plays such an important role in regards to progress report digitally to construction life cycle processes; which work programme. Hence, the work involve various stages from pre-tender programme will be automatically updated phase and up to facilities management and shared among the authorised parties. phase. IT provides access to the data in BIM also enable to monitor and assess managing issues within projects contractual claims. In conventional administration including planning the activity, the issuance of any certificates risks, monitoring the work progress, has to be checked manually so as to align controlling the quality, etc. with the contract requirements. However, in BIM, the adoption of cost based on 1.1 Building Information Modelling compatible software managed to monitor and Intelligent Contract the progress work and management changes digitally. Thus, the adoption of As mentioned by Porwal and Hewage, cost based can speed up the whole (2013) BIM is not a recent innovation in process. Table 1 shows the impact of BIM the construction industry as it has been in administrating variation order under widely used in the United States of conventional contract. America more than ten years due to the significant number of projects using it in
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Table 1 Contract administration of Variation Order – Impact of BIM under conventional process (Source: Beaumont, 2015 as in Mustaffa, 2018)
Contract Administration Conventional Activity Impact of BIM Function Reporting to the client, Issues instructions to change work. Models are shared frequently in line dealing with claims and Omissions management of the with a defined level of detail (LOD) variations project and assess to determine compliance with EIR. Variations may be assessed to determine the impact. Reporting to the client, Issues instructions to change work. Models are shared frequently in line dealing with claims and Omissions management of the with a defined level of detail (LOD) variations project and assess to determine compliance with EIR. Variations may be assessed to determine the impact. Programming and impact Administrating the process in Use of schedule-based BIM to of changes accordance with the contract rather assess the contractor’s in-tent than authoring associated with construction Advise and report the cost sequencing and coordination. implications of variations BIM integrated with cost and scheduling can provide more accurate cash flow forecasting. Can assist in the funding and planning and assessment of progress against planning. Contract Issue the correct notices and Adoption of cost based compatible instructions/variations certificates aligned with the contract software to monitor design requirements development and change Assess entitlement for extension of Utilisation of based BIM software to time, the requirement for early or monitor time implications of partial possession and completion of instructions to variations. all works
Adwan and Al-Soufi (2016) as in Amor dependent on the intermediary. The (2009) claimed that an improvement in attributes of intelligent contract carry its the IT based management systems and own significance in order to shorten the tools in the developed and the developing process of conventional contractual countries has the potential to reform and procedures. However, it also depends on link the huge barriers from the traditional where and when the IC attributes should way to the digitalised era of construction be adapted to the process. processes. 1.2 Intelligent Contract The integration of BIM and digital working process, which requires a fully In line with digital technology computerisation in the form of a smart or development, Mason (2017) is of the intelligent contract can aid the issues opinion that by incorporating BIM into the arise in day-to-day operations, such as contractual relationship, the Intelligent managing the information, conflicts and Contracts approach provides an excellent decision making as well as to monitor opportunity to exploit BIM technology design development and changes in because Intelligent Contracts appears as conventional contracting project. a logical extension to BIM digitalized Meanwhile, the smart contract is working process whereby the contractual structured to meet the terms and arrangement itself supposed to be conditions of the contract in minimizing automated setup. the flow of the contractual process and
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The term Intelligent Contract denotes a • Electro Signature process whereby a contract is made with The documentations will go through the help of a computer program to select auto contract routing so the right appropriate terms. Stougiannos and documents will be passed to the right Magneron (2018) defined smart contracts people to sign; as a computer protocol that set out the • Searchable Information terms and conditions of a contract The documents stored in searchable compiled in the form of codes. In Mason’s respiratory; (2017) words, intelligent or automated • Deliver Visibility into All contracts are the terms used where the Agreements contract seeks to manage themselves Traceability; where and what are the which the performance of the contract documents in process, whose hands and other actions are enabled by they are currently in and where are technology and rules-based operations or the bottleneck lie; in simple language the performance is • Privacy automated. The attributes of Intelligent All transactions and list of users are Contracts can be summarised as follows: protected from external sources with data encryption protocols. • Reducing Time Streamline the business process 1.3 Variation Order through digital – no more manual entry; According to Pillai and Adavi (2013), • Pre-Coding contracting is a crucial part of Terms and conditions of contract construction projects, as it protects the accurately encoded. For instance, the contractual disputes such as from coding can be setup to set a deadline inadequate information, inadequate and meet the deadlines; delegation of responsibility and authority, • Wizard Driven Approach and any other unethical and misconduct Automatically assemble contracts and activities which led to fraud, corruption intelligent selection of the correct and delayed in financial decision from clauses, terms and conditions; arising. Through the study, Andoh (2010) • Support System highlighted that one of the causes of In order to function intelligent contract construction disputes relate to the by adopting BIM Level 3, blockchain, contractual matters. Zubair et al. (2017) big data and internet; identifies the majority construction • Instruct and Obey Function disputes occur in construction projects The contract can be automated to are that are related to extension of time, have an ability to decide for and on liquidated damages, variations, loss and behalf of the S.O or authorised expense, payment, late deliverables, person; adverse weather and etc. However, in • Pay and Build the context of this research, the issue in Payment issue can be made cheaper focus is related to VO processes in and quicker, the process shall dismiss conventional contract. Throughout the the multilevel verification and duration of the contract, there will be approval; variation order for the reasons to suit the • Environment in real collaboration site conditions and any modifications or Intelligent contract could display; changes to design quality and quantity. share the same information between parties as a single entity with 1) Instruction of VO is issued by the S.O; continually and automatically updated as provided in the Contract. However, contract terms; S.O may delegate the authorization to the S.O Representative (S.O Rep.). 2) The term of VO as provided in the conditions of contracts is any changes
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or modification to the design, quality and removal works related to and quantity of the work, which effect public utilities; the changes in the contract sum. c) Any special claims allow under the 3) The changes or modification contract; considers as VO for the following d) Adjustment of the contract sum reasons: due to:- a) Addition, omission or replacement i. Adjustment of Prime Cost Sum of any works in the contract; and Provisional Sum. b) Replace the quality of building ii. Re-measurement of Provisional material; Quantity provides under the c) Omit any works materials supplied contract. by the contractor, which are not iii. Price Fluctuation or Variation of complied with the contract Price (VOP). specification and Bills of Quantity 8) Any increment to the value of the VO (BQ). works, the S.O shall get an approval 4) VO instructions shall be in writing. As from VO Committee in earlier. stated in JKR Contract Administration 9) In order to control the misuse of VO Handbook (2010) the VO instruction issuance, this handbook has lineup shall be using Form JKR-APK the steps as following:- (Rev.1/2008). a) VO is reduces at minimal level by 5) In the event when the VO instruction taking this proactive action: is by oral, S.O is requested to follow i. Study the site condition; these steps: ii. The preparation of document a) Within 7 days after the oral tender shall updated and instruction, the S.O shall formalize complete as possible; the instruction in writing. Failed to iii. The project team should take do so, the contractor is not efforts to avoid VO; responsible to carry out the iv. VO instructions shall be in instruction; writing and obtain an approval b) Whenever the contractor fails to from the authorized officer. carry out the VO works after b) The VO shall be reviewed in the receipt the written instruction; after first place, whether it is necessary 7 days S.O may appoint third party to implement, especially when it or carry out the works itself. All involves the adjustment of contract costs incurred for carrying out such sum. works shall be borne by the c) In the event when the VO needs to contractor. implement, it is preferable if the 6) S.O and S.O Rep. shall comply with VO is separates from the original the Treasury Instruction Bil.202 by contract. obtaining an approval from authorized d) The additional VO shall be limited personnel or VO Committee prior to to the scope of works in the issue any VO instructions. original contract. 7) However, the earlier approval is e) The scope of work in the contract exceptional for the reasons below: cannot be omitted and then a) Any claims from contractor for purposely given to the third parties. loses and /or expenses which f) All VO works shall obtain an causes of:- approval from the Committee of i. Compliance with S.O’s Standardization and Costs under instructions; Economic Planning Unit. ii. Delays caused of the S.O; g) No VO instructions may be issued iii. Any discrepancies between the after the issuance of Certificate of documents in the contract. Practical Completion (CPC) or b) Any claims with regards to fee and extended CPC. charges to install fixed connection
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h) No issuance of VO instructions the Contract Administrator and the unless its effect on the contract Contractor can negotiate on the VO’s rate sum and the duration of the project to be agreed. has been evaluated and identified. i) VO is allowed upon approval by The VO agreed rates application should Treasury Instruction Bil.202 and be prepared by VO Committee using there is a provision for the Form JKR-KPK (Rev.1/2008) based on execution of such additional works. the following compliance:
1) All application must comply the 1.3.1 The Implementation of Variation following rules:- Order a) To do evaluation and measurement on the VO works; The JKR Contract Administration b) To prepare all requirements on Handbook (2010) clearly explained the agreed rates application in order to process and procedure for the VO get the approval as stated below:- application as the following:- i. The summary of the VO; ii. The evaluation and The approval of VO Implementation shall measurement must be use Form JKR-APK (Rev.1/2008) based assessed promptly except for on the following compliance: the value of works that can only be identified upon completion; 1) The form must complete and all iii. Drawings are important to get details on the project should be the an accurate measurement. If same as in the contract document; the drawings are not applied, 2) Date of VO shall be in accordance the measurement shall be with the date of S.O signature; based on whatever information 3) Prior to the issuance of the VO available to get the value of VO instruction, S.O shall prepare the works as accurately as estimated value of VO works. The possible; S.O shall measure the actual value of iv. All records or detailed VO works once it is completed; information for VO 4) Once the VO issuance is issued, the measurement and evaluation Contractor has to sign it. Failed to purposes must be kept for sign the VO instruction, the S.O is reference; entitled to appoint a third party to v. In any case when there is not perform the work and all costs shall be enough references to measure borne by the contractor; and evaluate the VO works, the 5) The S.O shall attach drawings and S.O can use the Schedule of sketches in relation to the VO works; Rates (SOR) in the contract 6) The contractor shall prepare a site document as a basis. diary if it is required by the S.O; However, the information 7) When the VO instruction is approved regarding the number of by S.O Rep., the S.O shall get a copy labours, plants, machineries of it. used in the site shall be recorded daily in the site diary. 1.3.2 The Evaluation of Variation vi. The VO evaluation must match Order with the work applied in the JKR-KPK (Rev.1/2008) form; Assessment of VO works can be made as vii. In the event the evaluation is the work is in progress. The Contract using the contract's rate or Administrator may hold a discussion with SOR rates, the adjustment on the Contractor to measure the actual the percentage increment shall value of VO work done. In the meantime,
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be accounted for in accordance with the contract provisions; viii. If the material or work is in the BQ but has a different size, the evaluation may use a pro-rate from the original contract rates in the BQ; ix. If the rates are not in BQ, the evaluation shall be based on fair rates; x. When a Daywork Rate applies, the contractor must submit a payment vouchers, receipts and wages book as proof. It needs to be verified within 7 days after the VO works is implemented. An additional of 15% applies on the rates for overhead & profit. 2) The preparation of VO agreed rates application in JKR-KPK (Rev 1/2008) should comply with the followings:- a) The details of the contract in the application form must be the same as the details in the contract document; b) The estimated value of VO works and the details of VO evaluation shall be included in the application form as a supporting documents; Figure 1 Application of V.O c) The description of VO must be implementation brief, accurate and clear; d) The S.O or S.O Rep must sign the The next flowchart in Figure 2. generally application form of VO agreed shows the whole processes of the rates prior to get the VO application of V.O agreed rates. It states Committee approval. the working process and respective e) After obtaining the approval, the personnel involvement throughout the JKR-KPK (Rev.1/2008) form shall processes. be distributed to related parties in the contract.
The flowchart in Figure 1. generally shows the whole processes of the application of V.O implementation. It states the working process and respective personnel involvement throughout the processes.
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Nonetheless, it is believed that by incorporating the digital technology and the adoption of intelligent contract attributes; it will shorten the manual workflow and discard the interference of third parties. The attributes of intelligent contract carry its own significance in order to improve the process of VO instructions. Hence, there is an immediate urgency to understand the need to have an efficient Intelligent Contract in the Malaysian construction industry in order to facilitate BIM implementation in the future. This is a descriptive study and the methodology used is essentially on review of the literature in relation to payment processes in conventional contract, BIM management system and attributes of Intelligent Contracts.
2.0 MAIN RESULTS Based on descriptive study and through readings from the previous scholars’ literature review, the result shows that the attributes of IC carry its own significance in order to improve the process of VO instructions. The analysis revealed that the impact of BIM and attributes of IC in VO conventional process could improve
the efficiency; reduce the time by Figure 2 Application of V.O agreed rates eliminating third parties interference, eliminate the manual signatory, analyse Having explained all the processes, VO the project performances intelligently; and implementation works clearly show a lastly, minimize the financial risks by tedious process and it is time consuming. keeping the tracks through automatic Furthermore, the procedure is system record, which works as historical complicated and has to go multilayers of audit trails. approval in order to get it done.
Table 2 The Propensity of adopting BIM and Intelligent Contracts for proposed improvisation of Variation Order process
PROCESS ACTIVITY PROPOSED FOR IMPROVISATION ISSUANCE OF • Issuance of • Models are shared frequently in VARIATION Variation Order line with a defined level of detail ORDER TO CHECK (VO) instruction (LOD) and assess to determine BUDGET AND by S.O Rep. compliance with EIR. Variations NECESSITY OF • To check BIM may be assessed to determine the THE VO WORKS. budget and impact. necessity of the • Adoption of cost based on VO works with compatible software which has the Treasury ability to monitor and manage the
Q 21
Instruction work programme and facilitate the Bil.202. contract managing process; • Use of BIM integrated process with cost and scheduling in order to monitor and assess claims to speed up the whole process. • Applying the intelligent way of working process which cater the following attributes: ✓ Reduce Time; ✓ Pre-Coding; ✓ Wizard Driven Approach; ✓ Support System; ✓ Instruct and Obey Function. ✓ Environment in Real Collaboration ✓ Electro Signature ✓ Searchable Information ❖ Reduce Time Streamline the business process through digital – no more manual entry ❖ Pre-Coding Coding to be developed INTELLIGENT ❖ Wizard Driven CONTRACTS Select relevant clauses to the process ❖ Support System Requires compatible support system ❖ Instruct and Obey Function Develop automated decision function ❖ Electro Signature Develop automated decision function ❖ Environment in Real Collaboration Review the verification process accordingly to speed up the process ❖ Searchable Information Storing and accessibility Function needs to be based on automated system
FILL UP FORM • To fill up Form • It is proposed to skip the whole JKR-APK JKR-APK process. The process is (REV.1/2008) (Rev.1/2008) for considered redundant as the DECISION BY THE S.O approval approval made by the Treasury is BIM S.O / S.O REP. • S.O/S.O considered supersede the Rep.decision. following approval as Treasury is the superior authorisation in the organisation. INTELLIGENT • Review the verification process CONTRACTS accordingly to speed up the process
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• It is proposed to skip the whole process. The process is considered redundant as the approval made by the Treasury considered supersede the following approval as Treasury is the superior authorisation in the organisation.
ISSUANCE OF • Issuance of • Adoption of cost is based on FORM JKR-APK Form JKR-APK compatible software which has (REV.1/2008) (Rev.1/2008) ability to monitor and manage the work programme and facilitate the signed by the contract administration process; CONTRACTOR TO S.O/S.O Rep; BIM • Use of BIM integrated with cost SIGN THE JKR- • Contractor to and scheduling in order to monitor APK (REV.1/2008) sign the JKR- and assess V.O claims to speed
APK up the whole process. CONTRACTOR TO (Rev.1/2008) • Applying the intelligent way of PROCEED WITH form for working process which cater the THE VO WORKS acceptance following attributes: • Within 7 days ✓ Reduce Time; after receipt the ✓ Pre-Coding; JKR-APK ✓ Wizard Driven Approach; (Rev.1/2008) ✓ Support System; Contractor to ✓ Electro Signature; proceed with ✓ Instruct and Obey Function the VO works ✓ Pay and Build-
✓ Environment in Real Collaboration; ✓ Searchable Information; ✓ Traceability.
❖ Reduce Time Revised manual system to digitalised work process ❖ Pre-Coding INTELLIGENT Coding of the salient VO clauses CONTRACTS ❖ Wizard Driven Approach Automatic selection of the salient clauses to the V.O process by the system ❖ Support System Requires compatible support system ❖ Electro Signature Develop automated decision function ❖ Instruct and Obey Function Develop automated decision function ❖ Pay and Build Review the verification process accordingly to speed up the process ❖ Environment in real collaboration Review the accessibility issues; open access to all parties involved in the V.O process ❖ Electro Signature
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Determine the assigned personnel to verify and endorse the documents ❖ Searchable Information Storing and Assesibility Function needs to be based on automated system ❖ Traceability Identify the required documents and person-in-charge
EVALUATE THE • To measure • Models are shared frequently in VO and evaluate line with a defined level of detail the VO (LOD) and assess to determine V.O EVALUATION • To discuss with compliance with EIR. the Contractor on V.O’s • Use of schedule-based BIM to evaluation assess the contractor’s in-tent associated with construction BIM sequencing and coordination. • BIM integrated with cost and scheduling can provide more accurate cash flow forecasting. • Can assist in the funding and planning and assessment of progress against planning.process. • Applying the intelligent way of working process which cater the following attributes: ✓ Reduce Time; ✓ Pre-Coding; ✓ Wizard Driven Approach; ✓ Support System- ✓ Searchable Information; ✓ Traceability; ✓ Privacy.
❖ Reduce Time Revised manual system to digitalised work process INTELLIGENT ❖ Pre-Coding CONTRACTS Coding of the salient V.O clauses
❖ Wizard Driven Approach Automatic selection of the salient clauses to the V.O process by the system ❖ Support System Requires compatible support system ❖ Searchable Information Storing and accessibility function needs to be based on automated system ❖ Traceability. Identify the required documents and person-in-charge ❖ Privacy Verification and privacy
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TO FILL UP FORM • To Fill up Form • Adoption of cost is based on JKR-KPK JKR-KPK compatible software which has (Rev.1/2008) ability to monitor and manage the with all work programme and facilitate the CHECKING AND supporting PRESENTING THE documents BIM contract administration process; APPLICATION OF signed by the • Use of BIM integrated with cost V.O S.O. and scheduling in order to monitor • Checking and and assess V.O claims to speed presenting the up the whole process. DECISION application to • Applying the intelligent way of V.O Committee members. working process which cater the • V.O Committee following attributes: decision ✓ Reduce Time; ✓ Pre-Coding; ✓ Wizard Driven Approach; ✓ Support System- ✓ Instruct and Obey Function ✓ Environment in real collaboration ✓ Electro Signature ✓ Searchable Information; ✓ Traceability; ✓ Privacy.
❖ Reduce Time Revised manual system to digitalised work process ❖ Pre-Coding Coding on the budget and project INTELLIGENT account CONTRACTS ❖ Support System Requires compatible support system ❖ Instruct and Obey Function Develop automated decision function ❖ Environment in real collaboration Review the accessibility issues; open access to all parties involved in the V.O process ❖ Electro Signature Determine the assigned personnel to verify and endorse the documents ❖ Searchable Information Storing and Assesibility Function needs to be based on automated system ❖ Traceability. Identify the required documents and person-in-charge ❖ Privacy Verification and privacy
DISTRIBUTION OF • Distribute • Adoption of cost is based on V.O APRROVAL copies of compatible software which has approval to ability to monitor and manage the BIM respective work programme and facilitate the parties for claim contract administration process; purposes. • Use of BIM integrated with cost
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and scheduling in order to monitor and assess V.O claims to speed up the whole process. • Applying the intelligent way of working process which cater the following attributes: ✓ Reduce Time; ✓ Pre-Coding; ✓ Support System- ✓ Instruct and Obey Function ✓ Deliver Visibility into All Agreements ✓ Electro Signature ✓ Searchable Information; ✓ Traceability; ✓ Privacy. ❖ Reduce Time Revised manual system to digitalised work process ❖ Pre-Coding Coding on the budget and project account INTELLIGENT ❖ Support System CONTRACTS Requires compatible support system ❖ Instruct and Obey Function Develop automated decision function ❖ Deliver Visibility into All Agreements ❖ Requires compatible support system ❖ Electro Signature Determine the assigned personnel to verify and endorse the documents ❖ Searchable Information Storing and Assesibility Function needs to be based on automated system ❖ Traceability. Identify the required documents and person-in-charge ❖ Privacy Verification and privacy
PREPARATION • Prepare the • Adoption of cost based on THE CERTIFICATE Certificate compatible software which has ADJUSTMENT OF Adjustment of ability to monitor and manage the CONTRACT SUM Contract Sum work programme and facilitate the signed by the BIM contract administration process; S.O • Use of BIM integrated with cost and scheduling in order to monitor and assess V.O claims to speed up the whole process. • Applying the intelligent way of INTELLIGENT working process which cater the CONTRACTS following attributes: ✓ Reduce Time;
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✓ Pre-Coding; ✓ Support System- ✓ Instruct and Obey Function ✓ Deliver Visibility into All Agreements ✓ Electro Signature ✓ Searchable Information; ✓ Traceability; ✓ Privacy. ❖ Reduce Time Revised manual system to digitalised work process ❖ Pre-Coding Coding on the budget and project account ❖ Support System Requires compatible support system ❖ Instruct and Obey Function Develop automated decision function ❖ Deliver Visibility into All Agreements ❖ Requires compatible support system ❖ Electro Signature Determine the assigned personnel to verify and endorse the documents ❖ Searchable Information Storing and Assesibility Function needs to be based on automated system ❖ Traceability. Identify the required documents and person-in-charge ❖ Privacy Verification and privacy
3.0 CONCLUSION Q.J130000.2621.19H74) without which it would be impossible for the authors to The integration of BIM and digitalised finish the study. working process which requires full computerisation in construction project is REFERENCES believed would strongly support on how a project being organised, managed and Adwan, E.J and Al-Soufi, A. (2016), A Review of ICT Technology in Construction, International controlled. It also significantly brings Journal of Managing Information Technology potential on the formation of a new path (IJMIT) Vol.8, being chartered in the context of a smart or intelligent contract which directly Ahmad Latiffi, A.,Mohd, S., Kasim, N. and Fathi, affects the project outcome. M.S., (2013), Building Information Modelling (BIM) Application in Malaysian Construction Industry, International Journal of Construction ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Engineering and Management, 2(A): 1-6,
The authors would like to thank Universiti Andoh, K.B., (2010), Disputes in Construction Teknologi Malaysia for the funding Project, Dissertation, University of Strathclyde provided under the Research University Glasgow United Kingdom.
Grant (GUP: Vot No:
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Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia, “JKR Contract Administration Handbook, 2010.
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Mustaffa N.E, Tajul Ariffin, H.L. and Mohamed Salleh, R. (2017), Experiences of Building Information in Various Countries, 5th International Conference on Research and Innovation in Information System, Langkawi; 16-17 July 2017.
Mustaffa, N.E. (2018). Impact of BIM to Quantity Surveyor as a Contract Administrator. Berita QS, Issue 1, Session 2018/2019, December 2018, pg.16-20.
Pillai, M. and Adavi, P. (2013), Intelligent Contract Management, International Journal of Science and Research Publication, Volume 3, Issue 1, January 2013 1 ISSN 2250-3153.
Porwal, A., Hewage, K.N. (2013), Building Information Modeling (BIM) Partnering Framework for Public Construction Projects, Automation in Construction 31 (2013) 204– 214.
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Stougiannos, L. and Magneron, A.(2018). BIM, Blockchain and Smart Contract, Miller Thomson LLP, [online], [accessed on 15 July 2018]. Available from: https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/bim- blockchain-smart-construction-contract-miller- thompson-milkov
Zainon, N. Salleh, H. and Rahim, F.A. (2016), The Rise of BIM in Malaysia And Its Impact Towards Quantity Surveying Practices, 236X_MATEC_Web_of_Conferences, [online], [Accessed on 22 October 2018], Available at: https://www.researchgate.net/journal/2261.
Zubair, M.U., Gabriel, H.F., and Thaheem M. J., (2017). Comparison between Causes of Disputes in the Published Literature and the Construction Industry of Pakistan, International Journal of Management & Organizational Studies Volume 6, Issue 1, ISSN: 2305-2600
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RECENT ADVANCES IN MOBILE APPLICATION FOR REAL TIME COST MANAGEMENT IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS
I. U. Sampson *1, S. F. Mohamed 2 and O. C. Onyebuchi 3
1,2 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail : [email protected], [email protected])
1, 3 School of Environmental Sciences, Federal University of Technology, Owerri Nigeria (E-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Construction industry is information driven industry and the demands for cost effectiveness, process efficiency, and timely delivery of information for management action has led to numerous innovations in the industry. Mobile technology is one of the new trends of industrial innovations which has transformed present day business operations and construction business is not an exception as it has assisted greatly in construction project management and performance. It has therefore become an indispensable tool during project execution as the use makes information transmission and retrieval among construction professionals and participants more effective and efficient. Cost management in construction is a process and its implementation require innovation, automation, learning, involvement and commitment from people. The ingredients of construction cost and the activities involved in managing construction cost is obtainable from all the construction participants which include the consultants, the contractors, and the client. Integrating these ingredients and the activities becomes very paramount in delivering effective cost management practice. Hence, developing and adopting new ways to save time and reduce costs of construction can help construction firms to have a competitive edge in the construction market and mobile technology gives construction companies the opportunity to get to that level. There are so many construction related mobile applications currently in the market ranging from simple calculations to full rendering of construction facilities. This paper presents recent innovations in the use of mobile technology in construction with emphasis laid on the use of the technology for construction cost management in real time. The paper reveals the basic uses of mobile applications in construction, the recent applications and how mobile technology can be used to integrate all sources of cost ingredients for effective monitoring and control. Keywords : Mobile technology, Real-Time cost, Construction innovations, Cost management, and Construction mobile apps
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1.0 INTRODUCTION frequent changes of work site locations. One of the biggest recent developments in 3. The fragmented nature of the the management of construction projects is the integration of mobile technology. industry that engage many One of the numerous innovations that has different stakeholders which made tremendous impact on the global creates gaps in data stream. society today is the availability of mobile 4. The separation of site offices from phones (Eyong, 2013). The basic project work sites. management tools that assists in 5. The apt need for timely preventing or eliminating bottlenecks in transmission of information as the the different phases of construction construction industry is projects which includes planning, characterized by rigid deadlines designing, and building are being and costly delays. translated and built in tablets, 6. The increased reliance on smartphones, and other mobile devices. subcontractors to perform Whether the construction project is a construction work as it was simple structure or complex edifice, there are a number of different professionals reported that at least 80% of the and project participants involved, ranging activities performed on a typical from project consultants to site construction site is subcontracted supervisors and artisans, whose interest is to specialty contractors which in to ensure effective management of the turn deepen the fragmentation of project to avoid undue time and cost the industry. overruns. The construction industry is experiencing a new and revitalized era These challenges are being addressed as with the help of technology through new communication has been made easy and applications and tools. These applications transmission of information is done from tech start-up companies are effortlessly with the use of mobile devices. transforming how construction companies Poor communication and coordination are designing, planning and executing resulted in cost overruns and inaccurate their projects (Santos, 2018). construction schedule forecasts (S. Kim, Bai, & Yun, 2015). Mobile project The major challenges of construction management has taken a rapid pace with industry are how to decrease costs, the introduction of the mobile devices, improve productivity and have a which is quickly becoming an competitive edge in terms of quality of indispensable tool in construction project service and customer satisfaction. This sites. Every participant in a project site challenge is communication-based performs a task that has cost related challenges among project participants due implications. This means that the sources to the dynamic nature of the construction of all the cost ingredients which include industry. Khelifi & Hyari, (2016) articulated materials, labour, plants and equipment, the major factors that lead to these are traceable to the project participants challenges. According to them, these challenges can be attributed to: who practically cannot effectively deliver their services in the present age without 1. The huge measure of data that is the use of mobile devices. The required to be exchanged and management of construction cost is the traded amid the construction phase most vital determinant of project success, of a project and the performance of any construction 2. The spatial dispersion of project is generally expressed in terms of construction project team and cost and its deviation from the initial construction activities as well as budget. Different innovations in
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construction have been in play especially 2.0 AREAS OF MOBILE in this current day industrial revolution to APPLICATION IN ensure efficient and effective project CONSTRUCTION performance. Without proper control, even a well-planned and scheduled The “mobile era” is in full swing, and construction system can cause problems, construction companies are slowly but delays and cost overruns (Malkanthi, surely making the switch (Kiganda, 2017). Premalal, & Mudalige, 2017). For accurate Though the construction industry is long and efficient information management, known as slow adapters of technology, the information and communication industry is catching up at 5G speeds technology (ICT) tools are used in the (Yovino, 2019). Mobile devices are construction industry (Nourbakhsh, et al, practically used in all phases of 2012). The construction industry long construction project development. The known as slow adapters of technology is smartphone, coupled with mobile catching up at 5G speeds (Yovino, 2019). computing technology, has provided a flexible and powerful environment for on- There are so many construction site construction management and it is applications currently existing. (Liu, et al, expected to pioneer the paradigm shift of 2017) cited that it is estimated that there the conventional construction may be nearly 13,000 construction related management practices (C. Kim, Park, Lim, development and design apps presently in & Kim, 2013). Construction industry the market. New technologies and related apps currently available in the innovations are still being invented and market offer many functionalities ranging adopted in executing construction related activities in recent times. The available from simple calculations to detailed mobile apps used in construction sector architectural renderings (Liu et al., 2017). are used for different range of activities The basic areas of mobile application in including project management, the construction industry includes but not calculations, construction safety, limited to; integrated construction cost and i. Project planning accounting, site operations, computer ii. Project designs aided design, 2D and 3D designs and iii. Cost management and control drawings, estimating, and building iv. Construction safety information modelling (BIM). These apps v. Project management and control have been developed for the purposes of increasing productivity and efficiency and Mobile technology allows for quick for managing workflow (Liu et al., 2017). communication between all stakeholders This paper explored the recent advances in any construction outfit. This means that in construction mobile applications with every project Participant will be on the emphasis laid in cost management mobile same page when it comes to how a project applications in real time. The key benefits is going to be completed. Most of mobile applications in construction were construction projects require constant highlighted, recent innovations were communication between multiple parties explored, with a proposed real time cost and any lapse can be detrimental to a management model using integrated project’s productivity (Riddell, 2017a). mobile application. Mobile technology gives the parties the opportunity to resolve any information transmission issues immediately using mobile email or submitting documents in real-time. Real-time access to data means fewer expensive mistakes (Riddell, 2017b).
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2.1 Recent Innovations and Kapliński, (2018) highlighted the recent Applications In Construction innovations in the construction industry from the year 2016 and beyond (see figure A number of trends in the construction 1 below) and mobile technology is one of industry are technology-related, either the areas of the recent innovations. driven to a large extent by digitalisation and other emerging technologies, or impacted by technology (Pistorius, 2017).
TRENDS COMMENTS TRENDS COMMENTS Integrated Currently, standard, in addition mobile Using custom applications on Detailed 3D Modeling coordination collision technology and mobile devices BIM Modeling detection information on Reducing labor costs job sites
Cost and Step towards: Repetitive works Scheduling IPD Robotic Qualification requirements are modeling with BIM automation needed (Quality, Time saving) 5D Macro-BIM LCC
Unmanned Off-site orders Digitization of construction site Pre-fabrication Aerial Vehicles Combining with 3D BIM Remote jobsite monitoring (UAVs)
Energy-saving Life cycle cost analysis 3D Printing in building Sustainable return on Require 3D printer and extruder construction systems investment
Monitoring Enhanced Revisions of existing safety Smart buildings Remote access jobsite safety requirements
Figure 1 Construction trends shaping the industry in 2016 and beyond (Kapliński, 2018) Currently there are software and mobile cloud- based, allowing changes and solutions that can assist in managing updates to documents, schedules, and different aspects of construction project. other management tools to be made in real Ranging from preconstruction to time, facilitating better communication and scheduling, from project management and collaboration (Jones, 2018). The top field reporting to managing back office, mobile technologies that are used in there is already an existing software construction in recent times are as listed in solution that can help to streamline Table 1 below. construction processes and improve productivity. Most software solutions are
Table 1 Top Mobile Technologies Used in Construction
S/N Technology Type Uses 1 BIM 360 Docs Mobile application to manage all project files and plans including BIM from a single app 2 Construction Mobile application useful for construction math problems like length, area Master Pro App and volume conversions.
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3 DroneDeploy Mobile application DroneDeploy to develop site plans, monitor job progress, and compare BIM models to actual site conditions to improve safety and keep projects on track.
4 eSUB Mobile application focused exclusively on subcontractor’s workflow and needs. 5 Fall Safety Pro Mobile application actively monitors for falls and tracks location of falls in construction sites 6 GasBuddy Mobile application It helps users find the least expensive gas near their location
7 PlanGrid Mobile application Users enjoy the ability to share plans, markups, photos, and reports with the entire project team from their mobile device 8 SafetyCulture Mobile application provides a powerful checklist app. Paper checklist are iAuditor digitized so that your team can conduct inspections much quicker 9 SmartBid Mobile application SmartBid provides a cloud-based platform to send invitations to bid, share project documents, and collaborate with subcontractors. The mobile app allows SmartBid users to securely access their network of subcontractors so that they can easily bid projects from any location. 10 TrueLook Mobile application users can view your job site live, save and share webcam images, and more 11 JobFLEX JobFLEX is an estimating and bid management app that delivers estimates on the spot, with or without a cellular connection 12 e-Builder Available in all e-Builder is the construction project management tool that platforms including features real-time performance dashboards mobile device 13 DEWALT Mobile application DEWALT Mobile Pro is a full-scale construction calculation Mobile Pro and reference tool
14 Bridgit Closeout Available in Bridgit Closeout is a cloud-based task management different platforms solution for assigning work, reporting, and note-taking. including in mobile With the Closeout app, task details can be shared across devices teams 15 Canvas Mobile application With Canvas, reporting is simple and accessible. You can fill out estimates, forms, inspections, work orders, and audits on mobile devices.
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None of the above mobile applications management software (Real-time Data specifically addressed cost management App) and a central system that can acquire of construction projects in real-time. data from different sources, analyse and Hence, the need for an integrated system give automated feedback for immediate using mobile application to specifically management action. The central system address the issues of construction cost will have the capacity to perform the control and management in real-time. following basic cost management tasks;
3.0 MOBILE REAL-TIME COST Cost Resources sorting MANAGEMENT MODEL Real-time unit cost estimation Automated cost resource model has been Real-time valuation of work and proposed for real time cost management progress of construction projects. The model is Budget and expenditure proposed to be an integration of mobile Reconciliation technology with a built-in data
STATUTORY BODIES
AUTOMATED DATA CONTRACTORS PROJECT (MAIN AND CONSULTANTS ANALYSIS CENTRAL SYSTEM NOMINATED)
SUPPLIERS (PROCUREMENT UNIT)
Figure 2 Framework for Automated Construction Resource Model for cost monitoring and control
4.0 CONCLUSION managers. Hence, the relevance of the proposed automated resource model for The recent advances in mobile technology cost control and management. has touched virtually every aspect of construction process including cost ACKNOWLEDGEMENT management. As earlier stated, Cost management in construction is a process The authors would like to express their and its implementation require innovation, appreciation for the support of the automation, learning, involvement and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for granting commitment from people. Integrating International Doctoral Fellowship (IDF) mobile technology to specifically address which assisted in this work. real-time construction cost will improve construction cost performance and drastically remove unnecessary bottlenecks faced by project participants especially project managers and cost
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REFERENCES information management in construction industry. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 19(5), 474–494. Eyong, C. (2013). Mobile technology in Africa: the https://doi.org/10.1108/09699981211259577 emergence and indispensability of mobile phones. Turku University of Applied Sciences. Retrieved from Pistorius, C. (2017). The Impact of New http://publications.theseus.fi/handle/10024/5 Technologies on the Construction Industry. 3598 Innovation Insight, (4), 1–70.
Jones, K. (2018). How Technology Is Reshaping Riddell, T. (2017a). How Mobile Technology is the Construction Industry. Retrieved March Transforming the Construction Industry. 10, 2019, from Retrieved August 8, 2018, from https://www.constructconnect.com/blog/cons https://esub.com/mobile-technology- truction-technology/technology-reshaping- transforming-construction-industry/ How construction-industry/%0D Riddell, T. (2017b). Why Mobile Technology is the Kapliński, O. (2018). Innovative Solutions in Next Step for the Construction Industry. Construction Industry . Review of 2016 – Retrieved October 11, 2018, from 2018 Events and Trends. Engineering https://www.constructconnect.com/blog/cons Structures and Technologies, 10(1), 27–33. truction-technology/mobile-technology-next- step-construction-industry/ Khelifi, A., & Hyari, K. H. (2016). A Mobile Device Software to Improve Construction Sites Santos, J. M. D. (2018). 2018 Technology and Communications " MoSIC ". (IJACSA) Software Trends in the Construction Industry. International Journal of Advanced Computer Retrieved August 8, 2018, from Science and Applications, 7(11), 51–58. https://project-management.com/2018- https://doi.org/10.14569/IJACSA.2016.07110 technology-and-software-trends-in-the- 8 construction-industry/
Kiganda, A. (2017). How Mobile Technologies are Yovino, J. (2019). 19 construction apps for 2019. Boosting Construction Site Efficiency. Retrieved March 3, 2019, from Retrieved August 8, 2018, from https://dailyreporter.com/2019/01/04/19- https://constructionreviewonline.com/2017/0 construction-apps-for-2019/ 2/how-mobile-technologies-are-boosting- construction-site-efficiency/
Kim, C., Park, T., Lim, H., & Kim, H. (2013). Automation in Construction On-site construction management using mobile computing technology. Automation in Construction, 35, 415–423. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2013.05.027
Kim, S., Bai, Y., & Yun, H. (2015). Developing a Real-Time Basis Construction Cost Estimating and Scheduling ( RBCCES ) System. In 51st ASC Annual International Conference Proceedings (Vol. 622). Associated Schools of Construction.
Liu, T., Mbachu, J., Mathrani, A., Jones, B., & McDonald, B. (2017). The Perceived Benefits of Apps by Construction Professionals in New Zealand. Buildings, 7(4), 111. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings7040111
Malkanthi, S. N., Premalal, A. G. D., & Mudalige, R. K. P. C. B. (2017). Impact of Cost Control Techniques on Cost Overruns in Construction Projects. Engineer, L(04), 53–60.
Nourbakhsh, M., Mohamad Zin, R., Irizarry, J., Zolfagharian, S., & Gheisari, M. (2012). Mobile application prototype for on site
Q 35
THE NEEDS FOR THE CONTINUOUS IMPROVEMENT IN MAINTENANCE MANAGEMENT OF PUBLIC FACILITIES IN MALAYSIA
S. G. Mong *1, S. F. Mohamed 2 and M. S. Misnan 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The maintenance cost issues have become the major concerns by the maintenance department in any organisation. The approaches to maintenance management have evolved significantly by various researchers and practitioners in the construction industry to overcome the cost issues and assists the organisations towards strategic management. Since the local authorities in Malaysia are the non-profit organisation that responsible in providing and managing the facilities, they faced maintenance cost issues which hinder them from performing well in maintenance management which resulted in public dissatisfaction due to poor building condition and lack of proper maintenance management. This paper investigated the maintenance cost issues and provided recommendations to improve maintenance management practices. Questionnaires directly distributed to the maintenance personnel demonstrated an unobstructed view on the barriers encountered while carrying out their duties of managing the facilities. Opinions and recommendations of the needs for the improvement to achieve strategic maintenance management described respectably so that the maintenance management of the public facilities can be executed strategically and effectively.
Keywords : Maintenance management, Maintenance cost, Public facilities, Local authorities,
1.0 INTRODUCTION which increases the maintenance and rehabilitation cost by the organization (Au- Maintenance is the crucial aspects of the yong et al., 2013; Schneider et al., 2006). lifetime of the assets. Proper and well- timed maintenance of the facilities allows The local authorities in Malaysia have safe for operation and enables the facilities broad responsibilities within their region and asset to be used efficiently to since they hold an enormous amount of contribute to economic aspects. Since the assets and facilities encompasses building facilities and asset are being used offices, community halls, public markets, continuously and exposed to the hawkers centres, food premises, sport and environment has caused them to recreational facilities, public toilets, public deteriorate and hasten the degradation housing, etc. (Malaysia, 2006). Hence, the process. Consequently, the deterioration local authorities should focus on providing and degradation of the facilities building and managing those assets and facilities had interpreted into money requirement
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to satisfy the demand of the stakeholders. their needs and support their daily Since the public pays the taxes to the local activities. The public facilities such as authority, they are hoping and expecting community halls, open markets, public the excellent service delivery from the toilets, food premises, sports facilities and local authority. Nevertheless, over the recreational and others can promote a years, many factors have caused the sustainable and healthier lifestyle maintenance cost issues by the local (Brackertz and Kenley, 2002). McShane authorities due to lacking in many areas of (2006) asserts that it is crucial for the management and practices (Adnan et al., public facilities able to provide safe and 2012; Isa et al., 2016). The maintenance sound condition and effective performance activities could not be instigated effectively to satisfy the needs of the stakeholders. and efficiently if there are constraints and Thus, for achieving the sufficient facilities challenges in their maintenance performance, the maintenance has to be management area. The objective of this the priority to the local authorities and paper is to identify the critical level of consider it as the strategic manner within maintenance cost issues faced by the local their organization. Implicitly, the authorities in Malaysia and provide the appropriate maintenance approach will recommendations to encounter the contribute to better productivity and quality problem. performance (Lavy, 2010).
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Many previous studies have shown that the local authorities were continuously The challenging environment and having maintenance cost issues while complexity of maintenance management managing the assets. Every year, the local have been putting enormous pressures on authorities have spent millions of money to the shoulder of local authorities in maintain the immovable assets for public managing and maintaining their asset and accessibility (Berahim et al., 2015). The facilities. The local authority is the non- grants and revenues could not support the profit government that serve the maintenance requirement as many communities in various kinds of facilities barriers and challenges affecting the and services utilising the grants from the efficiency of maintenance management. Federal and State government (Vadeveloo These barriers not only triggered by the and Singaravello, 2015). Nevertheless, local authority's administration but also the local authority also generates their from the third party such as vandalism by revenues through the collection of taxes, the irresponsible public. Moreover, the rents and services provided by them to cost of maintenance keeps changing and support their management (Pawi et al., increasing due to several factors such as 2011). The broad scope of responsibilities the cost for materials, spare parts, of the local authorities towards their technology and equipment (Au-Yong et stakeholders not only limited in providing al., 2016). Due to this scenario, the local the facilities and amenities but also, public authorities that have a limited source of housing, planning and development, water funds need to focus on establishing the supply and sewerage system, prioritisation and efficient processes and environmental protection, health and practices to support the maintenance welfare, development incentives and activities. Mostly, local authority manages control and many others (Malaysia, 2006). the existing public facilities that are started to deteriorate which usually very costly to To meet the challenges posed by the maintain if, during the design stage, the internal and external factors, the local maintenance perspective did not being authorities must inculcate quality and taken into account (Mohammad, 2014). performance improvement initiatives in all The maintenance department of the local perspectives of all their practices and authority must have a specific and robust processes. Additionally, public facilities maintenance policy to assists them in an are the assets that serve the public to fulfil appropriate manner and strategy and
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decision making (Lee and Scott, 2008). maintenance cost were ranked to indicate Each level of management in the the severity level. There were 51.68 % of maintenance department must be able to responses were recorded for the study. encourage quality initiatives towards achieving continuously and effective 4.0 RESULT AND DISCUSSION maintenance management. The strategic maintenance management by local The respondents consisted of 51.9% from authorities can be reached through the tactical level, 26.0% from the strategic continuous improvement in the level and 22.1% from the operational level maintenance processes and practices to of management. The education move forward the better performance and background of the respondents was cost-effective maintenance for public respondents are consisting of 50.6% from facilities. Civil and Structural Engineering, 23.4% from Architecture, 9.1% from others (Land Therefore, there must have an evaluation Surveying, Interior Design, etc.), 6.5% for being set up to improve the maintenance both Quantity Surveying and Mechanical processes. The needs for continuous Engineering, 2.6% from Facilities improvement strategy that consist of an Management and 1.3% from Asset appropriate policy or procedure within the Management. Hence, the responses organisation can benefit the local captured able to give better results as it authorities. Moreover, maintenance provided from the reliable maintenance policies should be able to motivate and managers and personnel. Furthermore, encouraging them to improve current the answers provided by the local maintenance management practices (Díaz authorities were indicated Table 1 which and Márquez, 2014). Hence, through the shows the occurrence of maintenance regular incremental improvements, the cost issues and the criticality level of maintenance practices will stimulate the maintenance cost issues faced by the local advantages to the organisation as there authorities. Mostly, the respondents agree are performance measurements that will that they have facing maintenance cost help the identification of the effectiveness with 79.2%, while 18.2% of them indicated of the improvement efforts being taken. that they do not have maintenance cost issues and 2.6% of respondents were 3.0 METHODOLOGY unsure if they are facing cost problems. Majority of the respondents (79.2%) stated The study adopted a questionnaire survey that they had encountered maintenance to collect data the relevant data. The cost issues. The results were supported by questionnaire encompasses three the 31.2% respondents estimated their sections: demographic background of department had occurred the critical level respondents, challenges in managing of 31-40% cost overruns. maintenance cost issues and elements that need to be the focus on further Table 2 shows the challenges in managing improvements towards achieving effective the maintenance cost for public facilities by cost and maintenance management the local authorities in Malaysia. The practices. The input from the survey is highest ranking of barriers agreed by the valuable to get a clearer picture of the respondents based on the SI value is challenges and cost issues faced by the building age (0.8474) and building finishes maintenance department of local and materials (0.8447). Many previous authorities in Malaysia. The studies also agreed that the cost for the questionnaires were distributed to the ageing building is very costly as it needs maintenance department of 149 local repairs and replacement on the authorities in Malaysia. The collected data deterioration façade (Ali et al., 2010). were analyzed utilizing the frequency Furthermore, vandalism is ranked third analysis, mean score and Severity Index with SI value of 0.8263 as the main (SI). The barriers in managing the concerns for barriers in maintenance
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management faced by local authorities. building elements and services are ranked The irresponsible public has gotten the eighth with SI value of 0.7789 has become local authorities spending massive amount the barriers to the local authority. The for repairing and replacing the damaged higher cost for maintaining and replacing and defective component of the public especially the M&E component has facilities. become the challenges to them as it requires a tremendous amount of money Additionally, the local authorities (Yusuf et; al., 2013). Lack of policy, encountered insufficient funds with SI standards and guidelines is ranked ninth value of 0.8211, even though they have with SI value of 0.7764, as the local received grants from federal and state authorities do not bound to any specific government and also, they do have standard policy. They executed the revenues from taxes and services. The maintenance activities based on their budget constraints are frequently due to capacity and maintenance requirement the ad hoc and unplanned maintenance (Noor et al., 2011). Lastly, the undefined that need to be executed on time rather maintenance goals have become the than performing the planned maintenance barrier to the maintenance department (Hassanain et al., 2013). Moreover, the with an SI value of 0.7658 as some of the building size and area become the barrier local authority do not have clear with SI value of 0.8000. This barrier occurs maintenance objectives and purpose when the local authority implements major within their department. maintenance activities to the whole city and building. The lack of experts' Therefore, the respondents have then involvement while developing the enquired which elements that need to be maintenance plan with SI value of 0.7895 improved to achieve the strategic is ranked sixth as agreed by the maintenance management for their respondents. The expert should involve organisation (Table 3). The respondents during the development of a maintenance agreed that the primary concern for plan to ensure all the maintenance improvement should focus on requirement and resources are well- performance assessment and prepared to avoid wastage and loss. The improvements with 94.8% agreement. The inadequate training and skill development result followed by financial control is ranked seventh with an SI value of (92.2%), planning and scheduling 0.7816. Due to the insufficient budget (87.0%), work management (83.1%), allocated, the maintenance department information management (81.8%), could not provide adequate training and resources management (75.3%), policy, skill development for their personnel and standards and guideline (71.4%), the situation worse when the staff could leadership and top management fulfil the job task effectively with their commitment (70.1%) and lastly, inadequate knowledge and competencies maintenance organisation (63.6%). (Ismail and Kasim, 2015). Next, the
Table 1 Results of maintenance cost issues faced by the local authorities
Description Responses Frequency Percentage (%) Maintenance Yes 61 79.2 cost issues Maybe 14 18.2 No 2 2.6 Estimation of Less than 10% 8 10.4 the critical level 11%-20% 9 11.6 of maintenance 21%-30% 16 20.8 cost overruns 31%-40% 24 31.2 41%-50% 17 22.1 More than 50% 3 3.9
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Table 2 Results of maintenance cost issues faced by the local authorities
Mean Severity Barriers Rank Related Barrier Score Index Building age 4.22 0.8474 1 Building characteristics Finishes and materials 4.22 0.8447 2 Building characteristics Vandalisms 4.13 0.8263 3 Other Insufficient funds and budget constraints 4.11 0.8211 4 Economic and cost Size and area of the building 4.00 0.8000 5 Building characteristics Lack of experts' involvement in 3.84 0.7895 6 Maintenance process developing a maintenance plan Inadequate training and skills 3.91 0.7816 7 Maintenance process development Building element and services 3.93 0.7789 8 Building characteristics Lack of clear policies, standards and 3.84 0.7764 9 Maintenance process guidelines Undefined maintenance goals 3.83 0.7658 10 Maintenance process
Table 3 The improvements in the maintenance management elements
Elements Frequency Percentage Rank (n=77) (%) Leadership and top management 54 70.1 8 Policy, standard and guideline 55 71.4 7 Maintenance organisation 49 63.6 9 Planning and scheduling 67 87.0 3 Work management 64 83.1 4 Resources management 58 75.3 6 Financial control 71 92.2 2 Information management 63 81.8 5 Performance assessment and 73 94.8 1 improvement
Figure 1 Integration of maturity model as the strategies for improving the maintenance practice
Based on the findings, it reveals that the maintenance management, there are local authorities must reflect to have many standards and guideline that provide appropriate strategies for improving their references for any organisation. Hence, it current maintenance management depends on how the organisation wants to practices to protect the conditions of the employ towards the improvement. public facilities and ensure the sustainable Numerous strategies and approaches maintenance cost. The modern have been initiated by the practitioners maintenance management could not and researchers for the improvement. The satisfy the stakeholders' demand. most important thing is to ensure all input Corresponding to the practices of factors interconnected with each other
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without discriminating the relatively small leadership and top management changes from each input as it actually can commitment, policy, standards and significantly impact the function and guidelines, maintenance organisation, performance (Mkilania, 2016). planning and scheduling, work management, resources management, Figure 1 shows the proposed maintenance financial control, information management management model integrated with the and performance assessment and capability maturity model as the strategies improvements. for improving the maintenance management practices for public facilities 5.0 CONCLUSION by local authorities in Malaysia. The capability maturity model is recommended Through continuous improvement, the to be used as the strategies for enhancing local authorities will be able to achieve the the current maintenance practices as it business objective and goals. The offers an assessment of procedures and achievement in people results, society processes while identifying the barriers results and customers results encourage and weaknesses within the maintenance the successfulness of the local authorities’ processes. Many previous studies have management. While fulfilling the proven that an incremental improvement responsibilities to the stakeholders on the can be made through the application of the provision of public facilities, the local maturity level (Chemweno et al., 2015). authorities can ensure their administration stimulates sustainability in cost and The capability maturity model is adopted in performance. The local authorities can assessing the maturity level of the implement various strategies to maintenance practices and processes by encountered and reduced the numbers of local authorities. As the local authorities maintenance cost issues so that they can may encounter limitations due to serve and facilitates better services to the insufficient resources such as funds, public. Having the right continuous staffs, tools and equipment; hence, it is improvement tools is essential to ensure better for them to have deliberate the maintenance processes can be improvements over time. The capability executed effectively and efficiently maturity model has five levels which (Johansen, Jensen, & Thuesen, 2017). indicate incremental changes and Making continuous improvement in the improvements from Level 1-Initial to Level commitment of the stakeholders, 5-Optimizing (Wintle et al., 2007). The performance, policy and processes will justification for each level is as follows: help the organisation to contribute a better image and provide benefits to the • Level 1 – Initial economics of the organisation. • Level 2 – Managed • Level 3 – Defined REFERENCES • Leve; 4 – Quantitively Managed • Level 5 - Optimizing Adnan, H., Fazry, Z., Fauzi, M., Rahmat, I., & Supardi, A. (2012). Maintenance Management for Public Infrastructure. APRN Moreover, the integration of the maturity Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, level in the proposed model will assist the 7(11), 1514–1522. organization to improve over time according to their capability and available Ali, A.-S., Kamaruzzaman, S.-N., Sulaiman, R., & resources. It serves as the guidance and Peng, Y. C. (2010). Factors affecting housing maintenance cost in Malaysia. Journal of can be adjusted and modified based on Facilities Management, 8(4), 285–298. the maintenance requirement of the https://doi.org/10.1108/14725961011078990 organisation. The maintenance department may assess their capability Au-yong, C. P., Ali, A. S., & Ahmad, F. (2013). areas of maintenance in terms of Office building maintenance : Cost prediction model, 65, 803–809.
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Annual Conference 2017, Proceeding, Au-Yong, C. P., Ali, A. S., & Ahmad, F. (2016). (September), 259–268. Retrieved from Enhancing building maintenance cost https://www.scopus.com/inward/record.uri?ei performance with proper management of d=2-s2.0- spare parts. Journal of Quality in 85035315032&partnerID=40&md5=886b995 Maintenance Engineering, 22(1), 51–61. 248503b82bd2a2ee13959602e https://doi.org/10.1108/JQME-01-2015-0001 Lavy, S. (2010). Performance-Based Facility Berahim, N., Jaafar, M. N., & Zainudin, A. Z. Management – An Integrated Approach. (2015). An Audit Remark on Malaysian Local International Journal of Facility Management, Authorities Immovable Asset Management. 1(1), 1–14. Journal of Management Research, 7(2), 218– 229. https://doi.org/10.5296/jmr.v7i2.6948 Lee, H. H. Y., & Scott, D. (2008). Overview of maintenance strategy, acceptable Brackertz, N., & Kenley, R. (2002). Evaluating maintenance standard and resources from a community facilities in local government: building maintenance operation perspective. Managing for service enablement. Journal of Journal of Building Appraisal, 4(4), 269–278. Facilities Management, 1(3), 283–299. https://doi.org/10.1057/jba.2008.46 https://doi.org/10.1108/14725960310807971 Malaysia. (2006). Act 171- Local Government Act Chemweno, P., Pintelon, L., Horenbeek, A. Van, & 1976. Law of Malaysia, (January), 119. Muchiri, P. N. (2015). Asset maintenance maturity model: structured guide to McShane, I. (2006). Community facilities, maintenance process maturity. International community building and local government – Journal of Strategic Engineering Asset an Australian perspective. Facilities, 24, 269– Management, 2(2), 119–135. 279. https://doi.org/10.1504/IJSEAM.2015.07062 https://doi.org/10.1108/02632770610666125 1 Mkilania, J. N. (2016). Factors Affecting Best Díaz, V. G. P., & Márquez, A. C. (2014). Chapter 4 Maintenance Practice in Tanzania Public Learning from Maintenance Management Sector. International Journal of Mechanical Models. In After-Sales Service of Engineering Engineering and Technology (IJMET), 7(3), Industrial Assets: A Reference Framework for 139–149. Retrieved from Warranty Management (Vol. 13306, pp. 1– http://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/index.asp%5C 318). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319- nhttp://www.iaeme.com/IJMET/issues.asp% 03710-3 5Cnwww.jifactor.com%5Cnhttp://www.iaeme .com/currentissue.asp?JType=IJMET&VTyp Hassanain, Mo. A., Assaf, S., Al-Ofi, K., & Abdullah e=7&IType=3 Al-Abdullah. (2013). Factors affecting maintenance cost of hospital facilities in Mohammad, I. S. I. S., Zainol, N. N. N. N., Saudi Arabia. Property Management, 31(4). Abdullah, S., Woon, N. B. N. B., & Ramli, N. https://doi.org/10.1108/PM-10-2012-0035 A. N. A. (2014). Critical factors that lead to green building operations and maintenance Isa, N. M., Kamaruzzaman, S. N., Mohamed, O., problems in Malaysia. Theoretical and Jaapar, A., & Asbollah, A. Z. (2016). Facilities Empirical Researches in Urban Management, Manafile:///C:/Users/Muhammad 9(2), 68–86. Syafiq/Downloads/Documents/02637479410 https://doi.org/10.4028/www.scientific.net/A 071027.Practices in Malaysia: A Literature MR.935.23 Review. MATEC Web of Conferences, 66, 00054. Mohd-Noor, N., Hamid, M. Y., Abdul-Ghani, A. A., https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20166600 & Haron, S. N. (2011). Building maintenance 054 budget determination: An exploration study in the Malaysia government practice. In Ismail, Z.-A., & Kasim, N. (2015). Maintenance Procedia Engineering (Vol. 20, pp. 435–444). Management Practices For Building Facility: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2011.11.186 A Case Study. International Journal of Engineering Research and Applications, 3(4), Pawi, S., Martin, D., Yusoff, W. Z. W., & Shafie, F. 2248–9622. (2011). Property Tax Performance of Local Authorities in Malaysia. Chinese Business Johansen, J. B., Jensen, P. A., & Thuesen, C. Review, 10(1), 42–46. (2017). Maturity model for strategic collaboration in sustainable building Schneider, J., Gaul, A. J., Neumann, C., Hogräfer, renovation. Association of Researchers in J., Wellßow, W., Schwan, M., & Schnettler, A. Construction Management, ARCOM - 33rd (2006). Asset management techniques.
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International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems, 28(9), 643–654. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijepes.2006.03.007
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THE OBSTACLES OF SAFETY IMPLEMENTATION FACED BY CONTRACTOR COMPANIES IN CONSTRUCTION PROJECT: MALAYSIA
N. Yusof *1 and M. S. Misnan 2
1, 2 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: *[email protected])
ABSTRACT
Health and safety is of extreme importance within the construction industry as different construction operations take place at about the same time. The objective of this study is to identify the obstacles of safety implementation faced by contractor companies in construction project. A questionnaire was used as a tool for data collection with a total of 46 returned questionnaire out of the 112 distributed. The respondents of this study are contractors were registered with CIDB (Construction Industry Development Board) in Malaysia. Data collected were analysed using descriptive analysis and non-parametric correlation coefficient statistics. The study found that the highest mean of obstacles faced by contractors in order to implement safety in construction site lack of communication. The high levels of problems faced by contractor companies show the low levels of current safety implementation in construction companies. As a result, these obstacles that faced by contractors is a barrier for them to implement good safety in construction sites.
Keywords : Safety management, Companies’ obstacles, Construction safety, Safety implementation
1.0 INTRODUCTION and Howarth, 2001; Haslam et. al., 2005; Manu et. al., 2014; Rahim et. al., 2008), Health and safety (H&S) is an inevitable risk, workers' behaviour (Misnan et. al., aspect of construction due to its nature of 2007) in relation to H&S commitment, being made up of the conglomerations of cultural and religious beliefs, and people from diverse backgrounds and uncertainties inherent in projects disciplines with each individual`s output (Kukoyi & Smallwood, 2017). As determining the level of success to be reported by Khosravi et al., (2014) recorded at each construction stage identified eight main categories of factors (Dodo, 2014). Project in the construction that influence workers' unsafe and sector are reputed for poor H&S records unhealthy behaviours on construction when compared to other similar sites (Griffith and Howarth, 2001; Haslam industries. This can be attributed among et. al., 2005; Manu et. al., 2014; Misnan other things to an uncontrolled and et. al., 2008). These factors include unsuitable working environment (Griffith society, organisation, project
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management, supervision, contractor, site technology, construction methods, conditions, work group, and individual clients’ demands, construction materials characteristics. Workers' perceptions of and the changing environment have risk, H&S management, H&S regulations, made hazards and difficult to controls and procedures have been linked to their the risk. attitude towards H&S on construction sites (Mohamed et al., 2009). Referring 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW to the occupational related to accident, injuries and ill health is attributed to 2.1 Lack of Responsibilities of unsuitable working environment and Employers exposure to harsh weather (Griffith and Howarth, 2001; Haslam et. al., 2005; The project managers employing the Manu et. al., 2014 ; Misnan et. al., 2010). cheap payment for their temporary According to Windapo (2013) are of the workers due to they do not have bonded opinion that fatalities, injuries, and deaths to any contract that they get any benefit are mainly caused by unsafe and from company or employers especially in unhealthy practices of contractors and term of the insurance (Oreoluwa & workers. Olasunkanmi, 2018). Consequently, the contractors or employers do not feel The most risk of injury and ill health from responsable for their workers and also construction work resides within the the welfare of workers is neglected. contractor‟s responsibility (Yusof et. al., According to Windapo (2013), contractors 2018). Normally, these contractors give prefer to spend less on Personal little attention to health and safety issues Protective Equipment (PPE), employ less that can contribute of accidents and ill experienced workers for cheap labour health (Kheni et. al., 2006). It is known and care only for the profits to be made. that occupational health and safety However, good safety implementation is performance in developing countries is begins with the responsibility of the top poorer than developed countries management to control and reduce the (Hämäläinen et. al., 2006). Contractors in risk and accident (Azmi & Misnan, 2018). developing countries are constrained by Employers is an essential part of the lack of resources, which have a negative process of management and it is also an impact on the management of health and integral part of the social structure and safety (Gibb & Bust, 2006). culture of the organization (Misnan et al., 2008). The employers or leadership is Construction continues to be one of the supposed to motivates team members to main contributors to occupational related work harder, to work efficiently, and to accidents, injuries and ill health (Agbede take ownership of responsibility for safety & Manu, 2016). According to Oreoluwa & performance (Yusof & Misnan, 2019). Olasunkanmi (2018), the construction industry has earned a reputation of being 2.2 Poor H&S a dangerous or highly hazardous industry (Kamar et. al., 2014; Bakri et. al., 2006) It has been established that poor H&S because of the disproportionately high practices among workers significantly accidents and fatalities that occur on the contributes to the poor H&S performance construction sites around the world. It is reported in construction-related studies supported by Dodo (2014), whereas the (Choudhry & Fang, 2008; Haslam et al., construction workers all over the world 2005; Kukoyi & Smallwood, 2017). Poor are three times more likely to be killed H&S performance remains at high levels and twice as likely to be injured as as evidenced by a high number of injuries workers in other occupations. In addition, and work related illnesses (Agbede & according to Odeyinka et. al., (2006), Manu, 2016; Kukoyi & Smallwood, 2017). stated that the complexities experienced According to Kamar et al., (2014), in the industry due to changing ignoring safety can result in accident and
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ill-health which not only losses of the Additionally, the Myanmar workers agree profits but it also crippling of the that the language is a barrier and company. The accident prevention is challenge for them. The lack of oral necessary because of these adverse communication of 43.75% (42) workers H&S outcomes (Williams et. al, 2017). are agreed while, 77.1% (74) workers Referring to Misnan et. al., (2009), one of agreed that the written communication is the actions that can be undertaken in more serious. More than 85.4% (82) of order to develop a good or better image the trainees are agreed that the issue of the construction industry is to provide arise because the trainers also have lack safe working environment of English language but some of the trainers use English in certain situations. 2.3 Lack of Communication Unfortunately, 56.9% (58) of the Myanmar workers also did not In Malaysia, Construction Industry understand in English oral information Development Board (CIDB) has and 48.03% (49) of them did not proactively designed a special course understand English written (Salleh et. al., which is Health and Safety Induction 2014). Course (HSIC) to handle the lack of communication in construction industry. The previous research found that the This course is mandatory to everybody, most slide presentation are delivered in professional or labour, foreign and local, single-way from the trainer without any who are involve in the construction sector interaction between the trainees due to regardless of whether directly or the language barrier. Consequently, the indirectly. In essence, the first thing HSIC is not function for the foreign before entering the construction site, the workers because they can not understand workers have to do the HSIC. Referring to what are presented by the trainer. The Salleh (2014), found that the tools of lack of communication has been proven HSIC’s delivery are involve various by Haryati et. al., (2009), in which they techniques including video and Power found that 50% of contractors agree with Point presentation, demonstration, as well communication (language) problem in the as printed materials. The Malay language construction industry. Additionally, an was used to deliver the HSIC’s interview by Salleh et. al., (2012), with information for the foreign worker due to five contractors in Malaysia also the the trainer are not able to speak in foreign workers have written and oral English. communication problem. Therefore, the foreign workers were not able to According to Salleh (2014), the content in understand safety instructions, safety the course is comprehensive, but they procedures, and were not able to interpret believes that the barrier in the course is safety signage, that can cause the lack of communication, in which Malay accidents happen (Aziz and Hussin, language is used to educate foreign 2003). Referring to Teo et. al., (2005) workers who are not able to understand, recommend the regarding effective especially those are from India, communication (language) as part of Bangladesh, Myanmar, Vietnam and important factors in fluencing the Philippines. The workers from Myanmar implemantation of safety procedures in is the biggest number of workers after construction industry. Indonesia. Particularly, according to Salleh et. al., (2015), found that only 3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 13.7% (14) understood while, 43.1% (44) did not understand oral information Quantitative approach was adopted for delivered in Malay language. For the this study through the use of a written information delivered in Malay qustionnaire survey. In order to language, only 6.9% (7) understood while investigate the problems faced by 55.88% (57) did not understand. construction company, contractors’
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personnel and safety expert in Site supervisor 1 2.2 management roles were targeted for SHO 1 2.2 administration of a questionnaire. These professionals were specifically targeted Others 28 60.9 as they are most likely to possess to requisite knowledge and experience Table 2 representing the working relating to the safety management within experience of respondents with 41.3% of the construction company. The respondents had between 1-5 years of questionnaire solicited these practitioners working experience within the responses about the obstacles of safety construction industry while, 28.3% of implementation faced by construction working experince not more than 10 companies associated with the above years. 11-15 years of working experience, elements by their organisations. The 13% of respondents and 17.4% had over structure of the questionnaire was divided 20 years working experience. into three parts: A and B. Part A was designed to collect general respondent Table 2 Working experience of and company information. Part B inquired respondents about the obstacles of safety implementation faced by construction Working Frequency Percentage companies of the responding Experience organizations. Both parts were designed to collect structured data to be analysed 5 years 19 41.3 quantitatively. The data were analyzed using descriptive analysis and non- 10 years 13 28.3 parametric correlation coefficient statistic. 15 years 6 13.0
3.1 Participants of The Study 20 years and 8 17.4 above A total of 110 questionnaires were distributed to respondents within the target environment via electronic 4.0 MAIN RESULTS whatsapp and hand delivery. A total of 71 questionnaires were returned. Out of the Table 1 represented that all of the returned questionnaires, 25 were judged obstacles faced by contractor companies to be invalid due to excessive missing in order to implement safety management data and leaving 46 useable practice in construction project. The 1st questionnaires for analysis. Table 1 ranking obstacles is lack of interpreting a breakdown of the communication with Mean Score (MS) of respondents’ designated roles. A sizeable 3.17 (Std. Deviation, (SD) = 0.643), number of respondents were others followed by unskilled workers with 3.02 (include clerk, quantity surveyor and MS (SD = 0.774). The 3rd ranking of planner) of 60.9% total respondents. contractor companies’ obstacle is Followed by project manager (34.8%), financial constraints with 2.85 of MS site supervisor and Safety and Health (0.868). Employers are unknowledgeable Officer (SHO) representing 2.2%, in term of safety aspect ranks 4th with MS respectively. of 2.80 (SD = 0.806) then, the 5th ranking is no and/or less safety motivation and Table 1 Background of respondents campaign with MS of 2.76 (SD = 0.736). The 6th ranking of companies obstacles Job position Frequency Percentage is do not have safety personnel in charge in construction project with 2.72 of MS Project (SD = 0.861). The 7th rankings are 16 34.8 Manager limitation access to external sources of
Q 47
advice and support, time constraints, and frequency of safety communication in the limitation of business information or workplace, especially between expertise with the same MS of 2.70 but supervisors and subordinates, is difference of SD with 0.756, 0.695 and associated with organizational safety 0.695, respectively. The 8th and 9th practices and workers shared perceptions ranking of companies’ obstacles are put of safety priorities, or safety climate. The lower price and try to maximize the profit weaknesses of communication can cause in project tender with MS of 2.67 (SD = the misunderstood, do the wrong work 0.818) and low level education with 2.63 and the project was built not fulfil as of MS (SD = 0.853), respectively. required. Additionally, lack of Limitation of employees ranks 10th with communication also can increased the MS of 2.57 (SD = 0.688), followed by accident occurs in construction site. Too temporary workers with 2.52 of MS (SD = many side effects can occur due to the 0.752). The 12th and 13th ranking are lack of communication and limitation of project value and high misunderstand. So, the contractors or competition with MS of 2.43 (SD = 0.886) employers should find the effective way to and 2.37 of MS (SD = 0.799), give the understanding for their respectively. The last ranking, 14th is employees through the pictures, video or limitation of market share with MS of 2.24 use the simple words that the employees (SD = 0.766). That’s mean the biggest can understand easily.should be put after and a critical obstacle faced by contractor the figure shown. companies to implement safety management practice is lack of communication of workers. According to Olson et al., (2016), the quality and
Table 3 Perspectives of companies’ obstacle to implement safety in construction site
Std. Obstacles Mean Rank Deviation Unskilled workers 3.02 .774 2 Limitation of employees 2.57 .688 10 Lack of communication 3.17 .643 1 Temporary workers 2.52 .752 11 High competition 2.37 .799 13 limitation access of advice and support from external sources 2.70 .756 7 Limitation of project value 2.43 .886 12 Limited market share 2.24 .766 14 Time constraints 2.70 .695 7 Financial constraints 2.85 .868 3 Limitation of business information or expertise 2.70 .695 7 Do not have safety personnel in charge 2.72 .861 6 Low level education 2.63 .853 9 Employer are unknowledgeable in term of safety aspect 2.80 .806 4 No and/or less safety motivation and campaign 2.76 .736 5 Put lower price and try to maximize the profit in project tender 2.67 .818 8
Table 4 show that the relationship the companies’ problem) and current between the obstacles faced by safety implementation in construction contractor companies (as measured by companies (as measured by the current
Q 48
safety) was investigated using implementation in construction company Spearman’s rho product-moment is accepted. It can be inferred from this correlation coefficient. Preliminary finding that high levels of obstacles faced analyses were performed to ensure no by contractor companies with lower levels violation of the assumptions of normality, of current safety implementation in linearity and homoscedasticity. There was construction companies. The test of the a strong, negative correlation between hypothesis presented in Table 4 show the two variables, r = -.268 is larger than that there is a significant to solve the the critical value of 0.2500 for p<0.005 in companies’ problem in order to improve the two tailed test, n = 46, p < .072. the safety implementation in construction Therefore, the test is significant, and the company. The companies’ problem is a alternative hypothesis that there is barrier for contractor to implement good companies’ problem a related to safety safety in their company.
Table 4 The Spearman rho correlation coefficient of companies’ problem on safety implementation in construction company
Variables N Correlation (rho) Sig. Correlation between companies’ problem on safety 46 -.268 .072 implementation in construction company
5.0 CONCLUSION REFERENCES
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CURRENT DEMAND OF SKILLED WORKERS TOWARDS IMPROVED CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS DELIVERY
M. I. Leje *1, F. Abdullah 2 and S. Bandi 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT Construction skilled workers are highly instrumental to the success of any construction industry. Yet, the current supply of skilled workers in Nigeria is dwindling as it overlook the type of skill trades required by construction industries and take no account of skill decay. Hence, this study aims to examine the current demand of skilled workers towards improved project delivery. The objectives of this research includes; to identify the type of skilled trades and to determine their current demand in the construction organization. Data for this study was collected through self- administered questionnaire on a stratified sample of four major construction professionals organization. 290 validly questionnaires was returned and were analyzed using Relative Importance Index (RII) on a scale range from 1-5 for ranking respondents responses. While, Percentage Rank Agreement Factor (PRAF) was used to measure agreement of the importance ranking among construction professionals. The results of RII indicates that asphalt/tar sprayers were ranked topmost by engineers, glaziers was ranked first by quantity surveyors and equipment operators were ranked first by builders and architects. Mean PRAF revealed that equipment operators, glaziers, insulating specialist, asphalt/tar sprayers, fabricators, scaffolding specialist, suspended ceiling specialist, plumbers, electricians and roofers are the ten skilled trades that construction professionals have more difficulty to source. The findings are focused to assist training providers and construction stakeholders on the supply of skilled workers in order to improve delivery of expected infrastructural developments in Nigeria.
Keywords : Construction sector, Type of skill trades, Skilled workers supply, Skilled workers demand, Project delivery.
1.0 INTRODUCTION positive impact on all other industries as well as on the national economy (Mohd Construction is generally a labour Sauffie, 2015). intensive industry and improving the supply of skilled workers constitute a prime The construction sector is one of the key target to effective and efficient project sectors for the economy that contributes to delivery (Dom et al., 2012). Improvement generating revenue, national gross capital in the supply of skilled workers has a
Q 52
formation (NGCF) and employment The current supply of skilled workers in creation, which ultimately support the Nigeria is dwindling as it overlook the type gross domestic products (GDP) of any of skilled trades required by construction nation (Raza Ali Khan, et al. 2014). industries and takes no account of skill Construction sector, thus, has a great decay. Hence, this study aims to examine influence on socio-economic development the current demand of skilled workers on every other sectors, which makes it a towards improved project delivery. In significant frontier for sustainable doing so, this study is guided by the development (Anil, et al. 2014). Thus, in following objectives; to identify the type of Nigeria, it takes the largest part of recent skilled trades in Nigeria construction democratic governments’ spending on organization and to determine their current infrastructural projects, which was demand. estimated to result in construction demand worth over $4.4trillion (National Bureau of 1.1 Type of Skilled Trades in Statistics, NBS 2017). Nigerian Construction Organization
Though the value of the infrastructural The quality and availability of skilled projects in Nigeria has been remarkable, workforce is considered an important the expectation of high performance factor towards the effectiveness of the remains a daunting prospect as a result of construction sector (Ekong and Ekong, low productivity, low quality workmanship, 2016). Al-Mustapha (2017) observed that low-level of technical and managerial skilled workers have become the only competence, delay project delivery, time sources of rapid growth and sustainable and cost overruns (Wazir and Bala, 2014; long term competitive advantage in the Mudi, et al. 2015; Olukayode, et al. 2015). construction industry to deliver products The Nigerian construction industry is and services that can meet with client’s perceived as a low productivity sector needs and satisfaction. This is because because of the adoption of low technology skilled workers are directly involved in and shortage of skilled workers (Ofori, speedy realization of construction projects 2014). Inferentially, it would be safe to delivery since they are involved in the argue that the construction industry’s technical aspect of such contract. persistent skill crisis is in part a failure of (Windapo, 2016; Ameh & Daniel, 2017). its human resource planning (HRP) systems. This is partly because the Ekong and Ekong, (2016) affirmed that the construction sector is highly fragmented, National Directorate of Employment (NDE) and the implication of which there is little in Nigeria enumerated the followings as or no speculative knowledge of the key recognised skilled workers in the HRP needed to achieve optimum construction industry, namely; masons, productivity (Dom, et al., 2012). HRP steel fixers, electricians, carpenters, provides knowledge about current skilled plumbers and welders. Oseghale et al. workers resource in the labour market (2015) asserted that common skilled environment, which allows for short-term workers include electricians, plumbers, plans to be made in order to cope with painters, carpenters, bricklayers, bar challenges in the construction industry benders, tile fixers, plant operators, (Aslam, et al. 2013). Windapo and Cattel, welders, mechanics, and steel fixers. (2013) affirmed that the labour market of Offei-Nyako et al. (2014) stressed that, construction in developing countries skilled workers vary from mason, requires a continuous supply of various carpenter, tile worker, steel worker, skilled workers to match the level of painter, electrician and plumber. The construction projects. However, despite study of Musa, et al. (2012) viewed that the variability of construction projects skilled workers in the construction industry requires a continuous supply of various includes; iron bender, carpenter, skilled workers to match the numerous bricklayer, painter, electrician, welding challenges that are often encountered. worker, plumber and tiler. However,
Q 53
Adewale et al. (2014) listed categories of In Nigeria, the key drivers of demand of skilled workers which includes; carpenter, skilled workers in the short-term (3-5 bricklayer, painter, iron bender and years) are the expected projects for the plumber. Zannah et al. (2017) stated that government infrastructural development frequent used skilled workers in the programmes and extraordinary demand construction industry includes; carpenters, for buildings from corner to corner of all bricklayers, bar bender, plumbers and sectors of the economy (CBN, 2017). The painters as their services are required former, which is planned government most in the construction projects. spending (planned expenditure of $4.46 billion from 2015-2018) is calculated to be Al-Mustapha (2017) identified mason, the largest investment in the Nigerian painter, steel fitter and plasterer as the construction sector, obscuring even the major categories of skilled workers in small budget for other sectors programmes construction projects. In large and (NBS, 2017). The latter (extraordinary complex construction projects, Ameh & demand for buildings from corner to corner Daniel, (2017) identified of all sectors of the economy) is expected masons/bricklayers, carpenters, roofers, to bring about an estimated $2.35 billion equipment operators, glaziers, painters, building projects (CBN, 2017). According plasterers, iron benders, fabricators, to International Labour Organization, ILO, scaffolding specialist, tile fixers, (2016); and CBN, (2017) that to deliver this suspended ceiling specialist, plumbers, growth, an average of 536,000 additional pipe fitters/layers, electricians, air skilled workers need to be recruited conditioners, terrazzo workers, asphalt/tar annually into the industry for the period for sprayers, insulation workers, and the planned investment. Ameh & Daniel, refrigeration installers as the major (2017) argued that it is unlikely the set categories of skilled workers. target of 536,000 new recruits will be achieved because supply of skilled In extension from the above review works workers has dwindled and there has been in uncovering type of skilled trades in the a steady decline in the number of new construction organization. The entrant trainees (less than 20%). For this comprehensive literatures review work reason, Aroge, (2012); Musa et al. (2012) has identified a total of twenty-one (21) questions the skills taught in the various skilled trades in the labour market which training programmes and posits that these are been classified into three categories, skills do not make a significant contribution that is; structural, finishing and services to the specialised skills required by the workers. Thus, this provide bases to construction industry. Specialised determine the demand for each skill vocational programmes must prepare trades. workers for complex construction projects which are essential for socio-economic 1.2 Current State of Demand of development in the country (Adewale, et Construction Skilled Workers in Nigeria al. 2014).
In the last decade, an increasing demand Though, various reports have indicated for skilled workers could be observed in the existence of shortages of skilled most developing countries (Windapo, workers in the Nigerian construction 2016). This has been associated with the industry (Oseghale et al. 2015; Bilau et al. development of increasingly integrated 2015). Skilled shortage in the construction labour markets for an improved industry is not peculiar to Nigeria. The performance and productivity, and the Construction Users Round Table, CURT appearance of skill-biased technological (2012) report that the USA is facing a long change which is often ascribed to the term skilled shortages. Rosman, et al. acceleration of technological (2018) also report on the skilled shortages developments (Steve, 2014). in Malaysia construction industry. Oke, et al. (2018) warns of a similar situation in the
Q 54
UK while the story is not different in Sri professional bodies, years of experience, Lanka, a developing country like Nigeria. academic qualification, numbers of projects executed and regular client type. In general, the construction industry has In section B, each respondent was asked responded to shortage of skilled workers to rate the level of difficulty in sourcing at any time, and taking into account known skilled trades on a five-point Likert scale shortages and skill decay has been an ranging from 1 to 5, where 1 represents under-utilized practice especially in “None” and 5 represent “Very high”. Nigeria. Windapo, (2016) in her recent study found that there were shortage of 2.2 Sample Structures skilled workers in the South African coonstruction industry, particularly within The population of this research were the electrical, plumbing, welding and fitters targeted on construction professionals’ trades. The study employed Mean Item organizations as recognized by Bureau of Score (MIS) to determine the level of Public Procurement, BPP, Act, 2007 as difficulty in obtaining skilled labour, which amended, 2018 in carrying out this study takes the position to rank the construction activities in Nigeria. responses among construction According to council for the regulation of professionals on the rating scales of 1 to engineering in Nigeria (COREN), quantity 5. surveyors registration board of Nigeria (QSRBN), council of registered builders of Notably, these research have been geared Nigeria (CORBON) and architects towards improving the supply of skilled registration council of Nigeria (ARCON), workers to Nigerian construction as at January, 2019 there were a total organization. Hence, it is this gap of number of 1,689 registered construction determining the current skilled demand engineers organizations, 331 registered that is the main stimulus for this research. quantity surveyors organizations, 1,578 registered builders organizations and 2.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 1,148 registered architects organizations, and which 21.0%, 23.6%, 20.7% and 2.1 The Questionnaire 21.5% respectively are concentrated in Abuja. Consequently, a list of the A pilot study was first carried out on a organizations were compiled from each small respondents to ensure clarity and members’ directory in the study area, directness of the questions used in the which includes their contact details. This questionnaire and also to determine the made the task of identifying the ease of completing the questionnaire. organizations achievable. The generated Thirty construction professionals having list contained 355 construction strong background of construction engineering organizations, 78 quantity business participated in the pilot study. surveying organizations, 327 building These professional includes; engineers, organizations and 247 architectural quantity surveyors, builders and organizations in Abuja. These architects. The respondents suggested subsequently became the sampling frame few changes to the questionnaire from which the research’s sample size was regarding the wordings of the questions. drawn. The sample size was drawn using The questionnaire was then modified Krejcie and Morgan (1970) equation for based on the professionals’ feedback, determination of sample size for each before it was finally used at the data categories of respondents. The reason for collection stage. using Krejcie and Morgan’s (1970) equation is because the population is The questionnaire consist of two sections. discrete since it has a finite range and it is Section A consist of respondents personal known. Therefore, for 355, 78, 327, 247 particulars such as; membership of construction professionals’ organizations, 184, 65, 177, 150 questionnaires should
Q 55
be distributed respectively in order to Where n1 represents the number of achieve 95% confidence level. Hence, the respondents who answered ‘very high’, n2 questionnaire were delivered to the represents the number of respondents respondents in person to improve who answered ‘high’, n3 represents the response rate and quality of the number of respondents who answered responses. Table 1 shows the summary of ‘moderate’, n4 represents the number of the sample responses of the questionnaire respondents who answered ‘low’, n5 survey. From table 1, the response rates represents the number of respondents were 95(51.6%), 36(55.4%), 85(48.02%) who answered ‘none’. and 74(49.3%) for engineers, quantity surveyors, builders and architects Table 2 presents the ranking on the level respectively. This was considered of demand of skill trades based on the RII. adequate for analysis based on assertion Asphalt/tar sprayers was ranked as by Oyedele and Tham (2007) that the topmost by the engineers, fourth by result of a survey could be considered as quantity surveyors, third by builders and biased and of little importance if the return fourth by architects. This revealed the vast rate was lower than 30% to 40%. road construction projects in Nigeria, and confirms the experiences of engineers Table 1 Sample responses of the drawn from poor road finishing. Equipment questionnaire survey operators was ranked first by builders and architects, and was ranked second by Professionals No. No. of % engineers and quantity surveyors. distributed responses returned construction 184 95 51.6% Insulating specialist was ranked second by engineers builders, third by architects and quantity Quantity 65 36 55.4% surveyors, and fourth by engineers. surveyors Builders 177 85 48.02% Glaziers was ranked first by quantity surveyors, second by architects, and third Architects 150 74 49.3% by engineers and builders. Fabricators
Total 576 290 was ranked fifth by engineers and quantity surveyors, and sixth by builders and architects. 2.3 Data Analysis and Discussion 2.3.2 Rank Agreement Factor (RAF) and The data was analyzed using the following Percentage Rank Agreement Factor methods; (PRAF)
2.3.1 Relative Importance Index (RII) To have a general agreement in the ranking among profesional ranking of all the skilled trades, Rank
Agreement Factor (RAF) and PRAF was Ranking was employed using RII which used to quantitatively measure the was developed to evaluate the relative agreement in the importance ranking importance index of multivariate. The among the engineers, quantity surveyors, performance of each parameter was builders and architects. This is in line with evaluated based on the importance the suggestion by Chan and weighting and the proposed efficiency of Kumaraswamy, (2002), and expressed each variable. From the responses on the mathematically as follows; level of difficulty in sourcing skilled trades,
RII was calculated using the following RAF = ℇEQBA formula as expressed mathematically by N Kometa, et al. (1994);
PRAF = RAFmax – RAFi x 100% RII = 5n1 + 4n2 + 3n3 + 2n4 + n5 RAFmax 5(n1 + n2 + n3 + n4 + n5)
Q 56
Where RAFmax = maximum RAF, N = total perfect agreement (Chan and number of skill trades, and ℇEQBA = sum Kumaraswamy, 2002). The results of RAF of the order of ranking by engineers, is shown in the seventh column of Table 3. quantity surveyors, builders and For 21 skill trades in the Nigerian architects. The RAF can be >1, with a construction organization, RAFmax is 3.95. higher factor implying greater disagreement while a RAF zero implies
Table 2 RII of professionals’ responses Professionals ENGR Q/S BUILDER ARCH Skill trades S RII R S RII R S RII R S RII R
A. Structural workers 1. Masons/bricklayers 301 0.634 20 109 0.606 21 258 0.607 21 223 0.603 21 2. Joiners/carpenters 307 0.646 19 110 0.611 20 262 0.617 19 229 0.619 19 3. Equipment operators 398 0.838 2 152 0.844 2 359 0.845 1 315 0.851 1 4. Iron benders 313 0.659 16 118 0.656 17 281 0.661 16 239 0.646 17 5. Fabricators 387 0.815 5 147 0.817 5 337 0.793 6 288 0.778 6 6. Welders 327 0.688 15 128 0.711 13 283 0.666 14 252 0.681 15 7. Roofers 358 0.754 10 132 0.733 10 319 0.751 9 274 0.741 9 8. Scaffolding specialist 379 0.798 6 146 0.811 7 341 0.802 5 288 0.778 6 B. Finishing workers 9. Painters 299 0.630 21 112 0.622 19 260 0.612 20 229 0.619 19 10. Plasterers 312 0.657 17 114 0.633 18 265 0.624 18 230 0.622 18 11. Glaziers 397 0.836 3 153 0.850 1 355 0.835 3 313 0.846 2 12. Suspended ceiling specialist 371 0.781 7 147 0.817 5 331 0.779 7 292 0.789 5 13. Tile fixers 312 0.657 17 119 0.661 16 277 0.652 17 245 0.662 16 14. Terrazzo workers 352 0.741 12 134 0.744 9 313 0.737 11 268 0.724 12 15. Asphalt/tar sprayers 407 0.857 1 148 0.822 4 355 0.835 3 307 0.830 4 C. Service workers 16. Plumbers 369 0.777 8 132 0.733 10 323 0.760 8 278 0.751 8 17. Pipe fitters/layers 355 0.747 11 131 0.728 12 310 0.729 12 271 0.732 10 18. Electricians 363 0.764 9 135 0.750 8 318 0.748 10 271 0.732 10 19. Air conditioners 332 0.699 14 125 0.694 15 284 0.668 13 256 0.692 14 20. Refrigeration installers 335 0.705 13 127 0.706 14 282 0.664 15 261 0.705 13 21. Insulating specialist 396 0.834 4 149 0.828 3 358 0.842 2 308 0.832 3
*S: Sum of responses; RII: Relative Importance Index; R: Ranking
Table 3 RAF and PRAF of all the professionals Categories of skilled workers Engr Q/s Bldr Arch Sum RAF PRAF Ranking EQBA A. Structural workers 1. Masons/bricklayers 20 21 21 21 83 3.95 0.00 21 2. Joiners/carpenters 19 20 19 19 77 3.67 7.09 19 3. Equipment operators 2 2 1 1 6 0.29 92.66 1 4. Iron benders 16 17 16 17 66 3.14 20.51 16 5. Fabricators 5 5 6 6 22 1.05 73.42 5 6. Welders 15 13 14 15 57 2.71 31.39 15 7. Roofers 10 10 9 9 38 1.81 54.80 10 8. Scaffolding specialist 6 7 5 6 24 1.14 71.14 6 B. Finishing workers 9. Painters 21 19 20 19 79 3.76 4.81 20 10. Plasterers 17 18 18 18 71 3.38 14.40 18 11. Glaziers 3 1 3 2 9 0.43 89.11 2 12. Suspended ceiling specialist 7 5 7 5 24 1.14 71.14 6 13. Tile fixers 17 16 17 16 66 3.14 20.51 16 14. Terrazzo workers 12 9 11 12 44 2.10 46.84 11 15. Asphalt/tar sprayers 1 4 3 4 12 0.57 85.57 3
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C. Service workers 16. Plumbers 8 10 8 8 34 1.62 58.99 8 17. Pipe fitters/layers 11 12 12 10 45 2.14 45.82 12 18. Electricians 9 8 10 10 37 1.76 55.44 9 19. Air conditioners 14 15 13 14 56 2.67 32.41 14 20. Refrigeration installers 13 14 15 13 55 2.62 33.67 13 21. Insulating specialist 4 3 2 3 12 0.57 85.57 3 Total 995.29 *RAF: Ranking Agreement Factor; PRAF: Percentage Ranking Agreement Factor.
Following the results of PRAF (%), the 3.0 CONCLUSION mean PRAF could be derived by dividing the sum of PRAF (%) by the total number This paper identifies skill trades by means of skilled trades to establish the level of of questionnaire surveys sent to demand of skilled trades by construction construction professionals organizations organizations. This was adapted from that include engineers, quantity surveyors, Okpala and Aniekwu, (1988); Elinwa and builders and architects. A total of 21 skill Joshua, (2001); Chan and Kumaraswamy, trades were identified from the literature (2002); Oyedele, et al. (2015). reviewed and were used for questionnaire development. Then ten main skill trades Mean PRAF (%); 995.29 = 47.40 that construction professionals have more 21 difficulty in sourcing were demonstrated from the results of data analyzed. The data However, in relation to the level of analysis includes; RII for comparisons of agreement presented above and the mean rankings among professionals. PRAF was PRAF, Akadiri, (2011) mark the cut-off used to measure the agreement in the points for interpretation as follows; importance ranking among the Disagree (below the mean PRAF but less professionals and mean PRAF to establish than 10%); Undecided (below the mean the level of demand of skilled trades by PRAF but more than 10%); Agree (equal construction organizations. to mean PRAF); Strongly agree (above the mean PRAF). Therefore, the results which A close scrutiny of the results revealed that falls in the first and second levels should the skilled trades that were ranked be dismissed, as it does not warrant urgent topmost are needed for complex buildings demand in the construction organizations. which are significant in the delivery of expected infrastructural developments in Accordingly, from the above mentioned Nigeria. This confirmed with the perceived levels, PRAF of skilled trades such as; low productivity of Nigerian construction masons/bricklayers, joiners/carpenters, industry. Drawing on this, efforts should be iron benders, welders, painters, geared towards supply of these categories plasterers, tile fixers, terrazzo workers, of skilled trades for the benefits of all active pipe fitters/layers, air conditioners and labour market participants. refrigeration installers, where below the mean PRAF, and their level of agreement REFERENCES ranges from undecided to disagree. Based on the outcome ten skilled trades; Adewale, P. O.; Siyanbola, A. B.; & Siyanbola, S. equipment operators, glaziers, insulating O. (2014). Building Craftsmanship Skill specialist, asphalt/tar sprayers, Development and Nigeria’s Vision 20:2020: Imperatives and Daunting Challenges. fabricators, scaffolding specialist, International Journal of Vocational and suspended ceiling specialist, plumbers, Technical Education, 6(4), 36-42. electricians and roofers are above the mean PRAF.
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of Construction Engineering and Management, Zannah, A. A.; Latiffi, A. A.; Raji, A. U.; Waziri, A. 114(2), 233–244. A. & Mohammed, U. (2017). Causes of Low Skilled Worker’s Performance in Construction Projects, Path of Science, 3(6), 4.1-4.15. Olukayode, O. F.; Mathew, F. A.; & Taiwo, A. A.
(2015). An Assessment of Major Factors Affecting Construction Project Cost in Nigeria. International Journal of Sciences: Basic & Applied Research (IJSBAR), 24, 308-318.
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Windap, A. O. & Cattel, K. (2013). The South African Construction Industry: Perceptions of Key Challenges Facing its Performance, Development and Growth. Journal of Construction in Developing Countries, 18(2), 65-79.
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CONSTRUCTION MISHAP AND ITS IMPACTS ON PROJECT PARTICIPANTS
S. O. Williams *1, R. A. Hamid 2, M. S. Misnan 3, H. O. Obagboye 4 and E. O.
Olowolayemo 5
1, 2, 3, 4 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected],[email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
1,5 Department of Quantity Surveying, School of Environmental Studies, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State, NIGERIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Construction mishap impacts construction progress, the contractors as well as the construction workers. Lives, properties, and company’s images are lost through its occurrence; project delivery is delayed through its existence; while quality of works is negatively affected at its happening. The paper aimed at exhuming the categories of mishap occurring on the construction site and their impacts on the clients, contractors and site workers. In achieving this, three hundred and ten retrieved questionnaires were analysed descriptively and inferentially using both the Statistical Package for Social Sciences and Structural Equation Model (Amos Software). Goodness-of-fit indices of the identified items were established through confirmatory factor analysis. Result showed that three categories of mishap were common on the construction site in the country (Nigeria), while mishap was established to have significant impacts on the clients, contractors and construction workers. A valid structural model was developed depicting the impacts of mishap on the construction participants. However, taking cognizance of these impacts, it is essential for researchers to develop a prevention model in order to avert the occurrence of mishap and consequently halt its impact.
Keywords : Construction industry, Mishap, Structural equation model, Construction workers.
1.0 INTRODUCTION and unintentional act resulting from the interaction of host, agent, and Mishap, which is synonymously referred to environmental factors within situations as accident, was unequivocally given a which involve risk taking and perception of definition by Heinrich (1931). The author danger”. To a contemporary researcher, saw it as an unplanned incidence, taking Pillay (2014), mishaps were seen to be an place at the building construction sites. undesired circumstance which results in ill With the passage of time, Heinrich et al. health, injury, damage to plant, property, (1980) supplied an updated definition of an products or the environment, or a loss of accident (mishap) to be “an unexpected business opportunity. It is a condition or
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circumstance where a worker or operative interruption. To Nkurunungi (2005), who is injured at the course of operation, or carried out a study on the assessment of material or equipment is damaged. safety of workers at building site in Mishaps happen to site workers without Uganda, mishap (accident) is seen as an their intention, nor any preparation for it. It unplanned occurrence that happens after is a dangerous occurrence that impedes a sequence of events resulting in physical the smooth running of activities on site. harm (injury or death), damage to Besides, when a mishap happens, it is property, time loss, loss of production, fear sometimes very injurious and and loss of morale among workers, as well disheartening, and has consequential as loss of money and other resources. impacts on the clients, the contractors as well as the construction workers. It leads 2.0 IMPACT OF CONSTRUCTION to physical loss, financial loss, and equally MISHAP attracts psychological effects. In a report prepared and submitted to Health and A good number of researchers (McKinnon, Safety Authority in Ireland, Hrymak & 2000; Nkurunungi, 2005; Mthalane et al., Pérezgonzález (2007) identified the 2008; Kadiri, 2014; Udo et al., 2016) have impacts of mishap on employer to extensively discussed issues in relation to comprise of loss of productivity and the consequences of site mishap. In business opportunities, salary of the relation to Mthalane et al. (2008), the injured employee or of a replacement effects of mishap are explicitly stated to be employee or additional overtime costs, production loss, disruption of on-going and expenses reimbursed to the injured work, training cost for replacement of employee. The authors further included operatives, damages to plant and repairs, rental or replacement costs, equipment, corrective steps to prevention changes to insurance premiums, as well of further mishap, efficiency degradation, as legal costs. Additional identification of cost of purchasing new equipment, impact of mishap was the cost to the slowdown in operations and costs of construction workers, which included loss workman’s compensation. Finkelstein & of salary, loss of payment of overtime, Partners (2016) corroborated other medical and travel expenses, lost savings, authors that construction mishaps impact retraining costs, and pay differences from costs of workman’s compensation, though any new employer. The psycho-social the compensation benefits may not be effects of mishap on the employee include enough to cover their expenses. Mthalane aspects of work, family, leisure, and et al. (2008) and Udo et al. (2016) further community life. Other inclusions are claimed that payment on medicals, considered to be anxiety, difficulty in premium on insurance, costs of rescue carrying out normal activities, upset to operations and equipment, loss of family and friends, depression, counselling operations and its income, payments for received, affected sports & hobbies, sense settlements of injury or death claims, legal of loss, feelings of embarrassment, fees for defence against claims and feelings of isolation, stress and boredom. increased insurance costs adversely affect Moreover, Kadiri (2014) carried out a the construction works through mishap. research on the causes and effects of Besides, Perttula (2017) was of the accident in Nigerian construction sites opinion that when mishap takes place, the identified time loss of the execution of injuries cause pain and suffering to the project, extension of the completion individuals and their families, mental period, reputation of firm, psychology of distress and probably life changes, workers, and cost of medical expenses as needless human suffering, direct the consequential effects of construction expenses for workplaces, hurt on the mishaps. Additionally, McKinnon (2000) organisation's reputation and public concluded accidental loss to be potential image. The author further asserted that the loss, actual loss in the form of personal effect of accident on the public image of injury, property damage and business
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the contractor could lead to long-term mishap to include burns, exposure of financial losses. Furthermore, Baksteen et workers to chemical, electrocution, al. (2007) maintained a confirmatory stand collapse of structure and trench, fall- that the injuries sustained by construction related mishap, chemical spills, vehicle- workers lead to suffering and distress of inclined mishap, falling of objects, the victims and their relatives, payment of equipment-related type of mishap, sick leave and medical treatments, and crushed-between, fires and explosions, cost for replacement of labour. and the likes. However, for proper Furthermore, Asanka and Ranasinghe comprehension, the identified mishaps (2015) who ventured into the study of were categorised into seven viz: Contact accidents’ impacts on construction project with objects mishap (welding arc, working spoke about human and financial aspects tools, electricity etc.); Vehicle-inclined of mishap. Equally, Udo et al. (2016) mishap (crane accident, overturned stressed out that when mishaps happen vehicle, struck or run over by moving or on site, they result to human tragedies, de- operating machine); Slip and trip mishap; motivation of workers, disruption of site Fall-related accident (fall from building activities, delay in project progress, roof, climbing ladder, holes in floor or changes in the overall cost of project, ground, scaffold, stairs/ramp, same level, productivity loss, and loss of reputation of falling or flying objects); Collapse mishap the firms concerned. Consequent upon the (structure and trench collapse); Exposure- extensive review of literature on the related mishap (gas, fire, and chemical impacts of accident, they could be explosion); and Lifting and handling summed up to come under the following objects mishap. However, since three categories viz: i) Impact on the client, construction mishap could have an impact ii) Impact on the contractor, and iii) Impact of the construction stakeholders, it is on the construction worker. therefore hypothesised thus:
3.0 CATEGORIES OF H1: There is significant impact of mishaps CONSTRUCTION MISHAP on the client, contractor and the construction worker. Mishaps are multifarious on the building construction site, which are necessary to 4.0 METHODOLOGICAL be identified. Construction workers do APPROACH mostly experience mishaps, and such include the one in connection with vehicles The research was underpinned by non- (Edwards & Nicholas, 2002), fire outbreak probability sampling approach, which (HSE, 2006), explosion of gas or chemical consisted of the demographic information (Hovden et al., 2008), falls from the roof of the respondents and the items of the (Weeks, 2011), and fall of weighty objects constructs. The three sections of the during fixing/lifting. Besides, Umeokafor et research contained the demographic al. (2014) identified electrical mishap, information (Section A) of the while Orji et al. (2016) discovered fall- respondents, categories of mishap related mishap. Additionally, Maloney (Section B), being based on 5-point Likert (2012) listed a copious number of scale, while Section C contained the construction site mishap, which included impacts of mishap on the client, contractor falls from heights or falls from scaffolding; and the construction worker. Collection of overexertion; fires and explosions; slips data was done through self-administered and falls; falling debris (materials or questionnaires, but prior to the objects); getting caught in-between administration of the questionnaires, a objects or materials; electrocutions; pilot study (using construction experts) machinery accidents; collapse of trench; was carried out, resulting in a Cronbach’s and hit by a machine/vehicle. Moreover, alpha value of .977, while the inputs of the Radmin, (2017) elaborately pictured construction experts were considerably
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put into use to enrich the questionnaire. In qualifications showed ND (15%), HND achieving the purpose of the study, the (30%), BSc/PGD (30%), MSc (15%), PhD target population included client (6%) and others (4%), indicating that 81% organisations/project managers, of the respondents were holders of consultants, contractors, safety degrees. The areas of specialisation practitioners and craftsmen, with three (professions) revealed client/project hundred and ninety-three (393) manager (23%), consultant (35%), questionnaires administered through contractor (27%), safety practitioner (4%), physical contact and e-mails in the South- craftsman (3%), and others (6%). Greater western states of Nigeria, being the scope percentage (if not all) of the respondents of the on-going research. The missing data were directly participating in construction were treated and replaced using the SPSS activities, with the consultant comprising of software. Besides, the respondents were the architects, engineers, quantity drawn from both the contracting and surveyors, and builders. This indicated consultancy sectors. At the collection, that the respondents were active treatment and screening of the retrieved participants in construction-related questionnaires 310 questionnaires were activities. Moreover, the types of project appropriately filled and found valid for the handled by the respondents showed low- analysis of the data, representing 78.88% rise building (57%), high-rise building of the administered copies. Besides, (18%), infrastructure (19%) and others exploratory factor analysis, using the (6%), which emphasized the fact that the SPSS version 22 software was employed respondents were involved in building in establishing the structure of the works and they could be relied upon for measurement models, classifying the any information in respect of construction- items into four factors, while the Kaiser- related mishap. Meyer-Olkin (KMO) as well as the Barlett’s test of sphericity were engaged in Table 1 Years of Experience confirming the instrument validity by assessing the sample adequacy and Year Frequency (f) Percentage of multivariate normality of the study frequency (%) Less than variables. Moreover, the structural 65 21.0 3years equation modelling (SEM) further 3-5years 69 22.3 validated the measurement models 6-10years 52 16.8 through the use of AMOS software by Above 124 40.0 establishing satisfactory goodness-of-fit 10years indices (GFI) of the variables of the study. Total 310 310
5.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 2 Academic Qualification
Degree Frequency Percentage of 5.1 Demographic Information of the (f) frequency (%) Respondents ND 45 14.5 HND 94 30.3 The demographics of the respondents of BSC/PGD 94 30.3 the study are presented in Tables 1 to 4. MSc 47 15.2 The years of experience of the PhD 17 5.5 respondents were found to be less than 3 Others 13 4.2 years (21%), 3-5 years (22%), 6-10 years Total 310 100 (17%) and above 10 years (40%). However, with the level of the percentage of 57% (17% + 40%) of the respondents having an experience above 5years, their responses were adequately sufficient to rely upon and could be found very useful for the study. Additionally, the academic
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Table 3 Area of Specialization Cost of rescue operations and equipment(ICON5); training cost for Area of Frequenc Percentage of replacement of worker (ICON6); Legal Specialization y (f) frequency (%) fees for defence against claims (CON7); Client/project 73 23.5 Cost of change in safety management manager Consultant 109 35.2 systems (ICON8); Increased insurance Contractor 83 26.8 costs/compensation (ICON9); and Cost of Safety practitioner 13 4.2 accident investigation time (ICON10). The Craftsman 8 2.6 seven (7) impacts on the site workers are: Others 24 7.7 Psychology of workers is affected (IWK1); Total 310 100.0 Permanent disability for the victim (IWK2); Injury, pain, suffering and/or death of the Table 4 Type of Project victim (IWK3); Loss of morale among workers (IWK4); Loss of function and Project Frequency Percentage operations income (IWK5); Loss of Type (f) of frequency (%) overtime payment (IWK6); and Medical Low-rise and traveling expenses during treatment 178 57.4 building (IWK7). However, the impacts of mishap High-rise 55 17.7 on the affected client, contractor and the building site workers were extracted from the Infrastructure 58 18.7 literature (McKinnon, 2000; Nkurunungi, Others 19 6.1 Total 310 100.0 2005; Hrymak & Pérezgonzález, 2007; Baksteen et al., 2007; Mthalane et al., 5.2 Categories of Mishap and their 2008; Kadiri, 2014; Asanka & Ranasinghe, Impacts. 2015; Udo et al., 2016; Finkelstein & Partners, 2016; Perttula, 2017). Few studies supposedly have critically examined the impacts of mishap on the 5.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis client, contractor and the construction workers in the dimension of this study. The In relation to the factor analysis, the KMO study is a container of seven (7) categories calculated 0.908 value for both the of mishap viz: Contact with objects categories of mishap and the impacts. The (ACC1); Vehicle/machine-related (ACC2); value is an acceptable one, being above Slip and trip (ACC3); Fall-related (ACC4); the accepted minimum of 0.5, while the Lifting and handling (ACC5); Collapses Barlett’s test of sphericity is significant (p< (ACC6); and Exposures to harmful 0.05). This is shown in Table 5. substances (ACC7). All these types of mishap being generated from past Table 5 KMO and Bartlett's Test researches (Edwards & Nicholas, 2002; HSE, 2006; Hovden et al., 2008; Weeks, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of .908 2011; Umeokafor et al., 2014; Orji et al., Sampling Adequacy. 2016; Maloney, 2012; Radmin, 2017). The Bartlett's Test of Approx. Chi- 4187.342 three (3) impacts of mishap being on the Sphericity Square client are: Overall cost of project is increased (CL1); Delay of project delivery df 351 due to time loss (ICL2); and Interruption of Sig. .000 site activities (ICL3). Equally, ten (10) impacts on the contractor are: Loss of image/reputation of the firm (CON1); Payment of salary, sick leave and medical expenses of victim (ICON2); Repair or replacement of damaged property (CON3); Loss of productivity (ICON4);
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Table 6 Rotated Component Matrix accident (ACC) = .807; impacts on client (ICL) = .731; impacts on the contractor Component (ICON) = .912; and impacts on the site 1 2 3 4 worker (IWK) = .871. The values were high ACC1 .637 enough and met up with the requirement ACC2 .660 ACC3 .630 of significance (Tanko et al., 2018). ACC4 .662 Significantly, the proposed model that ACC5 .701 followed hereafter would enable ACC6 .740 stakeholders to know the level of impacts ACC7 .667 of mishap on the construction participants, ICL1 .647 so that effort will be made to fashion out a ICL2 .738 lasting solution to the occurrence of ICL3 .685 ICON1 .600 mishaps on the site, as lives are lost ICON2 .612 through their occurrence. At the ICON3 .571 confirmatory level of the measurement ICON4 .590 models, Table 7 shows the summary of the ICON5 .661 modification indices. In establishing a ICON6 .635 good model fit, confirmatory factor ICON7 .715 analysis (CFA), being the initial step of the ICON8 .674 ICON9 .703 structural equation modelling analysis, ICON10 .710 was carried out that comprised each of the IWK1 .537 constructs, with an inclusion of their IWK2 .568 revised (adjusted) CFA models. The IWK3 .522 modus operandi involved in respect to IWK4 .689 achieving a fitted model was to be sure IWK5 .731 IWK6 .709 that every factor loading must be equal to IWK7 .588 (=) or above (>) 0.6 (Awang, 2015), Extraction Method: Principal Component indicating that factor loading less than 0.6 Analysis. was unquestionably expunged at Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser confirmatory level. Therefore, Figure 1 Normalization. showed the CFA carried out on one of the a. Rotation converged in 7 iterations. constructs, which as a result of want of
space it was a representative of CFA done Moreover, the total variance explained that for other constructs, but the summary of all depicted eigenvalues of 1 and above was the CFA was shown in Table 7. The underpinned by the extraction of the conditions for acceptance of the model components of the categories of mishap was to see that the modification indices, and the impacts, of which a total variance such as Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), of 56.78% was calculated. Being based on Tucker Lewis Index (TLI), Comparative Fit the factor loading of ≥ 0.50 (Olugbenga, Index (CFI), and Normed Fit Index (NFI) 2018), all the items were considered must be higher than 0.90 (>0.9). The Chi- significant and reliable, as they were square’s ratio (chi-sq) as well as the classified into four components as Degree of freedom (df) must not be higher indicated in Table 6. Consequent upon the than 5.0, that is, Chisq/df ≤ 5.0. In addition, outcome of the factor analysis, four the Root Mean Score Error Approximation constructs were classified through the (RMSEA) should cleave to a lower value of varimax rotation method with Kaiser 0.08, that is, < 0.08. The situation where a normalisation. revised or adjusted model was needed
was where the initial CFA, the 5.4 Instrument Reliability and hypothesised model, and the structural Confirmatory Factor Analysis equation models (SEM) could not fulfil the The results of the reliability test via minimum requirement of the modification Cronbach’s alpha value indicated type of indices (Awang, 2015; Oke, 2016).
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CFI=.914, IFI=.914, TLI=.902, NFI= .960, and RMSEA=.066. This indicated that the statistics were adequate and fell within the minimum requirement of a good model fit. With the result of the analysis, there was a positive relationship among the constructs. In addition, the validity and reliability tests (Table 8) indicated the appropriateness (validity) of the constructs, which according to literature the composite reliability should be equal or higher than 0.70, while that of the average Figure 1 CFA of Type of Accident variance extracted (AVE) should be equal (Mishap) to or higher than a value of 0.50 (Olugbenga, 2018). Table 7 Summary of the Model Fitness Indices
For the modification indices of the types of mishap, the Chisq=18.760, Df=8, Ratio=2.345, P-Value=0.016, CFI=.976, IFI=.977, TLI=.956, NFI= .960, RMSEA=.066. The same process was applied to other constructs. In reference to the impact on client, the modification indices could not be displayed by the software due to the limited number (3) of the items, but going by the factor loadings arena the three items fulfilled the minimum 0.6 (Awang, 2015). Moreover, the constructs were subsequently pooled Figure 2 First Order Measurement Model together to establish the relationship of the Pooled Constructs. among them, and at the same time used in the structural equation modelling. The requirements of the modification indices of Table 8 Validity of the Hypothesised all the constructs were met after making Model adjustment where necessary, but done in accordance with the specification of Code Construct Composite AVE literature (Awang, 2015; Oke, 2016). Reliability ACC Type of Mishap 0.80 0.40 Moreover, the first order measurement (Accident) ICL Impact on Client 0.74 0.59 model was as shown in Figure 2. It was to ICON Impact on 0.90 0.56 define the relationship and establish the Contractor convergence validity of the measurement IWK Impact on Worker 0.87 0.53 model for the types of mishap and their Overall average 0.83 0.52 impacts. Statistically, the modification indices were given as Chisq= 473.856, Df=203, Ratio=2.334, P-Value=0.000,
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The use of SEM came to stage again, 6.0 CONCLUSION which was to test the relationship between the first order and the second order The result of the research has come out constructs of the types of mishap and the with the fact that mishap has a great impacts. Figure 3 showed the structural impact on the client (owner of project), analysis, with the modification indices contractor as well as the construction given as Chisq= 280.355, Df=101, worker. On the client, mishap causes Ratio=2.776, P-Value=0.000, CFI=.918, delays on project delivery due to time loss, IFI=.919, TLI=.903, and RMSEA=.076. and increment in overall cost of project. On The results of the structural model were the contractor, he could be impacted in a proved to have met the minimum and way that the salary of the worker, sick acceptable requirement, going by all the leave and medical expenses were being parameters required for a good model fit. borne by him. The cost of the replacement Before the achievement of the model fit, of damaged properties (machine, vehicle, items e2<-->e5, e2<-->e6, e5<-->e6, structure), was another impact. Loss of e15<-->e16, and e21<-->e22 needed to productivity, as well as cost of rescue be constrained in order to avoid being operations and equipment, with payment redundant. Values of the model showed of legal fees for defence against claims, the path between types of mishap and and increased insurance contractor to be 0.78 (standardised costs/compensation were of significant estimate), between types of mishap and impacts. To the worker, psychologically he contractor to be 0.53, while between types was affected. Sustenance of permanent of mishap and worker equalled to 0.90. disability, coupled with injury, pain, Consequent upon the trimming of the initial suffering and/or death, loss of morale model, six items were left to be significant among workers, and loss of function were impacts of mishap on the contractor, two all statistically found out by the research. (2) on the client, while five on the worker. However, in relation to the impacts and the In the same vein, three out of seven consequential effects of mishap, it mishaps were found to be prominent, becomes imperative for researchers to which were mishaps involving develop a model for accident prevention vehicle/machine (ACC2), lifting and on construction site, which should not be handling objects (ACC), and slip and trip taken with levity. It is never a trivial issue (ACC7), of which the result corroborates in researching such accident preventive Williams et al. (2019) who found out that measures as they will be of great benefit mishap in relation to slip and trip, and to the client, contractor as well as the vehicle were common on the Nigerian construction workers in halting the copious construction sites. ways in which the impacts of mishap are felt by the construction participants. Summarily, since mishaps originate from unsafe acts of people, they can be prevented through the inculcation of a positive safety culture in the practices of project participants in the Nigerian construction industry. In addition it is recommended that the following should be found imperative on the building construction site in order to avoid mishap:
(i) Hazards should be eliminated through the avoidance of risk. (ii) The risks are to be tackled at the Figure 3 Structural Equation Model of source on the building construction site. Mishap and its Impacts. (iii) In the process of the designing of the work areas and the selection of
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methods of work, the work is to be adapted Finkelstein & Partners, (2016). Preventing Crane to the individual (operative). Accidents on Construction Sites. Available @http://www.lawampm.com/blog/articles/2 (iv) Technology is to be explored to 016/03/29/preventing-crane-accidents-on- improve conditions of work on the site, with construction-sites. Accessed 18 April, safety in view. 2017. (v) Priority is to be given to the protection of the whole workplace rather Heinrich, H.W. (1931). Industrial Accident Prevention: A Scientific Approach, than to individuals. McGraw-Hill, New York. (vi) There should be assurance of the understanding of what the operatives are Heinrich, H.W., Peterson, D., & Roos, N. to do to remain safe and healthy on site. (1980). Industrial Accident Prevention: A (vii) Ensure health and safety Safety Management Approach, Fifth Edition. McGraw-Hill, New York. management is accepted by everyone, and that it is applicable to all aspects of the Hovden, J., Albrechtsen, E., & Herrera, I. A. (2008). organisation’s activities. Is There a Need for New Theories, Models and Approaches to Occupational Accident Prevention? Safety Science, 48(October), ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 950–956.
The authors would like to express their Hrymak, V. & Pérezgonzález, J. D. (2007). The appreciation to the organisers of the Costs and Effects of Workplace Accidents conference, for making the participation Twenty Case Studies from Ireland, A Report free for members (staff and students) of for H&S Authority. Dublin Institute of Technology. Available online @ FABU. Besides, The Nigerian government https://www.hsa.ie/eng/publications_and_for (TETFUND) and the Management of ms/publications/research_publications/the_co Rufus Giwa Polytechnic are appreciated sts_and_effects_of_workplace_accidents_- for the sponsored research programme. _twenty_case_studies_from_ireland.pdf
Health and Safety Executive (HSE) (2006). Health REFERENCES and Safety in Construction. Health and Safety in Construction HSG150, 141. Retrieved from Asanka, W.A.& Ranasinghe, M. (2015). Study on http://www.hse.gov.uk/pubns/priced/ the Impact of Accidents on Construction hsg150.pdf th Projects. 6 International Conference on Structural Engineering and Construction Kadiri, Z. O., Nden, T., Avre, G. K., Oladipo, T. O., th th Edom, A., Samuel, P. O., & Ananso, G. N. Management, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 11 - 13 (2014). Causes and Effects of Accidents on December. Construction Sites (A Case Study of Some https://www.researchgate.net/publication/2 Selected Construction Firms in Abuja FCT 88022884_ Nigeria). IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSR-JMCE), 11(5), 66– Awang, Z. (2015). SEM Made Simple: A Gentle 72. Approach to Learning Structural Equation Modelling, Jalan Kapang Impian, Maloney Pat (2015). 10 Most Common Selangor: MPWS Rich Publication Sdn. Construction Site Accidents. Accessed on Bhd. 18th June, 2016. Available on-line @ http://patmaloney.com/10-common- Baksteen, I. H., Mud, I.M.L., Bellamy, L.J. & White construction-siteaccidents/. Q.B. (2007). Accident Analysis Using McKinnon, C.R. (2000). Cause, Effect and Control Storybuilder: A Report Prepared for of Accidental Loss with Accident Ministerie Sociale Zaken en Investigation Kit. Lewis Publishers. Werkgelegenheid. Mthalane, D., Othman, A. A. E & Pearl, R. G., The Edwards, D. J., & Nicholas, J. (2002). The State of Economic and Social Impact of Site Accident Health and Safety in the UK Construction on South African Society. CIDB Paper, No. Industry with a Focus on Plant Operators. 2005. Structural Survey, Vol. 20 Iss 2, 78–87. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/27 https://doi.org/10.1108/0263080021043385 1269767_ 5 Nkurunungi, W. J., (2005). Assessment of Safety of Workers at Building Sites in Uganda.
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Undergraduate Thesis, Makerere University. the Construction Industry.Encyclopedia of Available online @ Occupational Health and Safety.Available on- https://www.grin.com/document/213613 line https://www.scribd.com/document/20796752 Oke O.J. (2016). Fostering Creative Thinking Skill 6/ Among Building Technology Students of technical Colleges in Nigeria. Doctoral Williams, O. S., Hamid A.R., Misnan M.S. (2018). Thesis, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. Accident Causal Factors on the Building Construction Sites: A Review. International Olugbenga, T.D. (2018). Factors Influencing Journal of Built Environment and Supply of Affordable Housing in Nigerian Sustainability. Ijbes 5(1)/2018, 78-92. Cities, Doctoral Thesis, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Orji Solomon E., Nwachukwu Lilian N. & Enebe Eucharia C. (2016). Hazards in Building Construction Sites and Safety Precautions in Enugu Metropolis, Enugu State. Imperial Journal of Interdisciplinary Research (IJIR) Vol.2, Issue-1 , 2016 ISSN : 2454-1362 , www.onlinejournal.in 282–289. . Perttula P. (2013). Zero Accident Vision. Finnish Institute of Occupational Health. Available onine @ https://oshwiki.eu/wiki/Zero_accident_visi on. Accessed 20 April, 2017.
Pillay, K. R. (2014). The Costs of Construction Accidents. Postgraduate Thesis, Cape Peninsula University of Technology.
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Tanko, L.B., Abdullah, F., and Ramly, Z.M. (2018). An Implementation framework of Value Management in the Nigerian Construction Industry. Built Environment Project and Management, Vol. 8 No 3, pp. 305-319.
Udo, U. E., Usip, E. E., & Asuquo, C. F. (2016). Effect of Lack of Adequate Attention to Safety Measures on Construction Sites in Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria. Journal of Earth Sciences and Geotechnical Engineering, 6(1), 113–121. http://www.scienpress.com/Upload/GEO/Vo l%206_1_8.pdf
Umeokafor N., Evaggelinos K., Lundy S., Isaac D., Allan S., Igwegbe O., Umeokafor K., Umeadi B. (2014). The Pattern of Occupational Accidents, Injuries, Accident Causal Factors and Intervention in Nigerian Factories. Developing Country Studies, ISSN 2224- 607X (Paper) ISSN 2225-0565 (Online) Vol.4, No.15.
Weeks, J. L. (2011). Health and Safety Hazards in
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ACHIEVING ZERO-ACCIDENT AT THE BUILDING CONSTRUCTION SITES: A DUAL-STAGE MODEL
S. O. Williams *1, R. A. Hamid 2 and M. S. Misnan 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
1 Department of Quantity Surveying, School of Environmental Studies, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, Owo, Ondo State, NIGERIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Technological advancement has created the challenge of looking beyond the proximal preventive measures, but also embracing distal measures in the achievement of zero-accident at the building construction sites. Evidences avail that multiple accidents litter the building sites, which has become a great concern to the construction stakeholders. Previously, various studies have explained this phenomenon (accident occurrence) but few has given regards to its prevention at both preconstruction stage and construction stage through the intervention of construction key participants. With a mind-set (aim) of zeroing down construction accident, 384 self-administered questionnaires on client, consultant, contractor, safety practitioner and artisan were analysed descriptively with Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software, while structural equation modelling (AMOS graphic) was employed to develop a valid model in eliminating the occurrence of accident on the building construction site. The outcome of the survey revealed that construction stakeholders have major roles to play in the achievement of zero-accident on the building site, both at the preconstruction and the construction stages. In the study, significant accident preventive measures in relation to the duties of the stakeholders are shown, covering the two stages of construction. In concluding the study, twenty- four construction experts, possessed with over fifteen years of experience in construction-related fields were contacted for validation of the developed accident prevention model. With the implementation of the dual-stage accident prevention model, the occurrence of accident and its attendant impacts would become a forgotten issue.
Keywords: Accident, Construction accident, Preventive measures, Structural equation model, Construction stakeholders.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION Achieving a zero-accident at the building site involves a process. This is the establishment of preventive measures. These measures are expected to be implemented by the right individuals, that is, construction stakeholders (client, consultant, contractor, health and safety agency). Accident prevention, in reality, is seen to be a possibility, but the common practice is the establishment and Figure 1 Possibility of Accident Prevention implementation of preventive measures. Source: Online Survey (2016) However, by research, such measures span across both the preconstruction Moreover, past researches on accident phase and construction phase. This is prevention (Goh et al., 2016; Attwood et spelt out in Construction (Design and al., 2006; Mitropoulos, 2005) give a management) regulations of the United generic approach towards accident Kingdom (CDM, 2015). Going by preventive measures in achieving a zero- definition, accident prevention is a accident on the site, which are the conglomeration of procedures of control underpinning basis of this study. that makes an organisation to exert Moreover, it is being reported by corrective measures and correction Spangenberg (2010) that the first age of commitment for averting the events that accident prevention was in relation to the give rise to an accident on the building site. technical measures in giving machinery a However, information about accident is guard, preventing fire and explosions as traceable to Herbert Williams Heinrich of well as preventing structures from 1930s, an accident theorist, who published experiencing collapse. This move lasted a book on ‘Industrial Accident Prevention’. until 1950s, with an attendant realisation The book is found to have prepared a solid that technical risk assessment and ground for the understanding of the cure of technical preventive measures are accident, as having the knowledge of the insufficient in accident prevention drive. causes of accident serves as a precursor Departing from this was the second age of to the development of preventive accident prevention with emphasis on the measures (Fang et al., 2016; Khosravi, interaction between man and machine, 2014; Hon et al., 2010). Heinrich (1930), in commonly regarded as the socio-technical his domino theory, illustrates accident accident prevention concept. Thereafter, occurrence with five metaphorical dissatisfaction set in by 1980s, with the dominos. In the theory, accidents are conception that issues related to H&S known to be caused by unsafe acts or could be tackled with the simple method of conditions of people engaged in site linking the individual to technology. activities. Nevertheless, the possibility of Consequently, this metamorphosed into prevention of accident comes through the the third age involving the conglomeration removal of these acts or conditions. Each of man, machine, environment, domino represents an event, and an effort organisation and society, as shown in being put up to prevent the falling of one Table 1. Hence, for a successful and domino on another is regarded as workable preventive measure, the prevention, of which the effective management systems cannot be side- implementation of this effort will have tracked. accident prevented, as depicted in Figure 1.
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Table 1 Age of Safety and Accident duties of the construction stakeholders. Prevention Concept Adapted from However, the CDM regulations (2015) Spangenberg (2010) have provided a foundation for the prevention of accident thus; i) accident Age level Accident prevention at the preconstruction stage, prevention
concept and ii) accident prevention during the
construction stage. These two stages are
discussed next.
Man Environment Organisation Society Machine 2.1.1 Accident Prevention at the First age Technical Preconstruction Stage (Before 1950) Second age Socio- Preconstruction phase of any project (1950-1980) technical contains all the activities to be embarked Third age Socio- upon before the commencement of any (1980 till cultural date) practical construction on the building construction site (BCS). With regards to 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW HSE (2006), “preconstruction phase means any period of time during which 2.1 Realising Zero - Accident design or preparatory work is carried out Through Accident Prevention for a project”. This incorporates the conceptual, design and the planning A focus on experiencing zero-accident is stages that are embarked upon by all the the best option for ensuring safety of parties (client, designer, and contractor) construction workers. Zero-accident is involved in construction. However, the achieved when all construction–related degree of their involvement differs. For preventive measures are put in place on instance, conceptualisation of the project the building construction site. Besides, may exempt the involvement of the accident is said to have been prevented in contractor, while his involvement as well in its entirety when construction is accident- the design level is unsolicited, except such free and operations are carried out safely project is design and build. Hence, the by construction operatives. Going on the collective efforts (responses) of the line of explanation, prevention of accidents construction stakeholders are (PoA) encompasses identifying and indispensable in order to have the eliminating the causes of accident prior its occurrence of BCS accidents mitigated. occurrence. Reaction to accident is Against this backdrop, the construction predominantly practised by site stakeholders in this study are the clients, supervisors, meaning that, they consultants, contractors and the H&S investigate accident in order to determine agencies. Nevertheless, the consideration what caused the accident. This is followed of the above mentioned stakeholders is in by executing some corrective actions to line with the studies of Hasle et al. (2013), prevent reoccurrence. This process only Al-Kilani (2011) and Hon et al. (2010) who assists in eliminating future accidents from emphasise the importance of the a specific cause, as confirmed by Al- involvement of these construction Tabtabai (2002), who said that the stakeholders and the H&S government prevention of BCS accident always entails agency as the major controllers of accident the prediction of future accidents, and on BCS. These measures are discussed such prediction which must be based on next. effective knowledge about past accidents. Therefore, deeper efforts will be put in Client-related preventive measures: place in considering the precautionary These include sourcing for fund with the measures against accident both at the pre- intention to adequately budget for safety construction and construction phases of issues (Ikpe, 2009; Suraji et al., 2001), building development, with a focus on the timely appointment of competent
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professionals (Lubega (2000), 2012) to be implemented during progress involvement of safety expert during the of work, Involvement in investigation of site design process (Nnaji et al., 2017), and to ascertain the potential hazards before acquisition of land with safe ground the commencement of site work and conditions and topography (Chi & Han, making adequate plans towards 2013). Additionally, allowing sufficient time procurement of all safety related items. for designers to produce building designs Equally, for the necessity of method that are safe to build, and ensuring that all statements in prevention of accident, safety related information about the site is Haupt (2001) indicates that the method communicated to the consultants and to statements should form part of the other necessary person(s) are further contents of the H&S file submitted to the preventive measures in relation to the client. client (HSE, 2015). Others are ensuring that contract is awarded to contractors with Health and safety agency-related good safety records (Olatunji et al., 2007), preventive measures: The H&S agency giving notice to the H&S Agency on the is a representative of the government. commencement of project for the benefit of Being an agent of the government, the site inspection and monitoring (HSE, body is in the best position in getting the 2015), making sure that investigation of government advised on issue related to site is carried out to ascertain the potential safety. Most contractors possess no hazards before the commencement of site interest in submitting themselves to works, and ensuring that adequate time is compliance with safety regulations, and given to the contractor for effective project this is not far-fetched from monetary issue. planning so that work does not begin until Safety-related programmes (training, safety and health plan is fully developed. orientation, meeting, committee, The following section discusses the campaign, etc.) are not conducted in most measures elaborately. contracting organisations, and this is not unconnected with finance. However, by Consultant related preventive establishing the importance of safety measures: advice to client on cost, programmes (Dunlap, 2012), being a appointing safety officer, hazards move to get accident prevented on the identification, incorporation of site, the H&S agency can prepare a components, well layout of workplace, proposal and get it forwarded to the specification of quality materials, complete government on the need to make working drawings, sufficient safety fund in incentives available to the contractor for contract, quality time spent on design and implementation of safety programmes for prequalification of contractors. Some of their workers. A clue is taken from the these measures and how their neglect has American Society of Safety Engineers been responsible for accident on the BCS whose roles are inclusive of the need to are echoed in the studies of Patel et al., enable government make available (2016), Smallwood (2015), Famepyramids incentive measures (monetary or non- (2013), Sabet et al. (2013), Michael & monetary) to the organisations that are Authur (2012), Workplace H&S (2011), willing to conduct safety programmes for Haslam et al. (2005) and Taylor et al. their workers. Robson et al. (2007) equally (2004). stress the need for the government to offer incentives (Dunlap, 2012) to firms that Contractor Related Preventive willingly carry out H&S management Measures: The measures in relation to the system. Nevertheless, the safety consultant at the preconstruction stage programme should be comprehensively include making sure the client is aware of carried out (Dunlap, 2012) and constantly his safety related duties to enable him implemented (Edmund, 2015), of which carry out his responsibilities (HSE, 2015), the submission of Diugwu et al. (2012) preparation of safety plan (HSE, 2013) and cannot be brushed aside, who declare that stating objectives of safety policy (Dunlap, the conduct of H&S management system
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by organisations brings the frequency of safety committee (Spangenberg, 2010), accidents into minimal. Such programmes, ensuring regular site inspection, and according to the authors, create room for prompt release of fund to the contractor for higher awareness of H&S issues and the purchase of safety items are other responsibilities as well as help highlighting preventive measures against the the impact of poor H&S standards on occurrence of accident. organizational performance. Additionally, part of the preventive measures in respect Consultant Related Preventive to the H&S Agency is offering advice to the Measures: Multifarious accident government on issue related to safety preventive measures having a link with the policies and regulations, as Edmund consultants during the construction stage (2015) reveals the conspicuous absence are inclusive of participation in safety- of policy guidelines on safety precaution in related programmes and monitoring of the under-studied industries. Safety policy contractor’s implementation of safety forms the bedrock of all other safety policy, of which Al-Kilani (2011) declares activities on the BCS. It is, however, that if works are not carried out safely as embarrassing and disheartening to see indicated in the safety policy or plan such that OHS statutory regulations are contractor can be stopped. In addition, defective and inadequate in most ensuring that the contractor organises developing economies (Diugwu et al., safety training for employees, and the 2012). The building code still remains a preparation of safety file at completion of valid document relied upon by most work for safety of workers during construction professionals in the maintenance of building (HSE, 2015; prevention of accident on building site, Haupt, 2001) are other preventive precisely Nigeria, whereas the emphasis measures to be implemented by the being laid on the contractors not complying consultant. Further preventive measures with H/S regulations on site (Muhammad include playing a supervisory role et al., 2015) is linked to the fact that particularly in high-risk work (Dunlap, regulations guiding the H&S are not 2012), involvement in site inspection to adequately in place. ascertain the provision and usage of safe equipment (Olutuase, 2014), ensuring the 2.1.2 Accident Prevention During engagement of a safety officer on site by Construction Stage the contractors before commencement of work (Amartey, 2014) and ensuring that Client-related preventive measures: In the contractor fulfils all necessary safety addition to the preventive measures put up requirements before issuing interim at the preconstruction stage, the project payment certificate. owner has some other measures to implement during the construction stage Contractor Related Preventive with a plight to give a farewell message to Measures: Setting up safety committee accident occurrence. These are inclusive (Amartey, 2014; Gittleman et al., 2010; of ensuring that safety incentive (Charles ILO, 1999), conducting safety meeting et al., 2007) is given to the workers by the (Hallowell et al., 2009; Olatunji et al., contractor, involvement of client’s 2007), engagement of adequate representative in supervision, and competent supervisor (Kolo, 2015), reduction of time pressure on the rewarding worker with good safety records contractor during progress of work, as (Rowlinson & Jia, 2015), effective Suraji et al. (2001) see time pressure as communication, training of workers and an agent of accident on BCS, while supervisors, enforcement of safety Olagunju et al. (2013) describe hasty regulations, regularly maintained construction as a causal factor of accident. equipment, provision of adequate safety In addition, ensuring contractor items (Orji et al., 2016; Chi et al., 2005), implements safety programmes inspection of work environment, (Mitropolous et al., 2005), participation in housekeeping (Goh et al., 2016: Kazan,
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2013) and fencing for safety are all respondents, coupled with the preventive considered to be necessary on the BCS for measures (items of the constructs) accident prevention. Moreover, the categorised according to the duties of the provision of medical facilities (Kemei & stakeholders. The questionnaire for the Nyerere, 2016) and workers’ welfare preventive measures was based on 5- package, adequate working platforms and point Likert scale, and calibrated thus: 1 = railings, and involvement of trained unimportant, 2 = less important, 3 = workers in hazards identification are neutral, 4 = important, 5 = highly important. scholarly recommended accident This was in line with Fung Man-Kam, preventive measures. Moreover, the (2014), Alhajeri, (2011) and Kometa & availability of safe accommodation Olomolaiye, (1997), but with little (Ngwama, 2016; Spangenberg, 2010) and modifications. Moreover, collection of data timely resolution of conflict (Hale et al., was done through self-administered 2007) among workers as well as giving questionnaires, but prior to the opportunity for prayer (Rosscup, 1995) at administration of the questionnaires, a stipulated time cannot be jettisoned in the pilot study (using construction experts) drive to have accident prevented on the was carried out, resulting in an acceptable site. However, prayer becomes essential Cronbach’s alpha values, as indicated following the fact that some accidents do hereafter. Also, the inputs of the take place on BCS as an act of God, while construction experts were considerably it is known that some workers are prone to put into use to enrich the questionnaire. In accident. It will, then, take the intervention achieving the purpose of the study, the of God to prevent such workers form falling target population included client victim of accident occurrence. organisations/project managers, consultants, contractors, safety Health and Safety Agency-related practitioners and craftsmen, with three Preventive Measures: which include hundred and eighty-four correctly filled, advising the government on the following: valid and usaable questionnaires based the need to provide incentives to the on the recommended upper limit of Krejcie contractors for implementation of safety and Morgan (1975) The questionnaires programmes for their employees; on the were administered through physical policies/regulations governing H&S; and contact and e-mails in the South-western the need to empower the agency by states of Nigeria, being the scope of the adequately providing fund for monitoring study. The missing data were treated and and inspecting construction sites. replaced using the SPSS software. Moreover, the involvement of H&S officials Besides, the respondents were drawn in the building plans approval process, from both the contracting and consultancy staging safety campaign and orientation sectors. In the analysis, exploratory factor programme to create safety awareness analysis, using the SPSS version 22 and the employment of adequate number software was employed in establishing the of qualified H&S professionals saddled structure of the measurement models, with the responsibility of site monitoring classifying the items into eight factors, and inspections are the H&S Agency while the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) as preventive measures that can be well as the Bartlett’s test of sphericity were implanted at this stage. engaged in confirming the instrument validity by assessing the sample adequacy 3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY and multivariate normality of the study variables. Moreover, the structural Non-probability sampling approach was equation modelling (SEM) further adopted to select the research validated the measurement models respondents, and chosen from the south- through the use of AMOS software by western states of Nigeria. The establishing satisfactory goodness-of-fit administered questionnaire consisted of (GFI) indices of the variables of the study. the demographic information of the study
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4.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION Table 5 Area of Specialisation
4.1 Demographic Information Respondent Frequency Percent Valid Percent Client 71 18.5 18.5 In the achievement of the zero-accident, Consultant 121 31.5 31.5 the retrieved questionnaire comprised of Contractor 139 36.2 36.2 the responses from the client, consultant, Safety 21 5.5 5.5 contractor, health and safety officer and Craftsman 32 8.3 8.3 Total 384 100.0 100.0 the artisan. The demographic information of the respondents indicated that they all possess the experiences needed in giving 4.2 Accident Prevention Measures positive and correct responses to the administered questions, with the following Eight significant constructs were information: The state of operation: developed viz; Client-related preventive Ondo/Ekiti (42.2%), Oyo/Osun (31.5%) measures, consultant-related preventive and Lagos/Ogun (26.3%). Areas of measures, contractor-related preventive specialisation: Client (18.5%), Consultant measures, and health and safety-related (31.5%), Contractor (36.2%), Safety preventive measures at both the (5.5%), and Craftsman (8.3%). Years of preconstruction and during construction experience indicate 1-5 years (38.8%), 6- phases. The following eight codes were 10 years (26.3%), 11-15 years (15.4%), 15 ascribed respectively to the constructs: years and above (19.5%). Regarding CLP (10 items), CSP (10 items), CTP (5 qualifications, ND (18.8%), HND (27.3%), items), HASP (6 items), CLC (7 items), BSc/B.Tech (21.6%), PGD (8.6%), CSC (8 items), CTC (18 items), and HASC MSc/M.Tech (14.1%) and PhD (2.1%). (5 items), altogether making 69 constructs. At the preconstruction stage, the client- Table 2 State of Operation related preventive measures are: Sourcing for fund (CLP1), timely appointment States Frequency Percent Valid (CLP2), safety expert in design (CLP3), Percent acquisition of safe land (CLP4), sufficient Ondo/Ekiti 162 42.2 42.2 Oyo/Osun 121 31.5 31.5 time for designers (CLP5), communication Lagos/Ogun 101 26.3 26.3 of safety information (CLP6), contract Total 384 100.0 100.0 award (CLP7), notification on work commencement (CLP8), site investigation Table 3 Experience (CLP9) and sufficient time for project planning (CLP10). The consultant-related Years Frequency Percent Valid preventive measures contain: Advice to Percent client on cost (CSP1), appointing safety 1-5 149 38.8 38.8 officer (CSP2), hazards identification 6-10 101 26.3 26.3 11-15 59 15.4 15.4 (CSP3), incorporation of safe components Above (CSP4), layout of workplace (CSP5), 75 19.5 19.5 15 specification of quality materials (CSP6), Total 384 100.0 100.0 complete working drawings (CSP7),
sufficient safety fund in contract (CSP8), Table 4 Academic Qualification quality time spent on design (CSP9) and prequalification of contractors. In relation Valid Qualificati Frequen Perce to contractor-related preventive measures, Perce on cy nt they comprise of: Client awareness of nt ND 72 18.8 18.8 responsibilities (CTP1), preparation of HND 105 27.3 27.3 safety plan (CTP2), potential hazards BSc/B.Tech 83 21.6 21.6 identification (CTP3), method statement PGD 33 8.6 8.6 MSc/M.Tech 54 14.1 14.1 prepared (CTP4) and adequate plans for PhD 8 2.1 2.1 procurement (CTP5). As for the health and Others 29 7.6 7.6 safety-related preventive measures, they Total 384 100.0 100.0
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are: Advising government on incentives accident records and investigation (HASP1), advising government on safety (HASC). policies (HASP2), advising government on fund (HASP3), involvement of safety 4.3 Exploratory Factor Analysis officials (HASP4), safety campaign and (EFA) orientation (HASP5) and adequate qualified H&S Experts (HASP6). Prior the EFA was the determination of the Moreover, at the construction stage, the mean scores (MS) and the standard client-related preventive measures are: deviations (SD) of the 69 preventive Ensuring safety incentive by contractor measures, which had the lowest MS of (CLC1), involving client’s representative 3.64 and highest being 4.17, while the SD (CLC2), reduction of time pressure had a minimum value of 0.953 and highest (CLC3), ensuring contractor implement being 1.224. This confirmed the significant safety (CLC4), participation in safety of all the items, based on the responses of committee (CLC5), ensuring regular site the respondents. Exploratory Factor inspection (CLC6) and prompt release of Analysis (EFA) connotes one of the fund (CLC7). The consultant-related approaches used in the analysis of preventive measures include: Participation individual influences of all the items that in safety programmes (CSP1), monitors make up a construct. However, regarding contractor’s safety policy (CSP2), the testing of the EFA, sample size is ensuring contractor organises training commonly a determining factor in the (CSP3), preparation of safety file (CSP4), valley of decision, either to drop or accept playing a supervisory role in risky work an item. The occasion where an item is (CSP5), involvement in site inspection dropped, it indicates that such an item is (CSP6), ensuring engagement of safety less than the threshold value (Tabachnick officer (CSP7) and ensuring fulfilment of and Fidell, 2014). The authors suggest safety requirements (CSP8). In reference several factor loadings, but with the to the contractor-related preventive characteristics of the ongoing research, measures, they contain: Setting up safety factor loadings with a value of 0.70 are committee (CTC1), Conducting safety considered appropriate. Consequently, meeting (CTC2), Adequate competent factor loadings above this value are supervisor (CTC3), rewarding worker with considerably accepted and used for the good records (CTC4), effective computation of the CFA and the structural communication (CTC5), training of model. Moreover, principal component workers and supervisors (CTC6), extraction via promax rotation is adopted enforcement of safety regulations (CTC7), in achieving the relevant eight factors regularly maintained equipment (CTC8), (components). For the suitability of the provision of adequate safety items sample, Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) and (CTC9), inspection of work environment Bartlett’s tests were carried out and shown (CTC10), housekeeping (CTC11), fencing as Table 6. Following the EFA, 57 items for safety (CTC12), medical facilities and out of the 69 items derived from literature workers welfare (CTC13), adequate are found to be above the 0.70 factor working platforms, and railings (CTC14), loading cut-off. The deleted items trained workers in hazards identification (12NOS) that could not measure up to the (CTC15), safe accommodation (CTC16), 0.70 cut-off threshold include CLP3, ensuring timely resolution of conflict CLP5, CLP8, CSP5, CTP3, HASP6, (CTC17) and opportunity for prayer CLC2, CLC4, CTC7, CTC17 and HASC4. (CTC18). Finally, in reference to the health and safety-related preventive measures, they comprise of: Ensuring competent supervisors (HASC1), training, workshops, and seminars (HASC2), sites inspection and monitoring (HASC3), office accessibility to contractors (HASC4) and
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Table 6 KMO and Bartlett’s Test the modification indices, such as Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Tucker Lewis Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin .977 Index (TLI), Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Measure of Sampling and Normed Fit Index (NFI) must be higher Adequacy than 0.90 (>0.9). The Chi-square’s ratio Bartlett’s Approx. chi- 22421.368 (chi-sq) as well as the Degree of freedom Test of Square (df) must not be higher than 5.0, that is, Sphericity df 2346 Chisq/df ≤ 5.0. In addition, the Root Mean Sig. .000 Score Error Approximation (RMSEA) should cleave to a lower value of 0.08, that is, < 0.08. The situation where a revised or The value is an acceptable one, being adjusted model is needed is where the above the accepted minimum of 0.5, while initial CFA, the hypothesised model and the Barlett’s test of sphericity is significant the structural equation models (SEM) (p< 0.05). This is shown in Table 3. could not fulfil the minimum requirement of
the modification indices (Awang, 2015; 4.4 Reliability of Instrument and Oke, 2016). Confirmatory Analysis
Reliability test was carried out via Cronbach’s alpha, while the values obtained for each construct included: CLP (.906), CSP (.931), CTP (.880), HASP (.903), CLC (.889), CSC (.927), CTC (.959) and HASC (.882), indicating that the level of significance was high enough and they all met up with the requirement (Tanko et al., 2018). This indicated that the Figure 2 Initial CFA Model of Client- proposed model would enable Related Preventive Measures at the stakeholders to know the appropriate Preconstruction Stage accident preventive measures to mitigate against the occurrence of accidents on the site. However, confirmatory factor analyses were carried out on the constructs in order to establish the goodness of fit of the models. The initial model of every construct was carried out, but where the initial model could not reach the acceptable requirement such construct was subjected to adjustment (revision) to produce a better model fit. Moreover, the modus operandi involved in respect to achieving a fitted model was to be sure that every factor loading equalled to (=) or Figure 3 Modified CFA Model of Client- above (>) 0.6 (Awang, 2015), indicating Related Preventive Measures at the that factor loading less than 0.6 was Preconstruction Stage. unquestionably expunged at confirmatory level. Therefore, Figure 2 shows the CFA carried out on one of the constructs, which as a result of want of space it is a representative of CFA done for other constructs, but the summary of all the CFAs is shown in Table 7. The conditions for acceptance of the model is to see that
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Table 7 Summary of the Model Fitness Table 8 Validity of Model of Relationship Indices among Constructs
S/N Constructs Composite AVE Reliability 1 CLP .74 .48 2 CSP .89 .50 3 CTP .80 .50 4 HASP .87 .57 5 CLC .74 .49 6 CSC .90 .56 7 CTC .93 .50 Moreover, effort is made to establish the 8 HASC .77 .53 relationship of all the constructs of accident preventive measures. This In addition, in testing the relationship becomes necessary in order to establish between the first order and the second the inter-correlation among the constructs order measurement models, SEM so as to enable the researcher confirm the (Structural equation model) was used to validity and reliability of the constructs of achieve this. However, with the results of the model. Consequently, Figure 4 shows the test of the second-order model shown the model of relationship among the in Figure 5 implies that the outcomes of the constructs of accident preventive structural model were also found to have measures, while the result of the validity is met acceptable thresholds on all of the statistical contained in Table 8. In addition, the parameters in literature for a model fit. measurement model contains eight Consequently, the values obtained for the constructs that are inter-correlated, and modified model are: The Chi-square = having 57 items across the constructs, 1634.662, the df = 733, Ratio = 2.230, CFI with the measurement error shown on = .912, IFI = .912, TLI = .906 and RMSEA each item. In addition, the factor loadings = .057. Consequently, at the development (FL), inter-factor correlation and the of structural equation model 40 items goodness of fit indices are considered in (preventive measures) are found to be the course of validating the model. Based significant which are indicated in the on the responses of the respondents the model, as shown in Figures 5 and 6. factor loadings above 0.6 are analysed.
Figure 4 Modified Model of Relationship among the Constructs of Accident Figure 5 Structural Equation Model of Preventive Measures (First order Accident Preventive Measures (Second measurement model). order measurement model).
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This is presented in Figure 5 as the model The last indicator asked from the expert if for the prevention of accident in the processes involved in carrying out Nigerian building construction industry. accident prevention were indicated in the The model was further positively validated model, 21 (87.5%) indicated “yes”, while 3 by experienced construction (12.5%) indicated “no”. the summary of professionals, purposively chosen across their responses is presented in Table 9. the country (Nigeria), having experiences not less than fifteen years in the Table 9 Overall Model Assessment construction-related fields. The under Attributes of the Yes No Unsure listed indicators were demanded from Model f % f % f % them. Appropriateness of the 24 100 - - - - model in prevention of accident 1. Validity and appropriateness of the The model as a guide 23 95.8 1 4.2 - - for construction model in preventing accident. professionals in 2. The model serving as a guide for prevention of accident construction professionals and other Understanding the 24 100 - - - - model stakeholders in prevention of accident on Implementation of 22 91.7 1 4.2 1 4.2 building construction site. model through H&S regulations and 3. Comprehension of the model. enforcement. 4. The necessity for Health and safety Processes involved in 21 87.5 3 12.5 - - carrying out accident regulations and enforcement as a prevention requirement for the successful implementation of the accident preventive model. Consequent upon the assessment given 5. Model depicting the processes by the experts, it is found that the model is involved in carrying out an accident valid and appropriate for PoA. Beyond any prevention study. other proof, it serves as a guide for 6. Further steps to be taken to professionals in enforcing safety. Besides, enhance the implementation of the model. it is understandable enough, even to a lay 7. Additional suggestion on how the man, while the H&S regulations and model can be improved upon. enforcement are seen as the yardsticks for
the implementation of the model. Regarding indicator number one, the Moreover, the processes involved in experts were to indicate their opinions if carrying out accident prevention are the accident preventive measures listed in clearly shown. Conclusively, to the the model were appropriate to prevent the experts, the model was found useful for occurrence of accident on the building the prevention of accident at the building construction site, all the twenty-four site. Moreover, shown below is the dual- experts (100%) responded positively by stage zero-accident model for the building indicating “yes”. For indicator number two, construction industry. requesting the ability of the model to serve as a guide for construction professionals and other stakeholders in prevention of accident on building construction site, twenty-three (23) representing 95.8% agreed to this fact and indicated “yes”, while only 4.2% indicated “no”. Moreover, indicator number three requested if the model was understandable, all the experts (100%) indicated “yes”. Indicator number four demanded for possibility of the implementation of the model through the existence of H&S regulations and enforcement, 91.7% were in agreement.
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To the Professionals ➢ Effort should be made to disengage quack professionals from participating in construction works ➢ Members of professional bodies are to make themselves available for training and re-training in safety-related matters. ➢ Attendance of seminars, conferences and workshops on H&S related issues. ➢ Effort should be made to always award contract to contractors with good safety records. ➢ All professionals should imbibe and exhibit safety culture in all their activities.
Figure 6 Dual-Stage Accident Prevention To the Contractors: Model ➢ Safety training is to be organised for the workers and the supervisors. 5.0 CONCLUSION ➢ Safety officers are to be engaged The final outcome of the research was the on the site in any construction work. development of a model, with a content of ➢ There should be provision of all the tasks of the duty holders (construction measures that can promote safety of stakeholders) in the prevention of BCS workers on the site, for instance, PPE, accident, as model is glimpsed to be the warning signs, safe accommodation, most suitable way of studying the medical facilities, adequate working circumstances surrounding occupational platforms, and the likes. accident. More so, it is viewed to be a theoretical way of possessing knowledge To The Health and Safety Regulators of a concept or idea, thus representing ➢ Organising safety trainings, diverse ways of approaching complex seminars and workshops for construction issues. The participation of major participants on a regular basis. stakeholders is imperative during the ➢ Regularly advising the government identified dual-stage of construction in the on issues related to H&S of construction drive to achieve a zero-accident at the participants, for example, policy building site. Further research can be formulation and implementation. carried out on the implementation of the ➢ Ensuring the compliance to H&S model. regulations by the contractors and offering necessary sanctions on non-compliant. To the Developers ➢ Engagement of competent To the Federal Government professionals in building projects. ➢ Constant review of Health and ➢ There should be provision of safety regulations. adequate fund for H&S related issues. ➢ Provision of fund to the H&S ➢ Ensuring that contractors with good enforcement agency for monitoring and safety records are awarded contracts. inspection of sites. ➢ Participation in H&S related matters ➢ Adoption of international best from inception to completion. practices in H&S related matters. ➢ Enforcement of accident reporting and publication of accident data.
This research can further be elaborated by
considering a critical analysis of the
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involvement of construction stakeholders Diugwu, I. A., Baba, D. L., & Egila, A. E. (2012) in the prevention of accident on the BCS 'Effective Regulation and Level of Awareness: An Exposé of the Nigeria’s should be carried out as well as testing the Construction Industry', Open Journal of implementation of the developed model on Safety Science and Technology, 2(4), pp. the building construction sites. 140-146.
Dunlap C. (2012)' A Safety Elements Model for the ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Building Construction Industry', A Doctoral Thesis, Louisiana State University. The authors would like to express their Edmund E.E. (2015) 'Analysis of Occupational appreciation to the organisers of the Hazards an d Safety of Workers in conference, for making it free for members Selected Working Environments within (staff and students) of FABU. Enugu Metropolis' Journal of Environmental & Toxicology 5(6), 337 REFERENCES Famepyramids Ltd (2013) 'The Roles and Alhajeri, M. ( 2011) 'Health and Safety in the Responsibilities of Professionals in Construction Industry: Challenges and Building Construction', Nairaland Forum, Solutions in the UAE', Unpublished Thesis. Available online @ http:///1am0bu7 Coventry: Coventry University. Accessed 26 Nov, 2018.
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EXPLORING RELEVANT GREEN MATERIALS FOR LOW COST BUILDING CONSTRUCTION IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
S. M. Adeniyi *1 and S. F. Mohamed 2
1 Department of Quantity Surveying, School of Environmental Studies Federal Polytechnic, Offa. Kwara state Nigeria. (E-mail: [email protected])
2 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
There are critical issues on the shortage of affordable house for low income earners in the developing country such as Nigeria. The high cost of conventional materials has been established as one the major factors that escalated the cost of building in the recent time. However green building materials that are relevant and sustainable for building construction in the present dispensation will provide great solution to overcome high price of construction. A survey was carried out on all the available green materials in the north central Nigeria. Questionnaire was distributed to Nigerian Building Construction professionals, who were members of diverse experts in the building industry. Out of the 400-questionnaire distributed in the six different states, that is Plateau, Niger, Benue, Nassarawa, Kogi and Kwara States, 305 questionnaires were only used for the data analyses. Structural equation model (SEM) was used to analysis and generate model for the study. The result reveals that earth bricks, stone/rocks, timber, Bamboo, thatches, straw fibre and rice husk are very relevant green materials that can be used to mitigate the high cost of building construction. Therefore, the use and integration of green materials in building construction will better the provision of low-cost housing units for the citizen of the developing countries
Keywords: Green materials, Conventional materials, Building construction, Low cost and Nigeria
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1.0 INTRODUCTION they typically require little or no further process before being used for In the recent time it is no longer news that constructions. Therefore, the use of GMs developing countries are on the deficit side will reduce expenses to its lowest and the in respects to provision of housing for the impact of green technology innovation on people due high cost of constructing the state of economy observed from the residential building. The building industry standpoints of cost saving/effectiveness has varieties of materials for the purpose is enormous. of construction; hence the price of building largely depends on the type of materials The following are the promising green used. The promotion of relevant green materials that may be reintroduced as materials (GMs) will go a long way in the building materials. mitigation of the cost of building. GMs is i. Bamboo materials that are found with vegetation ii. Earth Bricks environment, they are natural materials iii. Timber that required little or no process before it iv. Thatches could be used. According to Mehta, & v. Fibre Sharma, (2014) using green building materials and products promotes 1.2 Bamboo preservation of deteriorating non- renewable resources. Moreover, Bamboo is available in Nigeria at all integrating green building materials into season of the year, its majorly used in the construction projects can help reduce the construction of building as prop to provide environmental impacts associated with the support for some element of building at extraction, transportation, processing, construction stage, it is also used as fabrication, installation, reuse, recycling, scaffolding in high rise building. The recent and disposal of construction industry study has shown that bamboo can be used source materials. Green materials are also to replace steel reinforcement in ground available in variety thus the need to beam, lintel and short beam, according to assess the relevant and sustainable ones Kayode & Olusegun, (2013), civil among them and recommending its total engineers has found out in their study that or a combination with conventional bamboo tensile strength is same to that of materials will go a long way in the mild steel at its matured age and has an 2 2 provision of affordable and sustainable average of 1400kg/cm to 2,800kg/cm . housing for the average citizen.
1.1 Green materials A material that has at least one positive environmental characteristic is simply refers to as green materials (Fithian & Sheets, 2009). Green materials also mean natural resources and its adoption for construction work in order to serve as an alternative to conventional materials and protect our environment is inevitable. The environmental benefits of building green according to Phatak (2015), includes the protection of ecosystems and biodiversity, improved air and water quality, less waste flowing into streams, and the conservation of natural resources. The use of green materials can also result in lower cost of operation since
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universes was made of earth walls with thatches roof. In the study carried out by Oshike, (2015), it was reveals that since man begins the act of shelter construction, the earth has been the main material for wall constructions and earlier to the foreign arrival into the west coast of Africa, the earth was the major building material in the area. Oshike further stated that “It was used effectively in the various climatic zones, the application method depends on the type of soil, technical know-how,and tools as well as local traditions and customs of the community”.
Zami, (2008), further stressed that “earth has been used as a construction material
in every continent and in every age, Figure 1 Stocks of Bamboo and its largely due to its versatility and arrangement in a concrete ground beam. widespread availability. It is one of the Source: engineering society.com oldest building materials. The use of earth on site as a building material saves Internationally bamboo is used to produce manufacturing cost, time, energy, mass housing for the people, according to environmental pollution, and Bredenoord, (2017), “Costa Rica the transportation cost”. Papayianni (2017) National Bamboo Project (1986-1995) confirmed that earth structures have been started as a new technological approach constantly used in building from early to preventing deforestation. The idea was history until these days. to replace the use of wood with an alternative, cost-effective and seismically Earth materials is significantly varies in sound building material. Initially, 700 low- quality from the excellent brown clay to cost houses were built and 200 hectares the blackish type, the development of the of bamboo was cultivated”. adobe brick, a performed modular masonry unit of sun-dried mud, came into 1.3 Earth bricks existence with higher civilization levels (Fradinho & Nedelcu, 2017) Earth material have been used ever since man existing, most the first building in the
Figure 2 Earth bricks and the mould machine.
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Bredenoord (2017), concludes that earth- timber excels where strength (or stiffness) block knowledge is developing in many to weight is more important than absolute countries, well supported and the strength (or stiffness). Specific development creates opportunities for the architectural and engineering designs can local extraction of raw materials for useful maximise this relationship, but it also and cheap building materials that can be suggests that timber buildings may be processed locally in the housing fundamentally different from steel or construction industry. concrete buildings in structural and spatial layout. 1.4 Timber 1.5 Thatches Timber is a material that found in the forest and used around the world for construction The people have been using thatch for activities. It a product of big and season thousands of years to create durable roofs trees from the forest. According to for their home, and if properly installed, is Ramage et al., (2017), they are natural one of the most beautiful and practical material from forest product that are forms of roofing available today. Thatch readily available for small and large retains a tensile strength while used for construction activities. roof. According to Fradinho & Alex (2017) defined timber as “one of the Nedelcu(2017), the material is one of the few natural building materials, which has a oldest of all building materials known, lot of advantages”. Largely, is non –toxic thatch building uses matted or baled straw material, it does not contain chemical and from wheat, oats, barley, rye, rice and safe to handle and use in building others. construction. The Hardwood is a natural product of the earth that is constantly Thatches is now commonly found in farm being renewed. It is completely settlement building, museum, sit out bar of biodegradable and can be easily recycled a big star hotel and residential building at the end of its life and used as fuel, or in across Nigeria. other projects (Manufacture et.al 2017). As a natural material, timber exhibits an inherent variation of its properties across samples of the same species. According to Ramage et al.(2017), this is due to the interaction of characteristics at the molecular and macro scales.
Timber as defined by Dean, (2010) is a sustainable and durable primary construction material, it is renewable, it requires little energy to make the transformation from living tree to usable timber, and it is grown and processed locally in North Scotland”. The best timber used in northern part of Nigeria is originated from the trunks of a male palm tree. They are rigid and heavy, resistant to termite attack (Fradinho, 2017). According to (Ramage et al., (2017)
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Figure 3 Thatches in stock and a residential bus bar; Source the author
1.6 Fibre that absorbs carbon dioxide from the environment in a sustainable way. Klarić, One of the industrial wastes transformed et-al. (2015) stated the importance of to building materials are wood fibre. It is a wood fibre in its variety of function which moderate modern insulation brought into includes inflexible insulation, sheathing lime light in the last two decade (Klarić, et- and sharking for timber frames, roofs and al. 2015). flooring as well as flexible insulation for studs and rafters. There is other industrial Wood fibre was generated from new ways waste such as fly ash, rice husk, baggase of transforming timber waste from thinning etc. A survey market price of these and factories into insulation boarding. It is materials is present in table 1.0 also a recyclable and reusable material
Table 1 Selected green materials market survey
S/N Green Material Availability Cost (N) Remarks Earth bricks; size Durable, thermal 1 Largely available 62.00/un 200x100x100mm insulation 2 Bamboo 6meter length Largely Available N300.00/length Durable 3 Stone/rock Available N2500/ton Durable Timber; N800.00/length 25mmx300mmx3600mm 4 Available N600.00/length Durable 50mmx150mmx3600mm N300.00/length 50mmx75mmx3600mm Available in 5 Thatches N166.66/bounce Durable different type Fibres; Particle board Largely Available in 6 N 1,000.00/unit Durable 2400mm x 4800mm different sizes
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2.0 METHODOLOGY AND confirmatory factor analysis and ANALYSIS regression analysis through a comprehensive fitness index. During the conduct of this study, questionnaire survey was carried out 2.1 Fitness Index among the Nigerian Building Construction professionals, who were duly registered Fitness Indices reflect how fit the model is members of different organisations in the to the data (Zainudin, 2012). Wan building industry. Out of the 400- Afthanorhan, (2014) noted that there is questionnaire distributed in six different several Fitness Indices in SEM that reflect states in Nigeria (that is, in Plateau, Niger, how fit is the model to the data. It is Benue, Nassarawa, Kogi and Kwara recommended that the use of at least one States); 305 questionnaires were able to fitness index from each category of model retrieved for data analyses. The data were fit Fitness Indices in SEM models are entered in to special package for social assessed through three model fit science (SPSS 22) for analysis and categories namely Absolute Fit, structural equation model (SEM) statistical Incremental Fit and Parsimonious Fit. Wan tool was further used to carry out a Afthanorhan, (2014) described the three categories as follows:
Table 2 Fitness Indices
Name of Level of Name of category Index name index acceptance Chisq Discrepancy chi square P > 0.05 Root Mean Square of Error Absolute Fit RMSEA < 0.08 Approximation > 0.90 GFI Goodness of Fit Index AGFI Adjusted Goodness of Fit > 0.90 CFI Comparative Fit Index > 0.90 Increment Fit TLI Tucker-Lewis Index > 0.90 NFI Normed Fit Index > 0.90 Parsimonious Fit Chisq/df Chi-Square/Degree of freedom < 5.00
2.2 Relevant Green Material The indicators are sub-divided into the Measurement Model Fit sub-constructs as follows: Earth Materials (4 items), Natural Fibres (5 items) and The GMs construct consists of three sub- Industrial and Building Wastes (4 items) categories, viz, Earth Materials, Natural respectively. Figure 4 presents the initial Fibres and Industrial and Building Wastes. measurement model for the improved Each of the sub-constructs has a number information construct derived from AMOS of items or indicators. The indicators are analysis. Table 3 lists the indicators for the together 13 in number as observed in initial measurement model for Improved Section B of the survey’s questionnaire. Information construct.
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Figure 4 Initial measurement model for relevant GMs
Table 3 Indicators for the initial measurement model for relevant GMs construct
Constructs Code Indicators B1 Earth bricks B2 Stone/rocks B3 Timber B4 Lime B5 Bamboo B6 Thatches and grass Availability of B7 Coconut fibre GMs B8 Palm kennel shell B9 Straw fibre B10 Fly ash B11 Rice husk B12 Cow dung B13 Bagasse fibre
Figure 4 shows CFA results of fitness which one of the paired redundant items indices and factor loading for every item. was eliminated to obtain discriminant As shown in Figure 5.2, few of the fitness validity. The final measurement model indices have achieved the acceptable shows that all the error covariance values range of respective indices; such the are less than 15, which is within the (ChiSq / df=0.000 <3.00), (RMSEA=0.071 acceptable range for MI. The construct <0.08), and the (GFI = 0.922); except for validity was achieved, in which the Fitness (AGFI, CFI, TLI and NFI < 0.90). This Indices for the construct (as shown in made the model to fail the uni- Figure 5) are within the required level. The dimensionality assessment. In order to values of Fitness Indices for final achieve the uni-dimensionality of the measurement model are: P-value=0.045, model, the low factor loadings were RMSEA=0.060, GFI=0.974, AGFI=0.959, deleted. Figure 5 demonstrates the final CFI=0.933, TLI=0.922, NFI=0.846 and measurement model for Relevant GMs ChiSq/df= 1.62. Table 5.5 shows the construct that fits the acceptable range of Indicators for the final measurement index after the undervalued items were model for Relevant GMs construct. deleted. High MI values were treated, in
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Figure 5 Final measurement model for Relevant GMs construct
Table 4 Indicators for the final measurement Model for Relevant Green Materials construct
Constructs Code Indicators B1 Earth bricks B2 Stone/rocks B3 Timber Availability B5 Bamboo of GMs B6 Thatches and grass B9 Straw fibre B11 Rice husk
The model has passed the reliability Relevant GMs Construct model, are assessment, in which the value of CR ≥ reported as shown in Table 4. With all the 0.6 is achieved. The convergent validity of acceptable values described. Therefore, the sub-constructs is significant with a this final measurement model for the value of AVE ≥ 0.5. The results of AVE and Relevant GMs construct is fit for inclusion CR, which assessed the convergent in the SEM structural model for further validity and composite reliability of the analysis.
Table 5 Validity and reliability assessment for Relevant GMs measurement model
Factor AVE (≥ Constructs Sub-constructs Items Loading (≥ CR (≥ 0.6) 0.5) 0.6) B1 0.56 B2 0.57 Earth Materials B3 0.56 B4 Deleted B5 0.48 B6 0.47 Relevant Natural Fibres B7 Deleted GMs B8 Deleted B9 0.45 B10 Deleted Industrial and B11 1.00 building waste B12 Deleted B13 Deleted
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3.0 CONCLUSION https://doi.org/10.4172/2168-9717.1000187 Dean, S. (2010). Using Local Timber - Contributing Provision of affordable building to the to Sustainable Construction. Guidance for average citizen of many developing North Scotland. (March). countries remains a mirage; thus, this formed the main reason for carrying out Fithian, C., & Sheets, A. (2009). Green Building this study, to establish or reactivates Materials Determining the True Definition of Green Green Building Materials. 1–13. relevant green materials that can be used Retrieved from to replace conventional material in the https://repositories.lib.utexas.edu/bitstream/h construction of building. The extensive andle/2152/13325/9-Fithian_Sheets- literature review and survey of relevant Green_Building_Materials.pdf?sequence=2 GM pinpoints various green materials and reveals that the adoption of GMs can Fradinho, J., & Nedelcu, D. (2017). Vernacular Architecture of Northern Nigeria in the Light result to lower cost of operation since they of Sustainability. typically require little or no further process https://doi.org/10.1088/1755- before being used for constructions works 1315/63/1/012034 (Phatak 2015). The result of this study reveals that the most relevant GMs Kayode, O., & Olusegun, A. E. (2013). Local Building Materials : a Tool Towards Effective available for low-cost building Low-Income Housing in Nigeria Department construction in Nigeria are earth bricks, of Architecture Rufus Giwa Polytechnic , Owo stone/rocks, timber, bamboo, thatches , Nigeria. 18(4), 492–497. straw fibre, and rice husk. Nwoke and https://doi.org/10.5829/idosi.mejsr.2013.18.4 Ugwuishiwu (2011) similarly found out .11707 that earth bricks and bamboos are very Klarić, S., Novalic, A., Hujdur, Z., Aybek, I., & suitable and have been put into used in Dautovic, A. (2015). Advantages of Natural the construction of building in Nigeria. In Renewable Materials in the Building Sector. conclusion the adoption of relevant green The 3rd International Conference “The materials for construction of building will Importance of Place,” (December), 445–463. reduce cost drastically and make housing Manufacture, R., Distance, T., Cycle, L., & affordable to the lower income earners in Flooring, C. (n.d.). Cost Effective Green the society. Flooring Options Eco Friendly Flooring Materials Sorted by Cost. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Mehta, G., Mehta, A., & Sharma, B. (2014). Selection of Materials for Green The author would like to thank the Ministry of Construction : A Review. 11(6), 80–83. Education (MOE) Malaysia through Research University Grant (RUG) funding project Oshike, E. E. (2015). Building with earth in Nigeria: number PY/2017/01501 and Government of A review of the past and present efforts to Nigeria through TETFUND for financial enhance future housing developments. 4(1), 646–660. assistances while conducting this research project. Papayianni, I., & Pachta, V. (2017). Earth Block Houses of Historic Centers. A Sustainable REFERENCES Upgrading with Compatible Repair Materials. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 38, 274– 282. Alex, D. (2017). Builder merchant news magazine https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proenv.2017.03.076 UK Phatak, U. J. (2015). GREEN BUILDING Bredenoord, J. (2017). Sustainable Building MATERIALS – A Way. 4(4), 244–249. Materials for Low-cost Housing and the Challenges Facing their Technological Ramage, M. H., Burridge, H., Busse-Wicher, M., Developments: Examples and Lessons Fereday, G., Reynolds, T., Shah, D. U., … Regarding Bamboo, Earth-Block Scherman, O. (2017). The wood from the Technologies, Building Blocks of Recycled trees: The use of timber in construction. Materials, and Improved Concrete Panels. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Journal of Architectural Engineering Reviews, 68(October 2016), 333–359. Technology, 06(01), 1–10.
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.09.107
Wan Afthanorhan, W. M. A. (2014). Modeling the Multiple Indirect Effects among Latent Constructs By Using Structural Equation Modeling : Volunteerism Program. International Journal of Advancs in Applied Sciences, 3(1), 25–32.
Zainudin, A. (2012). The Second Order Confirmatory Factor Analysis. A Handbook on SEM, (March), 163–181.
Zami, M. (2008). Using earth as a building material for sustainable low cost housing in Zimbabwe. The Built and Human Environment Review, 1, 40–55.
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ADOPTION OF KNOWLEDGE FORMALISATION METHOD IN CAPTURING THE SEMANTICS OF FIRE SAFETY REGULATIONS IN MALAYSIA
A. S. Ismail *1, K. N. Ali 2 and N. A. Iahad 3
1, 2,3 Building Information Modelling Center for Digital Innovations and Solutions, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The upsurge of design complexity through the application of Building Information Modelling (BIM) leads to various development of automation in designing and construction processes including automation in the compliance checking process. The compliance of building designs to fire safety regulations holds an utmost importance to ensure adequate fire safety level in the building. The automation in compliance checking process could save significant time and cost as well as avoid inaccuracies. Since regulations are commonly written in human linguistic format, the semantics of the regulations need to be captured and extracted to translate them into computer interpretable rules. This paper demonstrates the process in capturing the semantics of fire safety regulations in Selangor Uniform Building By-Laws 1984 through the adoption of knowledge formalisation method. A framework was developed to provide a comprehensive guideline in capturing the semantics for the classification of fire safety regulations. The framework affirms the reliability of executing this method for other building regulations. This paper is an ongoing research in developing an automated BIM-based fire regulations compliance checking system in Malaysia, whereby the results attained from this paper will be used to extract the semantics of the regulations to create computer interpretable rules.
Keywords : Fire safety regulations, Code compliance checking, Building Information Modelling, Knowledge formalisation method, Semantics
1.0 INTRODUCTION creation of well-defined information to be used throughout the project lifecycle. The The Architecture, Engineering and development of building models storing Construction (AEC) industry is vast amount of information could be progressively changing through the performed successfully through the emergence of Building Information application of BIM as it provides a Modelling (BIM). The extensive comprehensive framework for information application of BIM in construction projects handling and exchange (Zhong et al., magnifies the urgency for the automation 2018). The integration of BIM and Internet of various construction processes and the of Things (IoT) has led to immense
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possibilities to further enhance the project The building requirements act as a set of delivery practices (Tang et al., 2019). This rules in this automated process, for integration is more prevailing in instance, fire safety regulations, Construction Operation and Monitoring, accessibility rules, construction safety Health and Safety Management, requirements and sustainability Construction Logistic and Management, requirements. The objectives of this as well as Facilities Management. automated process are to save significant time and cost, as well as to avoid Meanwhile, the design process has inaccuracies and errors (Solihin and tremendously advanced through the Eastman, 2015). application of BIM which motivates the dependency on software applications to To develop this automated process, the develop more sophisticated building semantics of building regulations need to models. Regardless of the complexity be translated into computer interpretable level of the building models, designs are rules as the existing human linguistic restricted to building regulations for the format is not suitable for automated approval of construction work. For compliance checking process (Eastman et instance, design conforming to fire safety al., 2009). This translation process is the regulations is an established fire safety initial step and one of the most challenging strategy which aims to protect life of issues to be dealt in developing this occupants and the property as well as to automated process (Preidel and continue relevant operation in the event of Borrmann, 2018). Thus, this paper fire (Stein et al., 2006). The rigid nature of presents the translation process in which these regulations often posed as a fixed an established technique known as the constraint to various building stakeholders knowledge formalisation method was (Maluk, Woodrow and Torero, 2017). It is adopted to capture the semantics for the perceived as a barrier for other design classification of fire safety regulations in goals such as green construction and Malaysia. Uniform Building By-Laws 1984 aesthetical values. Due to this, fire safety (UBBL 1984) based on the Selangor requirements are often incorporated in the Uniform Building (Amendment No. 2) By- later stage of design process, rather than Laws 2012 acted as a case study for this applying concurrently while designing. In translation process. other words, these requirements are not viewed as variables for designing. 2.0 RELATED WORKS
Fire safety regulations are subjectively Eastman et al. (2009) had established an complex (Malsane et al., 2015) and require orderly structure in developing the impeccable familiarity and understanding automated code compliance checking for compliance purpose (Smith, 1991). process to ensure the consistency and Issues pertaining to fire and building safety functionality of the system. This structure as well as the evolution of technology consists of four stages – rule stimulate a wide development of studies in interpretation, building model preparation, automating the compliance checking rule execution and rule reporting. This process. Automated code compliance structure had been widely applied over the checking process, or also referred to as past decade in the development of automated rule checking system, is a automated code compliance checking computer-programmed analysis on the system. compliance of building designs based on the models’ objects, attributes and The rule interpretation stage, which is the relations (Eastman et al., 2009). This first stage in developing the automated system provides an assessment on the process, involves in the representation of compliance of designs with any building building regulations. The existing building requirement without modifying the building regulations are defined in a human designs to conform with the requirements. linguistic format which are unattainable to
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be directly applied for an automated Inc., 2019). It provides a library of system. Due to the linguistic format, architectural rules in which users could regulations often contain subjective only adjust the built-in parameters without meanings, different terminologies referring modifying or adding new rules (Preidel et to the same concept and multiple level of al., 2018). To add specific rules, the data structuring and inter-relationships mapping could only be tailored by the between the clauses (Malsane et al., Solibri software developers. 2015). Hence, the conversion of building regulations into machine-readable rules is 2.2 Rule Interpretation using ‘White vital before carrying out further stages. Box’ method
2.1 Rule Interpretation using ‘Black While these systems are proven to be Box’ method reliable and are still considered as the most prominent systems, it is becoming Preidel et al. (2018) had deduced the rule increasingly favourable to develop new interpretation process into either two major systems with much more transparency choices. The interpretation which involves and flexibility for the users (Preidel et al., digitalizing the contents of building 2018; Solihin, Dimyadi and Lee, 2019). regulations could be either through ‘Black The conventional method was proven to Box’ method or ‘White Box’ method. The be difficult to maintain and extend ‘Black Box’ method stems from a general (Dimyadi, Pauwels and Amor, 2016a). system theory by (Von Bertalanffy, 1972) This leads to the application of ‘White Box’ in which the software development is method in more recent studies. A review based on hard-coding technique, in other done by (Solihin et al., 2019) on the words, the program routines, methods and different types of language-based algorithms are hidden from users. Hard- approaches in developing automated code coding technique was desirable among compliance checking system revealed that the earliest and conventional automated the openness in defining rules is the most code compliance checking system practical approach in implementing the development. This is because ‘Black Box’ system. Natural Language Processing method promotes significant low error rate (NLP) has been one of the approaches in due to its internal and direct accessibility to translating the natural language of data structures without end-users’ regulations. For instance, Zhang and El- involvement. For instance, Singapore e- Gohary (2017) applied semantic NLP Government initiative known as techniques and logic reasoning to create a CORENET (Construction and Real Estate Semantic Natural Language Processing Network) was developed through an Based Automated Compliance Checking independent platform named FORNAX. (SNACC) system. In another study, Text This platform is a C++ object library in Classification, a subfield of NLP was which rules are hard coded in computer explored using Machine Learning programming language (Eastman et al., techniques (Zhou and El-Gohary, 2015) 2009). The CORENET ePlanCheck and further developed to support ontology- System is the first automated code based Machine Learning techniques compliance checking system to be fully (Zhou and El-Gohary, 2016). Song, Kim implemented in a country covering and Lee (2018) had also employed architectural and building services Machine Learning techniques specifically requirements such as accessibility codes, deep learning-based NLP to analyse the building control regulations and fire codes semantic meanings of building regulations for building services system (Nova Group, for automated system. 2017). Besides CORENET, Solibri Model Checker (SMC) software application is Other approaches of the ‘White Box’ also based on hard-coding technique method encouraged the segregation of where built-in data were developed and computer interpretable rules with the applied for compliance checking (Solibri checking process to allow the rules to be
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maintained and extended whenever system to select and execute the checking deemed to be necessary. This also helps process. The accessibility provides in maintaining the consistency and inter- flexibility for the rules to be continuously relationships between rules (Malsane et extended and maintained. The flexibility of al., 2015). This was demonstrated in a rule-based language is important as the study done by Dimyadi et al. (2016b) natural language of regulations are mostly where a compliance audit framework ambiguous and contain open-ended known as ARCABIM was developed which reasonings for compliance (Nawari, 2012). consists of building model, regulatory Most regulations, in their natural language, knowledge model and compliance contain multiple paths to comply based on checking mechanism acting as different circumstances and implicit independent input components. A knowledge specifically for the domain-specific query language called performance criteria compliance which BIM Rule Language (BIMRL) was pose as great challenge for interpretation developed and integrated into the process (Dimyadi et al., 2016a). Hence, framework. BIMRL was proven to support ‘White Box’ method is a much-preferred the complexity of rules and high level of technique to enable the involvement of building data semantics as well as allowing AEC experts to translate rules based on supplementary human input in the their knowledge and experience (Preidel framework. Similar development et al., 2018). techniques were also executed in Korea where the translation of rules and the Nevertheless, the ‘White Box’ method checking process were separated for the employed in fully automated translation purpose of high flexibility and system for complex rules including the maintainability. KBimLogic, a logic rule- application of Machine Learning was still based mechanism was developed to considered to be a hurdle in the real-world classify and translate the natural language implementation due to the high system of Korean Building Act into computer development cost (Solihin et al., 2019). interpretable rules (Kim et al., 2017; Lee et Therefore, a more practical approach to al., 2016). Hence, KBim Logic allows the the development of this system could be in involvement of users to translate the rules the form of semi-automated translation of which act as rule set files for KBimCode, a rules (Preidel et al., 2018). This promotes stand-alone application to carry out the a more direct involvement of the AEC and compliance checking process (Park and regulatory experts whom commonly have Lee, 2016). Logic-based approach was limited programming knowledge. It was also encouraged in other studies, for highlighted by Malsane et al. (2015) that instance a semantic mark-up RASE the involvement of experts in rule methodology was developed to transform interpretation process is crucial in regulations into logical statements ensuring the accuracy of the translation. (Hjelseth and Nisbet, 2011). It promotes This is because software developers have an alternative technique in translating limited capability and expertise to predict rules using non-programming language. the content of regulations.
Separation of the rule interpretation with An assessment done by Solihin et al. the checking process allows the (2019) revealed that while there are regulations to be translated based on the multiple approaches explored in rule-based concept and stored as a developing automated code compliance knowledge base (Dimyadi et al., 2016a). checking, no single approach has the The rule-based concept was examined to capability to address all issues pertaining be the core element in the wide variety of to this system. These approaches vary techniques developed to translate the from one another making it difficult to natural language of rules (Ismail, Ali and accelerate the real-world implementation. Iahad, 2017). This knowledge base is then It was suggested that combining existing accessible for the rule engine of the approaches is the way forward in
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actualizing a feasible automated code 3.0 METHODOLOGY compliance checking system. In developing an automated code Certain studies had explored means to compliance checking system for Malaysia, generalize the development of such this paper focuses on adopting the automated system especially in the rule knowledge formalisation method interpretation stage due to the complexity suggested by Malsane et al. (2015) for the and subjective nature of regulations. rule interpretation stage. The Solihin et al. (2015) had produced a formalisation was executed by first, general classification technique which selecting the relevant building regulations, could be applied in any regulation. This second, classifying them into specific classification consists of four classes, in categories, and lastly, decomposing the which Class 1 gathers rules with explicit semantics. It is an object-oriented data, Class 2 is for rules with any simple approach in which the main aim of the geometrical values, Class 3 is for rules formalisation is to define building objects with more complex requirements and and their relationship with the selected lastly, Class 4 categorizes rules with open- regulations. The simple steps in ended requirements. Meanwhile, Malsane knowledge formalisation method provide et al. (2015) introduced a knowledge an openness and practical approach as formalisation method which classifies well as standardising the rule rules before decomposing the rules into interpretation process for all building semantics. This classification is known as regulations across the globe. This paper the filter system where it categorises rules focuses on adopting the first two stages of with simple checkable information, rules knowledge formalisation method to that require human interpretation and rules capture the semantics for the classification which could not be processed through of fire safety regulations in Malaysia. automated checking system. This method is quite similar to the Transformation Uniform Building By-Laws 1984 (UBBL Reasoning Algorithm (TRA) developed by 1984 contains the minimum set of fire Nawari (2019) to transform the regulations safety requirements for buildings in into object rules or parametric models. Malaysia. As it is represented in a TRA defined the taxonomy of building linguistic format, UBBL 1984 based on the regulations based on four concepts, Selangor Uniform Building (Amendment namely ‘Content’, ‘Provisory’, ‘Dependent’ No. 2) By-Laws 2012 serves as the case and ‘Ambiguous’. The ‘Content’ concept study for the rule interpretation. The first categorises rules which could not be step in formalising by-laws in UBBL 1984 transformed such as definitions, while was to extract by-laws related to the fire ‘Provisory’ are rules with specific values safety requirements. Part VII (Fire for compliance, ‘Dependent’ are rules Requirements) and Part VIII (Fire Alarms, which rely to other rules for compliance Fire Detection, Fire Extinguishment and and ‘Ambiguous’ contain rules which need Fire Fighting Access) of UBBL 1984 are further expert knowledge. These studies directly related to the fire safety are beneficial for the development of a requirements. Hence, 119 by-laws were standardised automated system selected for the rule interpretation. Since especially semi-automated translation most of the by-laws contain more than one process which could applied for any paragraph, each paragraph was treated as regulation. A general framework helps in a single clause contributing to a total of maintaining the integrity and structure of 254 clauses to be analysed. compliance rules (Malsane et al., 2015). The next step was to classify the selected by-laws into categories. This is also known as the filter system (Malsane et al., 2015). The filter system classifies the by- laws into three categories – declarative
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clauses, informative clauses and one or more paragraphs where in most remaining clauses. According to Malsane cases, the paragraphs are related to other et al. (2015), declarative clauses are paragraphs in the by-laws or other computer interpretable rules which contain regulations, such as Malaysian Standards true-or-false element only whereas and British Standards. Apart from the by- informative clauses are clauses containing laws, UBBL 1984 contains Schedules natural language which require human which serve as the point of reference for interpretation. The remaining clauses are the by-laws. For instance, Seventh clauses which are not suitable for Schedule contains the specific automated compliance checking. The requirements of maximum travel distances filter system suggested by Malsane et al. in spaces and the calculation of occupancy (2015) was executed by classifying load and capacity of exits. declarative clauses through first filter categorisation followed by classifying In classifying the by-laws according to the informative clauses through second filter filter system suggested by Malsane et al. categorisation. The remaining clauses (2015), several adjustments to the original were then classified as unsuitable for procedure were carried out to ensure the automated compliance checking. consistency and accuracy of the categorisation process. While the This paper contributes to the extension of conditions for each of the category were the knowledge formalisation method by established by Malsane et al. (2015), the modifying the filtering process to better suit conditions were further defined for the nature of requirements in UBBL 1984. declarative and informative clauses. In A framework was developed to provide a addition to this, conditions for remaining more detailed guideline in filtering the clauses were constructed in this paper, in clauses. The framework is demonstrated which clauses in this category were given in Figure 1 which is explained further in more consideration in the filter system. Section 4.0. This is necessary due to the writing structure of UBBL 1984. Table 1 shows 4.0 RESULTS & DISCUSSIONS the conditions set for each category and an example for each condition. The by-laws in UBBL 1984 were written in
Table 1 Conditions for clauses in the filter system
Condition Example of by-law Declarative Clauses i. Contain By-law 184(1)(a) – The spacing of rows of seats from back to back shall be not geometrical rules less than 825 millimetres, nor less than 675 millimetres plus the sum of the thickness of the back and inclination of the back. By-law 167(2) – The width of storey exits shall be in accordance with the provisions in the Seventh Schedule to these By-Laws. ii. Contain definite By-law 153(1) – All lift lobbies shall be provided with smoke detectors. rules By-law 163 – Fire doors including frames shall be constructed in accordance with MS 1073. By-law 197(3) – Protected lobbies may be omitted if the staircase enclosures are pressurised to meet the requirements of by-law 200. Informative clauses i. Contain By-law 236 – Places constituting special hazards or risk due to the nature of ambiguous storage, trade, occupancy or size shall be required to be protected by fixed terminologies or installations, protective devices, systems and special extinguishers as may be arrangements required by the D.G.F.R.
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By-law 197(2) – In buildings exceeding 45 metres above ground level, such protected lobbies shall be pressurised to meet the requirements of Section 7 of the Australian Standard 1668, Part 1 – 1974 or any other system meeting the functional requirements of the D.G.F.R. ii. Provide options to By-law 196(5) – Where natural ventilation is impractical smoke lobbies and fire the designers fighting access lobbies may be ventilated by means of a vertical shaft or mechanically pressurised. Remaining clauses i. Contain definitions By-law 133 – In this Part and Part VIII unless the context otherwise requires – of terminologies “exit door” means a door from a storey, flat, or room which door gives access used in other by- from such storey, flat or room on to an exit route; laws ii. Contain general By-law 145(b) – Any reference to the Sixth Schedule to these By-laws shall be provisions or construed as referring to the provisions of Part I of the Schedule together with, guidelines for other at the option of the persons intending to erect the building, either the provisions by-laws of Part II, Part III or Part IV of the Schedule. iii. Contain method of By-law 165(1) – The travel distance to an exit shall be measured on the floor calculation or or other walking surface along the centre line of the natural path of travel, measurement starting 0.300 metre from the most remote point of occupancy, curving around any corners or obstructions with 0.300 metre clearance therefrom and ending at the storey exit. Where measurement includes stairs, it shall be taken in the plane of the trend noising.
In the original work, the filter system was The next step is to analyse all paragraphs, commenced by separating declarative including those without any reference to clauses through first filter categorisation other requirements, by identifying the followed by the second filter categorisation existence of certain elements in their for informative clauses. The remaining compositions. The first element is that the clauses which were not extracted from composition of paragraph explains the both filters were then considered as definition of terminologies used in other unsuitable for automated compliance paragraphs. This element is similar to the checking. Contrary to the original work, ‘Content’ concept of TRA developed by supplementary procedures were added (Nawari, 2019). For instance, by-law 133 before proceeding to the first filter contains the definition of an exit door categorisation. As demonstrated in Figure which is widely used in other paragraphs. 1, after acquiring UBBL 1984 and selecting Secondly, the content of a paragraph is a relevant fire safety requirements, general provision for other paragraphs. paragraphs which contain reference to This is reflected in by-law 145(b) in which other paragraphs or regulations were it provides a guideline in applying Sixth identified. Examples of such paragraph Schedule for any paragraph referring to are by-laws 163, 167(2), 197(2) and this schedule. Thirdly, the paragraph 197(3) as shown in Table X. By-laws contains specific method of calculation or 167(2) and 197(3) contain requirements measurement for other paragraphs. For referring to Sixth Schedule and By-law 200 example, by-law 165(1) explains the respectively while by-laws 163 and 197(2) method of measuring the travel distance in are subjected to regulations other than building spaces. Any paragraph UBBL 1984. These paragraphs were containing either of these three elements marked to maintain their inter-relationship was categorised as a remaining clause in during compliance checking. This which it is concluded to be unsuitable for procedure was also suggested by Nawari automated compliance checking. (2019) where rules relying to other rules Remaining clauses were first extracted for compliance were categorized under the from the filter system which contradicts ‘Dependent’ concept. with the original work by Malsane et al. (2015) due to the structure of UBBL 1984.
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Figure 1 Filter system in knowledge formalisation method
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It was discovered that the remaining experiences and judgement in considering clauses hold the highest importance in the the circumstances and building designs to compliance checking as these clauses choose the most suitable ventilation provide general rules for other by-laws. method for smoke lobbies and fire fighting Therefore, extracting the remaining access lobbies. The existence of design clauses prior to other clauses is alternatives in requirements were also substantial in ensuring the high accuracy highlighted by Dimyadi et al. (2016a) of requirements during compliance which was referred to as ‘multiple paths to checking. compliance’. Paragraphs with either of the conditions set for second filter were Paragraphs not containing any of the categorized as informative clauses. elements in a remaining clause were then Theoretically, the extraction of informative filtered through the first filter clauses would be the last stage in the filter categorisation. The first filter system. However, the nature of one categorisation identified clauses which regulation might differ with another contain computer interpretable rules and regulations. Hence, in ensuring the obvious checkable information. These workability and flexibility of filter system to elements were identified by analysing be applied in other regulations besides whether the paragraphs contain any UBBL 1984, any clauses which are not geometrical or definite rules. By-law extracted from the first and second filter 184(1)(a) which stated the geometrical categorization will then be considered as requirements of row spacing for seats in remaining clauses. Through this filter place of assembly and By-law 153(1) system, 166 paragraphs were categorized which states the availability requirement of as declarative clauses, while 54 smoke detectors in all lift lobbies are paragraphs were categorized as examples of a rule which could be checked informative clauses and 34 paragraphs readily with the parameters of building are the remaining clauses. This is shown elements, reporting to clear results of in Table 2. either compliance or non-compliance. These types of paragraphs were extracted 180 and categorised as declarative clauses. 160 140 On the other hand, for the remaining 120 100 paragraphs which contain rules but not as 80 straightforward as the declarative clauses 60 were further filtered through the second 40 20 filter categorisation. According to Malsane 0 et al. (2015), the second filter categorises Declarative Informative Remaining clauses which do not have direct meaning clauses clauses clauses and contain only part of data suitable for Figure 2 Categorisation of paragraphs in automated checking. These clauses UBBL 1984 require experts’ interpretation. The conditions of the second filter were refined CONCLUSION to accommodate the nature of rules in UBBL 1984. First, paragraphs containing The knowledge formalisation method is ambiguous terminologies or significant in separating intricate clauses arrangements, for instance, by-law 236 which require further experts’ knowledge states the fire safety requirements for and interpretation. It also helps in places constituting special hazards or risk. identifying clauses which are unsuitable This is highly subjective and further inputs for automated compliance checking but from Fire Authority are required. Second, remain as high importance in the checking paragraphs providing options to the process. This paper contributes to the designers. This is reflected in by-law extension of knowledge formalisation 196(5) which requires engineers’
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method by providing a framework for the classification of the by-laws. This leads to Lee, H., Lee, J.-K., Park, S., & Kim, I. (2016). Translating building legislation into a computer- the affirmation of reliability in executing executable format for evaluating building permit this method for other regulations. requirements. Automation in Construction, 71, 49-61. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2016.04.008 The filter system demonstrated in this paper will induce an organized process of Malsane, S., Matthews, J., Lockley, S., Love, P. E. D., & Greenwood, D. (2015). Development of an decomposing the semantics of fire safety object model for automated compliance regulations. Future work includes checking. Automation in Construction, 49, 51- decomposing the semantics of declarative 58. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2014.10.004 clauses and informative clauses for the purpose of creating computer interpretable Maluk, C., Woodrow, M., & Torero, J. L. (2017). The potential of integrating fire safety in modern rules. building design. Fire Safety Journal, 88, 104- 112. doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2016.12.006 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Nawari, N. O. (2012). The challenge of The authors would like to express their computerizing building codes in a BIM environment. Computing in Civil Engineering, 1, appreciation to Universiti Teknologi 285-292. Malaysia for supporting this research. Nawari, N. O. (2019). A Generalized Adaptive REFERENCES Framework for Automating Design Review Process: Technical Principles. In Advances in Informatics and Computing in Civil and Dimyadi, J., Pauwels, P., & Amor, R. (2016a). Construction Engineering (pp. 405-414). Modelling and accessing regulatory knowledge Switzerland: Springer. for computer-assisted compliance audit.
Journal of Information Technology in NOVA GROUP. (2017). Singapore CORENET - Construction, 21, 317-336. Construction and Real Estate Network.
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into Compliant Design Audit Processes. 33rd Park, S., & Lee, J.-K. (2016). KBimCode-based CIB W78 Conference. Brisbane, Australia, Applications for the Representation, Definition
and Evaluation of Building Permit Rules. 33rd Eastman, C., Lee, J.-m., Jeong, Y.-s., & Lee, J.-k. International Symposium on Automation and (2009). Automatic rule-based checking of Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2016). building designs. Automation in Construction, Alabama, US, 18(8), 1011-1033.
doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2009.07.002 Preidel, C., & Borrmann, A. (2018). BIM-Based
Code Compliance Checking. In Building Hjelseth, E., & Nisbet, N. (2011, October 26- Information Modeling (pp. 367-381). US: 28,2011). Capturing Normative Constraints by Springer. Use of the Semantic Mark-Up Rase
Methodology. CIB W78-W102 2011: Selangor (2012) Selangor Uniform Building International Conference October 26-28,2011. (Amendment No. 2) By-Laws 2012. Sel. P.U. Sophia Antipolis, France, 1-10 142.
Ismail, A. S., Ali, K. N., & Iahad, N. A. (2017). A Smith, R. L. (1991). EXPOSURE: An expert system Review on BIM-Based Automated Code fire code. Fire Technology, 27, 145-159. Compliance Checking System. International
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Solihin, W., Dimyadi, J., & Lee, Y.-C. (2019). In Kim, J., Lee, J.-K., Shin, J., & Kim, H. (2017). Search of Open and Practical Language-Driven Classification of objects and their properties BIM-Based Automated Rule Checking defined in Korea Building Act to translate into Systems. In Advances in Informatics and KBimCode and their application. 34th Computing in Civil and Construction International Symposium on Automation and Engineering (pp. 577-584). Switzerland: Robotics in Construction (ISARC 2017). 148- Springer. 155
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Solihin, W., & Eastman, C. (2015). Classification of rules for automated BIM rule checking development. Automation in Construction, 53, 69-82. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2015.03.003
Song, J., Kim, J., & Lee, J.-K. (2018). NLP and Deep Learning-based Analysis of Building Regulations to support Automated Rule Checking System. 35th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction (ISARC, 2018). Berlin, Germany, Paper 133
Stein, B., Reynolds, J. S., Grondzik, W. T., & Kwok, A. G. (2006). Mechanical and Electrical Equipment for Buildings (10th ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley and Sons.
Tang, S., Shelden, D. R., Eastman, C. M., Pishdad- Bozorgi, P., & Gao, X. (2019). A review of building information modeling (BIM) and the internet of things (IoT) devices integration: Present status and future trends. Automation in Construction, 101, 127-139. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2019.01.020
Malaysia (2015) Uniform Building By-Laws 1984. G.N. 5178/85.
Von Bertalanffy, L. (1972). The History and Status of General Systems Theory. Academy of Management Journal, 15, 407-426.
Zhang, J., & El-Gohary, N. M. (2017). Integrating semantic NLP and logic reasoning into a unified system for fully-automated code checking. Automation in Construction, 73, 45-57. doi:10.1016/j.autcon.2016.08.027
Zhong, B., Gan, C., Luo, H., & Xing, X. (2018). Ontology-based framework for building environmental monitoring and compliance checking under BIM environment. Building and Environment, 141, 127-142. doi:10.1016/j.buildenv.2018.05.046
Zhou, P., & El-Gohary, N. (2015). Domain-Specific Hierarchical Text Classification for Supporting Automated Environmental Compliance Checking. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 30(4), 04015057-04015051 - 04015057-04015014. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)CP
Zhou, P., & El-Gohary, N. (2016). Ontology-Based Multilabel Text Classification of Construction Regulatory Documents. Journal of Computing in Civil Engineering, 30(4), 04015058- 04015051 - 04015058-04015013. doi:10.1061/(asce)cp.1943-5487.0000530
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ESTIMATING CONSTRUCTION DURATION OF HIGH-RISE BUILDINGS: COMPARING THE BTC MODEL TO KNN
M. O. Sanni-Anibire *1, M. R. Zin 2 and S. O. Olatunji 3
1, 2 School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])
3 College of Computer Sciences and Information Technology, Imam Abdul Rahman ibn Faisal University, Dammam, KINGDOM OF SAUDI ARABIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The construction industry has suffered for many years from productivity losses such as delays. The continual growth in complexity of construction projects such as high- rise buildings in the 21st century further aggravates the issue. Thus, the construction industry continually seeks for smarter and intelligent ways to solve existing productivity issues. This study presents a comparison of an early model (Bromilow’s Time-Cost Model) to a more contemporary approach (k-Nearest Neighbors) in predicting the construction duration of high-rise buildings. The performance of both methods have been compared by means of the correlation coefficient, root mean squared error (RMSE) and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE). Interestingly, the results showed that the predictive capability of the BTC model was comparable to that of KNN. Though, KNN performed better with correlation coefficient (0.83), RMSE (3.45) and MAPE (22.04%) compared to the BTC model with correlation coefficient (0.81), RMSE (5.05) and MAPE (22.73%) respectively. Despite the predictive capabilities of the two techniques investigated in this study, future research may seek to explore the capabilities of more powerful machine learning techniques, as well as a variety of case studies.
Keywords : Construction delays, Duration prediction, Nearest Neighbour, Bromilow’s Time- Cost Model
1.0 INTRODUCTION years (Buswell et al., 2007). Thus, unlike the service and manufacturing industries, Experts agree that the success of the construction industry in the 21st construction projects is governed by the century struggles with issues related to triple constraints of project management quality, productivity, safety, time and cost i.e. cost, quality and time. The construction overruns. Stakeholders have called for industry particularly has been victim to low automation to achieve a smarter and more productivity and inefficiency for many intelligent industry. One of the most largely decades. This is partly attributed to the fact recognized areas of productivity loss is in that the construction industry has the occurrence of delays, which remained largely the same for hundreds of consequently leads to time and cost
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overruns, negative social impact, wastage management. Today, the construction and disputes (Kikwasi, 2013). In a bid to industry is still in need of automation and mitigate the risk of construction delays, smarter construction processes such as numerous studies have been conducted in Artificial Intelligence (AI) and Machine identifying the causes of delays in Learning (ML) techniques. Ray (2019) construction (Assaf et al., 1995; Chan and posits that AI and machine learning is set Kumaraswamy, 1997; Kaming et al., 1997; to transform the construction industry in Faridi and El‐Sayegh, 2006; Gündüz et al., areas such as the prevention of risks, 2013; Seddeeq et al., 2019). Similarly, time and cost overruns. Consequently, some studies have sought to improve the few studies have been reported in AI/ML accuracy of estimating construction times application to construction related issues as a means to delay mitigation. A pioneer (Attal 2010; Mensah et al. 2016; Jin et study by Bromilow (1969) established a al., 2016; Li et al., 2017; Peško et al., mathematical relationship between cost 2017). and time using historical data of 329 projects constructed during 1964- 1969 in In this study, an attempt has been made Australia. The model popularly referred to to compare the predictive capability of as Bromilow’s Time-Cost (BTC) model is the BTC model to a contemporary AI/ML expressed as follows: technique known as k-Nearest Neighbors (KNN). KNN is a simple T = K * CB (1) technique applied to classification and regression problems. This study utilizes Where: the historical data for high-rise projects in T = duration of construction period in Indonesia provided by (Kaming et al., working days C = estimated final cost of 1997). It is noteworthy to mention here project in millions of dollars, K = a that the 21st century is witnessing a rapid constant describing the general level of growth of urban skyscrapers in response time performance for $1 million project. B to an impeding global population = constant representing the sensitivity of explosion and urbanization. Despite the the time cost. significance of high-rise buildings in the modern urban context, and the Subsequent years witnessed gradual challenges associated with such large growth of interest in developing similar and complex projects; few studies have models. Thus, the BTC model was the been directed towards the time subject of many other studies to re- performance of such projects. As for the calibrate and test the performance of the extension of Bromilow’s model to high- model in other locations and various rise buildings, Ireland (1985) utilized the project types; the details of which are historical data of 25 high-rise office provided by Mackova et al. (2017). More buildings in Australia. The constants (K attributes besides the project cost were and B) of the Bromilow’s model however sought to be incorporated in the varies with construction location and development of more accurate models, sector (Mackova et al., 2017). More while some researchers employed the recently, Li et al., (2017) sought to linear regression analysis in developing establish a case-based reasoning (CBR) alternative models (Chan and model to estimate the duration of Kumaraswamy, 1999; Skitmore and Ng skyscrapers in China. The following 2003; Blyth et al., 2004). In the 1980s, sections of this manuscript describes the the construction industry started to adopt methodology and results of the intelligent techniques for estimating comparison between the BTC model and construction time, though the primary KNN for predicting the construction focus was on the use of expert systems. duration of high-rise buildings. Mohan (1990) provided a review of expert systems’ application in 2.0 METHODOLOGY construction engineering and
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rise projects in Indonesia. Thirty-one 2.1 Description of dataset cases along with relevant information on the building type, building area, cost (in As mentioned earlier, the dataset Indonesian Rupiah) and duration (in employed in this study is that provided by months) was provided. Table 1 presents (Kaming et al., 1997) in their study on the the descriptive statistics on the numerical causes of time and cost overruns in high- variables in the dataset is presented.
Table 1 Statistical Analysis of the dataset
Standard Attributes Mean Median Maximum Minimum deviation Area (m2) 20738 6263 28010 119600 1225 Duration (months) 14 12 6 27 5 Cost (Rp. 103) 17753 3100 25706 118000 825
2.2 Developing the BTC model Waikato Environment for Knowledge Analysis (Weka) has been employed. The general mathematical expression of Weka is an open source comprehensive Bromilow’s model has been presented suite of Java class libraries to deploy earlier. The constants K and B in the machine learning and data model vary depending on the mining algorithms (Witten, 2011). In construction region, sector, and type. Weka, KNN is represented as “IBk” lazy Mackova et al., (2017) presented the classifier. In searching for the optimal k results of some studies which have been value, LinearNNSearch (Euclidean carried out to estimate K and B values for distance vs Manhattan distance) was BTC models in different countries and used, while the k values were varied from construction sectors. To determine K and 1 to 27. Consequently, the optimal B values, Bromilow’s equation can be parameter was (Manhattan Distance, K = converted into a linear expression, which 7). After obtaining the optimal parameters, can further be solved by linear 10-fold cross validation was used in regression. The equivalent linear developing the KNN model. This is a equation is as follows: procedure where the data set is partitioned into 10 equally sized folds, and each of the Log (T) = Log (K) + B Log (C) (2) folds is used as a validation of the training set (i.e. 9 folds). Linear regression of the dataset used in this study yielded K and B constants as 2.4 Performance measurement 1.474 and 0.246 respectively. The resulting equation used in this study is as In measuring the performance of the follows: techniques employed (i.e. BTC model and KNN), the correlation coefficient, Root T = 1.474 * C0.246 (3) Mean Squared Error (RMSE), and Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE) have been employed. This is in line with 2.3 Developing the KNN model previous studies which also present the In the execution of AI/ML techniques, mathematical expressions for these optimization of defined parameters is key measures (Olatunji et al., 2013; Akande et to the predictive accuracy of the al., 2015; Mensah et al. 2016; Peško et techniques concerned (Wauters and al., 2017). Vanhoucke, 2016). In deploying KNN, the prediction accuracy depends on the value 3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION of k (Sethi et al., 2017). In this study, the
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The adoption of more accurate procedures (1969). Bromilow’s BTC model was later in estimating construction duration is a modified and improved by other research potential mitigation strategy for works (Mackova et al. 2017). construction delays. Moreover, the Considerably, Ireland (1985) extended continuous rise in complexity of the Bromilow’s model to high-rise buildings in construction industry suggests that Australia. Few studies have also been performance improvement techniques reported in the application of such as AI/ML should be adopted. One of contemporary AI/ML techniques (Attal such complex construction areas is the 2010; Mensah et al. 2016; Jin et al., 2016; continuous development of mega projects, Li et al., 2017; Peško et al., 2017). In especially high-rise buildings which now essence, the objective of this study was to dominate the skylines of urban centers compare the predictive capability of the across the globe. High-rise buildings fall BTC model with KNN based on 31 cases under the general category of large of historical data on high rise buildings in construction projects, hence suffer from Indonesia provided by (Kaming et al., delays as suggested by Assaf et al., 1997). The performance of both methods (1995). Interestingly, few studies have have been compared through the been directed towards delay mitigation correlation coefficient, RMSE and MAPE and duration estimation in such projects. as presented in table 2. In general, early attempts have been made for more accurate construction duration estimation, such as the work of Bromilow Table 2 Performance comparison for machine learning techniques
Outcome Performance measure BTC KNN Correlation coefficient 0.81 0.83 Duration RMSE 5.05 3.45 MAPE 22.73% 22.04%
As shown in the table, KNN performs stepwise regression and Artificial Neural slightly better than the BTC model. Though Networks (ANN) with MAPE of 25% and the correlation coefficients are 26% respectively. Similarly, Peško et al., approximately equal, the results for RMSE (2017) reported MAPE of 22.77% for suggests about 32% difference with the Support Vector Machines (SVM) and BTC model having an RMSE of 5.05, while 26.26% for ANN in predicting the duration KNN had an RMSE of 3.45. The results for of road projects in Serbia. In light of the MAPE were also approximately equal. foregoing, it can be concluded that both Furthermore, the results obtained in this the BTC model and KNN performed study compared favorably with previous satisfactorily in predicting the construction studies such as Mensah et al. (2016) who duration of high-rise buildings. reported the prediction capability for the duration of bridge projects in Ghana of a
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Actual values Predicted values 30
25
20
15
10
PROJECT DURATION PROJECT 5
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 DATA POINTS
Figure 1 Cross plots of actual vs. predicted values for project duration (Bromilow’s Time- Cost model: K = 1.474, B = 0.246)
Actual values Predicted values 30
25
20
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10 PROJECTDURATION
5
0 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 DATA POINTS
Figure 2 Cross plots of actual vs. predicted values for project duration (KNN, LinearNNSearch, Manhattan Distance, K = 7)
Finally, cross plots of the actual and BTC model in figure 1 reveals that some of predicted values for the BTC model and the predicted data points were outlying KNN are presented in figures 1 and 2 from the actual data points, though a respectively. The superiority of KNN can similar progression pattern is observed for be clearly observed in figure 2, where the both curves. predicted data points closely follow the actual data points. The cross plot for the
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4.0 CONCLUSION Chan, D. W. M. and Kumaraswamy, M. M. (1999) ‘Forecasting construction durations for public housing projects: a Hong Kong perspective’, Construction projects continue to grow in Building and environment, 34(5), pp. 633–646. complexity, while traditional problems such as delays remain largely unresolved. Faridi, A. S. and El‐Sayegh, S. M. (2006) High-rise buildings are subsets of large ‘Significant factors causing delay in the UAE construction industry’, Construction construction projects; therefore, they are Management and Economics, 24(11), pp. also affected by productivity losses such 1167–1176. as delays. This study shows that the BTC Gündüz, M., Nielsen, Y. and Özdemir, M. (2013) model and KNN are effective in predicting ‘Quantification of Delay Factors Using the the duration of high-rise building projects. Relative Importance Index Method for It also shows that KNN performed slightly Construction Projects in Turkey’, Journal of better, and thus, the adoption of Management in Engineering, 29(2), pp. 133– contemporary AI/ML techniques may be 139. instrumental in resolving construction Ireland, V. (1985) ‘The role of managerial actions related problems. Further research could in the cost, time and quality performance of seek to investigate the performance of high-rise commercial building projects’, more complex AI/ML techniques, as well Construction Management and Economics, 3(1), pp. 59–87. as the influence of other input variables such as the building’s height, floor area, Jin, R. et al. (2016) ‘Application of Case-Based structural form etc. In addition, the use of Reasoning for Estimating Preliminary Duration of Building Projects’, 142(2), pp. 1–8. data sets obtained from various regions, reported in the literature or obtained from Kaming, P. F. et al. (1997) ‘Factors influencing real case studies may yield potentially construction time and cost overruns on high-rise interesting results. Other types of projects projects in Indonesia’, Construction Management and Economics. Taylor & Francis related to housing, infrastructural, highway Group , 15(1), pp. 83–94. and transportation, industrial and commercial construction could be subjects Kikwasi, G. (2013) ‘Causes and Effects of Delays and Disruptions in Construction Projects in for exciting research. Tanzania’, Australasian Journal of Construction Economics and Building - Conference Series, REFERENCES 1(2), p. 52. Li, Y. et al. (2017) ‘Project Schedule Forecasting Akande, K. O., Owolabi, T. O. and Olatunji, S. O. for Skyscrapers’, 33(3), pp. 1–12. (2015) ‘Investigating the effect of correlation- based feature selection on the performance of Mackova, D. et al. (2017) ‘Construction-Duration support vector machines in reservoir Prediction Model for Residential Buildings in characterization’, Journal of Natural Gas Slovak Republic Based on Computer Science and Engineering. Elsevier, 22, pp. 515– Simulation’, 12(13), pp. 3590–3599. 522. Martin Skitmore, R. and Thomas Ng, S. (2003) Assaf, S. A., Al-Khalil, M. and Al-Hazmi, M. (1995) ‘Forecast models for actual construction time ‘Causes of Delay in Large Building Construction and cost’, Building and Environment. Projects’, Journal of Management in Pergamon, 38(8), pp. 1075–1083. Engineering, 11(2), pp. 45–50. Mensah, I., Nani, G. and Adjei-kumi, T. (2016) Attal, A. (2010) ‘Development of neural network ‘Development of a Model for Estimating the models for prediction of highway construction Duration of Bridge Construction Projects in cost and project duration’. Ghana’, 5(2), pp. 55–64. Blyth, K., Lewis, J. and Kaka, A. (2004) ‘predicting Mohan, S. (1990) ‘Expert Systems Applications in project and activity duration for buildings in the Construction Management and Engineering’, UK’, 5(2), pp. 329–347. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 116(1), pp. 87–99. Buswell, R. A. et al. (2007) ‘Automation in construction’, 16(2). Olatunji, S. et al. (2013) ‘Forecasting the Saudi Arabia stock prices based on artificial neural Chan, D. and Kumaraswamy, M. (1997) ‘A networks model’, researchgate.net, 2(5), pp. comparative study of causes of time overruns in 77–86. Hong Kong construction projects’, International Journal of project …
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Peško, I. et al. (2017) ‘Estimation of Costs and Durations of Construction of Urban Roads Using ANN and SVM’, 2017. Seddeeq, A. Bin et al. (2019) ‘Time and Cost Overrun in the Saudi Arabian Oil and Gas Construction Industry’, Buildings. Multidisciplinary Digital Publishing Institute, 9(2), p. 41. Sethi, H. et al. (2017) ‘Artificial Intelligence based Ensemble Model for Diagnosis of Diabetes’, International Journal of Advanced Research in Computer Science, 8(4). Wauters, M. and Vanhoucke, M. (2016) ‘A comparative study of Artificial Intelligence methods for project duration forecasting’, Expert Systems with Applications. Pergamon, 46, pp. 249–261. Witten, I. H. (2011) Data Mining Pratical Machine Learning Tool and Tecniques.
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MEASURES OF TACKLING THE CONSTRAINTS OF VALUE MANAGEMENT ADOPTION IN THE NIGERIA’S CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
B. Y. Sabiu *1, S. F. Mohamed 2, W. Y W. Mahmood 3 and M. J. Abubakar 4
1, 2, 3, 4 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The Nigeria’s Construction Industry (NCI) has been faced with numerous challenges over the years. Value Management (VM) as an innovative approach has been denoted capable of mitigating most of those challenges as it does in other countries that adopted it (VM), but its adoption in the NCI has been hindered by some constraints. This paper aims at reviewing the constraints and proffering possible measures to tackle them with a view to facilitating the adoption of VM practice in the NCI. Data collection was based on a structured questionnaire from 150 registered construction professionals across the three most prominent states of the Northern Nigeria vis: Abuja, Kano and Kaduna States. The data was analysed using Frequency, percentage, mean score and average index. The study revealed the most-rated constraints as: Inadequate knowledge of the benefits of VM; Lack of knowledge and practice of VM; Lack of understanding; and Lack of involvement of specialists from the onset. On the other hand, 39 measures were identified that could tackle the constraints and eventually speed up the adoption of VM practice in the NCI. The measures were categorised into five groups as related to: professionals and professional bodies; government; clients and the community; materials and resources; and construction methodology. The study reveals that, there is a moderate knowledge and awareness of value management within the industry but there is reluctance in the adoption and implementation. It concludes that, these barriers need be tackled before value management could be implemented in the NCI.
Keywords: Value Management, Construction, Industry, Constraints, Measures, Challenges.
1.0 INTRODUCTION 2016; Olarenwaju, 2008); poor feedback mechanism (Tanko et al., 2015); The Nigerian Construction Industry (NCI) insufficient customer satisfaction (Oke & has been faced with numerous challenges Aghimien, 2018); inability to reduce project over the years, ranging from: Bad planning cost (Aibinu & Jagboro, 2002; Oke & and insufficient organisation (Oladapo, Aghimien, 2018); delay in interim payment 2015); time overrun (Oke & Aghimien, (Oke & Aghimien, 2018); slow decision 2018) (Oladapo, 2015);inability to achieve making (Tanko et al., 2015); poor client-value system (Sabiu & Agarwal, management (Okpala & Aniekwu, 1988;
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Omoriege & Radford, 2006); unrealistic for analysing the data gathered. schedules (Tanko et al., 2015); variation & rework due to errors (Otunola, 2008; 2.0 METHODOLOGY Kasimu, 2012); inadequate consultant involvement throughout the contract 2.1 Selection of Respondents (Tanko et al., 2015). In total, 150 respondents were selected Tanko et al. (2015), revealed that all these from various construction and consultancy challenges could be tackled by firms across the three major cities of implementing VM in the Nigeria’s northern Nigeria (Abuja, Kano and construction projects. (Oke & Aghimien, Kaduna) due to the high volume of 2018) also reported that VM as an construction works in the cities. The innovative approach had been denoted respondents were selected based on their capable of mitigating most of the membership status with their respective construction industries’ challenges and professional bodies to ensure high quality enhancing the client-value system in and reliable responses. developed nations and can do so to Nigeria if adopted. Oke & Ogunsemi 2.2 Questionnaire Design (2011) recommends the need for Nigerian clients to adopt VM in their projects so as Due to the lack of literature on the to enhance good quality of construction measures that could tackle the constraints works, standard delivery and eliminate of VM adoption, two questionnaires were unnecessary design/cost. Olarenwaju designed and used. The first questionnaire (2008) also suggested the capability of VM was designed in two sections. The first in facilitating the identification of client- section gathered general information of value system in Nigeria and the respondents, respondents’ perception recommended its adoption into the NCI. In of value management and the current addition, (Ogunsanya, Aigbavboa, & status of value management in the NCI. Wellington, 2015) established that VM will The second section was designed to lead to stakeholders owning delivered assess the constraints of VM adoption in projects and ensuring their success.. the NCI and suggestions on the possible measures that could tackle the Despite all efforts to promote and facilitate constraints. In the second questionnaire, the adoption of VM methodologies in the the suggestions on the measures by the NCI by various researchers, Nigeria is still respondents were screened through a reluctant as reported by various heuristic reasoning and were categorised researchers. Some factors are responsible into five groups and presented for for the reluctance. Therefore, this paper assessment by the respondents. aims at examining the constraints of value management adoption in the NCI and 2.3 Data Analysis proffering possible measures of tackling them in view to facilitating the adoption Frequency analysis was used in analysing and implementation of VM in the NCI. the data in section one of the first questionnaire while the average index was This study is limited to the three major used for section two of the first states of the northern Nigeria vis Abuja, questionnaire (constraints of VM adoption) Kano and Kaduna due to the high volume and the second questionnaire (measure to of construction projects there. The study tackle the constraints). Likert scale was adopts a survey design, and construction used in assessing both the constraints and professionals from the three cities are the measures as shown in Table 1 below. assessed using a convenience sample For the constraints, a scale of 1.0 - 5.0 through the use of a structured (Very Low Contributing to Very High questionnaire. Frequency, percentage, Contributing) was used. As for the mean score and average index are used
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measures, also a scale of 1.0 – 5.0 (Very were finalised after a heuristic reasoning Weak Measure to Very Strong Measure) and categorised into five main groups as was used. shown in Table 6. The 39 measures were then presented in a second questionnaire Table 1 The classification of the rating for assessment by the respondents to scales for the constraints and measures determine the strongest and most effective ones. The assessment reveals five of the Rating Scale Average Index Rating Scale measures to be ‘Very Strong Measures for (AI) for Measures (VSM)’ from which the top three are Constraints directly related to the clients (both Very Low Very Weak 1.00 ≤ AI < Contributing Measure government and private). This shows that, 1.50 (VLC) (VWM) for VM to be adopted and implemented Low Weak 1.50 ≤ AI < NCI, the clients hold more responsibility Contributing Measure 2.50 and need to make the first step, others (LC) (WM) follow suit. If the government, being the Medium Normal 2.50 ≤ AI < Contributing Measure biggest client in the industry enforces the 3.50 (MC) (NM) use of VM on its construction projects, High Strong then VM implementation can become a 3.50 ≤ AI < Contributing Measure 4.50 reality in the NCI. This strategy actualised (HC) (SM) VM implementation in several other Very High Very Strong 4.50 ≤ AI < countries like the United States in 1972 Contributing Measure 5.00 (VHC) (VSM) (Fong & Shen, 2000), Malaysia in 2009 (Jaapar et al., 2012) and many other 3.0 MAIN RESULTS countries. The second strongest measure is ‘anti-corruption campaign’. Corruption The constraints of VM adoption were has invaded the NCI so much that VM identified from past literature reviews on adoption cannot be actualised until it is VM and assessed in this study using curbed since from procurement to the final average index analysis. The result shows completion of the projects. The result also that Inadequate knowledge of benefits of reveals the need for a high level of VM; lack of knowledge & practice of VM; cooperation among professionals and and lack of understanding, are the most practitioners in the industry. VM is a team- highly contributing constraints of VM oriented decision-making approach, as adoption in the Nigeria’s construction such lack of a sound cooperation among industry. stakeholders would jeopardise the implementation of VM and achieving its As for the measures, 39 measures were maximum benefits. identified, grouped and assessed according to the strength with which they 4.0 CONCLUSION could tackle the constraints of VM implementation in the Nigeria’s From the findings, the three strongest construction industry. The findings measure capable of tackling the revealed 5 very strong measures (VSM), constraints of value management 15 strong measures (SM) and 19 normal implementation in Nigeria are: measures (NM). enforcement of VM techniques on
3.1 Possible measures that could tackle the constraints of VM adoption and implementation in the NCI
The respondents suggested numerous measures that could tackle the constraints of VM adoption in the NCI from which 39
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Table 1 Measures that could tackle the constraints of VM adoption in the NCI
CATEGORY MEASURES AI RS Enforcement of value management technique on construction projects. 4.67 VSM Government should set guidelines for achieving low life cycle 2.41 NM cost. 2.40 NM Government Forming a press group that can influence government policy. 3.78 SM Government policy be stabilized. 3.94 SM Government to discourage the use of quarks in construction 4.65 VSM projects. Anti-corruption campaign. Promotion of value management as a separate specialization. Encourage specialization within professionals in the same discipline. 3.67 SM Professional bodies should equip their members with VM skills. 3.30 NM Value management should be vigorously taught to professionals. 3.60 SM Professionals Conduct research, seminars, workshops and publications on VM 3.06 NM & importance and value. 3.58 SM Professional Training in the field of cost analysis. 3.56 SM Bodies Engagement of competent and qualified professionals. 4.52 VSM Improve prequalification of contractors. 2.97 NM Encourage more cooperation among the professionals and 4.55 VSM practitioners in the industry. 3.79 SM Adequate communication should be established between consultants for modification on projects Value management should be highly advocated. VM/VE be introduced as a course/subject in institutions. 3.55 SM Enlightenment programs. 3.48 NM Sensitize potential clients on dangers of quackery. 3.50 SM Clients & Clients’ emphasis on the inclusion of value management 3.38 NM Institutions methodologies in their construction projects. 4.60 VSM Improve communication between stakeholders. 3.91 SM Improve education on benefit of life cycle cost. 3.43 NM Great awareness on the need and benefits of VM/VE to clients, 3.77 SM contractors and professionals. Making every building and infrastructural design to have alternative VM/VE option. 3.77 SM Incorporating VM processes in the procurement/design process. 3.78 SM Keeping abreast of the development and understanding the 3.03 NM Construction technological requirements overtime. 2.88 NM Methodology Keeping abreast of the value technology. 3.29 NM & Planning Update on construction techniques. 3.48 NM Introduction of life cycle policy for designs. 3.28 NM Sustainable planning. 3.53 SM Detail design be available before construction starts. 3.00 NM Eliminate unnecessary design. Having the in-depth knowledge of the building materials. Update on the construction materials. 3.56 SM Keeping abreast of the development in the building materials 3.18 NM Materials & quality. 2.81 NM Resources Having the knowledge of the periodic maintenance 3.10 NM requirements. 3.09 NM Proper management of resources. 3.29 NM Realistic and adequate cash flow. construction projects; anti-corruption govt and other private clients. Once these campaign; and clients’ emphasis on the clients enforce the implementation, all inclusion of VM methodologies in their other stakeholders follow suit. The findings construction projects. This shows that further revealed that, all construction adoption and implementation of VM stakeholders have their respective roles to techniques lies more on the clients i.e. the play in tackling the constraints of value
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management adoption in the Nigeria’s https://doi.org/10.1080/01446190903280435 construction industry. It is believed that the findings of this study will assist in the Ellis, R. C. T., Wood, G. D., & Keel, D. A. (2005). speedy facilitation of value management Value management practices of leading UK adoption and implementation in the cost consultants. Construction Management and Economics, 23(5), 483–493. Nigeria’s construction industry. A further https://doi.org/10.1080/01446190500040711 study should be carried out in other locations in the country as this research Fong, P. S. (1999). Organisational knowledge and was limited to the three major states of responses of public sector clients towards northern Nigeria (Abuja, Kano & Kaduna) value management. International Journal of only. Public Sector Management, 12(5), 445–454.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Fong, P. S., & Shen, Q. (2000). Is the Hong Kong construction industry ready for value The authors would like to express their management ? International Journal of Project Management, 18, 317–326. appreciation for the support of UTM and Government of Nigeria for financial Hwang, B.-G., Zhao, X., & Ong, S. Y. (2015). Value assistances while conducting this Management in Singaporean Building research. Projects: Implementation Status, Critical Success Factors, and Risk Factors. Journal REFERENCES of Management in Engineering, 31(6). https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943- 5479.0000342 Abd-Karim, S. B., Wah, H. W., Jaapar, A., Suhaimi, M. S. N. M., & Ali Berawi, M. (2017). Advocating sustainable building paradigm Ibrahim, A. D., & Musa-haddary, Y. G. (2010). through value management. Journal of Concept of Value for Money in Public Design and Built Environment, 17. Infrastructure Development, (2003), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1002/jctb.2037 Jaapar, A., Endut, I. R., Ahmad Bari, N. A., & Abidin, N. Z., & Pasquire, C. L. (2005). Delivering Takim, R. (2009). The Impact of Value sustainability through value management: Management Implementation in Malaysia. Concept and performance overview. Journal of Sustainable Development, 2(2), Engineering, Construction and Architectural 210–219. Management, 12(2), 168–180. https://doi.org/10.5539/jsd.v2n2p210 https://doi.org/10.1108/09699980510584502 Jay, C. I., & Bowen, P. A. (2015). Value Aghimien, D. O., Oke, A. E., & Aigbavboa, C. O. management and innovation: A historical (2018). Barriers to the adoption of value perspective and review of the evidence. management in developing countries. Journal of Engineering, Design and Engineering, Construction and Architectural Technology, 13(1), 123–143. Management, 25(7), 818–834. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEDT-03-2013-0021 https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-04-2017-0070 Kelly, J., Male, S., Graham, D., Kelly, J., Male, S., Aibinu, A. A., & Jagboro, G. O. (2002). The effects & Graham, D. (2004). Value management of of construction delays on project delivery in construction projects. Nigerian construction industry. International Journal of Project Management, 20(8), 593– Kolo, B., & Doko, I. A. (2010). Value Management: 599. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0263- How adoptable it is in the Nigerian 7863(02)00028-5 construction industry? Proceeding of the West Africa Built Environment Research Bowen, P. A., Edwards, P. J., Cattell, K., Bowen, (WABER) Conference 2010, 8(July), 653– P. A., Edwards, P. J., & Cattell, K. (2009). 664. Retrieved from Value management practice in South Africa : http://centaur.reading.ac.uk/8192/ the built environment professions compared. Internation Journal of Construction Ogunsanya, O. A., Aigbavboa, C. O., & Wellington, Management and Economics, 27(11), 1039– D. (2015). Application of Value Management 1057. Methodologies to Project Selection in
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Nigerian Construction Industry, Shen, Q., & Liu, G. (2003). Critical Success Factors 2015(September). for Value Management Studies in Construction. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, 129(5), 485– Oke, A., & Aghimien, D. O. (2018). Drivers of value 491. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733- management in the Nigerian construction 9364(2003)129:5(485) industry. Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology, 16(2). https://doi.org/10.1108/JEDT-02-2017-0012 Tanko, B. L., Abdullah, F., Mohamad Ramly, Z., & Enegbuma, W. I. (2018). An implementation framework of value management in the Oke, A. E., & Aghimien, D. O. (2018). Critical Nigerian construction industry. Built drivers (CDs) of value management adoption Environment Project and Asset Management, in the Nigerian construction industry - A 8(3). https://doi.org/10.1108/BEPAM-09- Delphi study. Journal of Engineering, Design 2017-0078 and Technology, 16(2), 270–284. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEDT-02-2017-0012 Tanko, B. L., Abdullah, F., Ramly, Z. M., & Enegbuma, W. I. (2017). Confirmatory Factor Oke, A. E., & Aigbavboa, C. O. (2017). Sustainable Analysis of Value Management Current value management for construction projects. Practice in the Nigerian Construction Sustainable Value Management for Industry. Journal of Advanced Research in Construction Projects. Applied Sciences and Engineering https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-54151-8 Technology, 9(1), 32–41.
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CHALLENGES FOR MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY TOWARDS INDUSTRY 4.0
M. A. M. Yusof *1 and R. A. Hamid 2
1, 2 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
There is no exception for Malaysian construction industry from having the quick progression of technologies. The Industry 4.0 significantly being the popular term globally throughout every sector especially manufacturing where digitisation and automation being the main concern within the situation. But, as a well-known industry with fragmented supply chains and vastly struggle to introduce changes in highly traditional practices, Industry 4.0 might not be fully utilized and benefited for the construction industry players. This paper aimed to identify the challenges for the Malaysian construction industry towards Industry 4.0. All literature reviewed comprising the challenges in adopting Industry 4.0 particularly involving construction industry whish was identified through a comprehensive literature review of secondary data from the previous studies. The study findings highlight the major challenges obtained was interrelated with people, organisation and economic factors. These three (3) factors need to be deliberate further in order to give construction industry ways of facing the challenges towards Industry 4.0.
Keywords : Malaysia construction industry, Construction 4.0, Industry 4.0, Challenges
1.0 INTRODUCTION worldwide and that it has not been able to keep pace with the overall economic Construction industry as mentioned by productivity. There are numerous causes Gerbert et al., (2016)is a sector that high and the factors includes resistance to in strategic importance of economy for introduce changes in highly traditional each country in the world. The industry is sector, low industrialization of construction a keystone of the global economy with an processes, poor collaboration and data annual revenues nearly 10 trillion USD. interoperability, and high levels or Tahir et al., (2018) stated the construction turnover, which make difficult to implement industry is vital since rapid economic new methods (Streule, Miserini, Bartlomé, development has increased the demand Klippel, & De Soto, 2016). for construction of infrastructure and facilities around the globe. However, Streule et al., (2016) explained companies studies by Bock (2015) showing that from the construction industry have not construction industry’s effectiveness has managed to integrate these innovative been stagnating in recent decades technologies to keep up with their
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counterparts from the automotive or authors implemented similar review mechanical engineering industry. procedure. Dallasega, Rauch, and Linder (2018) indicated that another challenge specific to Thus, this paper aims to identify what are the construction industry is its fragmented the challenges for Malaysian construction supply chain, which consists of multiple industry stakeholders to changeover with small and medium sized enterprise the Industry 4.0. A systematic literature (SMEs) that require great effort to review has been carried out to identify the coordinate. Moreover, SMEs usually have challenges for Malaysian construction limited capabilities to invest in innovative towards industry 4.0 and it is important to technologies which Amarthalingam (2017) recognise their awareness too. The had mentioned where Malaysia’s method of this study was by reviewing all embracing of Industry 4.0 – the digital related literature on these challenges transformation – appears to be slow on the ranging from the latest studies between uptake as industry players struggle with 2013 till 2019. The literature used were financial issues, mindset shift and low collected from several published articles expertise. from recognized journal such as International Journal of Project In the other hand, Rojko in 2017 had Management, Civil Engineering and described the trend for the increasing use Management, and the Procedia of information and automation Engineering and Procedia – Social and technologies in the manufacturing Behavioural Sciences. Web site page and environment which the popular term documents from web site also been used Industry 4.0 is being introduced. Industry for the study. The study conclusion is 4.0 is a promising approach based on significantly offer researchers and readers integration of the business and in-depth information on current challenges manufacturing processes, as well as confronted by Malaysian construction integration of all actors in the company’s industry towards Industry 4.0. value chain (Rojko, 2017). Philp (2015) mentioned, the key components of an Industry 4,0 are self-directed decision- Selection of Keyword making, embedded sensor-rich networks database selection and industrial-additive manufacturing. It has often been used as a synonym for the planned 4th Industrial Revolution by pointing out its huge technological Collection of Review potential as well as the creation of a digital articles discussions value chain to enable the communication between products and their environment and business partners. Figure 1 Review methodology processess conducted 2.0 REVIEW METHODOLOGY 2.1 Selection of database A literature review is an essential part of any research and study. Relevant The search strategy was conducted by literature is assessed and analysed with going through the relevant data sources. an aim of finding possible research gap. To have access to a wide range of Saunders, Lewis, and Thornhill (2017) academic and conference publications, prescribed a structured literature review the Web of Science and SCOPUS was through an iterative cycle of defining selected. These data sources were among suitable search keywords, searching the the most extensive abstract and citation pertinent literature, and performing the databases and includes thousands of analysis at the end. In this paper, the peer-reviewed journals in the field of
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science, technology, medicine, and social Malaysian construction industry as a sciences. whole is underachieving. It undergoes low profitability and does not invest enough in 2.2 Keyword selection training, research and development. Limited trust, little cooperation, poor The authors refer to only the most communication and an adversarial applicable and appropriate research relationship are among the key problem publications associated to the topic to areas experienced in the Malaysian establish a comprehensive and unbiased construction industry (Jatarona, Yusof, article search process. The keywords Ismail, & Saar, 2017). used are: i) Industry 4.0, ii) Construction 4.0, iii) construction technology, iv) 3.2 Concept of Industry 4.0 Industry 4.0 challenges. The term industry 4.0 stating by Cotteleer 2.3 Collection of articles (2017) is refers to a further development stage in the organisation and All the associated research publications management of the entire value chain with the topic in hand then being collected process involved in manufacturing which the initial search queries resulted in industry. This term is widely used across over 20 publications. The authors also Europe and predominantly in Germany. ensuring that different aspects of Industry Mentioned by Zhou, Liu, and Zhou, (2016) 4.0 were covered. Book chapters, book, the concept of Industry 4.0 is based on the dissertation, editorial notes, etc. were integration of information and excluded from the search to ensure that communication technologies and the research originated from academic industrial technology, and is primarily sources (Lamba & Singh, 2017). reliant on building a Cyber-Physical System (CPS) to realize a digital and 3.0 REVIEW DISCUSSIONS intelligent factory, in order to promote manufacturing to become more digital, 3.1 The Context of The Study information-led, customized, and green. The purpose of Industry 4.0 is to build a Construction projects as mentioned by highly flexible production model of Dubois and Erik Gadde (2003) are usually personalized and digital products and unique, time-limited, require high degrees services, with real-time interactions of customization and in part are between people, products and devices undertaken on-site, a location that is highly during the production process (Zhou et al., influenced by weather conditions. 2016). According to Khan, Liew, and Ghazali (2014), this sector playing a significant role According to Russman et al., (2015), there for Malaysia economic which contributing are nine pillars of Industry 4.0, which are for revenue, capital formation and Big Data and Analytics, Autonomous employment opportunities that support the Robot, Simulation, System Integration, gross domestic product (GDP) and socio- Internet of Things, Cyber Physical System, economic development. Cloud Computing, Additive Manufacturing and Augmented Reality. These pillars will Nevertheless, according to Woodhead et reconstruct production into a fully al., (2018), infer from the literature and integrated, automated, and optimised conversations with people working in the production flow; thus, it can bring to a construction industry, most construction better efficiency and relation among companies do not see themselves in the suppliers, producers, and clients, including evolutionary process and behave as of human-machine relation during change in digital innovation will not really impacted traditional production. them. The general perception of the
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Challenges of Industry 4.0
Scientific Technological Economic Social Political challenges challenges challenges challenges challenges
Figure 2 Challenges of Industry 4.0 (Zhou, Liu, and Zhou, 2016)
3.3 Challenges for Construction 3.3.2 High implementation cost Industry towards Industry 4.0 Akanmu and Anumba (2015) already According to Zhou, Liu, and Zhou (2016) it cited, the high cost for technical is not easy to achieve Industry 4.0. It might equipment, for training and education, and take ten or more years to realize and for external consultancy fees are barrier in adapting the revolution into current adopting Industry 4.0. Unclear benefits everyday activities. The Industry 4.0 is a and prediction of cost savings and a lack vision for the future which involving many of consistent fiscal benchmarking to aspects and faces many types of evaluate the business improvements and difficulties and challenges, including gains are other unsolved problems. In this scientific challenges, technological context, the development of methods and challenges, economic challenges, social tools for estimating and optimising costs problems and political issues (Zhou et al., and benefits and the provision of industry 2016) association partnerships to work together can help to increase transparency and to Additionally, Abramowicz (2015) remarked reduce costs (Oesterreich & Teuteberg, that there is still a lack of research for the 2016). potential use of Industry 4.0 technologies and the implications for society, 3.3.3 Organizational and process companies, people and processes. Thus, changes Oesterreich & Teuteberg (2016) did explored several challenges of Industry The implementation of new technologies 4.0 for the construction industry: must take place at all levels of the organisation and mostly requires the re- 3.3.1 Reluctance to adopt evaluation and re-engineering of business practices. For construction companies, the Smith (2014) specified due to the high main question to be answered is how to investment costs of new technologies and successfully handle the organisational and the uncertain benefits, construction process changes within the organisation companies are hesitating to participate in and how to redesign the current business this Industry 4.0. So, Oesterreich and model (Oesterreich & Teuteberg, 2016). Teuteberg (2016) identified that one of the main challenges is to motivate 3.3.4 Need for improved skills construction companies for the adoption of new technologies for example by providing The use of new technologies stated by incentives for the adoption through Akanmu and Anumba (2015) requires a government mandates and through certain level of knowledge. Due to the low funding programs for industry and technical competency of the construction research. workers on site there will be an increasing need for staff training and development as well as the increasing need for integration
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skills. Hence, the big challenge is to create members of its companies (Oesterreich & and develop new competencies, to Teuteberg, 2016). Furthermore, one of the improve the project organisation and to major concerns of employees about the captivate new talents to the workforce, like adoption of new technologies is the job- staff with shared technical knowledge and loss, as they might be replaced by integration experience as key selection machines, computers or robotics. In any criteria. Additionally, companies should case, communication and change reassure employees to work together and management for helping employees to engage idea sharing for engendering adapt is required, since acceptance is a innovation and therefore create critical success factor for the adoption of opportunities for interdisciplinary groups to new technologies. Thus, companies can collaborate and elevate performance. involve change agents as “opinion leaders” during the implementation The talent requirements and number of process and implement leading ideas of skilled workers that the industry will need employees to help them feel ownership to implement industry 4.0 remains unclear over performance improvement. because of uncertainty about the areas where staff is needed, the time required to 3.3.7 Deficiency of standards and source talent and the actual numbers. Just reference architectures 4% of those surveyed said that they already had the skilled workers they Oesterreich and Teuteberg (2016) did needed, while 80% said that they had the mentioned that regardless of the current skills in certain areas. (Cotteleer, 2017). maturity and accessibility of most Whysall, Owtram, and Brittain (2019) also technologies, there happens a deficiency mentioned that the unparalleled pace and of standards for many of them, e.g. a lack scale of change brought about by Industry of complete and international standard for 4.0 has led to a circumstance in which RFID technology and multi-protocol tags technology is progressively overtaking and readers, or a lack of consistent BIM individuals’ and organisations’ ability to standards and software incompatibility. adapt. Still, there is a need for an industry-specific reference architecture for Industry 4.0. 3.3.5 Knowledge management With regard to the specific environment of the construction industry, this reference The impermanent nature of the architecture has to be developed with a construction projects and the fragmented special focus on its structure for example characteristics of the construction value are the site-based projects, high number of chain are reasons for the lack of organised small and medium sized companies and shared project knowledge and limited involved. standards for knowledge management. According to Kiel, Muller, Arnold, and 3.3.8 Data security and data protection Voigt, (2017) the main challenge is to create and establish standards for The growing data volumes, the increasing knowledge management within the demand for mobility, collaboration and organisation. This can be achieved by sharing information with external partners, taking and reusing of project knowledge such as by applying the BYOD-approach and through automated data collection (bring your own device) results in an and entrenching into project history. increasing need for data security and data protection. Companies should protect their 3.3.6 Acceptance data against unauthorized access and any kind of misuse through centralised cloud- The construction industry is known for its based user-identity, access management, strong resistance to changes and new device management and data protection technologies as well as the conservatism tools (Oesterreich & Teuteberg, 2016). and incapability to acclimate by staff
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3.3.9 Enhancement of existing manage the construction project itself with communication networks the rapid technologies advancement within the supply chains. Whatever the According Oesterreich and Teuteberg, outcomes, the point is that technology is (2016) the use of information and already changing the skills needed for the communication technologies requires a construction industry and dramatically fast and reliable Internet access on change the industry composition. construction sites. Hence, undependable broadband connectivity or the lack of REFERENCES access to high-bandwidth connectivity for collaboration applications have been Abramowicz, W. (2015). Industry 4.0 - Potentials declared as one of the most substantial for Creating Smart Products: Emperical hindrances to be overcome. Research Results. Lecture Notes in Business Information Processing, 208, 16–27. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-19027-3 3.3.10 Regulatory compliance Akanmu, A., & Anumba, C. J. (2015). Cyber- The use of RFID technology for safety physical systems integration of building management and workforce management information models and the physical requires the automated capture and construction. Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 22(5), 516–535. record of personal data. In many cases, https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-07-2014-0097 there exist ethical and legal concerns about the tracking and monitoring of Bock, T. (2015). The future of construction employees as well as the handling of the automation: Technological disruption and the recorded information. For example, upcoming ubiquity of robotics. Automation in according to German data protection law, Construction, 59, 113–121. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2015.07.022 high restrictions have to be considered in case of the outsourcing of corporate data Cotteleer, M. (2017). Industry 4.0 Challenges and containing personal information about solutions for. Retrieved from employees to companies outside the https://www2.deloitte.com/insights/us/en/foc European Union or European Economic us/industry-4-0/overview.html Area. Prior to the implementation of these Dallasega, P., Rauch, E., & Linder, C. (2018). technologies, restrictions concerning to Industry 4.0 as an enabler of proximity for privacy and data protection have to be construction supply chains: A systematic checked by involving legal experts right literature review. Computers in Industry, from the earliest stages of the process. 99(August 2017), 205–225. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compind.2018.03.03 9 3.0 CONCLUSION Dubois, A., & Erik Gadde, L. (2003). The The findings of this paper identify the Construction Industry as a Loosely Coupled challenges for Malaysian construction System - Implications for productivity and innovatity, (September), 1–20. industry towards Industry 4.0 which will affecting the construction industry itself in Gerbert, P., Castagnino, S., Rothballer, C., Renz, moving forward with the current working A., & Filitz, R. (2016). Digital in Engineering environment situation. All literature and Construction. The Boston Consulting identified did introduced with several Group. Retrieved from https://www.bcgperspectives.com/Images/B challenges that might added up the CG-Digital-in-Engineering-and-Construction- probability of slow moving in construction Mar-2016_tcm80- industry performances. Most of the 206107.pdf%5Cnpapers3://publication/uuid/ challenges does interrelated with people, 06E4B809-B169-49E7-BDB4- organisation and economic factors. 02E8939071A9 Jatarona, N. A., Yusof, A. M., Ismail, S., & Saar, C. The literature review highlighted that C. (2017). Public construction projects Industry 4.0 entails more study in the performance in Malaysia. Journal of construction industry in term of how to Southeast Asian Research, 2016, 1–7.
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RETROSPECTIVE VIEWPOINT OF COST OVERRUNS IN INFRASTRUCTURE PROJECTS: THE CAUSES AND PROSPECTIVE UPLIFT IN EXPLORATION
M. Z. Ismail *1, Z. M. Ramly 2 and R. A. Hamid 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Every construction practitioner in any construction project has a typical goal which is to complete the projects within budgets and expected quality targets. However, cost overrun has been a universal phenomenon in construction projects worldwide. It has been a serious global issue that remains prevalent for years The issue is significant in infrastructure construction projects due to their high cost and major public involvement. In order to accomplish a successful completion of any construction project within planned cost, there are various factors that should be given serious attention to. This paper aims to combine data from across the world regarding causes of cost overrun in infrastructure construction projects. 34 papers have been selected based on their relevance to the issue and limited to the year 2009 up to 2019 in order to keep the data as state-of-the-art. From the literature review, 41 factors were identified and then categorized according to their influencing parties. The study has successfully captures factors of cost overrun in a broad view from worldwide sources. As infrastructure development is essential to any developing country, the data shall be beneficial worldwide as it can be tailored into various exploration in more specific areas within the viewpoint which suits the concern of a country’s development plan. The study is intended not to directly improve the issue of cost overrun in infrastructure projects but to promote further studies in cost overrun. It is aspired to provide awareness regarding the significance of the issue on cost overrun which has been prevailing for a long time. This paper reports part of an ongoing PhD programme with the overall aim to develop a decision support system to manage cost performance in infrastructure railway construction.
Keywords : Cost overrun, Infrastructure, Factors of cost overrun, Construction projects
1.0 INTRODUCTION of the construction industry in progress of national economy calls for better efficiency A great amount of money is expended in delivering successful projects. Project worldwide on construction development completion within target cost, duration and activities, which provides the essential the level of quality standards is a guide of infrastructures and large number of successful project delivery (Mohammed employment prospects. The contribution Rum & Akasah, 2011).
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Despite the significance of time, cost and extensive various geographical location, quality in construction projects, most covering 5 continents, 20 countries, construction projects are encountering the comprising both developed and issue of cost overrun. Multiple researches developing nations. Albeit the minor are carried out on construction cost differences ranging across different overruns in multiple countries such as in geographical location, the problem Australia (Love et al., 2013), United States persists in nearly every continent, (Shrestha et al. 2013), India (Rajan et al. ascertaining the challenge of cost 2014), Nigeria (Oludolapo & Abiodun Ad, overruns as a global phenomenon. 2011), Germany (Kostka & Fiedler, 2016), Korea (Lee, 2008), United Kingdom The situation is even more appalling in the (Olawale & Sun, 2010) and Kuwait et al. developing world where corruption carries 2005). a significant effect on actual costs and accounts for 10-30% of the value of a Cost performance is the main concern in single construction contract (Hoel, 2012). the construction industry, however, the The author finds that the issue of cost uncertainty, uniqueness, complexities and overrun calls for a comprehensive study of lengthy character of infrastructure how the issues arise. In doing so, it construction projects make it tricky to becomes important not only to identify the analyze and forecast project costs (Hwang factors that cause cost overruns but to et al. 2013). For example, the light rail indicate the scope into a more significant projects in Saudi in 2010 contracted by area which is infrastructure construction China Railway Construction Corporation projects and concentrate the study into the (CRCC) resulted in losses of over 4 billion recent phenomena in the construction yuan, which induces the attention to the industry. critical problem pertaining project cost estimating. The aim of this paper is to explore the up to date studies involving the factors of Cost overrun has been occurring cost overruns in infrastructure worldwide and turning into a common construction projects. phenomenon in the construction industry (Flyvbjerg et al. 2003; Skitmore et al. 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW 2010). A simple indication of a construction project by the media, 2.1 Infrastructure Projects especially infrastructure projects of substantial size, has become more or less According to Mevada & Devkar (2017), tantamount to costs going beyond budget although concerns across multiple (Siemiatycki, 2009). sectors, means of financing and contractual arrangements vary in various According to Baloi & Price (2003), a countries, there is a pattern that has been considerable majority (63%) of 1,778 persisting worldwide, that is the rise of construction projects funded by the World “mega” infrastructure projects. Bank exceeded the initial budgets. The issue gets more critical when it comes to Flyvbjerg (2015) quantified a figure of large infrastructure projects such as road US$6 to US$9 trillion annually or 8% of the and rail construction. Skamris & Flyvbjerg total global gross domestic product (GDP) (1997) reported that a massive share of were spent for infrastructure megaproject, infrastructure projects surpassed their covering numerous sectors including original budgets with the common cost transport, airport, oil and gas, road, health, increases at 50-100% and increases education and information technology and beyond 100% being not uncommon. so on. The public have always distinguishes the concept – “mega” in In proclaiming its implications to the global terms of cost, scale, time, complexity, and economy, the study collected data from an money, which set up a challenge to project
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managers, considering the poor track Sarmento et al. (2019). record and history of megaprojects (Pitsis There are a number ofl factors for public et al. 2004). sector participation in construction and operating projects in the infrastructure There are plentiful audit reports, policy sector. Such factors include the fact that documents, practice notes and research investment in infrastructure often consists reports that studies the implementation of of massive risk and long-term exposure megaprojects. These documents normally (Goldmann, 2017), but there are also focus on two interrelated spectra, viz. the historical factor, one being that the public institutional mechanisms that can be sector has always had an essential role in modelled to manage the risks, complexity, the growth of public infrastructures. finance, uncertainties, and stakeholders related to megaprojects, and the influence Moreover, most infrastructure projects, of these mechanisms on performance despite not being financially profitable on a elements like time, cost, quality, and stand-alone basis, are acceptable by safety. social and political reasons, and, therefore necessitates some type of direct or indirect government subsidy. Mainly, for purposes Between these performance elements, of positive externalities, such as the cost is the key element that is closely reduction of time travel, accidents and observed by the clients/ implementing environmental benefits (Laird et al. 2005). agencies. The motive behind its attentive monitoring has been huge cost overruns 2.3 Construction Cost Overruns encountered in megaprojects worldwide. As most megaprojects are conducted Cost overrun is the variance between using public money, it is obligated to the initial or projected cost and final cost at public in its legitimacy, transparency and project completion. Final costs are accountability involved with the use of the described as the total costs spent on funds. The implementing agencies/audit construction project as concluded at the agencies/monitoring agencies have the project completion time, while projected or duty of apprising the general public about initial costs is identified as the forecasted the performance of these projects (Zhang costs at the project approval time (Lee, et al. 2017). 2008). This difference can either be positive or negative (i.e., the final cost is 2.2 The Role of the Public Sector in above, or below the initial one). If the result Infrastructural Investments turns out as positive, then there is a cost overrun (Sarmento et al. 2019). According to Sarmento and Renneboog (2016), there is a growing relevance of Cost performance is a major indicator of private sector involvement in infrastructure success in construction projects, yet it is construction. However, most infrastructure challenging to manage due to the projects are still developed and operated complexities of various construction by the public sector. processes. According to Flyvbjerg et al. (2003), the incapability of construction In the case of road infrastructures, while projects to be completed within projected highways have been more receptive to the budget is a prevailing issue worldwide, use of concession models (Cruz & spanning across 20 nations with cost Marques, 2013), secondary road systems overruns of 20% for road projects and 45% are still predominately operated by public in rail projects. entities, similar to many railway systems. In a case of ports and airports, the Construction projects are economically participation of the private sector has been risky tasks due to their complex and escalating more rapidly, mostly due to dynamic nature (Skitmore et al. 2010), and privatisation processes (Zhang et al. 2017; owing to a long history of cost escalation
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(Shane et al., 2009a). the gains are shared across the community in such a way that those who Understanding the difficulty to achieve a refuse to buy the service can- not be project on budget, scholars have carried excluded from the benefits created by out numerous studies to identify the those who do (Grimsey & Lewis, 2004). factors related to project cost performance, including design error, Furthermore, infrastructural investments change of scope, estimation error, lack of produce positive externalities that competences of different project parties, influence society as a whole. This happens risk and uncertainty, optimism bias, when the actions of firms or consumers deception and delusion, market change, impose costs or give benefits on third and environmental factors, etc. parties, which the firms or the consumers fail to take into account when choosing 2.4 Public Investments and Cost their actions (Brealey et al. 1997). For Deviations example, the construction of new road may decrease travel time and accidents. The construction and preservation of public infrastructural investments is Despite the incline of private sector primarily the responsibility of the public involvement in constructing and sector. As such, they are characterized by maintaining infrastructure (through a long period of construction and privatizations, concessions, or public– operation, as well as by capital intensity, private partnerships), the essential need— and a complex valuation procedure with respect to decision planning, making, (Grimsey & Lewis, 2005). There are and the allocating of resources— for the several purposes why the government public sector to develop the infrastructure spends taxpayer resources on remains. infrastructure such as roads, railways, ports, airports, schools, hospitals, The numerous financial crises over the museums, and so on. past 15 years have made the limitations to public resources more binding and the One reason is that a market failure occurs topic of cost overruns in infrastructural when the distribution of goods and investments more significant. In view of services is not efficiently arranged by that, it is shocking that there is an market forces. Such failure is observed in insignificant amount of research on this situations where individuals’ pursuit of subject as found by the literature reviews self-interests amounts to results that are of (Siemiatycki, 2009), and De Jong et al. not efficient, that is, they can be enhanced (2013), who found not more than 20 upon, from a societal perspective, leading studies with (some) statistical analyses. to government intervention (Stiglitz, 1989). Cost variance is not just an indication of In the particular case of infrastructure, the company’s profitability but also the governments play a vital role because the productivity of that organization at any time development of infrastructure needs a throughout the construction period. long-term view and faces a high level of However, it is hard to find an infrastructure risk. The private sector is not willing to project achieved within the projected cost. deliver these types of goods and services In this paper, a literature review on as there is uncertainty about their long-run construction cost overrun attributes was profitability. performed to identify the most common factors that cause the cost overrun in However, for social and/or political infrastructure construction projects. purposes, as the infrastructure must be made accessible to society, it becomes the public sector’s concern. As such, infrastructure turns into a public good as
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3.0 METHODOLOGY The literature search found a total number of 618 results. After eliminating duplicate The literature covered in this paper papers, 164 papers remain and consisted predominately of empirical subsequently, the author conducts studies including qualitative, quantitative, qualitative assessment by reading through data analysis and literature studies. This the titles and abstracts. Papers presenting paper focuses on gathering the factors any of the characteristics below were underlying cost overruns in infrastructure removed: construction projects by segmenting the 1. Papers not discussing factors that factors into different categories which will cause cost overruns in the illustrate the significance of the identified construction industry. causes for cost overruns. 2. Irrelevant use of keywords. 3. Exclusive studies of particular The study encompasses infrastructure construction projects. construction projects in general including both singular mega projects as well as a Upon filtering the 164 papers, 34 papers portfolio of standardized projects that were selected. The relevant contents were collectively make up a large-scale project. then codified and categorized as shown in The adopted methods for scoping the Table 3. The age of the selected papers available literature draws on the ranged from the year 2009 up to the year methodical framework developed by 2019, as shown in Table 2. Arksey & O’Malley (2005) which consists of five steps: 4.0 FINDINGS 1. Identifying the research question; 2. Identifying relevant studies; The following discussion will provide a 3. Study selection; comprehensive review of the literature 4. Listing/charting the data; regarding factors of cost overrun in 5. Collating, summarizing and reporting infrastructure projects based on the 34 selected articles since 2009 until 2019 (10 The literature selection was based on a years). Table 2 presents the 34 papers string of keywords as listed in Table 1. that have been reviewed for the study. Databases were chosen with respect to their listing of relevant papers in addition to Table 2 Papers reviewed including at least one database that had Region/ indexed the most well-known peer- Num Author Sector Country reviewed journals in the field of Shane et al. 1 United States Transport construction management. (2009) 2 Singh (2010) India Infrastructure Table 1 The keywords and databases Olawale & Sun United 3 All used in the literature search (2010) Kingdom Cantarelli et al. 4 All Transport (2010) Data No. of Keyword string Berlin, 5 Peters (2010) Tunnel base results Germany (TITLE-ABS-KEY (cost AND Potty & Irdus 6 Malaysia Bridge overrun)) AND (((construction OR (2011) Scop infrastructure)) AND (factor OR Memon et al. 99 7 Malaysia All us determinant OR cause)) AND (2011) (project) AND (LIMIT-TO Memon et al. 8 Malaysia All (SUBJAREA, "SOCI")) (2012) TITLE-ABSTR-KEY (“cost Park & Scien overruns”) AND (“construction” OR 9 Papadopoulou Asia Transport ce “infrastructure”) AND (“factor” OR 336 (2012) Cantarelli et al. Direct “determinant” OR “cause”) AND 10 Netherlands Transport (“projects”) (2012) Cantarelli et al. Web TS¼ (“cost overrun*”) AND 11 Netherlands Transport of TS¼(construction OR infrastructure) (2012) 183 Cantarelli et al. Scien AND TS¼(factor* OR determinant* 12 Netherlands Transport (2012) ce OR cause*) AND TS¼ ( projects)
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Region/ Num Author Sector Table 3 Factors of cost overrun based on Country influencing parties Apolot & 13 Tindiwensi Uganda All (2013) Influencing parties Num Factors of cost overrun Alghonamy 14 Saudi Arabia All A B C D (2015) 1 Bureaucracy ✓ 15 Shibani (2015) Egypt All 2 Climate conditions ✓ Zafar et al. 16 Pakistan Roads (2016) 3 Conflict among parties ✓ ✓ ✓ Hingham 17 Nigeria Infrastructure 4 Design and documentation ✓ ✓ ✓ (2016)
Khurshid & 5 Equipment problems ✓ 18 Nauman Pakistan Hydropower 6 Errors during construction ✓ (2016) 7 Financial management ✓ ✓ Mohammad et 19 Iran All al. (2016) Influencing parties Vaardini et al. Num Factors of cost overrun 20 All All (2016) A B C D Kim et al. 21 Vietnam Hospital 8 Forecasting error ✓ (2017)
Al-hazim et al. 9 Geography ✓ 22 Jordan Infrastructure (2017) 10 High cost of machinery ✓ Famiyeh et al. 23 Ghana Educational Improper contract (2017) 11 ✓ ✓ administration Abbas &
24 Painting Afghanistan All 12 Improper project ✓ management (2017) 13 Timely decisions ✓ ✓ ✓ Venkateswara n & Road over 14 Incompetent subcontractors ✓ 25 India Murugasan Bridge 15 Labour problems ✓ (2017) 16 Lack of coordination ✓ ✓ ✓ Sarmento & Public Sector 26 Renneboog Portugal 17 Lack of experience ✓ ✓ ✓ Investment (2017) 18 Length of implementation ✓ ✓ Adam et al. Public Sector 27 Worldwide Local concerns and (2017) Investment 19 ✓ Ullah et al. requirements 28 Malaysia All (2017) 20 Material procurement ✓ Zhang et al. 29 Asian countries All (2017) 21 Optimism bias ✓ ✓ ✓ Mevada & 30 India Megaprojects 22 Payment issues ✓ ✓ ✓ Devkar (2017) Olatunji et al. 23 Planning error ✓ ✓ ✓ 31 Nigeria All (2018) 24 Price fluctuations ✓ Gunduz & 32 Worldwide All 25 Project complexity ✓ Maki (2018)
Cárdenas et 26 Project procurement ✓ ✓ ✓ 33 Europe Transport al. (2018) 27 Project size ✓ Catalao et al. 34 Portugal Transport (2019) 28 Project type ✓ 39 Scope changes ✓ By an extensive literature review, a list of 30 Strategic misrepresentation ✓ 41 cost overrun factors was collected to 31 Unforeseen conditions ✓ summarize all the factors found in the 32 Rework ✓ ✓ related literature and 4 influencing parties 33 Project bidding practice ✓ have been identified (Table 3). 34 Economy of the area ✓
35 Land acquisition ✓ ✓
36 Unreasonable project time ✓
Fraudulent practices, 37 ✓ ✓ ✓ kickbacks, corruption 38 Security of site environment ✓
Unsuitable construction 39 ✓ method 40 Human resource issues ✓ ✓ ✓ 41 Miscellaneous factors ✓
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From the findings, client and contractor is (Singh, 2010), poor inspections, delay in found to possess a comparable influence work approvals (Abbas & Painting, 2017) with client influencing 24 factors and and inspections (Shibani, 2015) and contractor influencing 26 factors. payment claims (Venkateswaran & Consultant possess a mere 14 influences Murugasan, 2017). The results of conflicts on the factors. The result is plausible as are work suspension (Park & clients and contractors are the main Papadopoulou, 2012; Shibani, 2015) and stakeholders in a project therefore having disputes (Catalao et al., 2019). the highest influence whereas consultants are responsible for different missions and ii. Design and documentation they do not know the cash flow of the project exactly (Kim et al., 2017). Memon et al. (2011) explain design issues as lack of constructability, delay in Miscellaneous is the category made for the drawings preparation and approval, errors factors influenced by external entities. The and incompletion at tender while Potty & category is considered unpredictable and Irdus (2011) mentioned continuous difficult to mitigate. Nevertheless, are changes in design and construction highly significant and need to be explored drawings. There is also changes in further. material types and specs during construction, unclear specifications 5.0 DISCUSSION (Shibani, 2015) and complexity of the design (Zhang et al., 2017). From the categorization, the author goes iii. Timely decisions further by deliberating the factors according to the group of parties involved. Timely decision concerns inadequate There are 7 groups which will be decision-making process (Cantarelli et al., discussed further below: 2010) and slowness in making decisions by the project parties(Al-hazim, Salem, & Table 4 Influencing parties to factors of Ahmad, 2017; Famiyeh et al., 2017; cost overrun Gunduz & Maki, 2018; Lu, Hua, & Zhang, 2017a; Shibani, 2015). Num Parties involved Factors 1 All parties 11 iv. Lack of coordination between 2 Contractor only 10 parties 3 Client only 7 4 Consultant only 2 Coordination issue mainly involves slow 5 Client and contractor 4 information flow between parties (Memon 6 Miscellaneous 7 et al., 2011), delay in instructions (Shibani, 2015), delay in updates (Mohammad, Total 41 Tabatabaei, Taabayan, Hashemi, & Willoughby, 2016), lack of communication 5.1 All parties (Adam et al., 2017), and ineffective communication mechanism (Zhang et al., The majority of factors to cost overrun are 2017b). influenced by all parties of the project. The related factors are: v. Lack of experience
i. Conflict among parties All parties need experience in similar projects for an effective project execution Olawale & Sun (2010) have explicitly (Zhang et al., 2017a). Lack of experience stated conflict among parties as a factor of may lead to poor judgement (Potty & Irdus, project cost overrun. Some authors dive 2011), inadequate managerial skills deeper into the causes of conflict and (Adam et al., 2017) and lack of supervisory discovers mismanagement project parties skills (Venkateswaran & Murugasan,
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2017). Human resource issues include loss of experienced staff (Shane et al., 2009), lack vi. Optimism bias of project staff and qualified staff (Shibani, 2015) and hiring inexperienced technical Optimism bias occurs when a government staff (Mohammed Rum & Akasah, 2011). promotes project without detailed designs (Shane, Molenaar, Anderson, & 5.2 Contractors only Schexnayder, 2009), over-optimistic forecasting (Peters, 2010) and cost Certain factors influenced by contractors estimates (Cantarelli et al., 2012). are caused by external parties such as:
vii. Payment issues i. Equipment problems
Payment issue often occurs when Equipment problems entail equipment contractor or sub-contractor is failure (Memon et al., 2011), insufficient experiencing delayed payment(Catalao, equipment (Apolot & Tindiwensi, 2013), Cruz, & Sarmento, 2019; Potty & Irdus, equipment maintenance (Shibani, 2015), 2011) and ineffective methods of payment quality of equipment (Al-hazim et al., 2017) (Venkateswaran & Murugasan, 2017). and suitability of equipment (Sohu et al., 2017). viii. Planning error ii. High cost of machinery In project planning parties often fail to consider changes in project schedule Machinery’s high cost is due to (Shane et al., 2009), contractor’s on-going monopolisation of special machinery workload (Memon et al., 2011), services (Potty & Irdus, 2011), maintenance cost relocation (Kim, Tuan, Lee, Pham, & Luu, (Memon et al., 2011), insufficient 2017), limitations of working hours (Potty plants/equipment resulting in increased & Irdus, 2011), inadequate planning hiring cost and security issues from idling (Chantal C. Cantarelli, Flyvbjerg, Molin, & of plant/equipment due to suspension of Van Wee, 2010), inaccurate budgeting work (Zafar et al., 2016b). and resource planning (Mohammed Rum & Akasah, 2011) and risk management iii. Incompetent subcontractors (Sarmento & Renneboog, 2016). According to Zafar et al., 2016a), clients ix. Project procurement select incompetent contractors due to non- availability of contractors expert in specific Delivery/procurement approach is a projects. The problem may eventually lead significant influence in cost overrun to non-performance (Olawale & Sun, (Shane et al., 2009), caused by 2010) and delay (Shibani, 2015). inappropriate organisational structure (Chantal C. Cantarelli et al., 2010), method iv. Labour problems of financing, bonds and payments (Memon et al., 2011) and project ownership Labour problems arise when there is (Miranda Sarmento & Renneboog, 2017). shortage in labour or skilled labour (Potty & Irdus, 2011), increase in labour cost, x. Fraudulent practices, corruption absenteeism, problem in the relationship between management and labour (Memon Frauds and corruption may arise due to et al., 2011), strikes (Apolot & Tindiwensi, unethical activities (Venkateswaran & 2013) and poor labour management Murugasan, 2017) and other kickbacks (Shibani, 2015). (Kim et al., 2017). v. Price fluctuations xi. Human resource issues Price fluctuations generally occur due to
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the effects of inflation, changing market 2017a) and contractors are lacking in condition (Shane et al., 2009) and foreign knowledge about different execution exchange rate (Park & Papadopoulou, models (Mohammad et al., 2016). 2012). 5.3 Clients only On the other hand, there are factors that are directly caused by the contractor, such Even though cost is clients’ major concern, as: they often are the one causing cost overrun. Of the 7 factors identified, 3 i. Errors during construction consist of the character of the project and they are determined at the inception stage: Construction errors may be caused by technical and natural factors (Singh, i. Project complexity 2010), mistakes during construction (Memon et al., 2011) and defective works Project complexity may be assessed (Park & Papadopoulou, 2012) based on engineering complexities (Shane et al., 2009), work complexity ii. Improper project management (Olawale & Sun, 2010), size of project (Apolot & Tindiwensi, 2013), Improper project management constitutes organizational complexity and project inconsistent application of contingencies environment complexity (Mevada & (Shane et al., 2009), organizational Devkar, 2017). failures (Singh, 2010), poor site management and supervision, site waste ii. Project size management (Memon et al., 2011), resource management (Alghonamy, 2015) Project size may be measured based on and unsuitable management structure its estimated cost (Cantarelli et al., 2012) (Adam et al., 2017). and value (Catalao et al., 2019).
iii. Material procurement iii. Project type
Problems in material procurement may be Project type may vary according to type of caused by shortage of materials, delay in construction (road, rail, and fixed link material approval (Potty & Irdus, 2011), projects) (Cantarelli et al., 2012) or changes in specification (Memon et al., differing site conditions (Zafar et al., 2011) transportation (Zafar et al., 2016b) 2016a). quality (Al-hazim et al., 2017) and The other 4 factors are of which caused by improper planning of delivery (Gunduz & clients after the inception stage. Maki, 2018). i. Strategic misrepresentation iv. Security of site environment According to Adam et al., (2017), strategic Security issues could prevent proper site misrepresentation is a deception, where investigation/survey, majorly due to hostile there is a manipulation of forecasts or environment which may reduce deliberate underestimation in order to gain productivity and add additional cost of political advantages. ensuring security (Zafar et al., 2016a). ii. Project bidding practice v. Unsuitable construction method The practice of assigning contract to the Unsuitable construction method occurs lowest bidder often causes cost overrun when contractors use obsolete (Sohu et al., 2017). Besides that are the implementation methods (Memon et al., number of alternative contractors 2011), using new technologies, new tendering (Lu et al., 2017a) and bidding processes or new materials (Lu et al., procedure (Venkateswaran & Murugasan,
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2017). contract award (Famiyeh et al., 2017) and outdated standard terms in contracts iii. Unreasonable project time frame (Mohammad et al., 2016).
According to Gunduz and Maki (2018), 5.5 Client and contractor cost overrun may be caused by unrealistic contract duration, which will eventually There are 4 factors influenced by both lead to extension of time (Sohu et al., client and contractor, which are: 2017) or implementation of severe overtime which may affect cost and quality i. Financial management of works (Memon et al., 2011). Financial management issue is the cash iv. Scope changes flow and financial difficulties (Shane et al., 2009), contractor’s poor financial control Scope changes is a significant cause of on site (Alghonamy, 2015) and owner’s cost overrun (Shane et al., 2009), it financial problems which may result in involves design (Olawale & Sun, 2010), payment delay (Shibani, 2015). Both additional works (Potty & Irdus, 2011) and parties’ revenue need also be robust it is initiated by client (Memon et al., 2011). (Cárdenas et al., 2018). An issue may even occur due to ineffective change order communication (Mohammad ii. Length of implementation et al., 2016), environmental issues, safety audit and design errors (Kim et al., 2017). According to Singh (2010), delay in project implementation is the major factor 5.4 Consultants only contributing to cost overrun. The length of project implementation has a direct effect As consultants’ role in projects are in project cost performance (Cantarelli et typically acting on behalf of their clients, a al., 2012), as agreed by (Adam et al., lot of their influences are absorbed by the 2017; Famiyeh et al., 2017; Gunduz & client, contractors and all parties. Their Maki, 2018). exclusive influences towards the factors of cost overrun are: iii. Rework
i. Forecasting error Potty and Irdus (2011) stated that Rework arise due to the lack of quality Poor estimating appears when consultant caused by work speeding (Potty & Irdus, is lack of consistent standard in developing 2011), contractor’s wrong use of material estimates (Shane et al., 2009), inaccurate (Apolot & Tindiwensi, 2013), poor work by evaluation of projects time/duration unskilled workforce (Zafar et al., 2016a), (Olawale & Sun, 2010) lack of accuracy in weather effects (Kim et al., 2017) and poor reviewing feasibility studies (Mohammad material quality (Al-hazim et al., 2017). et al., 2016), weak/insufficient technical studies (Venkateswaran & Murugasan, iv. Land acquisition 2017) and unavailable design data at the right time causing changes to the design Cost overrun may be caused by delay in during construction (Potty & Irdus, 2011). property acquisition (Potty & Irdus, 2011) and for railway or road projects it may be ii. Improper contract administration caused by the road/track realignment (Zafar et al., 2016a). Improper contract administration may lead to a conflict, originating from ambiguous 5.6 Miscellaneous contract provisions (Shane et al., 2009), discrepancies (Olawale & Sun, 2010), Miscellaneous is a category for factors inaccurate quantity take-off, errors in Bill of which are influenced by none of the parties Quantities (Memon et al., 2011), delay in in the project. Table 7 shows the
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miscellaneous factors to cost overrun and attention to feasibility studies (Mohammad their influencing entities in construction et al., 2016), insurance (Kim et al., 2017) projects. and negligence during site visit (Venkateswaran & Murugasan, 2017). Table 5 Miscellaneous influencing parties in factors of cost overrun 6.0 CONCLUSION
Num Factors Influencing entities Since the 90’s, various researches have 1 Bureaucracy Government been conducted to understand the factors 2 Climate conditions Nature affecting cost overrun in infrastructure 3 Geography Nature construction projects. As construction Local concerns and projects continuously evolve and improve 4 Local community requirements as time goes, a fresh study is required in 5 Unforeseen conditions Unexpected events order to keep the information up-to-date. 6 Economy of the area Economy This paper focuses on identifying the Bureaucracy issues often occurs due to recent factors that are influential to the inappropriate government policies (Park & cost overrun in the infrastructure Papadopoulou, 2012), which may cause construction sector. The contribution of the delay in obtaining permits (Famiyeh et al., paper to the development of the state- of- 2017) or due to government’s financial the art in the topic is the extensive difficulties (Mohammad et al., 2016) and literature review (in 10 years’ span) that confidentiality requirements (Lu et al., captures most significant factors that lead 2017b). to cost overrun in infrastructure construction projects Climate condition has a direct impact in project progress (Potty & Irdus, 2011) and 41 cost overrun attributes were collected it is sometimes unpredictable (Sohu et al., based on literature review. They can be 2017). Since infrastructure projects categorised according to the parties that involve local concerns and requirements play the specific role. Typically, in (Shane et al., 2009), they are prone to infrastructure projects, the main parties public interventions(Peters, 2010), are the client and contractor. Due to the community conflicts (Zafar et al., 2016b), “mega” size of infrastructure projects, strikes and political interferences there will be many consultants working (Famiyeh et al., 2017). under both parties especially the client.
Furthermore, there is also the risk of The conclusions of this paper would help unforeseen conditions such as accidents the construction professionals on (Apolot & Tindiwensi, 2013), uncertain mitigating the negative impact caused by ground conditions (Gunduz & Maki, 2018), the critical cost overrun factors. The emergency works (Al-hazim et al., 2017) results of the surveys can be generalized or economic factors such as market worldwide by understanding the factors efficiency (Cárdenas et al., 2018) and affecting the construction projects’ cost government’s investment settings overrun. The collected data and analysis (Catalao et al., 2019). shall provide a basis for the end users to consider the critical factors that induce Other authors mentioned other cost overrun. These factors could be miscellaneous factors such as re- monitored with more attention to reduce measurement of provisional sum (Sohu et cost overrun in the future. al., 2017), banker’s high interest rate (Alghonamy, 2015), lengthy period This paper is part of PhD research. The between design and implementation scope of study will be extended to identify phases, non-adherence to geotechnical the strategy to reduce cost overrun in best practices (Hingham, 2016), lack of
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infrastructure railway construction in build and project phases, 22, 49–56. Malaysia and finally a cost control system https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2012.04.001 will be developed for industry application. Cárdenas, I. C., Voordijk, H., & Dewulf, G. (2018). Beyond project governance. Enhancing ACKNOWLEDGEMENT funding and enabling financing for infrastructure in transport. Findings from the importance analysis approach. European The authors would like to express their Journal of Transport and Infrastructure appreciation for the Ministry of Education Research (EJTIR), 18(4), 481–498. Malaysia and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia for the scholarship granted for Catalao, F. P., Cruz, C. O., & Sarmento, J. M. this PhD studies. (2019). The determinants of cost deviations and overruns in transport projects , an endogenous models approach. Transport REFERENCES Policy, 74(December 2018), 224–238. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tranpol.2018.12.008 Adam, A., Josephson, P. E. B., & Lindahl, G. (2017). Aggregation of factors causing cost Famiyeh, S., Amoatey, C. T., Adaku, E., overruns and time delays in large public Agbenohevi, C. S., Famiyeh, S., Amoatey, C. construction projects: Trends and T., … Agbenohevi, C. S. (2017). Major implications. Engineering, Construction and causes of construction time and cost Architectural Management, 24(3), 393–406. overruns A case of selected educational https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-09-2015-0135 sector projects in Ghana. Journal of Engineering, Design and Technology, 15(2), Al-hazim, N., Salem, Z. A., & Ahmad, H. (2017). 181–198. https://doi.org/10.1108/JEDT-11- Delay and Cost Overrun in Infrastructure 2015-0075 Projects in Jordan. Procedia Engineering, 182, 18–24. Gunduz, M., & Maki, O. L. (2018). Assessing the https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.03.105 risk perception of cost overrun through importance rating. Technological and Alghonamy, A. (2015). Cost Overrun in Economic Development of Economy, 24(5), Construction Projects in Saudi Arabia : 1829–1844. Contractor s ‘ Perspective. International https://doi.org/10.3846/20294913.2017.1321 Journal of Engineering & Technology IJET- 053 IJENS, 15(04). Hingham, A. A. and A. (2016). Geotechnical Apolot, R., & Tindiwensi, D. (2013). Investigation Characterization of Cost Overrun Drivers in into the Causes of Delays and Cost Overruns Highway Projects: Predicated on in Uganda ’ s Public Sector Construction Heterogeneous Ground Conditions in The Projects. Journal of Construction Niger Delta Region of Nigeria. Proceedings of Engineering, 18(2), 33–47. the 32nd Annual ARCOM Conference, 9, 5– https://doi.org/10.5121/ijcsit.2011.3406 7.
Cantarelli, C. C., Flyvbjerg, B., & Buhl, S. L. (2012). Kim, S., Tuan, K. N., Lee, J. Do, Pham, H., & Luu, Geographical variation in project cost V. T. (2017). Cost Overrun Factor Analysis for performance : the Netherlands versus Hospital Projects in Vietnam, 00(0000), 1–11. worldwide. Journal of Transport Geography, https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-017-0947-5 24, 324–331. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jtrangeo.2012.03.01 Lu, W., Hua, Y., & Zhang, S. (2017a). Logistic 4 regression analysis for factors influencing cost performance of design-bid-build and Cantarelli, C. C., Flyvbjerg, B., Molin, E. J. E., & design-build projects. Engineering, Van Wee, B. (2010). Cost Overruns in Large- Construction and Architectural Management, Scale Transportation Infrastructure Projects: 24(1), 118–132. Explanations and Their Theoretical https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-07-2015-0119 Embeddedness. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 10(1), Lu, W., Hua, Y., & Zhang, S. (2017b). Logistic 5–18. Regression Analysis for Factors Influencing Cost Performance of Design-Bid-Build and Cantarelli, C. C., Molin, E. J. E., Wee, B. Van, & Design-Build Projects. Engineering, Flyvbjerg, B. (2012). Characteristics of cost Construction and Architectural Management, overruns for Dutch transport infrastructure 24(1), 118–132. projects and the importance of the decision to https://doi.org/10.1108/ECAM-07-2015-0119
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financing and renegotiations. International Memon, A. H., Rahman, I. A., & Azis, A. A. A. Journal of Managing Projects in Business, (2011). Preliminary Study on Causative 9(1), 94–122. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJMPB- Factors Leading To Construction Cost 03-2015-0023 Overrun. International Journal of Sustainable Construction Engineering and Technology, Shane, J. S., Molenaar, K. R., Anderson, S., & 2(1), 57–71. Schexnayder, C. (2009). Construction Project Cost Escalation Factors. Journal of Mevada, J., & Devkar, G. (2017). Analysis of Management in Engineering, 25(October). reasons for cost and time overrun in Indian https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0742- megaprojects. MATEC Web of Conferences, 597X(2009)25 120(2017), 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1051/matecconf/20171200 Shibani, D. A. (2015). Time and Cost Overrun in 2018 Construction Projects in Egypt Time and Cost Overrun in Construction Projects in Egypt, Miranda Sarmento, J., & Renneboog, L. (2017). (September). Cost Overruns in Public Sector Investment Projects. Public Works Management & Singh, R. (2010). Delays and Cost Overruns in Policy, 22(2), 140–164. Infrastructure Projects : Extent , Causes and https://doi.org/10.1177/1087724X16668357 Remedies. Economic & Political Weekly, 45(21), 43–54. Mohammad, S., Tabatabaei, M., Taabayan, P., Hashemi, A. M., & Willoughby, K. (2016). Sohu, S., Abdullah, A. H., Nagapan, S., Fattah, A., Studying the Reasons for Delay and Cost Ullah, K., & Kumar, K. (2017). Contractors Overrun in Construction Projects : The Case perspective for critical factors of cost overrun of Iran. Journal of Construction in Developing in highway projects of Sindh, Pakistan, Countries, 21(1), 51–84. 080002, 080002. https://doi.org/10.21315/jcdc2016.21.1.4 https://doi.org/10.1063/1.5005728
Mohammed Rum, N. A., & Akasah, Z. A. (2011). Venkateswaran, C. B., & Murugasan, R. (2017). Implementing life cycle costing in Malaysia Time Delay and Cost Overrun of Road over construction industry: a review. Retrieved Bridge ( ROB ) Construction Projects in India. from http://eprints.uthm.edu.my/1672/ Journal of Construction in Developing Countries, 22(November), 79–96. Olawale, Y. A., & Sun, M. (2010). Cost and Time Control of Construction Projects: Inhibiting Zafar, I., Yousaf, T., & Ahmed, D. S. (2016a). Factors and Mitigating Measures in Practice. Evaluation of risk factors causing cost International Journal of Project Management, overrun in road projects in terrorism affected 28(5), 509–526. areas Pakistan – a case study. KSCE Journal https://doi.org/10.1080/01446191003674519 of Civil Engineering, 20(5), 1613–1620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205-015-0348-6 Park, Y. I., & Papadopoulou, T. C. (2012). Causes of Cost Overruns in Transport Infrastructure Zafar, I., Yousaf, T., & Ahmed, D. S. (2016b). Projects in Asia: Their Significance and Evaluation of Risk Factors Causing Cost Relationship with Project Size. Built Overrun in Road Projects in Terrorism Environment Project and Asset Management, Affected Areas Pakistan – A Case Study. 2(2), 195–216. KSCE Journal of Civil Engineering, 20(5), https://doi.org/10.1108/20441241211280873 1613–1620. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12205- 015-0348-6 Peters, D. (2010). Digging Through the Heart of Reunified Berlin: Unbundling The Decision- Making Process for The Tiergarten-Tunnel Mega-Project. European Journal of Transport and Infrastructure Research, 10(1), 89–102. https://doi.org/10.1109/INFRA.2008.5439589
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A REVIEW ON THE CONDITIONS OF DOMESTIC SUBCONTRACT IN THE MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
N. M. Rosli *1, N. E. Mustaffa 2 and H. L. T. Arifin 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Construction contract general conditions which are also known as standard forms have major influence on the likelihood and degree of project success. The first essential requirement for a standard form is that it should be drafted with clarity so that it is possible to easily ascertain from the wording just where the risk falls. In Malaysian construction industry, there are several choices of standard forms of main contracts and nominated subcontract. There has never been any published standard form of domestic subcontract in Malaysia. So far, however, there seems to be no comprehensive review to summarize existing research on the domestic subcontract. This research, therefore reviews the extant literature from a few aspects such as state of the art of domestic subcontract form, identifies the research gaps and proposes new directions for further studies.
Keywords: Construction, Domestic subcontract, Conditions of subcontract
1.0 INTRODUCTION include an allowance in their prices for risks (Hughes, 1997). Banwell Report One of the major components of a 1964 recommended that the building contract document is the general industry should develop and use a single conditions of contract, which is also standard form of contract for all known in Malaysia as the standard form construction projects. of contract (Nee et al., 2014). Construction contract general condition A domestic subcontract, which could be a clauses have major influences on the simple written contract or just an oral likelihood and degree of project success. contract, may have undefined and The first essential requirement for a unclear terms and conditions which can standard form is that it should be drafted lead to disputes and work suspension with clarity so that it is possible to easily (Yik and Lai 2008). Domestic ascertain from the wording just where the subcontracts are frequently entered into risk falls. The main reason for using the on an informal basis. Such contracts have standard form of contract is to allocate provoked fierce criticism from trade risks fairly between the parties and associations representing subcontractors, should imply that contractors need not as being one-sided to the point of
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unfairness. Malaysia has been faced with Table 1 Previous research on increasing growth in the number of subcontracting contractors and more than 90% of registered construction companies are Authors Data and Contribution SMEs which form the smallest-scaled Method to this study category (Supardiet al., 2011). These Manu et al. Semi- Factors contractors carry out several types of (2015) structured contributing interviews, to trust in construction works with the cost limit of non- between works up to RM 200 000 (CIDB 2015). participant contractor observation and Even though a major portion of a and subcontractor construction project is usually executed document reviews by subcontractors, the issues regarding Jaafar & Literature Troublesome domestic subcontracting are seldom Dahalan (2015) review clause in acknowledged and addressed. Table 1 subcontract shown very little research work has been Abdullahi Literature Subcontractin conducted and there is little-published (2014) Review g practices in general information available on the subject Oviedo-haito et Open-ended Factors especially regarding the standard form of al.(2014) interview facilitating domestic subcontract (conditions of the survival contract). Hence, this paper reviews the of scholarly research works in the discipline subcontractor of domestic subcontracting focusing on s in a scenario of crucial conditions and attributes of the severe domestic subcontract. The discussion in economic the paper begins with an exploration of crisis the advantages of subcontracting, types Rahman et al. Mixed Ongoing of a subcontractor, followed by a review (2014) method Ph.D. research of various studies on conditions of the (framework to subcontract improve the relationship 2.0 LITERATURE REFERENCES between the main contractors 2.1 Previous Research on and Subcontracting subcontractor s in the To date, research on domestic construction subcontract in the construction industry industry) has received far less attention than in Abbasianjahro Literature Develop a mi et al.(2013) Review comprehensiv say, main and nominated subcontract. e model for Table 1 below, clearly tabulated previous subcontractor research which are related to selection subcontracting. Based on the literature based on the review conducted, the number of the fuzzy preference researcher done on domestic subcontract selection is very limited. index Rafiq M. Questionnaire Major Choudhry, and interview problems in Jimmie W. subcontractin Hinze, g Muhammad Arshad (2013) Ng & Tang Questionnaire Establish a (2010) s set of Critical success
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Authors Data and Contribution Advantages of subcontracting Method to this study Quality Complexity, better workmanship, factors for value to the owner. subcontractin g Most large companies usually work as Othman, Content Drafting (2008) analysis and policies for main contractors for the projects, semi- standard form appointing a few small companies as structured of contract in subcontractors with different work scope interviews general through a competitive tendering. These Yik & Lai, Interview and Multilayer subcontractors will then appoint other (2008) desktop study subcontractin g in building small companies as their subcontractors projects to do part of the works which have been (Hong Kong) assigned to them. A subcontractor is a Talukhaba & Questionnaire Factors person or a company hired by the main Mapatha 2007) s necessary for contractor to perform part of the work of a selection of construction job. The subcontractor do domestic subcontract the works based on direction given by the main contractor and the works are carried 2.2 Advantages of Subcontracting out as part of the main contractor’s works.
Malaysian construction industry is highly 2.3 Types of Subcontractor competitive with a large number of contractors and the small size of the Subcontractors could be classified as industry. There are long chains of either domestic subcontractor or subcontracting culture in the industry. The nominated subcontractor from the importance and extent of subcontracting perspective of contractual matter are familiar to all involved in construction. (Mbachu, 2008). Main contractor can hire Its prevalence has been documented in his individual domestic subcontractors, or numerous studies. This has been added the client would execute the to and a synopsis is provided in Table 2. subcontracting arrangement by nominating subcontractors to the main Table 2 Advantages of subcontracting contractor (Yik, et al., 2006).
Advantages of subcontracting 2.3.1 Nominated Subcontractor Cost Bargain down labour cost, avoid workers' compensation cost, Mbachu (2008) described that the economical, process of subcontractors that are equipment/maintenance cost, nominated by client or representative of reduced overhead cost, reduced overall construction cost, client is named as nominated temptation to increase profits. subcontracting. The nominated Labour Labour flexibility, increase subcontractors are responsible to take on efficiency, accessing necessary main contractor’s task in a project. CIDB resources, shortage of (2013) declared that the elementary experienced workers, sporadic and unpredictable workload, off- criterion of this practice is main contractor loading direct employment signs contract with nominated responsibility. subcontractor through the client Risk Technical and financial risks are representative upon receiving authority shared between parties, from client. subcontractors sustain their businesses, down-loading financial risk, externalize less The occurrence of nominated rewarding and dangerous subcontracting practice is kind of activities, and risk reduction. subcontracting features which is unique Time Encourage quicker completion of to the construction industry (Hughes, tasks, market volatility, faster Gray and Murdoch, 1994). There are construction time
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three main concerns have developed main contractor. Domestic subcontractor while implementing the nomination is the individual or firm who is employed practice such as the needs of altering under this means of employment process. control degree of main contractor over Based on a study by Reid (2004), specialists; the needs of expressing domestic subcontractor is appointed with client’s opinion; the integration of design just the simply agreement of employer team’s role. The main reason to apply when there is a requirement stated under nomination practice is for exploiting the the terms of the main contract, yet skills of specialists before appointment of employer has no participated in the main contractor. It is one of the respective appointment. Domestic motivations to trigger highly usage on subcontracting is useful towards main nominated subcontracting. contractor due to domestic subcontractors is able to reduce the risk Gunderson and Cherf (2012) had and job capacity of the construction recognized the viewpoints of client in project. Main contractor is also choosing of nominated subcontractor recognized as an administrative role for such as financial capability; pricing; domestic subcontractor in inspecting and technical know-how; quality; track records appraising subcontractor’s performance and reliability. Nomination practice is (Reid, 2004). Hence, the employment of favoured by specialists because this the subcontractor is granted as wholly practice protects them from uncontrolled valuable towards main contractor in market forces by enabling them to construction process (Abdullahi, 2014). compete on other basis rather than cost only. Strong and secure business The summary of types of subcontracting relationships with regular clients of the has been tabulated in Table 3 for further industry and with certain consultants clarification. could be resulted as well (Hughes, Gray and Murdoch, 1994). Table 3 Types of subcontractors
Vilasini, et al. (2012) explained that Nominated Domestic Subcontractor subcontractor nominated subcontractor receives Firms that are pre- Employed in labor- necessary support service from main selected by the client, intensive tasks such as contractor for aiding main contractor’s but the subcontract that excavating, formwork, work. Abdullahi (2014) identified that they enter into rebar work, and these required abutments including of establishes a binding painting. scaffolding and hoisting facilities, contract solely with the prime contractor. provision of access road, storages, Nominated accommodation facilities, provision of subcontractors are electricity, water and so on. In doing so, most commonly profit and attendance are counted as the employed for work incentive of main contractor. Most of the involving piling, HVAC, elevators, firefighting, extraordinary work natures which fall and other specialized beyond main contractor’s scope is work. performed or undertaken by nominated Arises where the Exhibit a compromise subcontractor who works as a specialist. design team/client requiring a limited The specialist works are, for instances, requires control in the control of the selection selection of a specialist including naming a plumbing, mechanical, roofing, electrical number of firms (1-3) in works (CIDB, 2013). the tender documents for a particular section 2.3 Domestic Subcontractor of work. Chosen by employer Selected and appointed Domestic subcontracting is the firm or an and appointed by the by main contractor main contractor individual engaged by main contractor to Perform their duty One in whose selection carry out particular portion of the work of under main contractor and appointment the
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Nominated Domestic professional associations and bodies and Subcontractor subcontractor are widely used throughout the supervision. employer normally construction industry. Table 4 clearly plays no part, other specified most crucial clauses for than simply giving consent where there is subcontract which have been gathered required under the from previous research. terms of the main contract Table 4 Crucial Condition of domestic Specialist in one The main contractor Subcontract project remains fully liable to the employer for the Research Conditions of works particularly in Subcontract respect of the (Clauses) workmanship and delay Change order Merwinet al. (2014), caused by the sub- Podvezko et al. (2010), contractors. Ibbs and Ashley (1987) Defect Nee et al. (2014) The duties and responsibilities of the Delay Fisher et al. (2005), parties, who enter into the contract, are Slauson (2005), Uher bound as stipulated in the contract which (1991),Nee et al. has been agreed in the earlier stage. The (2014), Merwinet al. (2014) contract may be entirely in writing, Dispute resolution Ya-zhuo & Fan (2011), entirely orally or partly in writing and Yik et al. (2006), partly oral and a well-written construction Fisher et al. (2005), contract will specify a full description and Slauson (2005) the extent of work, timing, quality Extension of time Fisher et al. (2005) standards and the price. This involves Indemnification Merwinet al. (2014), Fisher et al. (2005), drawing up contract conditions which will Slauson (2005) allow the contract to be administered and Insurance Podvezko et al. (2010), future contract disputes settled Fisher et al. (2005) Liquidated damages Nee et al. (2014), Merwinet al. (2014), 3.0 METHODOLOGY Ya-zhuo & Fan (2011), Yik et al. (2006), Content analysis was carried out on the Fisher et al. paper published in top journals in the (2005),Uher (1991) area of construction management. Both Notice requirements Slauson (2005) Scopus and Science Citation Index Pay when paid clauses Fisher et al. (2005) Payment Nee et al. (2014), Expanded (SCI) were used because Merwinet al. (2014), some of the journals were not indexed by Ya-zhuo & Fan (2011), each other. This is based on the Podvezko et al. (2010), assumption that author(s) may be keen to Yik et al. (2006), publish their papers in a first-tier journal Fisher et al. (2005), Fisher et al. (2005), based on the quality of the journals. Slauson (2005), Uher (1991), Ibbs and 4.0 MAIN RESULTS Ashley (1987) Performance Bond Nee et al. (2014), 4.1 Crucial Conditions of Domestic Price Ya-zhuo & Fan (2011) Process, Quality, Cost, Chui & Bai (2010), Subcontract Administration Chui & Bai (2010), Fisher et al. (2005) General conditions spell out the general Rights and obligations Chui & Bai (2010), project rules and relevant commercial Podvezko et al. (2010) terms and are usually expressed in a Scope of work Yik et al. (2006), standardized prepared printed contract Slauson (2005), Ibbs form which is known as a standard form, and Ashley (1987) Security deposit and Uher (1991) developed and published by different retentions
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Research Conditions of Authors Attributes Subcontract • Clearly defines the scope (Clauses) of work Site conditions Merwinet al. (2014), • Anticipates a wide variety Fisher et al. (2005) of potential problems Suspension of works Podvezko et al. (2010) • Risk allocation Termination clauses Merwinet al. (2014), • Balanced Podvezko et al. (2010), • Insurance Fisher et al. (2005) • Dispute resolution Time limit of project Ya-zhuo & Fan (2011), mechanism Uher (1991) • Understood and followed Variation order Nee et al. (2014), Uher at the project level (1991), Ibbs and Chong & Zin • Clarity - shortened the Ashley (1987), Ibbs (2010) sentences, active voices, and Ashley (1987) no repetition of words, in a Warranty Merwinet al. (2014), complexity of phrases, Podvezko et al. (2010) avoid ‘shall’, positive style of language, good Besides the conditions gathered from the explanation on procedure previous research, sample of domestic and process, good word subcontract from the industry also been formation. analysed to strengthen this research. Wong et al. • Clear (2008) There are 22 samples of subcontract • Information should be explainable to parties who been collected from construction industry. may affect These samples consist of in house • Clarification of contract contracts and bespoke contract. Most of terms and agreement the subcontract samples have clauses Mohamad • Clarity such as compliance with main contract; and Madon • Written in simple language (2006) foreman or supervisor; subcontract sum; • Precise, objective and practical materials guarantee and warranties; • Prepared by qualified subcontract working period; work professional programme; failure to complete on time; • Clearly explained on defect liability period; safety provisions; regulatory requirement insurances; termination; payments and • Minimize use of retention fund. Total 47 crucial conditions complicated legal phrase • General condition to be of subcontract been summarized and made familiar these will lead for the future research. • Induction session before contract to be 4.2 The Attributes of Domestic implemented Subcontract Yik et al. • Clearly define scope of (2006) work Table 5 clearly specified attributesof the • Ambiguous terms and conditions domestic subcontract and most crucial Michael • Clear clauses for subcontract which have been O’reilly • Certainty gathered from previous research. (1999)
Table 5 The attributes of domestic In summary, attributes can be subcontract categorised into eleven category (Paciaroni, 2013) which are best suited to Authors Attributes deliver the project, integrated, clear ( Paciaroni • Best suited to deliver the concise, unambiguous language), (2013) project mechanically sound, clearly defines the • Integrated, well-considered whole scope of Works, anticipates a wide • Clear, concise, variety of potential problems, fairly unambiguous language allocates risks to the party who is best • Mechanically sound positioned to anticipate and control the
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risks, balanced, carefully considers all pp.601–608. aspects of insurance, clear dispute resolution mechanism, and lastly Chui, K. &Bai, Y., 2010. Comparison of Contract General Conditions between United understood and followed at the project States and China. Journal of Architectural level Engineering, 16(December), pp.119–125
5.0 CONCLUSION Fisher, T.S. et al., 2005. Top Ten Most Important Clauses Of a Construction Contract. Defense Counsel Journal, 72(3), pp.250– This research may provide good basis for 265 future discussion about domestic subcontract. This on-going research may Gunderson, D.E. and Cherf, R.W., 2012. also reduce the present problems related General Contractors’ Perceptions of Subcontractor’s Competencies and to domestic subcontractor and may Attributes : A Pacific Northwest Study. provide the ways to improve domestic 48th ASC Annual International subcontract practice and management. It Conference Proceedings. University of is believe that, this research contents Birmingham City. UK: Associated may be very useful to practitioner of both Schools of Construction. legal and construction contract Hughes, W.P., Gray, C. & Murdoch, J.R. (1997) community as well as the academic Effective specialist and trade students especially to those involves in contracting.CIRIA (in press). construction contract management. The findings presented in this paper are the Jaafar, M. &Dahalan, N. (2015). Preface : A Theory of Subcontractor Bullying in result of a literature review in an attempt Construction Industry. , 9(April), pp.56– to establishment of a framework for 59. domestic subcontract in Malaysian construction industry Mbachu, J., 2008. Conceptual framework for the assessment of subcontractors' eligibility and performance in the ACKNOWLEDGEMENT construction industry. Construction Management The authors would like to express their and Economics, 26, pp.471–484. appreciation to the Univerisiti Teknologi Malaysia (Faculty of Built Envirenment) Manu, E. et al.(2015). Trust influencing factors in by providing a good research main contractor and subcontractor environment and facilities to support this relationships during projects. International research work. First autor also would like Journal of Project Management, 33(7), to thank Universiti Tunku Abdul Rahman pp.1495–1508. (UTAR) as employer to fully support this research. Merwin, B.B.W., Linley, J. &Steedman, T.L., 2014.Critical Construction Contract Clauses. , 28(5), pp.1–11. REFERENCES Michael O’Reilly, “Civil Engineering Construction Abbasianjahromi, H., Rajaie, H. &Shakeri, E. Contracts”. Second Edition. London, Thomas (2013).a Framework for Subcontractor Telford (1999),p-16 Selection in the Construction Industry.Journal of Civil Engineering and Mohamad Ibrahim Mohamad and Zulkifli Madon Management, 19(2), pp.158–168. (2006), Understanding Contract Documentation, Proceeding of the 6th Asia- Abdullahi, A.H. (2014). Review of Subcontracting Pacific Structural Engineering and Practice in the Construction Construction Conference (ASPEC) 14 Industry.Journal of Environmental Sciences and Resources Management, Nee, T.S., Nadarajan, S. & Whyte, A., 6(1), pp.23–33. 2014.Reviews of Cases of Construction Disputes in Malaysia and its Relation with Chong, H.Y. &Zin, R.M.(2010).A case study into Standard Form of Construction the language structure of construction Contract.Advanced Materials Research, 831, standard form in Malaysia.International pp.191–196. Journal of Project Management, 28,
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Ng, S.T. & Tang, Z.(2010). Labour-intensive Windapo, A.O., 2012. A framework for construction sub-contractors: Their critical subcontractor integration in Alliance success factors. International Journal of contracts. International Journal of Project Management, 28(7), pp.732–740. Construction Supply Chain Management, Available at: 2(1), pp.17–33. http://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S02 63786309001355. Wong, W.K. et al. (2008). A framework for trust in construction contracting. International Othman, N. (2008). Standard forms of contract Journal of Project Management, 26(8), and its influence on construction pp.821–829. professionals.Jurnal Alam Bina, (2), pp.45– 60. Ya-zhuo, L. & Fan, L., 2011.An Analysis of Contractual Incompleteness in Oviedo-haito, R.J. et al. (2014). Survival Factors Construction Exchanges.Computer for Subcontractors in Economic Downturns. , Sciences and Convergence Information 140(2), pp.1–10. Technology (ICCIT), 2011 6th International Conference, pp.963–967. Paciaroni, (2013).Attributes of Good Construction Contract., pp.39–40. Yik, F. et al. (2006).Problems with specialist subcontracting in the construction Podvezko, V., Mitkus, S. &Trinkuniene, E., industry. Building Services Engineering 2010.Complex Evaluation of Contracts for Research and Technology, 27(3), Construction.Journal of Civil Engineering pp.183– 193 and Management, 16(September 2014), pp.287–297. Yik, F.W.H. & Lai, J.H.K. (2008). Multilayer subcontracting of specialist works in Rafiq M. Choudhry, Jimmie W. Hinze, Muhammad buildings in Hong Kong. International Arshad, and H.F.G. (2013).Subcontracting Journal of Project Management, 26(4), Practices in the Construction Industry of pp.399–407. Pakistan Rafiq.Journal of construction engineering and management, 138(March), pp.1–12. Available at: http://dx.doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943- 7862.0000781.
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Vilasini, N., Neitzert, T.R., Rotimi, J.O.B. and
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IS THE MALAYSIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY READY FOR OSHCIM? : A REVIEW PAPER
W. F. W. Azmi *1 and M. S. Misnan 2
1, 2 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (Email: [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The Malaysia’s construction industry has always placed safety and health as a priority. The Ministry of Human Resource Malaysia had launched Occupational Safety and Health in Construction Industry (Management) 2017 (OSHCIM). OSHCIM was developed by the Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) with the input of Design Safety concept proposed to be a mandatory standard by the year 2020. OSHCIM recommends the dutyholders; clients, designers, and contractors to manage the health and safety of the construction project. With the new duties and obligations assigned to the dutyholders, this paper reviews the Guidelines of OSHCIM to the Malaysia’s Construction Industry. The level of awareness on the concept is currently moderate however the acceptances are supported. This paper recommends suggestions that may increase the level of readiness and acceptance of the dutyholders to the implementation of OSHCIM in 2020.
Keywords : OSHCIM, Construction Safety, Design Safety, Prevention through Design, Safety Design
1.0 INTRODUCTION Construction Industry 2005-2010 (CIDB, 2006) has proposed six strategies on The Malaysia’s construction industry has improving the health and safety in the always placed safety and health as a current construction industry. One of the priority. A varies of government agencies strategies that were focused on was to such as Department of Occupational inculcating preventive workplace culture Safety and Health (DOSH), Construction by emphasizes the proactive Industry Development Board (CIDB), management of hazards to eliminate National Institute for Occupational Safety them wherever practicable – and, if this is and Health (NIOSH) and National Council not possible, it then focuses on isolating for Occupational Safety and Health and minimising the hazards. This strategy (NCOSH) has been promoting and introduces six programs; (1) Promote a enhancing the occupational safety and Safety Culture; (2) Prevent Occupational health to the industry. diseases more effectively; (3) Eliminate hazards at the design stage; (4) Design 2.0 DESIGN SAFETY and develop safe environments, systems INTEGRATION IN MALAYSIA and products; (5) Advanced injury prevention knowledge and information The Malaysia’s Master Plan for and (6) Increase quantity and quality of Occupational Safety and Health in OSH practitioners.
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This program was one of the earliest safety of the construction project. Datuk introductory on design safety for the Mahfuz Omar, deputy minister of the Malaysia’s Construction Industry. The Ministry of Human Resource Malaysia program suggested eliminating hazards proposes OSCHIM Guidelines to be a at the design stage by raising awareness mandatory standard to follow by the of the importance of safe design among construction sector by the year 2020. the designer, client and community. Initial Datuk Mahfuz Omar, deputy minister of action plan was discussed under the MOHR. This is to reduce the risks of master plan where it is proposed to accidents and death of construction site introduce the concept targeted clients and workers involving all parties involved from designers by awareness course or the earliest stages of construction seminars, followed by courses for the process principal contractor and designers or safety advisors to undertake the duties Promotional works on OSHCIM has been under the regulations. An additional role, done since and has been embedded into Safety Advisors was proposed where his the Construction Industry Transformation main duty is to advise on health and Programme and Construction safety management. A guideline on Occupational Safety and Health Strategic design safety implementation and Plan. In the year 2018, DOSH develop changes are expected to be produced by training modules focusing on the DOSH within the year of 2007. dutyholders involved with OSHCIM. An OSCHIM Principal Designer and 2.1 OSHCIM Development Designer Competency Seminar, was organized by UTM in October 2018 In 2017, CIDB conducted the study on the focuses on designing out hazards at pre- efficiency and adequacy of the current construction phase and preparation of law and regulations in regards to OCHSIM documentation. construction safety. The recommendations for improvement 2.2 OSCHIM Guidelines And include revision of laws, imposing penalty Requirements and fines and enforcement and role of industry players (CIDB, 2017). These The OSHCIM Guidelines introduce three were to improve the Construction main dutyholders which are (1) Client is Occupational Safety and Health (OSH) by an organisations or individuals for whom introducing design safety concept. a construction project is carried out.; (2) Principal designer is an organisation or In line with OSH Master Plan for Malaysia an individual designers appointed for their 2015, the Ministry of Human Resource knowledge, experience and ability and (3) Malaysia had launched Occupational Principal contractor appointed by the Safety and Health in Construction client to coordinate the construction Industry (Management) 2017 (OSHCIM). phase of a project where it involves more OSHCIM was developed by the than one contractor. Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) based on Construction The duties and obligations for these three Design Management Regulations with the main dutyholders hold responsibility for input of Design Safety concept. managing the health and safety of a construction project together. These Under the current situation on the include managing safety and health from construction site, the responsibility of the pre-construction phase. occupational safety and health placed fully on the contractor. With the launching Clients additional obligations are (1) of OSHCIM Guidelines, it recommends Aware of his duties to provide suitable the dutyholders; clients, designers, and management arrangements, (2) Perform contractors to manage the health and appointment evaluation of project team;
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(3) Appoint Principal Designer & Principal the respondents consist of n=82 with Contractor, (4) Provide Pre Construction bachelor degree, n=35 with master Information to Principal Designer; (5) degree ad n=1 phd qualification. As for Provide Safety Health File to Principal civil engineers respondent, n=69 Designer when there is existing structure equipped with bachelor degree and on site and (6) Ensure duty holders n=55 with master qualification. perform. 3.2 Questionnaire Development Principal Contractor has a set of duties which includes (1) Aware of his duties The respondents were given a during Construction phase to Plan, statements to be rated based on their Monitor & Manage Safety and Health ; (2) current participation in regards with To obtain Pre Construction Information design safety. The ratings used are Likert and review for adequacy; (3) To provide Scale where 1 is Strongly Disagree and 5 CPP to Principal Designer and to perform is Strongly Agree. The statements are as Pre Construction Reviews with Principal below: Designer; (4) To handover to Client updated Safety Health Files. i. Phase 1 Feasibility Study My organization has a formal process As for the Principal Designer, their main to follow during design that allows for duties are (1) Ensure Clients is aware of consideration of construction worker his duties; (2) Aware of his duties during OSH on site Pre construction phase to Plan, Monitor & ii. Phase 2 Scheme Design Manage Pre Construction Phase; (3) We make design decisions at the Review Pre Construction Information for design phase that improve adequacy; (4) to design out risk in their construction worker safety designs; (5) Facilitate Safety Design iii. Phase 3 Detailed Design & Review Management and (6) Include Specifications Design Review Management into Safety We usually have discussions with the Health Files to Principal Contractor upon client regarding the features to be role ends included in the design to ensure construction worker OHS on site 3.0 METHODOLOGY iv. Phase 4 Tender & Phase 5 Construction Process 3.1 Respondents Selection We usually have discussions with the contractors /subcontractors regarding The types of design disciplines included the methods/ practices to be in the research study were limited to deployed on site to ensure Designers; Architect and Civil Engineers. construction worker OSH This is due to their additional duties and v. Phase 6 Handover & Maintenance obligation under the OSHCIM In reviewing completed projects, we Regulations that requires them to include evaluate the impact of our design on safety and health in the whole project construction OSH lifecycle. The survey was distributed by using the online survey tool Google 4.0 DATA ANALYSIS AND Forms, by hand and by airmail. All FINDINGS identifying information from participants was stripped from the responses prior to 4.1 Data Analysis data analysis. The data were analysed using SPSS computer program. The Figure 1.1 shows the result of the respondents were 118 Architects and current participation of designers; 134 Civil Engineers. The respond rate Architects and Civil Engineers in the for this research was 30%. Among the view of a standard project lifecycles. 118 of architects respondents received, Less than half of both respondents;
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Architects (45.8%) and Civil Engineers percentage was found during the (38.1%) have a formal process to follow tendering and construction phase where in terms of allowing consideration for as high as 70.4% of Architects and construction workers occupational 67.9% of Civil Engineers respondents safety and health in their organization. agreed that they have discussions with Less than half of the designers; 55.1% the contractors during this phase in of architects and 43.3% of civil engineer terms of construction worker safety. I agreed that they consider construction reviewing completed projects, up to 50% worker safety during their decision respondents stated that they evaluate making in the scheme design as well as the impact of their designs on detailed design phase. A higher construction safety.
Figure 1 Findings of Current Participation of Design Safety within a Project Lifecycle 4.2 Findings 5.0 CONCLUSION The participants involvement and Accidents are prone to occur and based participation in considering design safety on the understanding of the underlying through their firm or organization are causes, safety and health solutions can moderate. This is supported by the be developed through designing out risks. survey results where less than half of the The implementation of design safety designers has involved safety design in concept to the current industry is a great the earliest phase of a Project lifecycle idea especially to a developing country (Phase 1). Based on the safety design such as Malaysia where there is a high conceptual, the earliest involvement of demand of construction development in safety in a project, the highest impact on the near future. Based on the findings, It the ability to influence safety. is clear to state that safety design knowledge and familiarity in Malaysia is One of the main duties of a designers is moderate and the design safety to include safety input during their design practiced is moderate. This gives a phase (Phase 2 and Phase 3). However, positive result where the Malaysia the percentage of safety inclusión based Construction Industry may be able to on the results are moderate. As accept the implementation of OSHCIM expected, safety discussion during the with a proper integration. tendering (Phase 4) and construction Process (Phase 5) is higher than other Gambatese et. al. (2005) suggested that phases in the Project lifecycle. This keys to a successful implementation of shows that the current culture touches on safety design is to change the designers’ safety more during the construction rather mindset towards safety through than pre-construction phase. Results also motivational force, increasing designer found that only half of the respondents knowledge and making adequate agreed that they evaluate the impact of guidelines to follow. DOSH has their design on construction OSH in successfully established OSHCIM as a completion of a project (Phase 6). guideline towards implementing safety design followed by seminars ad workshop. However, in order to change
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the designers’ mindset should not only REFERENCES focus on the professionals, but also the future designers during the Construction Industry Development Board (2006). undergraduate programs (Mohd Saidin Master Plan for Occupational Safety and Misnan, 2017). Health in Construction Industry 2005-2010, Malaysia
The designers are not exposed during Construction Industry Development Board.(2017) their formal education on their role in Kajian Mengenai Keberkesanan dan providing a safe design whereas their Kecukupan Undang Undang dan Peraturan knowledge in construction method is yang berkaitan dengan Keselamatan Pembinaan. limited that they are unable to identify hazards related to the shape, framework Construction Industry Development Board. (2018). and exterior of the building (Lena Almen Construction Industry Transformation et. al., 2012). Wan Faida Wan Azmi and Programme 2016-2018:Report No.4. Mohd Saidin Misnan (2013) had compiled Construction Industry Training Board (2015) CDM a list of barriers in introducing safety 2015 : Industry guidance for Principal design based on past researcher. It was Designer. Construcion Industry Advisory found that the top barriers found are lack Committee (CONIAC) of knowledge, education & training of the designers. This is followed closely by the Department of Occupational Safety and Health. (2017).Guidelines on Occupational Safety and fear of increasing of liability and the Health in Construction Industry (Management) current nature of the industry. It was 2017. found by Wan Faida Wan Azmi and Mohd Saidin Misnan(2018) that majority of the Gambatese, J, Behm, M and Hinze, J (2005). respondents were strongly agree to the Viability of Designing for Construction Worker Safety. Journal of Construction Engineering additional duties of designers, clients and and Management. 131(9) contractors. This result showed that the Malaysia’s Construction Industry is ready Lena Almen, Tore J. Larsson, and Eva-Lotta to shoulder these obligations in return to Thunqvist. (2012). The influence of the a safe construction site. designer on the risk of falling from heights and of exposure to excessive workloads on two construction sites. Safety Science. Monitor Therefore, alongside awareness 16(1). 2-7. programmes that have been done by DOSH towards the dutyholders, this Ministry of Human Resources. (2015). paper suggest an integration towards the Occupational Safety and Health Master Plan for Malaysia. education sector. This is to smoothen the implementation of OSCHIM that is Mohd Saidin Misnan, Wan Faida Wan Azmi, targeted to be a mandatory in 2020. By Sarajul Fikri Mohamed, Zuhaili Mohamad integrating in the education level, Ramly, Zakaria Mohd Yusof and Norazam focussing on the undergraduates, the Othman. (2017). Integration of Design Safety into Curricula in the Undergraduate Programs : future designers, engineers and The Academician Perspective. Open Journal of construction team may be fully aware of Safety Science and Technology. 7.pp106-112 the design safety concept as well as equipped with adequate skills and Wan Faida Wan Azmi and Mohd Saidin Misnan. knowledge to perform them. In the end, (2013). A Case for the Introduction of Designers’ Safety Education (DSE) for the health and safety of the construction Architects and Civil Engineers. Advanced worker will be improved, the accidents Engineering Forum Vol. 10. pp 160-164 due to design may be minimized and a zero-accident construction project may be Wan Faida Wan Azmi and Mohd Saidin Misnan. achieved. (2018). Stakeholder’s Attitude Towards Construction Worker’s Safety and Health. Journal of Engineering and Applied Science. 13. pp6950-6953
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HUMAN BEHAVIOR: DEVELOPING CONCEPTUAL MODEL FOR FIRE EVACUATION PROCESS IN HOSPITAL
M. S. Rashid *1 and S. A. Zolkefly 2
1, 2 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
As the human behaviour perspective is concerned, the uncertainty and unpredictable attitudes among occupants have become complex and intricate to be determined. However, there are various types of occupants such as patients, staffs and visitors who have distinctive knowledge and input pertaining the flow and procedure of evacuation. The respective agency such as fire risk department (BOMBA) and other volunteer namely Emergency Response Team (ERT) that has been established in the hospital would facilitate the process of evacuation hence mitigate the risk of fatality and suffocates in the red zone (fire area). In addition, the intact cooperation and collaboration with occupants who are well-versed and highly exposed to array fire-drill exercise is presumed imperative as to ascertain safety evacuation could be rendered with systematic flow and direction. This is due to the unmeasurable characteristics of human factors that depicts an actual scenes of their reactions when dealing with fire evacuation. Compliance of the Manual Book or Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) which has been embedded in every hospital by Fire Rescue Department (BOMBA) would not ensure occupants such as patients, staffs and visitors safely evacuate from the impaired location. This has lead the researcher to identify profoundly and oversee the behaviour of human while fire accidents taken place. As the outcome of this paper is to identify the human behaviour while evacuation process and to proceed with the development of conceptual model that can lead to the deprivation of damages peculiarly live losses.
Keywords : Fire Safety, Fire Evacuation, Human Behaviour.
1.0 INTRODUCTION many researcher continuously defines the theory. Based on Kobes et al (2010), Behavioral studies have become the vital human behavior can be construed as the elements in every segments of research. people reaction upon the perception of the Holistic concept and approaches need to situation, their objective to respond and be embrace in order to identify the the contemplation prior action was behavior as the whole. Once emergency executed. In line with the studies incident has taken place, there is no conducted by Yatim (2009), people tend to unswerving argument and confirmation respond accordingly due to their common with regards to behavior of human. It was activities experienced in the past time. suggested by Bryan (2002), there were
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Furthermore, occupants lead to evacuate occupants behavior while evacuate from smoothly when they received apparent the building. cue before the information transmitted for the further action. There are certain cases As the way forward to enhance the fire when people refused to adhere to the fire precaution, establishment of evacuation alarm due to the fabricated notification models and theory of human behavior are confront by them. The observation on the discernible imperative in order to occupants behavior when incineration overwhelm fire evacuation in future. occur has proven their intention to react Hence, fire safety models and human differently in term of searching for main behavior models must be incorporated in entrance egress route as to evacuate from order to outpace and manage the the building, witness the flames and many obstacles faces by the occupants during more. However, in order to escape from fire evacuation. The development of fire location, most of the occupants are human behavior theory must be formed vulnerable to several obstacles such as based on the various factors influencing heavy smokes, fire at the main door and the occupants while encountering fire vision disruption. accident. There are multiple action could be taken in the evacuation process such There are several tools and mechanism to as requesting information, complying to calculate the time taken for evacuation the cues and preparing for evacuation. which has been widely prevailed in an engineering safety analysis for instance In order to construct and formulate engineering hand calculations and performance-based building design, computational tools. Moreover, the evacuation model is perceived vital tool to deprivation of data and available theory adopt. It facilitate the designer to embrace pertaining occupant behavior in the way to and implement the agile and robust egress review and estimate uncertainty and time route peculiarly dealing with people consumption while fire occur. This has behavior during fire evacuation. In the resulted to inappropriate measurement of context of fire safety design, Malaysia time taken during building evacuation. The currently applying a prescriptive-based adequate information and safety aspect code despite the industry is available to about the egress routes and fire protection used performance-based approach for the systems embedded in the building have development of mega and special potentially reduced the uncertainty of the projects.
Table 1 Characteristics of Emergency Behavior (Karasova et al, 2008)
Behavior Specification • Panic • Irrationality • Bewilderment • Hysterical flight • Ignorance of the environment • Shock and inactivity • Numbness • No movement • Normal behavior • Original plan execution • No change in initial behavior • Directed flight and affiliation • Normal to fast walk towards affiliate factors (family home) • Maintain affiliation • Formation of ad-hoc groups • Movement in groups • Leader following • Assisting group members • Adapting to group behavior • Pro-social response • Mutual helping base don social roles • Provision of first aid and rescue • Self-sacrifice for sake of helping others
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In the view of crowd behavior and reaction Literally, any blockage or sanction exists once fire emergency take place, the most during the fire escape such as building common attitude showcase by occupants machineries (oxygen tanks,beds, curtains, is panic. The movement of crowd would benches) will lead to deficiency of generally influenced by their level of movement from divulge area to the safer awareness and knowledge about the fire location. Occasionally, irrational and precautions and way to mitigate the risk. demotivated occur when the group of Despite the process of evacuation occupants unable to arouse such innate perceived terrible and unorganized, the vibrant where dissemination of positive evacuees will literally adhere to the vibes would escalate their survival mode. command or instruction lead by their As the consequences, evacuees will not leader, relatives or even friends. This is merely depends on the rescue team to due to the vast perspective and ensure their welfare but knowledge and experience garnered while undergoing fire experience sharing in each of them can emergency discourse or fire drill practice. utterly expedite the process of evacuation. In addition, the panic theory are not majorly rely solely on its concept however In the holistic overview about panic it comprises of decision-making theory situation, crowd modeling has been widely and urgency theory. Communication leveraged in order to ensure occupants barriers has become the utmost issues can be well-managed while fire accident need to be resolved notably with regards take place. On the other hand, the creation to the emergency circumstances. of crowd model constitute a translation of Improper guidance and incomplete human behavior responds in the virtual direction spread over to the occupants will scene. Simulation exerted in the mock derail the performance of the evacuation evacuation process can fortify the actual process. experience of the evacuees and enormous engagement from various entity and group According to Olfati-Saber et al (2004), the will facilitate their consciousness relating establishment of crowd can be realized to evacuation flow. Based on study through the substantial number of agents conducted by Reynolds et al (1999), which execute certain interaction and thorough research associating to crowd possess collective behavior where it has a simulation have been broadly developed homogeneous group objective. in the way to synchronize action and risk Emergency happens in the most mitigation once fire accident evolved. It is unforeseen condition where the evacuees supported by Helbing et al (2000), the unable to transmit the information such as emergence of computer models in signal, cues and smokes into the efficient responds to the evacuation and action which potentially reduce the risk of emergency conditions have been created injury and even mortality. Subconscious while empirical study on panic behavior may accidentally emerge to circumstances acquire an incremental those occupants under the group of patient abstract from several social psychologists. or old folk. These type of communities Emphasizing on fundamental issues such require profound observation and attention as human characteristics notably during peculiarly when the eruption of fire incident panic condition is discernible crucial in where they are vulnerable to hysteria or order to obtain vivid grasp. freak-out. However, identifying the right path and direction from the affected area According to Helbing et al (2000), to the assembly point where it seems to be traditionally research on crowd behavior the location for crowd gathering will and movement have been majorly encounter complexity since huge number scrutinize on identifying an allocating of evacuees using the similar staircase conceptual models as to assure occupants and may lead to bottleneck at the fire are well-aware on the safety hazard emergency doors. outcome at their place. Previous cases pertaining emergency accident or panic
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situations has been identified and studied evacuation as opposed to large number of in order to create more sustainable and crowds. constructive simulations for occupants if there any mishap erupt in future. This is in 2.0 METHODOLOGY line with the research done by Waldau N. et al (2003), internal emotions of evacuees 2.1 Description of Study Area such as stress, irrational and demotivated would lead to direct implication to the The study has been conducted in several whole body systems of the imparted public and private hospital nearby Klang evacuees for instance diminishing Valley área. The participation of three awareness on the safety hazard and disparate types of group namely staff, evacuation process, incapable to stimulate patients and visitors are deemed vital due effective action to proceed movement from to their direct and indirect involvement in the affected area and many more. this study. It includes Hospital Selayang, Hosiptal Pantai and many more. Based on McGrath et al (1970), there are agents who have least skills and moderate The abundant research from the past knowledge on operational aspects such as studies in the context of human behavior assisting occupants to escape within the evacuation theory lead to the numerous available safety egress time will encounter establishment of evacuation models. In stress and pressure due to the lack of addition, the emergence theory of exposure regarding the evacuation evacuation model essentially focused on matters. In addition, pursuant to research the aspect of life safety management and done by Henderson et al (1974), when preventive action such as selection of pedestrian or crowds are concurrently egress route and personal protective moving into the emergency or exit doors in equipment (PPE) installed in the building. the building, panic situations may occur In general, the evacuation process are since each of them are possess common quantified by the stringent procedures and intention in which persistently strive to numbers of evacuees who managed to egress from the building and they are hedge from any risks. Figure 3.2 have highly influenced by the multiple point of explicitly illustrate in sequence the steps views. This has been explicitly deliberated taken by the evacuees in the event of fire by Hughes et al (2003), there will be a or other emergency circumstances. group of occupants with the capacity to overview the whole area in the building will 2.2 Data Collection - A Selection of retrieve and convey latest information to Respondents the occupants who is shorter in height as compared to them in order to ascertain the In this research, close-ended questions seamless evacuation. They will were used, where predetermined list of demonstrate action such as signage, cues alternate responses are presented to the and many more to propel evacuees to the respondents and they have to choose the safest area. appropriate answers. All the questions have been formed in a simple words Both perspectives could be gathered when instead of jargon diction with direct modelling human crowd behaviors for questions to avoid respondent’s confusion instance human nor crowd behaviors. This or losing interest from answering the is supported by Roloff et al (1981), crowd questions. Furthermore, the questions can be defined as enormous group of were collected from the prior studies and individuals experiencing common goal and refined through the discussion with the be at similar physical environment which advisor. the existence of active and passive fire protection systems. However, small group The questionnaire used in this research is of evacuees or even individual will have adapted from prior studies and refined disparate behaviors with regards to fire through the discussion with the advisor.
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There are three sections which are Section 3.0 CONCLUSION A, Section B and Section C. The questions were developed solely in English with no In a nutshell, Malaysia authorities is interpretation of Bahasa Malaysia. essentially require to play a significant roles in reducing fire accident specifically Section A consists of items related to the in the hospital where people are devoted demographic variables; specifically into that area for various purpose. Hospital background information of the staff generally have undergo specific respondents such as gender, age, training such as fire-drill simulation, safety division, position level, tenure of service discourse and so on. Basically, they have and length of contract. garnered input about to escape from building while fire take place and control Section B consists of 16 items related to the others occupants such as patients and the independent variables of the research. visitors from extreme panic which may • “Perception of the cue(s)” consists subsequently led to catastrophic and of 5 items that were adapted from damages. Moreover, occupants can Kuligowski (2008). execute for evacuation once they are fully • “Interpretation of the cue, situation aware about the existence of all signage and risk” consists of 5 items that surround them. The standard nature of were adapted from Kuligowski occupants when they eager to establish (2008). their own interpretation and initiate • “Decision Making” consists of 6 movement by denying safety procedures items that were constructed during will cause the severe condition. It is the discussion during the interview possible for occupants who have vast session with the Senior Manager experience and knowledge about fire of Safety Management of Pantai escape procedures to become leader Medical Hospital. while guiding evacuees to the safest • “Action” consists of 6 items that assembly point. Most of the aged hospital were adapted from Kuligowski have poor safety management procedures (2008) and it will derail the occupant emotions when facing with fire incident thus directly 2.3 Data Analysis induce to the unforeseen actions. Hence, uncontrollable human behavior while 2.3.1 Questionnaire Analysis dealing with fire and egress flow would not be the major indicator and benchmark if In this research, data was analyzed using occupants have least exposure to confront Statistical Package for Social Sciences with the actual scene. (SPSS) version 20.0. SPSS is a data management and analysis program designed to do statistical data analysis. Before administer the questionnaire, majority of questions were assigned by numerical codes. In this research, the data collected from the survey was tested using several statistical techniques namely regression, independent T-test, correlation and descriptive analysis. The data gained from the pilot test were tested using reliability analysis while data on the demographic variables are tested using frequencies analysis.
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No. of Question Variables Items No.
Section A Gender 1 1 Age 1 2 Division 1 3 Position Level 1 4 Tenure of Service 1 5 Length of Contract 1 6
Section B 5 1-5 Perception of cue(s) 5 6-10 Interpretation of cue(s)
Decision Making 6 11-16 Action 6 17-22
Section C Human Behavior Response Model in Fire 4 23-26 Evacuation
REFERENCES
Helbing, D., Farkas, I., and Vicsek, T. (2000). Simulating Dynamical Features of Escape Panic. Nature, v. 407, pp. 487-490.
Henderson, L. F. (1974). On the Fluid Mechanic of Human Crowd Motion. Transportation Research, 8:509-515
Hughes., R. L. (2003). The flow of human crowds. Annual Review of Fluid Mechanics, 35:169-182. Kuligowski, E. D. and Peacock, R. D. (2005). Review of Building Evacuation Models. Report NIST TN 1471. Gaithersburg, MD: NIST.
McGrath, J. E. (1970). A Conceptual formulation for research on stress. Social and Psychological factors in stress. Chapter 2.
Olfati-Saber, R. (2004). Flocking for multi-agent dynamic systems: Algorithms and theory. IEEE Transactions on Automatic Control.
Reynolds, C., (1999). Steering behaviors for autonomous characters. In Game Developers Conference 1999.
Roloff, M.E., (1981). Interpersonal Communication-The social Exchange Approach. SAGE Publication, v.6, London.
Waldau N., Schreckenberg M., Gatermann P. (2003). Design criteria related to orientation in buildings during high-stress situations crowd simulation models and their applications. Pedestrian and Evacuation Dynamics 2003. Proc. Of the 2nd international conference. E.R. Galea Editor. pp 307-18.
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ISSUES AND CHALLENGES OF INSURANCE CLAIM MANAGEMENT
L. Ismail *1, Y. M. Yatim 2 and Z. M. Ramly 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The management of risk is a key element of modern business practices. All businesses, families and individuals experience potential losses from natural disasters, man-made events, lawsuits, and accidents. Insurance is described as social device to reduce or eliminate risks of loss of life, property and productivity. Insurance industry is without no doubt facing different issues and challenges over the year. It has been a serious global issue that remains prevalent for years. One of the most critical activity in the insurance is managing the claim. The claim issue is significant in either life or general insurance. In order to accomplish a successful management of any claim process, there are various factors that should be given serious attention to. This paper aims to combine data from across the world regarding causes of claim denial, rejection and delay. Based on the literature review, numerous factors of claim denial, rejection and delay are gathered and then summarized. The factors were then categorized according to each influencing factor. The developed data on factors of claim denial, rejection and delay based on the existing literature will assist the insurer and insured to plan the efficient approaches for achieving successful claim management either internally or externally.
Keywords : Insurance claim, Claim denial, Claim rejection, Claim delayed
1.0 INTRODUCTION Underwriting and claims settlement are the two most important management The concept of risk management has aspects of an insurance company. Despite elevated significantly within insurance and the importance of insurance, emerging business organisations. McCabe (2008) issues and challenges of claim settlement stated that risk management is the art and landscape has been a wide discussion science of predicting potential losses and globally. Claim denials, rejection or delay require an efficient management plan. are among highlighted. “Denied” claims According to Tariq (2018), insurance is are considered when the insurer refused to used to cover the risk of large and make payment towards the proceeds of small financial losses that result from the insurance policy (Bisco, McCullough, damage to the insured, property or liability & Nyce, 2019; Duhigg, 2007). damages or injury to third parties. A “rejected” claim is one containing one or many errors found prior to processing the
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claim. High premiums, delayed claim pay handling of claims in the current liberalized out, denied claims, and problems proving scenario, with cut-throat competition being real financial loss among others are issues the order of the day. The insurance circulating the insurance claim (Gregg, companies have hitherto been handling 2009). These errors prevent the insurance the claim rather than managing them. company from paying the bill as it is Managing claims not only involves the composed, and in order to be corrected processing of claims, but also covers the the rejected claim is returned to the biller. entire scope of claims management such as strategic role, cost monitoring role, “Delayed” claims on the other hands are service aspect as well as the role of those claims that were processed or individuals handling the claim. payment made to insured that exceeded the stipulated time as per policy promises. The complexity is perhaps nowhere more The standard number of payment period apparent than in the case of insurance differ for insurance type. However, it is a claim frauds (Bisco et al., 2019; Pao, practice for insurer to settle claim within Tzeng, & Wang, 2014; Savage, 1976; standard operating procedure stated in the Tennyson, 2008). Claim fraud is viewed as agreement bas part of the performance sociological, moral-psychological or measure. criminal offences driven by a sense of prerogative, desperation, or resentment. It From the outset, it is clear that it may be may even arise due to differences of difficult to draw the line between legitimate opinion in contractual terms or an insured claims denial and refusal to pay and event (Tennyson, 2008). Payment with between malicious procrastination, improper investigations represents protraction, and rejection of valid claims. A significant risk to the affordability of claim rejection occurs prior to claim insurance and to the industry as a whole. processing and is typically related to input errors or invalid data. A denied claim is The fact that complaints regarding general processed by the payer and determined to insurance claims are three times as be unpayable. In both instances, the payer numerous as those of life insurance will return a notification for the reason of claims, Pandey & Rao (2013) suggested rejection or denial. that claims behaviour of general insurers be investigated in order to minimize The ultimate goal of claim settlement from operating losses and ensure operational the perspective of insured is to get back excellence. Insurance company claims what is loss through the money invested in managers understand that in order to have the event of incident. Hence, regardless of effective offerings, every effort must be whether the claim is denied or rejected, the made to pay valid claims at the earliest process has to be administratively handled possible opportunity. until the payment is paid by the insurer. From the perspective of insurer, claims Even though the claims operations create, cost is a very important factor especially in calculate and store large quantities of rich defining the profitability of the company. In and valuable information, the challenge is the worst-case scenario, the disputes how to interpret all this to improve involving claim settlement between insurer policyholder on their understanding of the and insured may be extended to claims operation and continuously adjudication. improve it. Asia Conference on Claims Management and Insurance Fraud In today's global insurance industry, the highlighted the effort of experts from the complexity of managing insurance claim is insurance, legal and technology industries more prevalent. These prerogatives have to tackle the issues surrounding one of the been strongly contested in recent years by most complex parts of insurance at the a number of scholars. The insurance integrating technology into the claims companies have to go far beyond the handling and fraud detection process, the
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legal intricacies involved in proving fraud insurance claim denial, rejection or and getting the customer involved in the delayed were identified. An extended claims process. review then classified it based on the influencing factors with the purpose to The process of making claims, in tackle the root cause of the claim particular, including the submission of settlement problems. form and other supporting documents should be simplified to minimise anxieties 2.0 MAIN RESULTS at the point of making a claim (Financial Stability and Payment Systems Report, 2.1 Prior Studies Of Insurance Claim 2017). The law is that the insurer can deny Management the claim entirety if the insured misrepresents something during the This study is purely a review of literature processing of the claim (Scott, 2018). circulating the topic of insurance claim Insurance is for paying claims and it would management across the global. A be better to honour a claim, despite significant number of causal factors doubts, if it meant preserving the circulating the issues and challenges in reputation with the customers (Zaki, insurance claim management has been 2017). By establishing a plan for this part identified based on the prior studies as of the process, the organization can go a shown in Table 1. Subsequently, the long way to mitigate the problems that crop causal factors were classified into two up in settling claims. insurance type whether it is a life or general insurance. This study explores the emerging issues and challenges of insurance claim management. The causal factors of
Table 1 Prior studies of causal factors for insurance claim denial, rejection or delay
No Author Year Sector Causal Factors No Author Year Sector Causal Factors 1 Cohen 1972 Life Misstatement 16 Miranda et al. 2015 Life Administrative process 2 Savage 1976 Life Fraudulent claims Duplicate claims Indecorously denying claims Typos 3 Morrissey 1999 Life Lowball payments Exceeded plan benefits 4 Kelley & Amparo 2000 Life Misstatement Insufficient information Process problems Site of service problem 5 Hodges 2002 Life 17 Beaulieu-Volk 2015 Life Inadequate documentation Modifiers problem Incorrect account set up Coding mix up 6 Lundeen et al. 2003 Life Lack of follow up on claim Outdated codes Incorrect invoice process Service not covered 7 Smerd 2008 Life Conflict of interest Network provider problem Indecorously denying claims 18 Brown et al. 2016 Life Insurance framing Lowball payments 19 Abd Ghadas & Ahmad 2017 General Promissory warranty 8 Sloane 2008 Life Failure to acknowledge receipt of claims 20 Chimmad et al. 2017 Life Automation of claim identification Unnecessary requests for documentation Duplicate claim Pre-existing conditions Service not covered 9 Albritton 2008 Life After-the-procedure denial to pay on claim forms Invalid claim data 10 Van Boom 2011 All Bad faith insurance claim Documentation Query justification 21 Holyoak 2017 Life Authorization 11 Anchan et al. 2011 Life Document authorization Insurance necessity Document process Coding 12 Ryan 2012 Life Error in submitting claim document Deadline threshold 13 Asmat & Tennyson 2014 General Bad faith insurance claim Coordination of benefits 14 Pao et al. 2014 General Fraudulent claims 22 Dickson 2018 Life Deadline threshold Coding errors Post-claim underwriting 15 Kreimer 2014 Life Insured eligibility 23 Bisco et al. 2019 Life Misrepresentation Deadline threshold Fraudulent claims
Based on the review, a few significant causal factors for issues and challenges issues and challenges circulating the claim pertaining to claim settlement is based on settlement has been in the insurance the case study of life insurance especially industry for many years. This study with healthcare, dental and workers identified majority of the discussion on compensation insurance. The study of
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factors influencing claims in general jeopardized the claims. Instead, the insurance has been discuss widely by Joji company must make a thorough Rao & Pandey (2013). Few data are investigation of the claim and consider all available to assist in reviewing the factor reasons and circumstances that might influencing the general insurance claims. support the claim.
Evidently, this study indicate that the If an insurance company refuses to pay a issues in relation to misstatement or claim that should be paid or offers to settle incorrect statement of coverage has a claim for less than it knows the claim is existed for several decades based on the worth or denies a claim without adequate study by Cohen (1972). The study by Ryan investigation, this could give rise to “bad (2012) found that healthcare industry and faith” claim against the insurance medical practices spend as much as 14% company. If the company is found to have of the insurance payments received in acted in bad faith in its handling of a claim, identifying, correcting, and collecting the insured is entitled to all damages denied payments. resulting from that action, including certain types of damages that would not be In fact, one of the most time-consuming available just for breach of contract. In and costly billing activities is identifying cases of extreme or outrageous claims that were denied due to errors. misconduct by an insurance company, the Most complaints were about denials of insured also may be entitled to receive claims, and most of those were reversed punitive damages. by regulators. Resisted claims are those where the insurer makes a lowballing From the insurer perspective, Joshi, payment of the face value of the policy and Farooquie, & Chawla (2016) explained on denies the balance or those claims where the role of human resources in insurance the insurer is still disputing the payment of organization. However, their study only the claim and retains an amount as still emphases on two main challenges facing outstanding on the financial records of the insurance company which are issues to company. retain customer base and knowledge loss resulting from employee turnover. They Asmat & Tennyson (2014) has examined have not discussed entirely on the issues the changes in the impact of bad faith pertaining to claim management. liability over time from year 1970 to 1990. Nevertheless, they agreed that in The study found little evidence on effects insurance industry, there are many of settlements over time. However, the processes and some of them can be very finding has provided a new evidence that complicated. Hence, their study suggested wrongdoing liability for first-party-insurer that the other than domain experts and bad faith has real economic analytic experts, claim settlers should be consequences for the settlement of the important part of the process. insurance claims. The use of individual claims data from several different time Miranda, Siqueira, Ferreira, Delwing, & periods permits stronger conclusions Daruge (2015) has accessed the about the impact of bad faith liability than prevalence and types of claim denials is possible from existing empirical studies. according to administrative, clinical or both The empirical tests support the conclusion factors made by a large dental insurance that claim payments are higher in plan. Surprisingly, the frequency of conditions that permit wrongdoing actions administrative denials was 72.88%, for insurer bad faith. whereas that of technical denials was 25.95% and that of both, 1.17%. By all means, when a claim is presented, it is a responsibility for insurance company The study concluded that administrative to simply neglect the reasons for not to pay denials were the most prevalent. Study unless for certain circumstances that may suggested that the claim denial could be
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reduced if all insurance providers has the information verification by life insurers unified the clinical and administrative with respect to post claim underwriting protocols, and if dentist submitted all of the through denied and resisted claims. required documentation in accordance Consistent with the prospect that the level with the protocols. of premium growth may impact the level of post claim underwriting for an insurer, From insured perspective, Pao et al. surprisingly insurers with higher premium (2014) presented evidence to support the growth have a greater number of denied existence of opportunistic fraud in the and resisted claims. automobile theft insurance market in Taiwan. Although it is impossible to Premium growth indicates new business, measure exactly what proportion of the which could be subject to the cost of claims is attributable to fraud, many incontestability clause, which in turn could insurers say that fraud occurs in all sectors lead to larger levels of post claim of insurance (Picard, 1996). Hence, this underwriting by the insurer. The frequency study believes that combating fraudulent index also indicates that insurers that claims on insurance policies should be a denied or resisted claims in the previous major concern of most insurance year will deny or resist a greater number of companies. claims than those that did not deny or resist in the previous year. This is In addition, if the insured has submitted consistent with the theory that insurers that distorted or falsified information or deny and resist in previous years will have concealed substantial information that the propensity to do so in future years. would influence its assortment or willingness to accept the risk, there are An analysis by Bhat & Reuben (2002) certain criteria that must be employed to found on the evidence that about a third of ascertain whether misrepresentation has claims amount increase is due to the indeed impaired the risk assessment. problems of adverse selection or provider- Farah (2015) agreed that in the case of induced demand. The analysis of breakup misrepresentation or concealment, the of reimbursements suggests that more insurer may terminate the contract or than one-third of reimbursements are request a proportionate remedy. Hence, made towards doctor's fees, followed by good faith is the fundamental principle diagnostic charges which account for upon which insurance contracts are based about one-fourth. Even though there is no that requires the party seeking insurance standard number of days for claim to disclose all potential risks about which settlements, the study found that the the insurer must be aware, whether before insurer took on an average 121 days to conclusion or during coverage of the settle the claim. contract. While most denials can be appealed, the In another article by Mangla (2009) has administrative burden of sorting through presented tips to use when reporting a and appealing them can be time claim to an insurer. The study consuming and delays the revenue recommends that the insured to never collection process (Hodges, 2002; Kovach guessing when making a claim statement & Borikar, 2018). Claims denial because it can affect the credibility of the management can enhance revenue in claims if proven to be wrong. The article times of declining payment and increasing describes other words or statements that cost pressures. Denials usually arise from can cause claim problems. Hence, it process problems leading to inadequate important to give a true information to documentation. insurer when dealing with claim settlements. A denial management team should oversee prospective prevention and A study by Bisco et al. (2019) investigated claims recovery. Prospective prevention
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minimizes denials by defining scope of A retrospective chart review of 257 service, tracking causes for denials, and patients was conducted by Kelley & improving related processes. Hence, this Amparo (2000) to identify the frequency of study believes that claims recovery can workers' compensation claim denial improve chances of recovering denied among patients. Results showed that payment. 12.8% of claims were either temporarily "denied pending investigation" or totally In another study by Lundeen, Souba, & "denied". Analysis of all the claims found Hollenbeak (2003), the distribution of that only 2% resulted in delayed medical errors and magnitude of the burden of care. Further analysis of the denied claims delayed payments in a large physician revealed the vast majority of claims group practice indicates that most- (78.8%) were denied because the medical frequent reasons for delayed payment provider and the patient had incorrect were that 15.2% is due to the provider workers' compensation carrier information. incorrectly set up the account, 12.9% indicate the provider did not follow up on In a case study by Morrissey (1999), a denial and the 11.6% payor incorrectly systematic evaluation has been conducted processed the invoice. In the data, which randomly selected 399 claims that provider and payor errors accounted for had been denied by CareFirst in 1997. Out almost two thirds of delayed payments. of 106 individual cases, nearly half were thrown out because they involved self- Hence, the most promising avenue for insured or government payers not under providers to reduce delayed payments is state jurisdiction. Of the rest, the probe by reducing their own errors. Eliminating found CareFirst had incorrectly denied 13 the two most common errors would result of 24 claims and Mid-Atlantic incorrectly in a timelier recovery of nearly thousands denied 10 of 35. in revenues. Kreimer (2014) added that the rate of denials has declined steadily as Through an extensive literature review on more claims are filed electronically, factors determined the insurance claims according to America’s Health Insurance denial, rejection and delayed, a list of 37 Plans (AHIP), the association representing factors were collected. Table 2 summarize commercial payers. s all the causal factors found in the related literature.
Table 2 Summarized causal factors of claim denials, rejection or delay
No. Causal Factors No. Causal Factors 1 Misstatement 19 Error in submitting claim document 2 Fraudulent claims 20 Coding errors 3 Indecorously denying claims 21 Insured eligibility 4 Lowball payments 22 Deadline threshold 5 Procedure 23 Administrative process 6 Insufficient documents 24 Duplicate claims 7 Incorrect of account set up 25 Typos 8 Lack of follow up on claim denial 26 Exceeded plan benefits 9 Incorrect invoice process 27 Insufficient information 10 Failure to acknowledge receipt of claims 28 Site of service problem 11 Unnecessary requests for documentation 29 Modifiers problem 12 Conflict of interest 30 Service not covered 13 Pre-existing conditions 31 Network provider problem 14 After-the-procedure denial to pay on claim forms 32 Insurance framing 15 Bad faith insurance claim 33 Promissory warranty 16 Query justification 34 Automation of claim identification 17 Document authorization 36 Coordination of benefits 18 Documentation process 37 Post-claim underwriting
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2.2 Influencing Factor Of Claim complexity of the claim process, the Denial, Rejection Or Delay administrative measures or even due to documentation problems. A comprehensive study is conducted to classify the factors of insurance claim However, it is incomplete for not to denials, rejection and delayed according mention that to some extent, with the to the influencing factor (Table 3). adoption of technology, some insurance company might adopt technology in the This study indicates that insurance claim settlement of claims. Hence, it can either denials, rejection or delay may either be be the factors for the claim denials, due to insurer itself when processing the rejection and delayed as well. The details claims or insured when submitting the of both factors are explained based on the claims. In addition, these factors are also authors justification which may permit classified based on whether it is due to the further discussion by the reviewer.
Table 3 Classification of causal factors according to influencing factor
No. Causal Factors I C P A D T No. Causal Factors I C P A D T 1 Misrepresentation √ 20 Coding errors or problems √ √ √ 2 Fraudulent claims √ 21 Insured eligibility √ 3 Indecorously denying claims √ √ √ √ 22 Deadline threshold √ 4 Lowball payments √ 23 Administrative process √ √ √ 5 Procedure √ √ 24 Duplicate claims √ 6 Insufficient documents √ √ 25 Typos √ √ √ 7 Incorrect account set up √ √ √ 26 Exceeded plan benefits √ 8 Lack of follow up on claim denial √ √ 27 Insufficient information √ √ 9 Incorrect invoice process √ √ √ √ 28 Site of service problem √ √ √ 10 Failure to acknowledge receipt of claims √ √ √ √ 29 Modifiers problem √ √ √ 11 Unnecessary requests for documentation √ √ √ 30 Service not covered √ 12 Conflict of interest √ √ 31 Network provider problem √ √ 13 Pre-existing conditions √ 32 Insurance framing √ 14 Post procedure denial √ √ √ 33 Promissory warranty √ √ 15 Bad faith claim √ 34 Automation of claim identification √ √ √ √ 16 Query justification √ √ 35 Untimely Filing √ √ √ √ √ 17 Error in submitting claim document √ √ 36 Coordination of Benefits √ 18 Authorization √ √ 37 Post-claim underwriting √ √ 19 Documentation √ √ √ √ √ *I = Insurer, C = Insured, P = Process, A = Administrative, D = Documentation, T = Technology Adoption
From the findings, Figure 1 illustrates the of claim settlement where it requires a highest numbers of influencing factors careful process dealing with the different based on the previous table. Insurer and parties on the business perspective. insured are found to possess a Administrative factor mainly involves the comparable influencing factor of the claim responsibility of the claim handler where in denied, rejected and delayed (21 and 19 certain circumstances, their duty is a influencing factors respectively). This paramount to the claim settlement result is plausible as both insurer as an success. internal party or the decision maker and insured as the claimant have a strong This study indicates that claim settlement degree in determining the successfulness process and documentation contribute to of the claim. For example, insurer set the 12 and 11 influencing factors respectively. requirement for the documentation to be This show the significant important of submitted by the claimant. highlighting the complexity of the process which at certain circumstances of This study indicates that administrative management will draw a line to the claim’s factor possesses a mere 16 influences. settlement process. This outcome is mainly due to the nature
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each other to provide the best customer Insurer 25 service. As products converge, the quality 20 Technology of service becomes the primary 15 Insured Adoption 10 differentiator in the eyes of the consumer. 5 0 2.3.2 Manage each claim efficiently Documentation Process Businesses are constantly searching for Administrative increased efficiencies but claims operations and effectiveness could not be
compromised. There is a clear financial Figure 1 Influencing factors of insurance demand on claims departments to claim denial, rejection or delay increase their efficiency and therefore their Looking at the claim management itself, productivity, a need to do more with less the current process might be unpractical and to keep administrative costs under for claim settlement and might affect the tight control. There is often considerable claimant and claim handler in ensuring the pressure on headcount so every member smoothness of the process. This might of staff should be constructively and also give rise to the issue in relation to productively occupied. documentation when claimant might feel that documentation is a burdensome and 2.3.3 Improve claim outcomes to some extent, insufficient document There are strong reasons why insurers might pull a brake on the claim settlement. should expend time and effort on For claim handler on the other hands, are improving the outcomes for claimants. The hand tight as they are bound to the internal sooner a claimant returns to work or procedure that must be complied. business, the more likely they are to
recover fully. Reducing the duration of a 2.3 Ways To Overcome Issues And incident impact related claim can reduce Challenges In Insurance Claim indemnity spend significantly, freeing up Management reserves and reducing cost. Insurers are in the driver’s seat when it comes to settling a claim. They have 2.3.4 Continually understand and greater expertise, negotiating strength, improve operations and financial resources than the Claims operations create, calculate and policyholder. The range of challenges is store large quantities of rich and valuable wide, but based on the evidence of by information. The challenge is how to previous scholar, this study can conclude interpret all this to improve their that these five needs are both universal understanding of the claims operation and and central to claims operations. In view of continuously improve it. Evidence based the challenges facing claim management, decision making is made possible by good claims operations must: claims analytics, which will reduce or
eliminate waste and churn and build an 2.3.1 Deliver superior customer service environment where superior customer to meets rapidly changing consumer service can thrive. demands
There is a recognised lack of customer 2.3.5 Take advantage of new centricity in the insurance industry, technologies particularly in the area of claims. But claim Keeping pace with developing technology handling is the ‘shop window’ of the is essential in taking advantage of the new insurance world. Insurers are ultimately opportunities it presents. Many current judged by their clients by the claims claims, policy administration and billing service they provide and are vying with
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systems have reached their practical research and continuous support from limits, lacking functionality, workflow, Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty flexibility and configurability. of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Mara Malaysia. The result in today’s claims operations consist of high levels of manual REFERENCES processing. This proctice inhibits flexibility and efficiency. Consumers now want to Asmat, D. P., & Tennyson, S. (2014). Does the interact on new channels – internet, SMS, Threat of Insurer Liability for “Bad Faith” Affect Insurance Settlements? Journal of mobile devices. Insurers that fail to keep Risk and Insurance, 81(1), 1-26. up with technological advances will see doi:10.1111/j.1539-6975.2012.01499.x their competitiveness decline and new entrants with more advanced technologies Bhat, R., & Reuben, E. B. (2002). Management of ready to take over. Claims and Reimbursements: The Case of Mediclaim Insurance Policy. Vikalpa, 27(4), 15-28. 3.0 CONCLUSION doi:10.1177/0256090920020403
This study has identified 37 factors Bisco, J. M., McCullough, K. A., & Nyce, C. M. determined the insurance claims denial, (2019). Postclaim Underwriting And The Verification Of Insured Information: rejection and delayed worldwide. Evidence From The Life Insurance However, this study believes that there are Industry. Journal of Risk and Insurance, some other issues that need to be 86(1), 7-38. doi:doi:10.1111/jori.12189 highlighted which along the way will provide an insight for the researcher. Cohen, D. E. (1972). Denials, underpayments, and co-insurance of health claims. Forum, 7(3), Based on the listings classified the factors 172-179. of insurance claim denials, rejection or delayed according to the influencing factor Duhigg, C. (2007). Scrutiny For Insurers Of the whether it is due to insurer or insured Aged. New York Times, 157(54086), C1- factor, claim process or the administrative C2. complexity and documentation factors. To Farah, A. Q. (2015). Duty of the Insured to Disclose some extent some insurance company Risks in Terrestrial Insurance Contracts in might adopt technology in the settlement Jordan, Uae and France: An Analytical of claims, hence it also determined as Study Upheld by Recent Decisions of factors for the claim settlement issues and Courts of Cassation. Arab Law Quarterly, challenges. By understanding the 29(3), 199-245. common obstacles or issues, it is helpful in Hodges, J. (2002). Effective claims denial tackling the root cause of the problems of management enhances revenue. insurance claim management. The insurer Healthcare financial management : journal must assess the merits of the claim in a of the Healthcare Financial Management balanced and reasonable manner. It must Association, 56(8), 40-50. not deny coverage or delay payment in Joji Rao, T., & Pandey, K. K. (2013). A study on order to take advantage of the insured’s factors influencing claims in general economic vulnerability or to gain insurance business in India. The Journal of bargaining leverage in negotiating a Risk Finance, 14(3), 303-314. settlement. Insured on the other hands doi:doi:10.1108/JRF-11-2012-0071 must not take the process of claim for Joshi, H., Farooquie, J. A., & Chawla, D. (2016). granted as it may jeopardize the Use of Knowledge Management for settlement and burdensome to all parties, Competitive Advantage: The Case Study not just to the oneself. of Max Life Insurance. Global Business Review, 17(2), 450-469. doi:10.1177/0972150915619830 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Kelley, C. R., & Amparo, J. M. (2000). A review of The authors would like to express the workers' compensation claims: the appreciation for the completion of this frequency of claim denial and medical
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treatment delay. Hawaii Medical Journal, 8(VIII). 59(1), 11-13. Tennyson, S. (2008). Moral, Social, and Economic Kovach, J. V., & Borikar, S. (2018). Enhancing Dimensions of Insurance Claims Fraud. Financial Performance: An Application of Social Research, 75(4), 1181-1204. Lean Six Sigma to Reduce Insurance Claim Denials. Quality Management in Health Care, 27(3), 165-171. doi:10.1097/QMH.0000000000000175
Kreimer, S. (2014). 15 ways to fight claim denials. Optometry Times, 6(7), 26-27.
Lundeen, J. M., Souba, W. W., & Hollenbeak, C. S. (2003). Sources of error in delayed payment of physician claims. Family Medicine, 35(5), 355-359.
Mangla, I. S. (2009). 5 Things Never to Say to Your Insurers. Money, 38(11), 32-32.
McCabe, R. (2008). Data/presence insurance tools and techniques: Google Patents.
Miranda, G. E., Siqueira, M. C. P., Ferreira, R., Delwing, F., & Daruge, E. (2015). Administrative and clinical denials by a large dental insurance provider. Brazilian Oral Research, 29(1). doi:10.1590/1807- 3107BOR-2015.vol29.0041
Morrissey, J. (1999). Md. fines insurers for coverage denials. Modern Healthcare, 29(32), 20.
Pandey, K., & Rao, T. J. (2013). A Study on Factors Influencing Claims in General Insurance Business in India (Vol. 14).
Pao, T.-I., Tzeng, L. Y., & Wang, K. C. (2014). Typhoons and Opportunistic Fraud: Claim Patterns of Automobile Theft Insurance in Taiwan. Journal of Risk and Insurance, 81(1), 91-112. doi:doi:10.1111/j.1539- 6975.2012.01498.x
Picard, P. (1996). Auditing claims in the insurance market with fraud: The credibility issue. Journal of Public Economics, 63(1), 27-56. doi:10.1016/0047-2727(95)01569-8
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REVIEW ON THE SUSTAINABILITY INDICATORS
T. Kamaruddin *1 and R. A. Hamid 2
1, 2 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Sustainability concept has been discussed widely since 1970s. Earlier discussions on sustainability are focusing on social aspects of sustainability such as human wellbeing including healthcare (medicinal supplies), poverty, mal-nutrition, sanitation and clean water supply, human settlements and others among 3rd world countries. These concerns initiated by The United Nation were expanded through worldwide campaigns. The impacts gained through these campaigns were benefited to many people. At later stage of the sustainability concerns, the focus of sustainability changed and its emphases on the environmental aspects. The concept of sustainability later applied in construction industry. This is significant since constructions is highly associated with the development. Regardless to these concerns, various sustainability indicators were introduced as an assistance to measure the sustainability movements. Comparison of few sustainable construction indicators is presented to identify the indicators and understanding of its trend. Content analysis will be conducted to analyze the sustainable construction indicators. Sustainable construction indicators from various literatures are identified and tabulated the focus trend of the indicator frameworks. A holistic sustainable construction model should balance up the social, economic and environmental aspect of sustainability. The existing sustainable construction indicators are indicative and it is more focus on environmental. It can be conclude that most sustainable construction studies are fragmented in their scope and it is unbecoming to claim that the subject matters are considered ‘sustainable’. Therefore, the need to develop a holistic sustainable construction framework is indispensible and on urgent basis to rectify the current misleading of understanding on sustainability terms.
Keywords : Sustainability, Sustainable Construction Indicators, Holistic
1.0 INTRODUCTION (United Nation Website, 2014; Pugh, 2013). Literature and research reports Sustainability issue has been debated show an assortment of contribution and about and highlighted worldwide since the endeavors towards the usage around the mid-1970s that are following the world. In 1970s, the United States has Stockholm Conference on the Human built up the Environmental Protection Environment until recently the Post 2015 Agency for a cleaner and more beneficial Development Agenda by United Nations
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nation. At the point when Brundtland actions and etc (Bass & Dalal-Clayton, Report was created in 1987, she 2012). The indicators should be recommended that by handling on formulated by each country since it will ecological viewpoint is not adequate as it reflect closely with the capability and is just an integral part of the sustainable actual needs of the countries (Reed et al, development policies indispensable piece 2006). Furthermore, the indicators and of the economical advancement indices developed should match with the strategies (Rogers et. al, 2012). national policies that have been defined Sustainability is a difficult and complex (Nordin, 2007). issue and an indefinable. As development plays an imperative part in the growth of a The aim of this paper is to investigate the country, it is necessary to control the trend of sustainable construction activities as to decrease the damages in indicators by identifying the emphasis of sustainability, the 3 aspects must be each indicators and understanding the satisfied. (Herremans & Reid, 2002). trend. Content analysis will be carried out in performing this study based on 10 However, how the sustainability efforts in frameworks. The scopes of this study are construction industry being assessed is sustainability indicator frameworks still vague (Gan et al, 2015; Glass, 2012). available from various countries. The Research focusing on sustainability in a main finding of this study is to prove that project context is still nascent and the current sustainability indicators are fragmented (Aarseth et. al, 2017). There focusing on the environmental aspect of is no agreement on a common set of sustainability and lack attention to social criteria to evaluate sustainability even and economic aspects. Environmental though there are numerous frameworks aspect are easy to be promoted to people and indicators have been developed for its nature that is visible and tangible. (Moldan, Janoušková, & Hák, 2012). The Where else, for social and economic sustainability level in Malaysia is not well aspects are intangible and hard to be defined (Samuel et al, 2013). The fulfilled. According to sustainability indicators of sustainable construction principles, the holistic sustainability have to be identified and assessed. The should encompassed of social, economic use of indicators helps in monitoring and environment. Therefore, this study programs to address the key variables intends to give better understanding of associated with the environment and sustainability concept. improving the communications and reporting processes (Mascarenhas, 2.0 METHODOLOGY Coelho, Subtil, & Ramos, 2010) This review is based on secondary data. Malaysia construction industry is shifting Journals and research reports related to towards sustainable construction; sustainable construction indicators were therefore, study on sustainable indicator referred. Few international and local is crucial to corresponding with the policies were used to assist as sustainability needs (Hezri & Dovers, complementary to the synthesis to the 2006). The understanding of the local holistic sustainability conditions and construction players is important so as to formulating the related indicators in achieve better implementation of the Malaysia. practice, better planning and decision making (Venning & Higgins, 2001). Even 3.0 REVIEW ON THE CURRENT though there are various studies that TREND OF SUSTAINABILITY have been carried out in researches INDICATORS regarding the sustainability indicators, each country should strategies and Due to increasing of awareness and structures its own needs, priorities and concerns on sustainability issues, the resources of their policies, indicators,
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indicators were introduced and applied to indicators can be seen as in Table 1. It many countries following their needs and can be seen that the environmental suitability to the local context. aspect of sustainability is advance in the indicators measured. Many technical and
scientific measures can be defined and Therefore, over hundreds of indicators adequately measured perhaps due to its’ can be found worldwide. We may pick natures that are easily controlled and and choose any but it is important to visible. The emphasis on this aspect can ensure that it suits the local needs. With be easily seen and enjoyed by the the reference from various sustainability stakeholders. This is compared to social indicators, it can be used as guides to aspects which is very difficult to measure remodel it to our needs. the social satisfaction of many parties
involved and affected by the project. However, from the literature reviews, it is hard to find tools that consist of holistic However, as for economic aspect and sustainability. The followings are the table social aspect, it was always measured of comparison to tabulate the indicators separately, based on the stakeholders’ highlighted for 24 models. The interest. For example, on the developers’ comparison of the models shown that the eye of view, their preference is based on current trend of sustainability is tendency profit-making, using “sustainability”, “eco” on the environmental aspect. The models or “green” advertisement headline; the taken are taken based on its similarity of developers use this as a benchmark for the indicators measured from 24 them to increase the unit price. The countries and a model was taken from problem with this matter is, the price each countries. marked-up is outrageous that it doesn’t fit the concept of inclusivity in sustainability. Tabulation trend of environmental
Table 1 Environmental Indicators tabulation
South Abu Hong New Country USA Brazil Canada China India Indonesia Philipines Japan Korea Malaysia Spore Taiwan Australia UK Netherlands Norway Germany France Sweden Finland Africa Dhabi Kong Zealand Green BCA Green Green ASSESSMENT TOOL CalGR Green Estidam LEED- BEAM EEWH BREEAM Star AQUA ESGB GreenShip BERDE CASBEE G-SEED GBI GreenRE Green Star Star New Eco-Quantum EcoProfile DGNB ESCALE EcoEffect FINLCA een Globes a INDIA PLUS South Mark Australia Zealand YEAR ESTABLISH 2008 2011 2007 2000 2008 2006 2014 2010 2009 2001 2002 2015 2009 2013 2005 1999 2003 2007 1990 2006 1994 2008 2009 ENVIRONMENTAL Materials & Resources ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Energy ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Flora & Fauna ● Habitat & Food ● ● Place & Outdoor Space ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Air & Water ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Emission & Waste ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Pollution ● ● ● ● Ecological ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Indoor Environmental Quality ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Sustainable site ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Land Use ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Environmental Protection ● ● ● ● Depletion of Ozone Layer ● ● ● Building Environment Quality & Performance ● ●
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Table 2 Social Indicators tabulation
South Abu Hong New Country USA Brazil Canada China India Indonesia Philipines Japan Korea Malaysia Spore Taiwan Australia UK Netherlands Norway Germany France Sweden Finland Africa Dhabi Kong Zealand Green BCA Green Green ASSESSMENT TOOL CalGR Green LEED- BEAM EEWH BREEAM Star AQUA Estidama ESGB GreenShip BERDE CASBEE G-SEED GBI GreenRE Green Star Star New Eco-Quantum EcoProfile DGNB ESCALE EcoEffect FINLCA een Globes INDIA PLUS South Mark Australia Zealand YEAR ESTABLISH 2008 2011 2007 2000 2008 2006 2014 2010 2009 2001 2002 2015 2009 2013 2005 1999 2003 2007 1990 2006 1994 2008 2009 SOCIAL Engagement & Identity Recreation Learning Gender & Generations Ethnic Diversity ● Health & Well-Being ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Management ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Quality of Services ● ●
Referring to the above Table 2 & Table 3 on social tabulation, it can be seen that Sustainability, sustainable development compared to the environmental tabulation and sustainable constructions are beforehand, the frequency of the social & generally considered desirable, although economic indicators are fewer than some conditions should not be sustained, environmental indicators. Therefore, it is such as hate, poverty and ignorance, and important to ensure all the sustainability these terms are sometimes used to aspects have been considered in the tool. promote a particular policy or project that With the aid from various tools and may only vaguely reflect strategic policies, more holistic indicators can be planning objectives. As a result, there is developed. potential for legitimate debate concerning what sustainability policies are truly Since Malaysia is a developing country, desirable. None-the-less, sustainability we will strive hard to improve our principles properly applied can improve construction industry image while not decision making, particularly for strategic jeopardizing the needs of our future policy making and planning (Aarseth et al, generations. 2017).
4.0 THE NEED FOR It is found that the existing studies mainly COMPREHENSIVE HOLISTIC focus on the environmental aspect of SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION green building, other dimensions of sustainability of green building, especially MODEL the social sustainability is largely overlooked (Zhang, 2015). Since economic, social and environmental activities interact in so However, since there are many negative many ways, most experts now agree that environmental issues and problems as sustainability requires balancing these well as many opportunities, it is very various realms. A basic principle of good important to develop an Integrated planning is that individual, short-term Construction Process (ICP) that can help decisions should reflect strategic, long- all stakeholders to successfully term objectives. Sustainability planning implement green building strategies and provides guidance to insure that technologies at the construction phase of individual decisions balance economic, the project development (Ahn et al. social and environmental objectives, 2016). taking into account indirect, distant, and long-term impacts (Litman, 2019).
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Table 3 Economic Indicators tabulation
South Abu Hong New Country USA Brazil Canada China India Indonesia Philipines Japan Korea Malaysia Spore Taiwan Australia UK Netherlands Norway Germany France Sweden Finland Africa Dhabi Kong Zealand ASSESSMENT TOOL Green Star Green LEED- BEAM BCA Green EEWH Green Star Green Star BREEAM CalGReen AQUA Estidama ESGB GreenShip BERDE CASBEE G-SEED GBI GreenRE Eco-Quantum EcoProfile DGNB ESCALE EcoEffect FINLCA South Africa Globes INDIA PLUS Mark Australia New Zealand
YEAR ESTABLISH 2008 2011 2007 2000 2008 2006 2014 2010 2009 2001 2002 2015 2009 2013 2005 1999 2003 2007 1990 2006 1994 2008 2009
ECONOMIC Production & Resourcing ● Job Opportunities ● Accounting & Regulation
Consumption & Use
Labour & Welfare Infrastructure & Transportation ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● Wealth & Distribution ● LCC ● ● ● Economy ● ● ● ● ● Innovation & Design ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ● ●
5.0 PROPOSED SOCIAL initial stage of the project. Any traffic INDICATORS IN SUSTAINABLE obstructions should be reported and CONSTRUCTION collaboration with Traffic Police is needed.
5.1. Accessibility 5.2. Cultural Chan & Lee (2008) stated that Cultural aspect meant in this study is to accessibility is where people live, work, ensure that the building design and have their social activities without incorporate the existing housing culture in having to travel far to reach them. the designs (FIDIC, 2004). The Freedom of movement from one place to incorporation of local materials in the another is recognized as a human right to construction structures also will also be maintained. Therefore, alternative prefer and promotes lower carbon routes for transport should be provided footprint. for community use prior to commencement of project construction. The consideration needs of cultural factor These routes should enable and support towards a project will reduce the negative community growth during the construction impact of the project development into phase (Abdel-Raheem & Ramsbottom, cultural heritage (Yu et al., 2017). An 2016). Hence the measurements for approach involving the community in these accessibility factors are like the determining the impact of projects where unplanned and secure area space they live, work, play and engage in facilities and smooth traffic routes around cultural or community activities where this the project for the use of local involvement will create a sense of respect communities as well as workers at the for project owners and strengthen mutual site. respect for the community (Abdel-
Raheem & Ramsbottom, 2016). Accessibility in sustainable construction is defined on how the traffic activities on 5.3. Job Opportunity sites being controlled to ensure the comfort of traffic users within the Job opportunity defined by this study is to boundary of the site and outside the hire local suppliers and local contractors circulating area of the project site (Yu et for the project to lower carbón footprints al., 2017). and lower energy embedded (Khaled, Kashkool & Mohammed; 2016; Enshassi, Projects at city centres and narrow Kochendoerfer, & Hadeel Al Ghoul, spaces will need special attention on this 2016). matter. Proper plan of traffic control management should be presented at the
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Based on FIDIC (2004), human rights are 5.5. Safety related to the use of child labor in the project and recording the use of project In addition, Shen et al. (2007) also construction. Child labor intake should be explains that there are two types of avoided during construction projects as it security that need to be addressed during can cause social dissatisfaction from the the construction project i.e. construction general public and spoil the government's safety and public safety. Construction reputation (Yu et al., 2017). Wells (2003) safety is the measure of safety, facility states that the main thrust of human and insurance performance provided to rights at work is as follows: employees, while public security covers the provision of warning boards and • Work must be freely chosen without signaling systems, security measures and the force of labor force; facilities for the public (Enshassi, • There must be a strict restriction on Kochendoerfer, & Hadeel Al Ghoul, occupation involving children; 2016). • Must be fair and equal in terms of employment and terms; and 5.6. Productivity • Employees and employers have the right to organize and bargain The monitoring of productivity rates collectively should be done in the construction site by the project managers (Abdel-Raheem & Therefore, a safe workplace, equal pay Ramsbottom, 2016). The record of for each individual according to the level employee attrition rate should be of employment, dignity and child labor monitored and the reasons for the attrition needs (Dong & Ng, 2015; Yu et al., rate should be defined and justified. 2017)) should be included in the issues Record on lost days also has to be considered by all project stakeholders to monitored so as to recover the lost days ensure that these human rights are in order to complete the project within guaranteed to individuals, societies and acceptable period. country. 5.7. Crime prevention 5.4. Welfare The safety of a project is seen through The welfare of the workers involved with efforts to reduce the crime rate the project shall be provided. The basic associated with the project at each phase needs of off day; good accommodations; of construction (Chan & Lee, 2008). A good facilities at the accommodation specific development design should be area; accessibility to drinking and clean made in this context of security to reduce water; proper sanitary and sewage the crime rate at the site and to system at the accommodation facility; implement safety-related activities emergency healthcare; proper religious whether the safety of the workers at the performing area (where needed) and site itself or the public safety of the proper canteen(Enshassi, Kochendoerfer, people involved surrounding the project & Hadeel Al Ghoul, 2016). area (United Nations, 2018; Yu et al., 2017; FIDIC, 2004). Where possible, it is better to have meal coupons for the construction workers so The Sustainable Development Goal that they won’t be cooking in their hostel Report (SDGs) 2017 provided by (United area. The hazards of allowing cooking in Nation, 2017) reports that most firms their hostel have been as significant around the world receive at least one contributing factors to fire risk. bribed payment request while engaging in payment transactions. In a project, there is a need for integrity value for reducing corruption in the project. This social
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sustainability looks at stakeholders' possible to open a communication space efforts in the project to monitor and report between project stakeholders with local on any corrupt conduct to reduce it communities including press conferences (FIDIC, 2004). In the list of critical factors and local media. Views and provided by Banihashemi et al. (2017), announcements to local residents should the identification of compliance with anti- also be seen as an important element in corruption rules and regulations during the planning and implementation of the decision-making process should be projects, especially before development considered in order to prevent the projects begin so that the well-being of occurrence of corruption issues during local residents can be guaranteed during the construction stage. the construction process.
Integrity is an ethical value under The involvement and acceptance of construction where the construction project stakeholders in the construction industry is one of the industries that need planning is required as each of these to deal with this ethic issue with caution. parties should have an effective approach Otherwise, a dispute will arise as a to voice out the views from the corporate corruption issue that will be at large point of view to decision makers in because of the nature of this industry that construction projects (Yu et al., 2017) favors a wide range of stakeholders with where the involvement of each party is different backgrounds and interests permissible to give opinions as a desire of (Somachandra & Sylva, 2018). their hearts not as a decision imposed on them by the government, professional 5.8. Participation of all actors groups and project planners (Eizenberg & Jabareen, 2017). Based on the United Nations report (2018), the 17th goal of a global 5.9. Education and Trainings partnership is to strengthen the global network to support it in achieving Agenda In the context of construction, the 2030's target which involving with national provision of education programs into the governments, civil society, the private project as one of the scopes of work sector and other communities. In the should be done to increase the level of context of construction, this factor knowledge amongst the industrial emphasizes the spread of engagement workers involved in reducing the low rate during the construction phase to obtain a of awareness amongst the industry broad spectrum which represents the (FIDIC, 2004). For example, employee various types of community backgrounds training development programs at the in which the organization should deal with construction site on fire safety; (Yu et al., 2017; Abdel-Raheem & cleanliness and safe environment areas; Ramsbottom, 2016). the use of personal safety equipment; integrity during work and ergonomics According to Ng & Yap (2016), management at construction sites (Abdel- communication between the two parties, Raheem & Ramsbottom, 2016). stakeholders of the project and locals is needed in planning and decision-making The preparation of this program should like Townhall and Focus Group be carried out through interventions at all Discussion. According to Manooei, et. al. three levels of education i.e. continuing (2016), Townhall is implemented to education programs for professionals and provide detailed information on a project technicians, education and awareness- to be developed in a particular area. The raising programs for government officials information provided is like project status, and politicians and public education job scheduling at construction site, cost programs. Based on the description of and budget, risk management and health Almahmoud & Doloi (2015), in integration and safety issues. Additionally, it is also or integration factors, it focuses on
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providing education and training to the investment appraisal analysis; and cost industrial community as much as possible planning and control have to be applied to support social activities in projects (Tan et al, 2015). provided by project stakeholders. 5.2. Technical requirement
In project management, the application of quality management system is essential and practical since the natures of projects are repetitive. Quality management system is always described as tedious, however, for those who have involving experience with quality management system, it is crucial to ensure the projects are on track.
Value management is very much in demand currently. The benefit of value management is undisputable. The benefit on optimizing balance between managing costs without compromising on quality is very much applicable in sustainable Figure 1 Proposed social indicators for designs. Therefore, it is encouraged to sustainable construction have this practice in sustainable projects.
5.0 PROPOSED ECONOMIC Since the knowledge on sustainability has INDICATORS IN SUSTAINABLE disseminated among designers, it is CONSTRUCTION important to ensure the knowledge is applied throughout the project. The more constructible a structure is, the more 5.1. Costs economical it will be. Therefore, the assessment on design constructability is The initiatives to provide affordable essential. housing schemes must be provided for project buyers. With the use of Assessments on materials durability “sustainability” as marketing strategy, should be conducted since the use of developers are raising the premise units green materials are in needs in up to 100% of normal premise price. sustainable designs. With the increasing Since the public are still unaware of what supplied amount of green materials in the are the indicators of sustainability, they market, it is important to have the don’t have much choice in influencing the evaluation on the suitability and durability demand of the pricing. The market price of the materials. Supplies on certified should be controlled by the governing materials are in demand and hence, to bodies; however, it is not implemented avoid greenwashing in the projects. due to unforeseen circumstances. Certification increases prices by around Homebuyers are not sensitive to the 3%. The effect of certification is biggest differences among green buildings for developments that receive the lowest although they are willing to pay a higher green rating (Fesselmeyer, 2018). price for this newly emerging energy- saving building (Fang et al, 2018) 5.3. Design functions
Moreover, prior to the project cost and The incorporation of innovation in design unit price determination, the conduction of is very crucial. It is the challenge of the life cycle cost forecasting; risk analysis; designers to incorporate sustainable
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designs in their projects. The social and economic activity of the understanding of demand in sustainable indigenous communities of the existing designs is essential for the designers. area. Overall Thermal Transfer Value (OTTV) simulation is essential for the architect at How does the job creation of the the planning stage of the project to find developed area would benefit the local the most effective orientation to achieve communities and at what scales. If the the most efficient energy cost saving. social economic benefit can proved high degree of relationship, then the project A functional cost analysis is a method can be considered to be sustainable. that can be applied to examine the component costs of a product in relation 5.5. Cost control and management to the value as perceived by the customer. The outcome of the analysis is Construction cost should be to improve the value of the product while systematically monitored and controlled. maintaining costs and/or reduce Any application or systems that can be the costs of the product without reducing used and can be accessed by value (Johansson & Kriström, 2018). stakeholders involved in the project is highly recommended. There are many Planned or scheduled maintenance works softwares currently available in the are to be designed according to the market for this purpose. Therefore, the design functions. Since the life cycle cost progress of the project can be transparent of the building will be determine during and quick response to the effects can be the initial stage of the project, therefore, it instigated. is easier to determine the maintenance schedule and cost. The application of BIM ideally can support this idea (Tahir et al, 2018). However, the In sustainability designs, the incorporation rate of application of BIM in Malaysia is of design for disassembly in change of still at infancy due to high front use is very much needed. The design investment vs return of investment (Hasni materials shall allow the change of use of et al, 2018). The giants investors are a premise to fulfill the functional needs of ready to apply the model, however the a premise. For example, the studio units readiness of the stakeholders are still are designed to allow this concept to be ambiguous. applied. The uses of moveable partitions are encouraged to separate usage areas. Nevertheless, this should not be seen as This concept is normally applied for an obstacle to promote better productivity singles since they use the premise as a and transparency of a construction home and office area concurrently. project. The sustainability concept is a voluntary based concept, and 5.4. Social economic benefit stakeholders involved in sustainable projects should have common interest of Studies on social economic benefit is supporting sustainability initiatives. always been count out. The approving local authority should make this study as 5.6. Energy cost a compulsory submission alongside with the documents for the Planning Approval. The government has been promoting the use of renewable energy as an alternative This study should be able to show the to current electrical grid. Incentives were how the economic activity would influence given by TNB to encourage public to nature the social activity of the switch to alternative renewable energy. development project. For example, how The use of Photovoltaic system has been the development of Iskandar Puteri adopted in residential area to harvest the Territory in Johor Bahru would affect the energy from the sun. Solar thermal is
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harvest to be used in heating appliances compare the norms to other practices while sunlight is used to generate (FIDIC, 2004). This record has to be electricity (Inglin, 2019). made available.
On a national or global level, material The applications of recycle and reuse intensity measures factor in the amount of program have to be presented in a report. materials used per unit of economic The amount of material saved from the output, primarily gross domestic product. implemented initiatives record should be Such broad measures necessarily shown. Monitoring and control of energy combine a number of independent saved from implemented initiatives also factors, like product mix and technological should be able to be shown. changes that make it difficult to isolate any sustainability trends, especially when The records mentioned beforehand looking at long time periods and dissimilar should be converted into monetary value. economies. Nevertheless, in a more To indicates the value in monetary form isolated view where these other factors of each successful implemented might be more stable, a change in strategies. material intensity might indicate changes driven by sustainability improvements The nature of stakeholders in (Tan et al, 2015 & FIDIC, 2004). construction industry is, they are convinced with monetary value derived On a company or industry basis, material from the savings initiatives done. intensity can be a clearer indicator of sustainability, especially when looking at 5.8. Risk changes and trends within a given company or industry. A simple calculation Risk management applied for the would be the amount of material used sustainable project will lead to less loss to divided by the volume of product sold. investment made initially. Therefore, it is always a good practice to identify risks in The assessment on energy consumption order to anticipate what will be the loss data should be made available to assist and degree of damage to the project the designers in designing energy (FIDIC, 2004). efficient buildings. Availability of the updated data is becoming increasingly Professional in risk management shall be important in order to allow a rigorous engaged as they can identify the risk analysis (Allouhi et al; 2015 & Tan et al, factors and propose preventive measures 2015). to overcome the risks. A risk management plan is a document that a The building sector is considered as the project manager prepares to foresee biggest single contributor to world energy risks, estimate impacts, and define consumption and greenhouse gas responses to risks. It also contains a risk emissions. Therefore, a good assessment matrix. understanding of the nature and structure of energy use in buildings is crucial for establishing the adequate future energy and climate change policies.
5.7. Waste management The waste management plan has been implemented in construction projects and is widely acceptable. However, in sustainable sites, an assessment on wastes generated should be conducted to
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location for a particular purpose. It differs in that its goal is not to select the best alternative, but to determine and map the index of suitability for a whole area of the construction site.
6.2. Design Simulations
It is difficult to conduct simulation modeling using hard models and very time consuming. There are various softwares available in the market that can be used by the designers to help them in gaining more information on the factors that affecting sustainable designs. Therefore, it is highly recommended that Figure 2 Proposed economic indicators the designers apply design simulation for sustainable construction softwares such as heat island effects; acoustic control design; natural ventilation 6.0 PROPOSED flow; airborne pollutant rate of production; ENVIRONMENTAL INDICATORS natural lighting; and Overall Thermal IN SUSTAINABLE Transfer Value (OTTV) & Roof Thermal CONSTRUCTION Transfer Value (RTTV).
6.1. Biodiversity Applications of innovation and R&D investment on project sustainability The development of a sustainable project should be encouraged among will initially have studies on the existing stakeholders. biodiversity of the surrounding areas. For example, the geographical location; the 6.3. Atmosphere landform; existing flora and fauna; minerals, etc. (Akadiri, Chinyio, & In any construction sites, carbon emission Olomolaiye, 2012). Experts on the above activities cannot be avoided. However, by fields should be invited to do preliminaries knowing what the largest contributions to study on the proposed sites so as to carbon emission on site are, it is easier to identify of any relevant subjects that monitor the emission rates. According to applies to their fields that can be Enshassi, Kochendoerfer, & Hadeel Al preserved, managed or controlled Ghoul (2016) and Shen et. al., (2007), the (Enshassi, Kochendoerfer, & Hadeel Al air pollution assessment needs to be Ghoul, 2016). done by examining the potential air pollution from the proposed project and Land used study also has to be done to its impact on the local climate at inception give some space for management and phase of the project. Besides, throughout modification of the natural environment to the framework, the emission estimation suit the purpose of the projects. The model need to be carry out in supporting degree of use of arable and permanent the selection of construction methods in cropland affected by the project must be the planning phase (Omardin et. al., analyzed (Shen et, al., 2007; FIDIC, 2015) 2004). The extend of forests are used or affected by the project should be The ozone depleting substances and key analyzed also. According to the Ristić, air pollutant contributors occur on site Maksin, Nenković-Riznić, & Basarić also need to be identified (FIDIC, 2004). (2018), estimating the suitability of land use is similar to select an appropriate
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6.4. Policies & Initiatives labour (Nor Azmi et. al., 2018). But due to the rigid designs, it is applied only in Malaysia has developed our very own mass production projects. Currently, the Environmental Impact Assessment and IBS is still relevant to increase the other National Green Policies and productivity rate of the project. regulations regarding environmental protection. It was formulated an energy In response to these desires, Industrial strategy and objectives for the long-term Building System (IBS) and their design ensuring secure, efficient and procedures are considered as an environmental sustainability. Its supply opportunity to introduce sustainable objective offers the provision of secure, features to the construction process and adequate and cost-effective energy enhance construction sustainability into a resources considering both conventional more environmentally sustainable to meet and non-conventional resources (Shen et. the current demand of the construction al., 2007). Therefore, it is not new for market (Siti Sarah et, al., 2018). each project to have their own environmental policies and initiatives. 6.6. Waste This includes the waste management plan on site. The amount of solid waste produced for disposal by landfill, incineration, and non- Every construction project shall comply recycling materials shall be monitored with the green requirements by local and controlled by examining the waste authorities. Therefore, local authorities generation at both project construction have to be stricter in the enforcement and and operation phase (Enshassi, ensure the construction activities are not Kochendoerfer, & Hadeel Al Ghoul, 2016; damaging the surrounding environment Shen et. al., 2007; & FIDIC, 2004). by having the considerations of the environmental protection law and 6.7. Water regulations on construction activities (Enshassi, Kochendoerfer, & Hadeel Al Clean water is the most precious Ghoul, 2016). resource on earth. The process of producing clean water also involves high 6.5. Resources cost. In every construction activities, water is needed. Therefore, effort to With the promotions of green materials to reduce waste water discharge should be be used in sustainable projects, the uses monitored throughout examining the of green materials have to be credited. potential water pollution from the However, to avoid greenwashing, all proposed project, including both surface green materials have to be certified by and ground water, and project’s SIRIM or any green building controlling consumption on water resources bodies. Any construction should using (Enshassi, Kochendoerfer, & Hadeel Al sustainable materials which benefits Ghoul, 2016; Shen et. al., 2007;& FIDIC, throughout the various stages of a 2004). building’s life cycle (Omardin et. al., 2015). If there is any chance, the application of reuse water is highly recommended. All Promotion of Industrial Building System the records must be made available so (IBS) has long been promoted and that any credit can be given to the introduced. Environmentally, IBS also performance of the project. facilitates waste minimization and reduction, thus further highlighting its 6.8. Coastal Protection positive economics, while reductions in overall manpower requirements may also Site location may vary from one project to bring about less dependency on foreign another. By any chance that the project
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located near coastal lines, the effort to the need of sustainability, further study protect the coastal zone from any will be conducted to develop a holistic erosion; endangering the marine sustainability assessment tool to be used creatures’ habitat; and effects on the to measure the performance of water quality, is not recommended. sustainability. Therefore, marine biologist and coastal studies reports must be produced to REFERENCES monitor the effects of the projects towards the above-mentioned subjects (FIDIC, Ahn YH, CW Jung, M Suh, MH Jeon, Integrated 2004). Construction Process for Green Building, Procedia Engineering, (2016) - Elsevier
The importance of maintaining a balance A.Allouhi Y.El, Fouiha, T.Kousksou, A.JamilaY, between economic growth and coastal Zeraouli, Y.Mourad, Energy consumption and ecological protection for sustainable efficiency in buildings: current status and future management is a strategy for how trends, Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume ecosystem-based land planning and 109, (2015), Pages 118-130 ecological engineering should be applied Abdel-Raheem, M., & Ramsbottom, C.. Factors to ensure the effective and sustainable Affecting Social Sustainability in Highway management of living shorelines so that Projects in Missouri. Procedia Engineering, the benefits of healthy ecological 145, (2016) 548–555. functions accrue to coastal ecosystems https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.04.043
(Wu et al., 2018). Akadiri, P. O., Chinyio, E. A., & Olomolaiye, P. O.. Design of A Sustainable Building: A Coastal landfill projects are not Conceptual Framework for Implementing recommended since it would affect the Sustainability in the Building Sector. Buildings, seawater current and the marine 2(2), (2012) 126–152. https://doi.org/10.3390/buildings2020126 creatures and habitat existence. Aarseth W., Ahola T., Aaltonen K., Økland A., Anderson B. Project sustainability strategies: A systematic literature review, International Journal of Project Management, Volume 35, Issue 6, (2017), Pages 1071-1083 – Elsevier
Bass, S. & Dalal-Clayton, B., Sustainable Development Strategies: A Resource Book, Routledge, (2012), ISBN No: 11361555749, 9781136555749
Chan, E., & Lee, G. K. L.. Critical factors for improving social sustainability of urban renewal projects. Social Indicators Research, (2008) 85(2), 243–256. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11205-007-9089-3
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Enshassi, A., Kochendoerfer, B., & Hadeel Al 7.0 CONCLUSION Ghoul, Factors Affecting Sustainable Performance of Construction Projects during In conclusion, this study proves that the Project Life Cycle Phases. International sustainable construction indicators Journal of Sustainable Construction framework can be improved by Engineering & Technology, (2016), 7(1), 50– 68. incorporating the three aspects of sustainability in balance. Consistent with
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Fang, F., Li X., Chen X., Zhou Y., The Impact of Mohd Nordin, H. Indicators of Sustainable Green Building Labels on the Price of Housing: Development: The Malaysian Perspective, Evidence from China, Frontiers of Economics LESTARI, (2007),UKM in China; Beijing Vol. 13, Iss. 4, (2018): 635- 654. DOI: 10.3868/s060-007-018-0029-3 Moldan, B; Billharz, S; Matravers, R. (eds.) Sustainability indicators: A report on the project Fesselmeyer E., The value of green certification on indicators of sustainable development, John in the Singapore housing market, Economics Wiley and Sons. Chichester, (1997), Great Letters Volume 163, February 2018, Pages 36- Britain. 39 Omardin, M. A., Abidin, N. Z., Dagang, W., Ali, Gan X., Zuo J, Ye J., Skitmore M., & Xiong B., W., Perumahan, P., Perancangan, B., & Sains, Why sustainable construction? Why not: An Concept of Environmental Sustainability owner’s perspective, Habitat International, Awareness Strategies in Pre-Construction (2015), 47, pp. 61-68. Stage, (2015). 3, 103–116.
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CAUSAL COMPONENTS FOR DIRE DETERMINANTS IN PAYMENT- RELATED ISSUES
S. S. Judi *1, N. E. Mustaffa 2 and R. Nayan 3
1 Universiti Teknologi MARA, Shah Alam, Selangor,MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Delay in payment and financial difficulties have emerged as the major factors that cause delay in construction projects across Malaysia, which may indirectly jeopardise the overall success of construction projects. Payment problem has become a sensitive issue that has been aggravated throughout the years and must be addressed from the root causes so as to ascertain timely completion of projects within the stipulated cost and quality. This is in parallel with the Construction Industry Transformation Plan (CITP 2016-2020) under thrust Quality (Q1) and Productivity (P1). In the construction industry scenario, several days of delay in payment seems common, but if the situation is not addressed at the early stage, delay of payment due from client to contractor may worsen, thus resulting in the contractor to bear the cost. That being highlighted, this paper identified the causal components for dire determinants (DD) in payment-related issues (PRI) amidst the Malaysian construction industry from the stance of Clients and Contractors. Data retrieved from semi-structured interviews were analysed thematically using Atlas.Ti. Inadequate documentation, insufficient financial resources, contractor’s lack of knowledge in Variation Order (VO) submission documents, hierarchy problem, incorrect type of contract selection, parties failing to participate in payment valuation at site, and lack of trust had been identified as the major causal components for DD in PRI. This paper concludes by accentuating issues regarding payment and recommending some effective measures to overcome the issue at hand.
Keywords : Payment, Causal, Construction
1.0 INTRODUCTION Economic Report, 2018). Payment plays a significant role in the construction In 2018, the construction industry is one industry, especially for the main of the prominent economic divisions in contractor who must ensure that all Malaysia with a gross domestic product related parties (e.g., subcontractors, (GDP) growth forecast of 7.5% suppliers, and workers) of a project have (Department of Statistics Malaysian solid cash flow in order to carry out work
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smoothly Payment has always been the 2.0 METHODOLOGY OF STUDY main subject in the Malaysian construction industry (Khairul Anas Mohd Qualitative data can be retrieved from Badroldin et al., 2016) (M. N. A. Azman et observations, interviews, and depiction of al., 2014) and a key barrier to realizing experiences (Sekaran 2004; Sekaran & the second strategic thrust of Bougie, 2009). Construction Industry Master Plan (CIMP)(Hasmori et al., 2012) (Sahab and The development of a causal component Ismail, 2011). Mohamad, Suman and framework involves data gathered from Harun, (2018) defined payment as the semi-structured interview with money given or to be given to a person in representatives of the industry players. In return for the goods sold or services this stage, the gathered data were delivered and Suman (2016) added that analysed, while the qualitative technique the client need to pay the contractor for was performed to develop an established work done and material supplied by the model. suppliers delivered to site as specified in the contract. As for this study, qualitative content analysis was adopted due to its emphasis Late in payment has become a common on specific contexts and integrated view problem in the construction industry of texts that look beyond words globally, especially in the developing frequency, apart from capturing objective countries including Malaysia (Raman et elements from texts to assess themes, al., 2016) (Azhari, Dzulkalnine, Hamid, & patterns or meaning of the text. According Bing, 2014). Problems in payment, such to Braun and Clarke (2006), thematic as late payment, under payment, and analysis is a process that captures or non-payment, are considered critical, not emphasises essential element(s) about only in Malaysia, but in countries such as the data in line with research question(s). Singapore, New Zealand, and United They asserted that thematic analysis Kingdom (Ramachandra and Rotimi, represents some level of patterned 2015) responses or meaning within the dataset, which is used to identify, analyse, and Barough et al., (2013) revealed late in report the emerging patterns from the payment identified as the major causes of data. disputes and late payment is one of the most important issues need to address Turning to this study, the Thematic because in his study about 70% of Analysis was adopted to assess the data. respondents were totally agree about the Information gathered via semi-structured arising dispute due to late in payment in interviews was transcribed and several Malaysian construction industry. key quotes were highlighted to emphasis on the themes or essential information The aim of the study to develop a linked with the research questions. The proactive preventive payment-related emerging patterns were identified, issues (PRI) model for prompt payment in analysed, and reported using Atlas.Ti claim application. To achieve the aim, software. Thematic analysis is suitable for one of the objectives consist of an this study as it offers a comprehensive identification of the causal component for picture regarding PRI from the stance of each dire determinant for payment- experts. related issues in the Malaysian construction industry. The scope of this 3.0 FINDING OF THE STUDY study focuses on the client and main contractor only and this study focuses on Table 1 presents the summary of late payment and under payment only. categories and themes that emerged from The issue related on non-payment is not the responses provided by four Clients covered in this study as it entails dispute.
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and four G7 Contractor representatives. resources, contractor lacks knowledge in All related quotations on causal for each VO document submission, hierarchy DD were analysed via Atlas.Ti software. problem, problem in the selection of contract type, not participating in joint Upon completing the process of evaluation at the site, insufficient categorisation, themes were manually competent staff, and lack of trust. identified from each category (see Table 1) and as whole. As a result, the major After each category was suited in causal components towards each DD in accordance to related themes, the causal the identified PRI are as follows: component model was developed (see problems in provision of claim Figure 1). documents, insufficient financial
Table 1 Summary of categories and themes for causal component model
Themes Categories Problem of documentation Incomplete submission of claim document Delay in submitting document Insufficient financial resources Cash flow management issue The client has many projects at a one time Contractor lacking knowledge in VO’s Not understand the right procedures on submission document VO’s claim Hierarchy problem Need to get approval from many levels Problems in the selection type of contract Contract based on lump sum basis Insufficient competent staff Not enough competent staff Lack of trust Lack of trust between Client & Contractor
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DIRE DETERMINANT IN PAYMENT CAUSAL COMPONENTS IN PAYMENT- RELATED ISSUE RELATED ISSUE
Problem of documentation SLOW PROCESSING AND DELAY IN Incomplete submission of documents FINALIZING OF VARIATION ORDER Delay in submitting documents Insufficient financial resources SHORTAGE OF FUND DUE TO VARIATION Cash flow management issue ORDER The client has many projects at a one time Contractor lacking knowledge in VO's submission DISAGREEMENT OF THE VALUATION OF documents WORK DONE The Contractor failure to provide sufficient document PROBLEM IN for Variation Order (VO) PAYMENT CLAIM DELAY IN EVALUATION AND Hirearchy problems APPLICATION CERTIFICATION OF INTERIM PAYMENT Need to get approval from many levels
BUREAUCRACY PROCEDURES OF PAYMENT Problem in the selection type of contract PROCESS Contract based on lump sum basis Did not participate in join payment valuation at the DEFICIENCIES IN CLIENT MANAGEMENT site CAPACITY Did not participate in join payment valuation
INVOLVEMENT TOO MANY PARTIES IN THE Insufficient competent staff PROCESS OF HONOURING INTERIM Not enough competent staff CERTIFICATE Lack of trust Lack of trust between client and contractor
Figure 1 Relationships between dire determinants and causal components in payment- related issues
Figure 1 illustrates the developed model 4.0 CONCLUSION that displays relationships between DD and causal components in PRI. The As a conclusion, identifying the causes of model for causal components is integral component for each DD at early stage to determine the function of DD in PRI. may help the parties involved to take After identifying the DD via quantitative proactive measures as solution to prevent analysis (questionnaire survey), the the issue from turning into disputes. causes for each determinant were Viable and practical solutions enable all determined through qualitative analysis parties to meet the primary aim of prompt (semi-structured interview). payment upon claim application.
For instance, slow processing and delay ACKNOWLEDGEMENT in finalising VO are due to incomplete or delayed submission of claim documents The authors would like to express their by the contractor to the client (theme: appreciation for the support of the Real problem of documentation). Apart from Estate & Housing Developers’ issues related to documentation, failing to Association Malaysia (REHDA) and provide sufficient documents for VO Construction Industry Development Board (theme: contractor lacks knowledge in VO (CIDB) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia document submission) also emerged as a (UTM) for providing the data and reason of slow processing and delay in infrastructure in conducted this research. finalising of VO.
Briefly, the identified themes appear to REFERENCES contribute to the formation of causal Azman, M. N. A., Dzulkalnine, N., Hamid, Z. A., components model in light of PRI. Kamar, K. A. M. and Nawi, M. N. M. (2014) ‘Payment Scenario in the Malaysian Construction Industry Prior to CIPAA Payment Scenario in the Malaysian Construction Industry Prior to CIPAA’, Payment Scenario in The Malaysian Construction Industry Prior to CIPAA,
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(January 2013).
Azman, M. N., Azhari, Dzulkalnine, N., Hamid, Z. A. and Bing, K. W. (2014) ‘Jurnal Teknologi Full paper Payment Issue in Malaysian Construction Industry : Contractors ’’, 1, pp. 57–63.
Barough, A. S., Shoubi, M. V. and Preece, C. N. (2013) ‘Evaluating the Effectiveness of Mediation and Arbitration Processes in Resolving Disputes in the Malaysian Construction Industry’, International Journal of Civil Engineering (IJCE), 2(1), pp. 21–28.
Hasmori, M., Ismail, I. and Said, I. (2012) ‘Issues of Late and Non-Payment Among Contractors in Malaysia’, International Conference on Business and Economics, (2), pp. 82–93.
Khairul Anas Mohd Badroldin, M., Rahim Abdul Hamid, A., Abdul Raman, S., Zakaria, R. and Reza Mohandes, S. (2016) ‘Late Payment Practices in the Malaysian Construction Industry’, Malaysian Journal of Civil Engineering 28 Special Issue, 162(3), pp. 149–162.
N Mohamad, A S Suman, H Harun, H. H. (2018) ‘Mitigating delay and non-payment in the Malaysian construction industry Mitigating delay and non-payment in the Malaysian construction industry’, IOP Conference Series:Earth and Environmental Science.
Ramachandra, T. and Rotimi, J. O. B. (2015) ‘Causes of Payment Problems in the New Zealand Construction Industry’, Construction Economics and Building, 15(1), pp. 43–55.
Raman, S. A., Zakaria, R. and Mohandes, S. R. (2016) ‘SCENARIO AND IMPACT OF LATE PAYMENT IN THE MALAYSIAN Mohd Khairul Anas Mohd Badroldin , Abdul Rahim Abdul Hamid * ’, (September).
Sahab, S. and Ismail, Z. (2011) ‘Construction Industry Payment and Adjudication Act; enhancing security of payment in the Malaysian Construction Industry’, 2011 International Conference on Business Engineering and Industrial Applications. Ieee, pp. 153–159.
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BARRIERS FOR KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT IN PFI PROJECTS
K. Kipli *1, F. Abdullah 2 and F. D. Mustafa 3
1 Faculty of Architecture, Planning & Surveying, UiTM Sarawak (E-mail: [email protected])
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Knowledge Management (KM) in Private Finance Initiative (PFI) is said to be an important element to ensure PFI achieve its performance in term of time, quality and money. However, knowledge barriers said to be the obstacles or hitches for successful KM system in PFI projects. The objective of this paper is to identify the KM barriers in PFI projects so that these barriers can be highlighted for a solution in PFI projects. This paper adopts both quantitative and qualitative methods to establish the list of barriers and group the barriers into categories which are organization barrier and personal barrier. Well-structured questionnaires were distributed to professionals involved in PFI projects in Malaysia. Relative Importance Index (RII) was used to analyze the data using the Likert Scale. From the result, the top 5 ranking of barriers in organisational category start with lack of database to store the records of goods and bad practices of past projects, Company’s Culture, Lack of experienced colleagues, lack of top management support and participation, lack of proactive management strategies, no knowledge sharing culture in the organisation and lack of sharing spaces. As for the personal barriers, the top 5 starts with lack of discussion, meeting, exchange the ideas, best practices and past experiences within the employees, lack of motivation, lack of motivation, poor communication skills and lack of trust and the poor relationship among colleagues. All these barriers should be looking at carefully by the management involved in the PFI projects in order to make sure KM system will run smoothly that will also benefit the organization in term of time, quality and money.
Keywords : KM Barriers, Organisation Barriers, Personal Barriers, PFI projects
1.0 INTRODUCTION as architects, planners, engineers, surveyors, lawyers, financial specialists, Project Finance Initiative (PFI) projects facilities management managers and introduced in the UK in the year 1992 while other team members. Each party has their in Malaysia in the year 2006. PFI involve specific functional relationship in the PFI long-term collaboration and networking projects to deliver services according to across different professional groups such
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the public sector clients’ output for the purpose of this research, the specification (H.S. Robinson & Jon Scoot, barriers then grouped into organisational 2009). With that special characteristics, barriers and personal barriers. knowledge management becomes one of the important aspects in prior to the 2.0 OBJECTIVE implementation of PFI projects (Kipli, et. Al, 2016; Kamara,2012; Hecker, 2012; The objective of this paper is to identify the Robinson, et. al., 2010). However, in order KM barriers in PFI projects so that these for the KM system to success, there is a barriers can be highlighted for a solution in need to determine the barriers in KM PFI projects. systems for PFI projects. Barriers to KM implementation is described as an 3.0 METHODOLOGY obstacle or hitches that negatively affect the practices of KM in an organisation. The study adopted a mixed qualitative- There are various kinds of barriers to KM exploratory and quantitative survey. Non- implementation depends on the types of probability purposive sampling technique business organisation. Many researchers was used for this study, and well- have conducted different researchers on structured questionnaires were distributed the barrier to KM implementation in an to professional involved in PFI projects in organisation and discovered various kinds Malaysia. Knowledge management of barriers. Bonfield (1999) highlighted barriers were identified through literature cultural, technological, and economic review, pilot survey, and interaction with market as barriers to KM. Ndlela and Du some stakeholders in the construction Toit (2001) argued that the links between industry. The questionnaire was designed people and issues are the main barriers to to determine the knowledge management successful implementation of KM. barriers among professionals undertaking Bollinger and Smith (2001) explained the PFI projects in Malaysia. The Quantity people related barriers as an individual, Surveyors, Architects, Builders, group and organisational perspective. Structural/Civil Engineers, and Despres and Chauvel (1999) believed that Electrical/Mechanical Engineers were the structural, cultural, and managerial, target construction professionals selected people and cost factors are the barriers to for this study which either from public KM. Whereas Syed Ikhan and Rowland sectors or private sectors including the (2004) expressed their own opinion that Special Purpose Vehicle company. cultural, technology, people, human resource, staff income and political orders The respondents were asked to express as the barriers to KM. their level of assessment on a 5-point Likert. Out of 250 administered Mason and Pauleen (2003) further questionnaires, 120 questionnaires were expressed that culture, lack of awareness returned which represents 48% of and poor management are barriers to KM. returned questionnaires. This was Squire and Snyman (2004) added that considered appropriate for the analysis of technology, structure, culture and costly the research. The sampling technique mistake are barriers to KM. An analysis by provided us with the opportunity to meet Al-Ghassani (2003) found that knowledge the target groups which informed a high status (whether tacit or explicit), rate of response. The frequency of knowledge domains and organisational occurrence was established on a Likert culture are considered as the main barriers scale: (1) = 'Unimportant', (2)= 'Less in implementing knowledge management Important', (3)= 'Moderately Important', in construction organisations. There is, (4)=' Important', (5)='Very important'by therefore, a need to proactively tackle using the Relative Importance Index (RII). organisational culture and associated This approach was adopted by Aibinu and barriers such as people's fears, attitude or Jagboro (2002), Muhwezi et al. (2014), resistance to knowledge sharing. Hence, and Desai & Bhatt (2013). The
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respondents provided numerical scores in Where, order to express their assessment level ni = number of respondents that with 5 as the highest value. The data chose pi. collected were analyzed using RII pi = 1 to 5 on a Likert scale calculated by equation 1. N = total number of questionnaire returned. RII = Σ ni.pi/N.Rv. (Eq.1) Rv.= highest value in Likert scale.
4.0 FINDINGS
Table 1 shows respondent’s assistants. Table 1 depicts the characteristics within the various respondent’s working experience in PFI organizations. From 120 questionnaires projects. Most of the respondents which is returned, it can be deduced that 40% of around 60% have 3-5 years working the total respondents are Civil and experience in PFI projects. 10% of them Structural Engineers, Project Manager have 6-8 years working experience in PFI, 5%, Project Director 5%, 15% Quantity another 10% of them have 9-10 years surveyors, 5% Architects, 5% Building working experience in PFI and lastly 20% Surveyors, 15% Mechanical and Electrical have less than 2 years working experience Engineers and 10% are technical in PFI.
Table 1 Designation of respondents
Designation Frequency Percentage % Project Director 6 5.0
Project Manager 6 5.0 Architect 6 5.0
Quantity Surveyor 18 15.0
Electrical and Mechanical 18 15.0
Engineer Civil and Structural Engineer 48 40.0
Technical Assistant 12 10.0 Building Surveyor 6 5.0
Total 120 100
Table 2 Experience of Respondents in PFI Projects
Experience Years Percentage %
Less than 2 years 24 20.0
3-5 years 72 60.0
6-8 years 12 10.0
9-10 years 12 10.0
Total 120 100.0
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Table 3 RII and Rank (Rk) of knowledge management barriers as perceived by professional involved in PFI projects.
7 Organisational barriers RII Rk a Company’s Culture 0.88 2
b Lack of proactive management strategies 0.79 4
c No knowledge sharing culture in the organisation 0.79 4
d Lack of sharing spaces 0.79 4 e Lack of experience colleagues 0.81 3
f Lack of top management support and participation 0.81 3 g Lack of ICT infrastructure 0.74 6
Time constraints on sharing, as a result of heavy work load and busy nature of h 0.76 5 work. i No incentives and rewards, either monetary or non-monetary, from the company 0.65 9
Lack of defined responsibilities and budget for sharing of best practice, past j experiences, data and information of the past projects. 0.73 7 k Competitive working environment 0.71 8 l Lack of database to store the records of goods and bad practices of past projects. 0.89 1
8 Personal barriers
a Lack of commitment to the company 0.86 2 b Lack of understanding the benefits of sharing experiences, ideas and information 0.79 5 c Limited access to intranets and databases 0.75 6
Lack of discussion, meeting, exchange the ideas, best practices and past d experiences within the employees 0.90 1 e Poor communication skills 0.83 4
Individuals are selfish and unwilling to share their best practice, past experiences, f 0.69 8 data and information of the past projects. g Lack of trust and poor relationship among colleagues 0.79 5
Lack of discipline and resources to encourage experiences, data/information, best h practices management 0.70 7 i Other barriers; motivation 0.84 3
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Table 4 Top 5 KM Barriers for each category
S/N Organisational Barriers RII Ranking 7. l Lack of database to store the records of goods and bad practices of past 0.89 1 projects 7. a Company’s Culture 0.88 2
7.e Lack of experience colleagues 0.81 3
7. f Lack of top management support and participation 0.81 3
7. b Lack of proactive management strategies 0.79 4
7. c No knowledge sharing culture in the organisation 0.79 4
7. d Lack of sharing spaces 0.79 4
S/N Personal Barriers RII Ranking
Lack of discussion, meeting, exchange the ideas, best practices and past 0.90 1 8. d experiences within the employees
8. a Lack of motivation 0.86 2
8. i Lack of rewards 0.84 3
8. e Poor communication skills 0.83 4
8. g Lack of trust and poor relationship among colleagues 0.79 5
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Table show professionals’ in PFI ranking lack of trust and the poor relationship of the KM barriers in the PFI projects. The among colleagues. most influential barriers in organisational barriers category is Lack of database to ACKNOWLEDGEMENT store the records of goods and bad practices of past projects (Av.RII=0.89) The authors would like to express their followed by company’s culture appreciation for the cooperation UKAS (Av.RII=0.88). Lack of experience and all the respondents involved in PFI colleagues and lack of top management Projects. support and participation ranked 3rd which the Av. RII=0.88. 4th KM barriers are lack of proactive management strategies, no REFERENCES knowledge sharing culture in the organization and lack of sharing spaces. Aibinu, A.A. and Jagboro, G.O. (2002). The effects Meanwhile in personal barriers, the most of construction delays on project delivery in influential barriers is Lack of discussion, Nigerian construction industry. International meeting, exchange the ideas, best journal of project management, 20(8):593– practices and past experiences within the 599. employees (Av. RII = 0.90) followed by Al-Ghassani, A. M. (2003) Improving the Structural Lack of commitment to the company Design Process: Knowledge Management (Av.RII= 0.86). Other barriers suggested Approach. Phd Thesis, Loughborough by respondents which is lack of rewards to University, Loughborough. key personnel in charge in PFI is the 3rd Bollinger, A.S. and Smith, R.D. (2001) Managing th organizational knowledge as a strategic most influential barriers (Av.RII=0.81). 4 asset. Journal of Knowledge Management, KM barriers is poor communication skills 5(1). (Av. RII=0.83) and 5th most influential is Bonfield, P. (1999), Knowledge Managemen lack of trust and poor relationship among Strategy of BT, Managing Information, Vol.6 colleagues. No.6.
Desai, M. and Bhatt, R. (2013). Critical causes of 5.0 CONCLUSION delay in residential construction projects: case study of central Gujarat region of India. The success of the KM system can be International Journal of Engineering Trends achieved by eliminating the barriers. The and Technology, 4(4):762-768. barriers determine in this research will help Despres, C. and Chauvel, D. (1999), “Knowledge to determine the success of the KM Conference, Reading, 9-11 September. system in PFI projects. Two categories of management(s)”, Journal of Knowledge KM barriers had been identified and the Management, barriers group into this category. The top Herbert S. Robinson & Jon Scott (2009) Service 5 ranking of barriers in organisational delivery and performance monitoring in category start with Lack of database to PFI/PPP projects, Construction Management store the records of goods and bad and Economics, 27:2, 181-197, DOI: practices of past projects, company’s 10.1080/01446190802614163 culture, lack of experience colleagues, Herbert Robinson, Patricia Carillo, Chimnay J. Anumba and Manju Patel (2010). lack of top management support and Governance & Knowledge Management for participation, lack of proactive Public-Private Partnership. Wiley-Blackwell management strategies, No knowledge sharing culture in the organisation and lack Kamara, J. M. (2012). Integration in the project of sharing spaces. As for the personal development process of a Private Finance Initiative (PFI) project. Architectural barriers, the top 5 starts with lack of Engineering and Design Management, 8(4), discussion, meeting, exchange the ideas, 228–245. best practices and past experiences within http://doi.org/10.1080/17452007.2012.66672 the employees, lack of motivation, lack of 9 motivation, poor communication skills and
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Kumalasari Kipli, Fadhlin Abdullah, Fara Diva Mustapha (2016), The Missing Point of Knowledge Mnaagement in PFI Projects, Matec Web Conference.
Mason, D. and Pauleen, D. J. (2003), Perceptions of knowledge management: a qualitative analysis, Journal of Knowledge Management, Vo. 7, No. 4, pp. 34-38.
Ndlela, L.T. & Du Toit, A.S.A. (2001) Establishing a Knowledge Management program for competitive advantage in an Enterprise. International Journal of Information Management, 21(2): 151-165.
Syed-Ikhsan, S.O.S. and Rowland, F., 2004. Knowledge Management in a Public Organization: A Study on the Relationship between Organizational Elements and the Performance Of Knowledge Transfer. Journal of Knowledge Management, [online] 8(2), pp.95–111. Available at:
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MITIGATING THE CAUSES OF REWORK THROUGH BIM IMPLEMENTATION
O. O. Titus *1, H. L. T. Ariffin 2, K. N. Ali 3 and A. O. Michael 4
1, 2 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected] ,[email protected])
4 Department of Quantity Surveying, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic Owo, Ondo State, Nigeria. (E-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Rework is an endemic and expensive problem in the industry and has been suggested as the root cause of cost and time overrun (52% and 22 % increase in project cost respectively) and client dissatisfaction. Building information modelling through its features and benefits in the entire life cycle of a project has great potential in eliminating causes of rework on projects. This study focuses on identifying causes and effects of rework through literature review and map the benefit of BIM in resolving them. Mitigating rework through implementation of BIM will benefits the industry in terms of its effectiveness to the contribution and growth of the economy.
Keywords: Rework , BIM , Construction industry
1.0 INTRODUCTION expectation of the stakeholders in the industry. however, cost and time overrun Rework has been studied by many orchestrated by rework has been researchers and identified as a major accentuated to be the characteristics of problem in construction industry (Abdul- many projects in the world to the extent rahman & Wang, 2017; Forcada, that they are now becoming the rules and Gangolells, Casals, & Macarulla, 2017). not the exception in the industry. Further research recognized rework as root cause of cost & time overrun and Understanding that resources in the client dissatisfaction (P. E. D. Love, Irani, industry are scarce and the need to use & Edwards, 2004; Akanni, Oke, & the available resources to get best value Akpomiemie, 2014; Oke & Ugoje, 2013; for money is the major aim of any project EC Eze & JE idiake, 2018). undertaken. Hence, implementing a system that minimize scope change, Projects performance is said to be identification & allocation of risk and achieved when project is completed within proactive management of risk is of critical the estimated budget, finished within the importance to eliminate rework time schedule and is built according to the quality standard expected. These are the Building information Modelling (BIM) fundamental goals of any project and through its benefit in the entire life cycle of
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a project has been identified as the way 2.0 BIM BENEFITS ON REWORK forward to reduce rework (P. Love & Smith, 2019). This paper based on Building information modeling is define as literature review will attempt to look at the method of producing and handling causes and effect of rework in construction building information data during its life industry and map the benefit of BIM to cycle which enables stakeholders at resolve them. different phases of project life cycle to insert, extract, update or modify 1.1 Rework information in the model(Tiong, Nath, & Attarzadeh, 2015). Ashford (2002) defines rework as a way or procedure in which an item of work is The fact that BIM foster on combination of made to fit into its original requirement by technology and a set of work process that realization or amendment. Love (2002) allows building and infrastructure to be define rework as unnecessary effort of re- designed collaboratively using a coherent doing a process or activity that was system of computer models rather than a wrongly executed the first time and separate set of drawings eliminates most concluded that rework contributes to 52% of causes of rework as discussed below and 22 % of total cost increase and (Autodesk(DLT), 2014). schedule overrun on project respectively 2.1 Design Related. 1.2 Causes and Effect of Rework. Research have shown that documentation Fayek, Dissanayake & Campero (2003) errors which is a major cause in design classified causes of rework as absence related causes are eliminated in BIM of human resource capability, leadership process through 3D visualization and 3D and communications, inefficient coordination and clash analysis engineering & reviews, inappropriate (Charehzehi, Chai, Yusof, Chong, & Loo, construction planning & scheduling, and 2017). BIM through its 3D model enhances inadequate materials & equipment supply. high productivity, collaboration among team members, good information flow and Considering the unstructured nature of the good contract documentation (Enegbuma industry, the classification by Love & & Ali, 2011). Edwards (2004) which classified the causes as design-related, client-related, 2.2 Client Related and contractor related factors covered most of the causes of rework. Aiyetan & With BIM, scope changes are eliminated Das (2015) study further classified this in as client have opportunity of virtual mock- terms of design and construction phase. up before the actual construction on site. Study revealed BIM to have great effect Having highlighted the causes of rework on client satisfaction, effective supervision and knowing the fragmented nature of the completion time, acceptable quality industry, it can be suggested that standards within estimated budget and effective system that will eliminates rework guide subcontractors and fabricators will foster on changing the work process inputs at the early stage in order to and encourage collaboration among improve the management of projects stakeholders during construction(I. O. Onungwa, Uduma-Olugu, & Igwe, 2017; O. I. Time & Cost overrun, contractor loss of Onungwa & Uduma-Olugu, 2016) profit and client dissatisfaction has been identified as the effect of rework on 2.3 Contractor Related projects (P. E. D. Love & Edwards, 2004; BIM benefits through model walk-through, Ogunbode, 2016) project visualization, clash detection,
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virtual mock up model, prefabrication, Professionals in Nigeria. International Journal construction planning, schedule of Sustainable Construction Engineering & Technology (ISSN: 2180-3242), 9(1), 3–4. visualization, accurate costing & real time https://doi.org/10.1109/mmm.2007.907809 estimate and life cycle management eliminates most contractor related causes Enegbuma, W. I., & Ali, K. N. (2011). A Preliminary (Marzouk, Othman, Enaba, & Zaher, Critical Success Factor (Csfs) Analysis Of 2018). Building Information Modelling (Bim) Implementation In Malaysia. Proceedings of the Asian Conference on Real Estate (ACRE 3.0 CONCLUSION 2011): Sustainable Growth, Management Challenges, 3-5 October, Thistle Johor Undertaking rework on project is an Bahru, Malaysia., (October 2014), 6. endemic and expensive problem in the Retrieved from industry and has reduced its contribution https://www.researchgate.net/publication/26 to the growth of the economy. Getting it 2805098%0AA right first time (GIRFT) eradicates Fayek, A. R., Dissanayake, M., & Campero, O. imperfections and the need for rework(P. (2003). Measuring and Classifying E. D. Love, Smith, Ackermann, & Irani, Construction Field Rework : A Pilot Study. In 2019). BIM possesses the potential of Presented to: Construction Owners curtailing the causes of rework which is the Association of Alberta (COAA). major cause of time & cost overrun and https://doi.org/10.1109/IROS.2006.282456 client dissatisfaction. Forcada, N., Gangolells, M., Casals, M., & Macarulla, M. (2017). Factors Affecting REFERENCES Rework Costs in Construction. Journal of Construction Engineering and Management, Abdul-rahman, H., & Wang, C. (2017). Impacts Of 143(8), 04017032. Design Changes On Construction Project https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)co.1943- Performance : 7862.0001324
Aiyetan, O. A., & Das, D. (2015). Using System Love, P. E. D. (2002). Influence of Project Type and Dynamics Modelling Principles to Resolve Procurement Method on Rework Costs in Problem of Rework in Contruction Project in Building Construction Projects. Journal of Nigeria. Journal of Construction Project Construction Engineering and Management. Management and Innovation, 5(2), 1266– https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)0733- 1295. Retrieved from 9364(2002)128:1(18) https://journals.co.za/content/jcpmi/5/2/EJC1 83321 Love, P. E. D., & Edwards, D. J. (2004). Determinants of rework in building Akanni, P. O., Oke, A. E., & Akpomiemie, O. A. construction projects. Engineering, (2014). Impact of environmental factors on Construction and Architectural Management, building project performance in Delta State, 11(4), 259–274. Nigeria. HBRC Journal, 11(1), 91–97. https://doi.org/10.1108/09699980410547612 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.hbrcj.2014.02.010 Love, P. E. D., Irani, Z., & Edwards, D. J. (2004). A Ashford, J. L. (2002). The management of quality rework reduction model for construction in construction. In The Management of projects. IEEE Transactions on Engineering Quality in Construction. Management, 51(4), 426–440. https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203473153 https://doi.org/10.1109/TEM.2004.835092
Autodesk(DLT). (2014). Building information Love, P. E. D., Smith, J., Ackermann, F., & Irani, Z. Modeling for Govies. (2019). Making sense of rework and its unintended consequence in projects: The Charehzehi, A., Chai, C., Yusof, A., Chong, H., & emergence of uncomfortable knowledge. Loo, S. C. (2017). Building information International Journal of Project Management, modeling in construction conflict 37(3), 501–516. management. 9, 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2019.02.00 https://doi.org/10.1177/1847979017746257 4
EC Eze & JE idiake. (2018). Impact of Rework on Love, P., & Smith, J. (2019). Unpacking the Building Project and Oraganization ambiguity of rework in construction: making Performance: A view of Construction sense of the literature. Civil Engineering and
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Environmental Systems. https://doi.org/10.1080/10286608.2019.1577 396
Marzouk, M., Othman, A., Enaba, M., & Zaher, M. (2018). Using BIM to Identify Claims Early in the Construction Industry: Case Study. Journal of Legal Affairs and Dispute Resolution in Engineering and Construction, 10(3), 05018001. https://doi.org/10.1061/(asce)la.1943- 4170.0000254
Ogunbode, E. B. (2016). Projects Management and the effect of Rework on Construction Works : A Case of selected Projects in Abuja Metropolis , Nigeria Projects Management and the effect of Rework on Construction Works : A Case of selected Projects in Abuja Metropolis , Nigeria. International Journal of Finance and Management in Practice, 4(1), 38–46.
Oke, A. E., & Ugoje, F. F. (2013). Assessment of rework cost of selected building projects in Nigeria. International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management, 30(7), 799–810. https://doi.org/10.1108/IJQRM-Jul-2011- 0103
Onungwa, I. O., Uduma-Olugu, N., & Igwe, J. M. (2017). Building information modelling as a construction management tool in Nigeria. WIT Transactions on the Built Environment, 169(May), 25–33. https://doi.org/10.2495/BIM170031
Onungwa, O. I., & Uduma-Olugu, N. (2016). Building Information Modeling In Nigeria And Its Impact On Collaboration In Schematic Design Stage And Post Contract Stage Of Design. Emerging Trends in Construction Practices and Project Management Knowledge Area. https://doi.org/ISBN - 978- 0-620-69590-9
Tiong, R. L. K., Nath, T., & Attarzadeh, M. (2015). Identifying key factors for building information modelling adoption in Singapore. Proceedings of the ICE - Management, Procurement and Law. https://doi.org/10.1680/mpal.15.00030
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COMMON PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED BY THE REGISTERED QUANTITY SURVEYORS IN THE PREPARATION OF VALUATION OF INTERIM PAYMENT
R. Nayan *1, N. E. Mustaffa 2 and S. S. Judi 3
1, 2,3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
A quantity surveyor as a professional person governs by section 8(1)(a) of the Quantity Surveyors Act (QSA) 1967 in performing the valuation of interim payment (VOIP) is expected by the construction industry to possess a required level of competency. Thus, in performing VOIP, a reliable, acceptable, reasonable and no dispute in the whole process is desired. The objective of this research is to investigate the common problems encountered by the registered quantity surveyors in the preparation of the VOIP. The scope of this research is confined to the QSA 1967 and primarily focusing on practicing firms of quantity surveyor registered with Board of Quantity Surveyors Malaysia (BQSM). The research adopted questionnaire survey as the mode for data collection and include the process of identifying the target respondents from BQSM’s list, data analysing and finding. It also focuses on variables in the VOIP identified which include: submission and documentation, VOIP process and disagreement of VOIP. The findings revealed that the utmost factors that contributed to the dissatisfaction and dispute on VOIP are fairness, competency, completeness, justification, negotiation accuracy, professionalism, process, valuation and guideline. Therefore, this paper highlights the common problems encountered by the registered quantity surveyor in the VOIP process.
Keywords : Valuation of interim payment, Dispute, Professional, Competency, Reliable, Acceptable, Reasonable
1.0 INTRODUCTION also known as construction economists, cost engineers or construction manager According to Harban and Nael (2007, where he controls the cost and ensured 2005) the interim payment breakdown is good value for money (Hussin & Omran, value of work executed in cumulative total 2009). The conflict among parties may still to the agreed date including value of arise caused by disagreement of the material delivered but unfixed (material on valuation of the work, client’s lack of trust site) and value of certain material prior to with the consultant in certification of delivery (material off site) less retention contractors’ progress claim and variation sum or liquidated ascertain damages and order and lack of understanding on client’s previous payment. A quantity surveyor is requirement for variation work that leads to
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late or non-payment (Azman et. al. 2014). categorized and reported according to Hasmori, et al. (2012) highlighted that the three (3) different categories namely factor of late and non-payment includes submission and documentation, valuation disagreement on valuation of work done of interim payment process and that may cause delay in certifying the disagreement of valuation of interim amount of work executed on site. payment.
2.0 QUANTITATIVE FINDINGS 2.1 Submission and Documentation
The findings of the research are discussed The respondents were required to rank in accordance to the achievement of the their satisfaction opinion or perception on quantitative objective of the research their experiences in the issuance of which is to investigate the common valuation of interim payment process. problems encountered by the registered Figure 1 presents general opinions in the quantity surveyors in the preparation of first category namely; accuracy, valuation of interim payment. In completeness and fairness and the overall coherence with the literature review means of the variables are 4.04, 4.23 and findings, the survey results have been 4.53 respectively.
Submission & Documentation 4.6 4.4 4.5306 Accuracy 4.2 4.2313 Completenes 4 4.0442 Fairness 3.8 Accuracy Completenes Fairness
Figure 1 Quantity Surveyors’ experiences in submission and documentation process
The findings gathered in such a way may reflect the actual practice in the current be due to the respondents’ view on the market in the construction industry. performance by other consultants which carried out valuation of the interim About 67.4% of the respondents agreed payment unethically and unprofessionally. and strongly agreed that the quantity surveyor valuation is ‘accurate and timely’ 2.1.1 Accuracy which may be perceived that that the practising quantity surveyors’ believe that The mean score for the factor of accuracy the valuation of interim made is accurate is 4.04, which proved that the accuracy as and timely. As a result, it will give impact a factor contribute to the issue in the on the valuation of interim payment done, valuation of interim payment and this is in thus contributing to dissatisfaction of parallel with literature review (Borvorn, practitioners. The study shows that 95.9% 2012). respondents agreed and strongly agreed that the quantity surveyor valuation is The respondents reported that 75.5% of mere estimate and not conclusive until the them agreed and strongly agreed that on final account. The result is reliable as the the documentation for submission is ‘lack majority of the respondents are pratising of quality and standard’ in the submission quantity surveyors. of valuation of interim payment and this caused inaccuracy. As the results are Almost three quarter or 71.5% based on the opinion of practising quantity respondents agreed and strongly agreed surveyors the findings would directly that lump sum Bill of Quantities (BQ) in the
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tender should be avoided. In their view as practitioners or 6.5% disagree that the practitioners, this sub-factor exists in the valuation of interim payment prepared by construction industry and appropriate the quantity surveyors is accurate. corrective measures should be taken to overcome the problem. In the breakdown 2.1.2 Completeness of the element, 91.8% of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed as form of The mean score for the factor of supporting document i.e.breakdown of the completeness is 4.23. This shows that element. Most of the practitioners rely on completeness of the submission is this supporting document as justification important in order to check the work done purpose in performing the valuation of at site during the valuation of interim interim payment. payment.
On the Non-Conformance Report (NCR), Most of the respondents or 87.8% of them 69.4% of the respondents agreed and agreed and strongly agreed that the strongly agreed that this NCR to be submission is incomplete, thus leading to attached as backup and form part of the being queried or rejected. Although the supporting document in the valuation of practitioner had visited the site but in the interim payment. Managing the contract valuation of interim payment the document especially issues related to EOT and LAD must be submitted according to the site is important to ensure reasonable amount progress as part of the documentation. to the contractor and 81.6% of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed About 85.7% agreed and strongly agreed this sub-factor element in ensuring the that the site valuation date reflected the accuracy in the submission and actual work done. The practitioners documentation. believe the site valuation of interim payment date is a key date in determining The breakdown of element must be the progress of the work. provided during the valuation of interim payment. As practitioners, they believe The most frequent issues encountered by that interim payment is subject to the quantity surveyors are related to the reconciliation and it is a norm to exercise ‘incomplete submission’, ‘valuation date adjustment of the valuation of interim reflect the actual work’ and ‘EOT, LAD and payment in next or subsequent valuation VO from part of variation’ with their overall with the supporting documents. This means of 4.28, 4.24 and 4.16 respectively. research also found that the managing contract during the construction is another 2.1.3 Fairness important sub-factor in ensuring the accuracy. Almost all or 98% of respondents or quantity surveyors’ practitioner, agreed Furthermore, issue on inappropriateness and strongly agreed that quantity surveyor when preparing the BQ are another sub- to act independently and impartially in factors that contribute to accurateness of performing the valuation of interim the valuation of interim payment. As payment. As registered quantity surveyor practitioners, they also concurred that in they are bounded by the codes and ethical the case where the valuation of interim practice, they should performed the roles payment is prepared by the quantity and duties impartially and with fairness. surveyors or themselves, the accuracy was secured. It is possible that it may be 2.2 Valuation of Interim Payment due to their previous experiences, some of Process the practitioners or 26.5% at the fence level on the accuracy of the valuation of This category consists of three factors interim payment made. Unexpectedly namely guideline, justification and Figure 2 there are respondents who are the presents general views in these three
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areas and the overall means of 3.31, 4.22 the highest mean or represent 4.22 and 3.82 respectively. Justification shows followed by process and guideline.
Valuation Of Interim Payment Process 6 4 Guideline 4.2245 3.8265 2 3.3061 Justification 0 Process Guideline Justification Process
Figure 2 Quantity Surveyors experiences in valuation of interim payment
2.2.1 Guideline of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed that in performing the valuation of Guideline is a factor in this research and interim payment should restrict to the representing a mean of 3.31 of person name in the process only and practitioners’ view in the valuation of the 24.5% stand as neutral and 4% on the interim payment. There are seven sub- opinions disagreed and strongly disagreed factors under guideline namely; on this matter. employer/client will provide the guidelines or procedures, quantity surveying The respondents of 63.3% experienced consultants provide valuation according to that there is ‘no demarcation specific the ethics and conduct, person named by guideline in determining on the retention the firm will conduct the valuation of money or performance bond’ in valuation interim payment, no demarcation process and 22.4% stand as neutral. The determining the retention money and respondents believe that appropriate performance bond, firm determine the action should be taken on the guidelines of guideline or procedure on the submission the retention money and performance for example to submit tax invoice and no bond appropriately to ensure that the standard guideline or standard for VO and valuation of interim payment is not effected EOT. by this guideline. As for the guideline on the submission according to employer’s Less than 50% of the respondents requirements, i.e. to submit tax invoice, reported agreed and strongly agreed or to 32.7% of the respondents agreed and be exact 47% of them in the opinion that in strongly agreed that it is as a form of the process the ‘employer will provide submission and 40.9% are of the views guideline or procedure’ in the process of disagreed and strongly disagreed on this valuation to ensure that the process is issue. The tax policy has to be taken into done appropriately. It is confirmed that consideration in the valuation of interim 20.4% disagreed and strongly disagreed payment and to be inserted in the payment on this view. About 32.7% stand neutral in invoice. this issue On the factor that there is ‘no standard As practitioners, the respondents almost guideline for the VO and EOT’, 32.7% of confirmed that they must provide the the respondents agreed and strongly service as what has been agreed in the agreed on it, 34.7% disagreed and memorandum of agreement or terms of strongly disagreed on this matter and reference and shall be accordance to 32.7% of the respondents stand neutral on Quantity Surveyors Act 1967. There is 2% this issue. It will be better to have a control disagreement on this issue and most body on the procedure or guideline in in probably because of the previous ensuring smooth process of VOIP. experience that they had. Mostly or 71.4%
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2.2.2 Justification contractor’s cash flow’. In order to enhance and enrich the valuation of In valuation of interim payment process interim payment, schedule of the valuation category, justification is the highest mean of interim must be established before other among the three factors or with a mean activities take place. mean of 4.22. The survey reported that 65.3% of the respondents agreed and About 57.1% and 28.6% of the strongly agreed that on the process of respondents agreed and strongly agreed valuation of interim payment that ‘principle respectively that recent technologies i.e. approval from employer’ must be obtained software, programme, system etc. has prior to any variation order. improved the valuation of interim payment. Most of the practitioners are of the view About 34.7% and 55.1% of the that the computer technology had respondents agreed and strongly agreed influence the time taken in the valuation respectively that a quantity surveyor is interim process. 10.2% of the respondents advisable prior to valuation practice, gave neutral responses and only 4.1% ‘should acquire construction’ knowledge. disagree on this recent technologies It is clear that nearly 90% of the related to computerization. practitioners are of the view that the enhancement and enrichment of the Most of them or 85.8% agreed and valuation of interim payment may take strongly agreed that ‘appointment of place when the quantity surveyors had person in charge to ensure the continuity acquired construction knowledge prior to of the valuation of interim payment’ as part performing the task. Mostly or 96.0% of the process. This sub-factor for person agreed and strongly agreed that the in charge will ensure the continuity of the ‘coordination and compilation with other service. On aspect that ‘the employer may discipline’ is necessary in the valuation of at his prerogative to revise and revise the interim payment. Only 4% of them give reasonable valuation of interim payment’ neutral opinion on this matter. As 48.9% of the respondents disagreed and practitioners, they are of the opinion that strongly disagreed as employer’s practice the quantity surveyors to a certain extent and 20.4% of respondents stand as are only managing and coordinating some neutral. The respondents believe that the of other disciplines related works i.e. valuation of interim payment performed by mechanical, electrical, landscaping etc. them should be with accountability and The quantity surveyors need to coordinate responsibility. As they are recognised and compile the information and ensure professionals, the figure recommended compliance. should not be altered by anybody eventhough by the employer or client. Another sub-factor is the coordination and synchronization between technical and On the ‘amount recommended by the commercial teams, which 89.8% of the quantity surveyor is not decisive and may respondents agreed and strongly agreed subject to rectification’, there are 59.2% of that respective disciplines team members the respondents agreed and strongly should coordinate and form part of the agreed on this opinions for the valuation of valuation of interim payment process. interim payment process and 26.5% of About 8.2 % of the respondents give respondents stand as neutral on this neutral comments and only 2% disagree matter. Only 12.2% of the respondents on matter. disagree and strongly disagree on the amount recommended is not decisive and 2.2.3 Process may due to restriction or the firm and required the quantity surveyor to perform All of the respondents agreed and strongly valuation of interim payment and agreed that the ‘schedule of valuation of synchronize with the invoice. interim payment date is important to a
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2.3 Disagreement of Valuation of presents general views in these four areas Interim Payment with the overall means of 4.33, 3.96, 4.23 and 3.71 respectively. Based from the This category consists of three factors findings, interpretation may be made from namely competency, professionalism, this survey. negotiation and valuation. Figure 3
Disagreement Of Valuation Of Interim Payment 4.5 Competency 4 4.3265 4.2313 3.9592 Professional 3.5 3.7143 Negotiaton 3 Valuation Competency Professional Negotiaton Valuation
Figure 3 Quantity Surveyors’ experiences on the disagreement of valuation of interim payment
2.3.1 Competency have the perception that reasonable amount can be achieved in the valuation of The mean score for the factor of interim payment provided that the quantity competency is 4.33 and indicates that surveyors equip themselves with competency contribute to main factor in reasonable experiences. the disagreement of the valuation of interim payment. The respondents 2.3.2 Professionalism reported that 95.8% of them agreed and strongly agreed that on the disagreement The respondents affirmed that 57.1% of on the valuation of interim payment them agreed and strongly agreed that on caused by ‘prompt or reasonable date for the disagreement of the valuation of other discipline. Only 4.1% gives neutral interim payment are caused by responses or the result of the survey ‘procedures or guidelines prepared by the inferred that almost all practitioners are of employer or client. Less than 30% or the view that the valuation of interim 28.6% stand as neutral and 14.2% payment should highlight on the prompt disagree and strongly disagree on this date for other discipline to perform sub-factor. Mostly agree on this view valuation of interim payment in their however 28.6% may not agree on this may respective work. on the reason that the guidelines or procedures should have been prepared by Similarly, 95.8% or almost all of the the independent body in order to deliver respondents agreed and strongly agreed fairness in the valuation of interim that the disagreement in valuation on ‘site payment. team to assist and update all necessary information’ which is to avoid unforeseen About 93.9% of the respondents agreed or overlook during site valuation by the and strongly agreed that ‘valuation of quantity surveyors. About 91.8% of the interim payment by quantity surveyor is respondents agreed and strongly agreed reasonable, acceptable and timely’ and that the quantity surveyor disagreement only 6.1% of them stand neutral. Mostly or on valuation of interim payment is that a 63.1% agreed and strongly agreed that ‘quantity surveyor should acquire ‘limited knowledge or junior quantity reasonable site experience prior to surveyor lead to inaccuracy on the perform valuation of interim payment’, valuation’ which shows that they are 6.1% are neutral and only 2% disagreed incompetent to conduct professional on this issue. Almost all the practitioners practice. As a qualified person they
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believe that with limited knowledge may 10% plus or minus between both parties’ cause the argument. About eighty seven is acceptable. As a result some percent (87%) of the respondentsalso reasonable figure must be agreed and in reported that ‘quantity surveyor shall this sub-factor more than half of the perform a valuation of interim payment due respondent or 53% of them agreed that the diligently’ during engagement in tolerance in the valuation of interim accordance to one’s own judgement as payment will be 10% plus or minus. professionals. 3.0 CONCLUSION 2.3.3 Negotiation The objective of this research is to The respondents reported that 85.7% of investigate on common problems them agreed and strongly agreed that the encountered by the registered quantity disagreement on the valuation of interim surveyor in the preparation the valuation of payment is due to ‘joint site measurement the payment and analysed the research is to obtain consensus’ by both parties. according descriptive analysis. The data Majority of the respondents which is collected was then analysed and reported particularly 98%, agreed and strongly in the form of percentage, mean and agreed that ‘breakdown of the claim form ranking. This enable the researcher to part of mechanism in determining the gather the registered quantity surveyors amount’ on the negotiation during experiences, opinions and views on the valuation. About 81.6% of the issues related to the valuation of interim respondents agreed and strongly agreed payment forwarded to them that meeting and discussion during valuation is to ensure reasonable amount’ In the research conducted, issues have which will be recommended to the been separated into three main categories contractor and 18.4% of them stand namely submission and documentation, neutral. valuation of interim payment process and dissatisfaction of valuation of interim and 2.3.4 Valuation the overall means of 4.14, 3.72 and 4.08 respectively as shown in Figure 4 below. The respondents conveyed that 81.7% of It can be inferred that the respondents in them agreed and strongly agreed that the the opinion that the category of submission ‘disagreement of the valuation of interim and documentationare the most important payment may cause dispute due to VO, issues followed by dissatisfaction of time constraint or incomplete submission’. valuation of interim payment and lastly on valuation of interim payment process. About 53.0% of the respondents agreed and strongly agreed that ‘valuation of interim payment is within the tolerance or
4.2 4.1 4.1393 4 4.0782 Submission & Documentation 3.9 3.8 3.7 Valuation Of Interim Payment 3.6 3.7238 Process 3.5 Disagreement Of Valuation Of Submission & Valuation Of Interim Disagreement Of Interim Payment Documentation Payment Process Valuation Of Interim Payment
Figure 4 Summary of Quantity Surveyors’ experiences according to categories
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In this research, ten factors had been factor is justification and it is followed by identified namely; accuracy, negotiation. completeness, fairness, guideline, justification, process, competency, The top three factors related to the professionalism, negotiation and valuation valuation of interim payment is fairness, and the overall means of 4.04, 4.23, 4.53, competency and completeness and the 3.31, 4.22, 3.83, 4.32, 3.96, 4.22 and 3.70 overall means of 4.53, 4.32 and 4.23 respectively. Figure 5 presents the respectively. The respondents in this findings on the means of these ten factors. research had indicated that these three The respondents believe that fairness is factors are the top three most important the most important factor to be tackled and factors in determining the enhancement represent a mean of 4.53. Then followed and enrichment of the valuation of interim by a mean of 4.32 for competency and the payment. respondents are of the opinion that competency is another factor to be The propose research that can be enhanced and enriched to the valuation of condicted in the future is on the qualified interim payment. The last factor which is person in perform valuation of interim completeness is ranked third which is logic payment and CIPAA (Construction that in order to justify the valuation made, Industry Payment Adjudication Act) it must submitted with completed provision to avoid dispute in valuation of documents so that there ill be no argument interim payment. on the submission. The fourth important
Factors
5 Accuracy 4 4.2313 4.5306 4.2245 4.3194 4.2153 Completeness 3 4.0442 3.8265 3.9635 3.6979 3.3061 2 Fairness 1 Guideline 0 Justification Process Competency
Figure 5. Summary of Quantity Surveyors’ opinions on various factors ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Romania ICEA – FAA Bucharest, 14-15th November 2009
The authors would like to express their Azman M.N.A., Dzulkalnine N., Abd Hamid Z. & Board of Quantity Surveyor Malaysia Khuan W.B. (2014) Payment Issue in Malaysian (BQSM) and Universiti Teknologi Malaysia Construction Industry: Contractors’ Perspective, (UTM) for providing the support in Jurnal Teknologi (Sciences & Engineering) providing the data and infrastructure. 70:1(2014), 57-63
Borvorn Israngkura Na Ayudhya (2012) Factors REFERENCES Causing Delay in Payment of Residential Building Projects in Thailand, FIC Working Abdul Aziz Hussin & Abdelnaser Omran (2009) Week 2012 Knowing to manage the territory, Roles of Professionals in Construction Industry, protect the environment, evaluate the cultural The International Conference on Economics heritage Rome, Italy, 6-10 May 2012 and Administration, Faculty of Administration and Business, University of Bucharest, Hair, J.F., Black, W.C., Babin, B.J., & Anderson, R.E. (2010). Multivariate Data Analysis.
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Seventh Edition. Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey.
Hasmori M.F., Ismail I. & Said I. (2012). Issues of Late and Non-Payment among Contractors in Malaysia.
Harban Singh KS (2007) Engineering and Construction Contracts Management Post Commencement Practice. LexisNexis Petaling Jaya
Nael Bunni (2005) The FIDIC Forms of Contract Third Edition. Blackwell Publishing Asia Pty Ltd, Victoria, Australia pp.378
Nael Schmitt, (1996) Uses and Abuses of Coefficient Alpha, Physcological Assessment 1996, Vol.8. No.4 350-353
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RESEARCH METHODOLOGY: A PRELIMINARY APPROACH FOR INVESTIGATING THE TRANSACTION COST ECONOMICS IN BUILDING INFORMATION MODELING (BIM) ADOPTED PROCUREMENT
T. K. Bean *1, F. D. Mustapa 2 and M. Mustapa 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
This paper explores the suitability of Delphi method and case study adoption to investigate the transaction cost economics (components and transaction costs) in BIM adopted procurement for ultimate purpose of developing a guideline to assist industry player in better understanding, applying and managing the transaction costs in BIM adopted procurement. It starts with a simple brief on the general research methodology before narrowing down explaining the adopted research methodology. Comparison on different available research methodology was made through justification from different aspects namely the research philosophies, approaches with associated strategies of inquiry and techniques. Justification on the selection of adopted methodology was discussed by highlighting the strengths and suitability of the approach. It was found that qualitative research methodology seems to be the best approach to be adopted through a combination of Delphi method and case study as the data collection methods. The results outline the research methodology framework to be adopted in investigating the transaction cost economics in BIM adopted procurement. This paper highlights the research methods adopted by detailing out the process of data collection for this particular research.
Keywords : Transaction cost economics, Building Information Modeling (BIM), Procurement, Construction industry, Research methodology
1.0 INTRODUCTION construction industry are the numbers of on-going projects from both private and Malaysian construction industry plays public sectors. Interestingly, it was an important role in shaping Malaysian recorded that from year 2015 to 2017, economics due to its special traditional procurement maintained as characteristics (Mustapa, 2014; CRC the most frequently adopted Construction Innovation, 2007; procurement among Malaysian Gofhamodimo, 1999) albeit of its small construction players (Kpamma et al., contribution to GDP relatively about 3 2017). Their preference to the traditional to 5% per annum (Kpamma et al., procurement was mainly due to 2017). The economic drivers of the
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familiarity and the procurement has The components which incur transaction been tried and tested in the construction costs in BIM adopted procurement can industry practice (CRC Construction be identified by referring to the RIBA Innovation, 2007). However, traditional plan of work with the BIM overlay procurement is often coupled with (Sinclair, 2012) and other study on several problems notably due to the transaction costs (Kissell, 2014; Li, separation between project design and Arditi, & Wang, 2015; Noor, 2008; M. engineering stage (Mohd Nawi, Baluch, Rajeh, Tookey, & Rotimi, 2013). & Bahauddin, 2014). Consequently Reviewing TCE and RIBA BIM overlay project delay, frequent design changes was used to prepare conceptual and re-do works which subsequently framework to identify the transaction lead to construction disputes normally cost components and attempt to experienced related to traditional quantify the transaction costs in BIM procurement (Thobakgale, Aigbavboa, & adopted procurements. The conceptual Thwala, 2014; Li, Arditi, & Wang, 2014; framework will be verified by utilising a Kong & Gray, 2006). combination of case study and Delphi method through interviewing BIM Construction disputes is linked with high experts’ to gather useful opinions. The transaction costs which subsequently detailed research methodology applied lead to increase in overall project costs in this research is highlighted as the (Li et al., 2014). To overcome such main results. situation, this research proposed to study the benefits of Transaction Cost 2.0 AN OVERVIEW OF Economics (TCE) application in Building RESEARCH METHODOLOGY Information Modeling (BIM) adopted projects. This research is timely when Research methodology is defined by Tobi BIM is believed to be able to reduce (2016) as a procedural framework used to construction disputes (Mosey et al., describe the process of research by 2016) due to its collaborative work researcher in which researcher should behaviour (Khalfan, 2015). With the understand every component embedded anticipated reduced construction in research methodology completely so disputes, it will subsequently reduce the that researcher will have better project transaction costs. This is where understanding towards the significance studying Transaction Cost Economics is and inter-relationship between every beneficial in BIM implemented projects component in coordinating the process of to study the root cause of disputes research. One of the well-known research (Yates, 1999) and benefits of the methodology approaches is Nested transactions made (Boudreau et.al, Approach, which includes three 2007). procedures, namely the research philosophy, research approach and Additionally, previous researches research techniques (Kagioglou, Cooper, highlighted the relationship between Aouad, & Sexton, 2000). transaction costs and various procurement types namely the traditional (M. Rajeh, 2014), design and build (M. A. Rajeh, Tookey, & Rotimi, 2013) and Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) procurement (Thomassen, Vassbø, Solheim-Kile, & Lohne, 2016; De Schepper, Haezendonck, & Dooms, 2015; Ho & Tsui, 2009). Therefore, this research seeks to study the transaction costs in BIM adopted procurement.
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Research value-laden and subjective (value biased) Philosophy based on interpretation and experience of researcher (Tobi, 2016). Therefore, it can Research be concluded that (i) ontology refers to Approach assumptions and perceptions produced Research by researcher towards the nature of a Technique reality; (ii) epistemology refers to the knowledge about the reality that should be considered as acceptable and the way the researcher utilise a set of assumptions to make the knowledge Figure 1 Nested Approach (Kagioglou et about the reality to be considered as al., 2000) acceptable within a discipline; while (iii) axiology refers to the nature of value and 2.1 Research Philosophy the foundation to the judgement of value The philosophy of social reseach is in the acceptable knowledge in such a categorised into positivism or objectivism, way that either the acceptable knowledge and interpretivism or social is value neutral or value biased constructionism (Easterby-Smith, Thorpe, depending on whether the knowledge is & Jackson, 2012; Holden & Lynch, 2004; acquired objectively through systematic Tobi, 2016). Positivism is the discovering or scientific prove or acquired subjectively of knowledge and reality rather than via researcher’s experience and creating while interpretivism is the interpretation. constructing of knowledge based on experience towards human beings and With the help of the three core world, and constructing of reality. assumptions, a research can be placed Positivism requires large numbers of within the philosophical continuum, which samplings which randomly selected while provide clearer standpoint to researcher interpretivism require small number of on the philosophy that their researches cases selected as sampling for particular belong to as well as govern their stand reason (Easterby-Smith et al., 2012; towards research’s phenomena or subject Holden & Lynch, 2004; Tobi, 2016). (Tobi, 2016).
In research philosophy, there are several Quantitative research is positioned within core assumptions which is consequential positivism philosophy while qualitative to each other such as ontology (reality), research is positioned within epistemology (knowledge), and axiology interpretivism philosophy. In the aspects (value). Ontology refers to assumptions of research core assumptions, (i) ontologically, positivism emphasis on made by researcher about the nature of realism while interpretivism emphasis on reality (Lu & Sexton, 2004) and conceptions of reality (Dainty, 2007). idealism (Tobi, 2016) in which realism Epistemology refers to knowledge which find reality through physical world should be considered as acceptable in a scientifically while idealism find reality via discipline (Dainty, 2007) and the way to study true ideas (Tan, 2006); (ii) acquire and accept the knowledge by epistemologically, positivism focuses on utilising a general set of assumptions (Lu objective measures such as fact and & Sexton, 2004). While axiology refers to figures, experiment, simulation while assumptions about nature of values and interpretivism focuses on subjective foundation of value judgements (Lu & measures; (iii) axiologically, positivism Sexton, 2004) as well as what value go highlights value-free that can be scientific into that knowledge, either value-free and or systematically proven while objective (value neutral) which can be interpretivism highlights value laden in proven scientifically or systematically; or which the nature of research values and foundation of value judgements are
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based on interpretation and experience of (Strauss & Corbin, 1990). researcher (Tobi, 2016). Case study investigate an issue through 2.2 Research Approaches one or more cases exploration by conducting in-depth data collection over a Research approach is the data collection time duration. It may involve various and analysis strategy which applied in information sources, for example, research and depends on the inquiry of observations, interviews, documents and research, for instance, qualitative inquiry reports, audiovisual material, for and quantitative inquiry (Creswell, 2003; preparation of case reports (Creswell, Tobi, 2016). It is categorised into 2007; Stake, 1995). In phenomenological qualitative approach, quantitative study, the meaning of individuals’ lived approach and mixed method approach experiences of a phenomenon or concept (Creswell, 2003). In selecting a suitable is described in terms of the similarities of approach to apply in research, there are participants in experiencing the some criterions to be taking into phenomenon (Creswell, 2007). While for consideration, for example, nature of narrative research, researcher study and research problem, purpose of project, retold or restoried live stories of one or availibility of resources such as time and more individuals in a collaborative and financial, sensitivity of the issue on hand, narrative chronology by combining the discipline of study, and researcher’s views of life from participants and personal experiences, skills, interest and researcher (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000; attitudes, to list a few (Grover, 2015). Creswell, 2003).
2.2.1 Qualitative Approach 2.2.2 Quantitative Approach
Qualitative approach is related to images Quantitative approach is about numbers and words (Grover, 2015). The qualitative and measurements (Grover, 2015) and approach’s associated strategies involve two associated inquiry strategies including ethnographies, grounded which is surveys and experiments. In this theory, case studies, phenomenological context, surveys can be applied to collect research, and narrative research. data with the utilisation of questionnaires Ethnographies can be applied via or structured interviews (Campbell & observation data collection by researcher Stanley, 1963). While for experiments, it to study an intact cultural colony in a can be either true experiments or quasi- natural circumstances within a lengthen experiments with certain differences: (i) duration of time (Creswell, 2007). true experiments involving randomly Grounded theory is a theory developing selecting of study subjects while quasi- method through a process of logically experiment involving non-randomly consistent set of data collection and selecting of study subjects; and (ii) higher analysis. The data analysis in this method degree of control and validity is offered in is conducted by utilising a set of inductive true experiment while lower degree of strategies. The process start with the control and validity is involved in quasi- researcher focus on a study area and experiment (Campbell & Stanley, 1963; then build theoretical analysis to relate Keppel, 1991; Williams, 2007). the discovering and actual world within the study area (Charmaz & Belgrave, 2.2.3 Mixed Method Approach 1996). The intention of grounded theory is to generate and discover from Mixed methods approach is combination respondents with past experiences on the of both qualitative approach and procedure. Based on the large numbers quantitative approach (Grover, 2015; of respondents’ views, a researcher will Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004; Creswell, generate a general explanation or theory 2003). The mixed method approach related to action, procedure or interaction associated strategies including sequential
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procedures, concurrent procedures, and quantitative data collection is generally a transformative procedures. subset of the whole target population in which a list of target population is For sequential procedure, a method is prepared before actual selection (Celano, applied in obtaining findings, followed by 2014). another method for eleboration and expanding of findings. For example, at 3.0 ADOPTED RESEARCH initial stage of research, researcher apply METHODOLOGY qualitative method for exploratory purpose, which followed by a quantitative This study employs qualitative research method to involve large sample for approach which positioned within the generalisation of the results to a interpretivism philosophy. Ontologically, population; and vice versa (Creswell, this study is in favour of idealism in which 2003). In concurrent procedures, both the true reality is expected to come from qualitative and quantitative data are ideas and social experiences of collected at the same time, then respondents which is not pre-determined. converged and integrated in overall Epistemologically, this research is based results interpretation for comprehensive on subjective measures in which the data analysis. While transformative knowledge is socially constructed by procedures is where the researcher apply examining and exploring the ideas and theoretical lens as an overarching social experiences collected from perspective in a design combining both respondents. Axiologically, this research qualitative and quantitative data. This is value-laden or value-biased in which lens provide a framework related to the nature of research value and interested topics, data collection method foundation of value judgements are and expected study results or based on interpretation and experience of modification. Both sequential or researcher. Adopting interpretivism concurrent approach can be utilised in philosophy allows researcher to collect data collection within this lens (Creswell, rich data from ideas that induced among 2003). respondents (Tobi, 2016).
2.3 Research Techniques The associated inquiry strategies which is suggested in this study includes a Research techniques refers to the tools combination of Delphi and Case Study and techniques applied in collecting and method. Delphi method is chosen to analyse data (Lu & Sexton, 2004). obtain opinions of BIM experts regarding Different types of data require different the transaction cost components and research technique for data collection. transaction costs involved in project Qualitative data collection can be which adopt BIM in the project conducted via techniques like semi- or procurement. Delphi method is an unstructured interview (Celano, 2014; Lu approach which is useful in obtaining & Sexton, 2004), focus group ideas on specific topic as well as discussions, photovoice and picture story achieving opinions and perspectives of (Celano, 2014). While quantitative data the experts within the research topic collection can be conducted through (Habibi, Sarafrazi, & Izadyar, 2014). The techniques such as surveys or advantage of employing Delphi data questionnaires (Celano, 2014; Easterby- collections, it has no limitations on the Smith et al., 2012). location or resources used in which Google Docs or other document sharing The sample for qualitative data collection technology can be applied in every Delphi can be selected through several ways round. Additionally, modifications can be such as extreme or typical case sampling, made on Delphi method in order to suit snowball sampling or random purposeful the study (Sekayi & Kennedy, 2017). For sampling; while the sampling of
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the purpose of this study, a few Delphi cases in detailed (Yin, 2006). It is useful rounds will be conducted until it achieve especially when an in-depth investigation consensus opinion among BIM experts is required in the research (Zainal, 2007). regarding the study subject. Delphi Therefore, case study is used in this method deem to be the best method to be research in order to (i) obtain more adopted due to (i) lack of respondents to detailed and in-depth data regarding the carry out large sample survey as BIM study subject albeit of the limited adoption procurement is still considered numbers of cases; (ii) allow verification new in Malaysian construction industry, and comparison on the transaction cost therefore, the number of projects components and transaction costs in BIM employing BIM is still low; (ii) experts’ adoption procurements based on real opinions are important in achieving cases or projects; (iii) increase validity perspectives on this specific issue and reliability of study. regarding BIM, and Delphi method provide a suitable platform to collect As for the research technique, semi- experts’ opinions especially in extracting structured interview will be applied during TCs related to BIM. the Delphi and Case Study data collection. The interview questions were Additionally, case study method is used structured by sections and tables to assist concurrently as a supplement to the respondents to respond within the Delphi method as it can obtain useful shortest duration possible to compensate data based on real project case. This their hectic schedule as well as to approach will compliment the on-going increase number of participation among research as it has been justified that case the respondents. The following figure 2 study approach can be utilised for social highlighted the research methodology science researcher to investigate framework applied in this research. complex issues with limited numbers of
Issue specification and defining unit of analysis
Selection of experts and cases for study
Designing interview questions
Data collection through presentation of prepared statement to respondents
Data analysis, statements revising and refining
Repeat step 4 and 5 until no revised or new statements is created
Presentation of final statement for endorsement
Presentation of findings/ Report
Figure 2 Research Methodology Framework Combining Modified Delphi and Case Study Methods (Adapted from Sekayi & Kennedy, 2017; Sarajul Fikri, 2006; Okoli & Pawlowski, 2004; Turoff & Linstone, 2002; Johnston, Leach, & Liu, 1999; Turoff, 1970)
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As indicated in figure 2, this research REFERENCES adopts methodology framework comprises of qualitative Delphi method Boudreau, M.-C., Watson, R. T., Chen, A. J. W., and case study method. It serves as a Greiner, M., & Sclavos, P. (2007). The guideline for researcher during data benefits of transaction cost economics: the beginning of a new direction. European collection. Conference on Information Systems (ECIS), (2007), 1124–1135. 4.0 CONCLUSION Campbell, D. T., & Stanley, J. C. (1963). Qualitative research methodology is Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Design for Research. Handbook of Research proposed to be applied in this research in on Teaching. https://doi.org/10.1037/022808 order to obtain more in-depth data regarding the specific issue about BIM Celano, L. (2014). 6 Methods of data collection adoption procurement. Qualitative Delphi and analysis. Monitoring, Evaluation, method will be conducted to obtain BIM Accountability and Learning (MEAL), 1–30. experts’ opinions on the transaction cost Charmaz, K., & Belgrave, L. L. (1996). The components framework as well as to Search for Meanings-Grounded Theory. The provide useful data and opinions on the Blackwell Encyclopedia of Sociology, 27–49. transaction costs involved in BIM adoption procurement. As this research Clandinin, D. J., & Connelly, F. M. (2000). Narrative Inquiry: Experience and Story in inclined towards studying information Qualitative Research. Narrative Inquiry, 2, technology which is BIM, it will be further 211. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365- categorised into people and technology. 2850.2008.01331.x This is important to extract important data structurally. Additionally, case study will CRC Construction Innovation. (2007). Adopting BIM for facilities management: Solutions for be used as supplementary to Delphi managing the Sydney Opera House. CRC method in order to gather more detailed for construction Innovation participants. data regarding the BIM project and to https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943- increase the validity and reliability of the 7862.0000433 study by providing real cases for study. Creswell, J. W. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative, and Mixed Methods The research methodology framework is Approaches. Journal of Chemical expected to guide the researcher Information and Modeling, 53(9), 1689– throughout the data collection process. 1699. The data gathered through the https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107415324. combination of modified Delphi and case 004 study methods is believed to be more Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative Inquiry and reliable and useful for this kind of Research Design: Choosing Among Five research. The findings intended to serve Approaches. SAGE Publications (Vol. 2nd as a reference to develop a guideline in ed). assisting industry players to better https://doi.org/10.1016/j.aenj.2008.02.005 understand, apply and manage the Dainty, A. (2007). A Call for Methodological transaction costs in BIM adoption Pluralism in Built Environment Research. procurement. The 3rd Scottish Conference for Postgraduate Researchers of the Built and ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Natural Environment, 15–16. De Schepper, S., Haezendonck, E., & Dooms, M. The authors would like to express their (2015). Understanding pre-contractual appreciation for the support of UTM GUP: transaction costs for Public–Private Vot No. Q.J130000.2621.14J24 and UTM Partnership infrastructure projects. Zamalah scholarship. International Journal of Project Management, 33(4), 932–946. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2014.10.01 5
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CHALLENGES OF MANAGING KNOWLEDGE IN HIGHWAY PROJECTS
H. A. Haris *1, W. Y. W. Mahmood 2 and S. F. Mohamed 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Malaysian civil engineering projects are not exceptional of facing with delay and cost overrun issues, such as in highway project construction. The issues were reported begins with poor coordination among the organization themselves. To deliver better construction outcomes, the design team of highway projects need to build capacities for the creation, application, and management of ever-increasing knowledge. This paper is aimed to identify challenges in implementing knowledge management (KM) for highway projects in Malaysia. KM promotes an integrated approach in construction project by the creation, capture, sharing and reuse of the knowledge obtained from projects that have been previously undertaken for the new project ahead. However, knowledge has no value unless it is being utilized. KM will confront challenges that can be categorized as social, environmental and economic. To investigate the challenges of managing knowledge in highway projects, the challenges were first identified through a comprehensive literature review of secondary data from previous studies. The challenges then categorised into people, organisational and economic aspects for detailed review. The research findings highlight the major challenges faced by the organisation of managing knowledge in highway projects.
Keywords: Knowledge management, Construction, Management, Highway, Issues, Challenges
1.0 INTRODUCTION (Belay, Torp, & Thodesen, 2016). The goals of these efforts are to enhance the The environment of the construction learning and sharing process within industry itself has become more complex ongoing projects, completed projects and and competitive due to globalisation, experienced personnel involved in these internalisation of markets and projects. Poor coordination among the liberalisation of trade, deregulation and construction parties reported major delays knowledge economy. Some organisations from time and cost (Alashwal, Abdul- need to be well prepared and plan rahman, & Radzi, 2016). appropriate strategies to stay relevant, competent and active in the industry. Due There is increased attention given to the to competitiveness, shortage and significant contributing factor of knowledge optimization of resources urge industries management (KM) practices in the to manage multiple projects concurrently construction industry to improve project
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performance and attaining competitive by identifying the challenges in managing advantages for the organisations. The knowledge. This study can assist latest sixth edition of the PMBOK guide researchers and practitioners in gaining an has focused on managing project in-depth understanding of the challenges knowledge to achieve the project’s that the organisation faced by objectives through knowledge sharing and implementing KM in highway projects. knowledge integration (Yap & Lock, 2017). 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Hence, a large extent of research efforts across the globe emphasize on KM 2.1 The Context of The Study processes in construction industry for building construction especially on The construction sector has been playing effectiveness in implementing KM, a significant role for the economy of integration of KM, methods and tools of Malaysia and contribute to revenue KM, and other research related to KM (Abu generation, capital formation and Bakar, Yusof, Tufail, & Virgiyanti, 2016a; employment creation that support the Takhtravanchi, 2017; Tan, 2015; Yap & gross domestic product (GDP) and the Lock, 2017; Yu & Yang, 2016) but little is socio-economic development of Malaysia known about the status of KM practices in (Khan, Liew, & Ghazali, 2014). infrastructure construction especially in Infrastructure development continues to highway projects in Malaysia. Most of the be given focus by the Government to studies found that KM is a significant support economic growth and improve strategy that influences organisation Malaysia’s citizen living (Economic benefits such as innovation, organisational Planning Unit Malaysia, 2018). performance and competitive advantage for the organisations. The government had invested more in infrastructure sector which improved Therefore, this paper aims to identify access to the better road network, challenges in implementing knowledge affordable public transport as well as management (KM) for highway projects in adequate coverage of digital infrastructure Malaysia. It is also important to understand and utilities. The performance of this the awareness of the Malaysian highway sector was mainly driven by civil projects towards KM implementation. A engineering, which increased by 31.8%, systematic literature review has been from RM12.9 billion in 2015 to RM17 billion carried out to identify the challenges of in 2017, due to the implementation of large managing knowledge in highway projects petrochemical, transport and utility in Malaysia. The research method projects (Economic Planning Unit employed in this study was to review the Malaysia, 2018). In addition, a study by literature on the challenges of managing Shehu et al., (2014) asserts that 55 knowledge in highway projects. The percent of construction projects in selection of the literature ranging from the Malaysia encountered cost overruns. latest research since 2015 to 2019 which There are many issues faced in the was based on articles published from Malaysian civil engineering projects such various recognized journal such as as illegal settlers, late approval of the land Journal of Civil Engineering and acquisition, design changes public utility Management, International Journal of relocation, and unforeseen underground Project Management, International conditions (Othman et al. 2006 cited by Journal of Construction Management, Alashwal, Abdul-rahman and Radzi, Journal of the Knowledge Economy, 2016). Procedia Engineering and Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. The In line with the increasing development of review will be on the factors influence the KM in Malaysia, Malaysian Highway challenges faced by the organisation in Authority (MHA) have list out 5 core in implementing KM. The paper will conclude
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Strategic Plan of Malaysian Highway enhance the effectiveness of all primary Authority 2016-2020, where the 5th core activities (Takhtravanchi, 2017). state that MHA encourage the use of KM to improve their organisation management During a construction project, extensive and information filling by using the knowledge is generated throughout the ‘Knowledge Management Hub’ platform construction phases. Despite KM's (Malaysian Highway Authority, 2016). It advantages, identifying critical knowledge shows that MHA already taking part in and reuse capability remains a challenge contributing knowledge-driven services for many project organizations (Hartmann towards highway construction & Dorée, 2015). The key issue in development. It is to ensure that every successful and effective knowledge standard procedure is always up to date. transfer between various projects is how knowledge is captured and codified for Therefore, it is practical to assume that reuse. poor management of knowledge continues to degrade project performance. 2.3 Knowledge Management in Successful and timely delivery of projects Construction is vital for the construction sector to continue contributing to sustainable Today, knowledge has become a major economic growth. Thus, increasing part behind the success of the awareness of KM practices would, organisation and its effective management therefore, help to improve the high is valuable to organisations. Knowledge probability of successful delivery of the management is essential for the growth of project. construction companies. To use knowledge effectively in construction 2.2 Concept of Knowledge projects, the company should consider KM Management as a part of the company’s strategies. The strategic advantages of KM have been Knowledge is the key resource for any considered as a key driver for better organisation (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995) organisational performance and and it is a constant source of competitiveness (Belay et al., 2016). organisational performance (Abu Bakar et Inadequate knowledge leads to frequent al., 2016a) which can be formed in many changes, mistakes, and rework (Yap & ways. Knowledge is shared through Lock, 2017). socialization (tacit to tacit), which then is externalized into formalized information Most of the studies found that KM is a (tacit to explicit), followed by the significant strategy that influences combination of existing discrete pieces organisation benefits such as innovation, (explicit to explicit), and finally organisational performance, and internalization of new knowledge (explicit competitive advantage for the to tacit) (Nonaka & Takeuchi, 1995). organisations (Abu Bakar et al., 2016a). Organisations generally utilize their There are two categories of management tangible resources in important strategic in an organisation, management of decisions, to assist them to gain information and management of people competitive advantage and enhance which are covered overall by KM. The organisational performance. Most main reason for KM's emergence is the organisations have realized that ability of current information systems that knowledge is a source of capabilities and enable to codify, collect, accumulate and competencies that influence product share information within and across development, as well as a crucial resource organisations (Yap & Lock, 2017). KM to enable the company to perform better objective is to capture and distribute than competitors. knowledge within the environment of a project and organisations before it is lost to Knowledge is utilized spontaneously, and
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people are not aware of the effect of their & Takeuchi, 1995). usage of knowledge on projects. Expert knowledge from various project team The interest in tacit knowledge has grown members is used when developing in the construction industry for improving innovative solutions to manage on-site performance at every organisation levels problems (Alashwal et al., 2016). In (Addis, 2016). Knowledge in the construction, knowledge also represents construction industry is characteristically the ability to understand the market, available from the employee and assess the client’s requirements, and organisational knowledge is lost if they translate these attributes into products and relocate, resign, or retire. The knowledge services, through the integration of various and expertise of construction workers is an organisational resources (Abu Bakar, asset in the context of growth Yusof, Tufail, & Virgiyanti, 2016b). performance, due to the nature of the industry. Knowledge in construction projects can be acquired either in the form of tacit or The trend shows that construction explicit knowledge (Alashwal et al., 2016). companies are keen to exploit KM, which In the construction project, explicit is seen to improve their performance. knowledge refers to documented material Alashwal, Abdul-rahman, and Radzi such as project information, design (2016) in their study on two cases of drawings and specifications, cost reports, highway construction projects in Malaysia risk analysis results and other information highlights the significance of knowledge that is collected, stored and archived, in utilisation to improve project outcomes. paper or electronic format. Tacit Figure 1 shows an example of knowledge knowledge is experience and expertise utilisation model by Alashwal, Abdul- available in the mind of the construction rahman and Radzi (2016) for a highway professional, the company culture, from project which includes examples of issues lessons learned and know-how, as well as in the input process and effects of other abstract sources. Within knowledge utilization in terms of output. construction, most knowledge is tacit, Zhang and Li (2016) suggest that rather than explicit (Abu Bakar et al., encouraging knowledge reuse behaviors 2016b). Tacit knowledge needs to be in construction projects to help stimulate converted into a codified mode to enable harmonious team culture. sharing and allow dissemination (Nonaka
Figure 1 Knowledge Utilisation Model for Highway Project (Alashwal et al., 2016)
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3.0 DISCUSSION (technological aspects) and ‘soft’ (human and environment aspects) challenges 3.1 Challenges of Managing faced by organization in managing Knowledge in Highway Projects knowledge in construction projects.
Coordination of projects involves an Highway projects are also not exempt from important exchange of information facing the same challenges. Even though between members of project teams, there is positive impacts of KM on long mutually dependent in nature to ensure term organisational goals and makes this successful delivery of the project. strategy one of the solutions to the many Therefore, implementing KM in challenges faced by construction projects, construction projects is confronted with but still they have to face some challenges challenges such as capturing, sharing, in managing KM. Figure 2 shows factors and transferring information and that influenced knowledge utilization in knowledge across projects because Projects A and B by Alashwal, Abdul- construction projects are likely to be short- rahman, and Radzi (2016). Recognizing term, project-based or task-oriented KM immediate benefits will promote the (Takhtravanchi, 2017). A study by Yap and adoption of appropriate KM practices more Lock (2017) indicates that there are ‘hard’ quickly (Yap & Lock, 2017).
Figure 2 Factors influencing knowledge utilization in Projects A and B (Alashwal et al., 2016)
Other researchers also highlight other ability to share knowledge and use another challenges faced by the organisation in people's knowledge. For reasons such as managing knowledge in construction. reciprocity, reputation, and prestige, or There are categorised in three aspects sometimes for selfless reasons, people do which are people, organisational and share knowledge. The key factor in the economic. successful knowledge transfer process in the organisational culture is trust. 3.1.1 People Aspect Employees inability to interpret or use Typically, the most important difficult available information in the organisation challenge is to get the culture of people somehow interrupt the process of KM which include values and behaviors for implementation in an organisation (Yap & KM. KM is first and foremost a people Lock, 2017). Lack of incentives to share issue. KM initiatives success depends on information and knowledge between the people motivation, willingness and employees is one of the common issues
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when implementing KM as some of them find it adequate to hire workers with the are not willing to share knowledge skills rather than to pay for training of their acquired (Takhtravanchi, 2017). For employees. Therefore, project knowledge instance, as stated by Ceric (2014), poor is rarely documented and transferred in communication between project team order to be reused in future projects and members is a major cause for project will be wasted when the project is overruns. completed.
Moreover, there is some employee Other than that, lack awareness of the KM behavior where after training they may courses available outside the company leave the organisation for better and uninterested of the company to join opportunities (Tan, 2015). Therefore, the courses also a challenge to implement employees have no time reviewing the KM (Takhtravanchi, 2017; Tan, 2015). completed project, to sum up their There are no initiatives from the company experiences and knowledge that they to search for employee’s career captured. Due to this matter, employers development based on KM.
Table 1 People aspects
Dimensions Sub-Dimensions Descriptions Authors Lack of awareness of the courses (Tan, 2015) Enthusiasm of People available and uninterested to join the (Takhtravanchi, employees courses 2017) After training, employees may leave the Transfer of employees (Tan, 2015) organisation for better opportunities Many employees feel insecure about the Lack of trust among (Takhtravanchi, job position and usually conceal their employees 2017) knowledge Capabilities of Employees’ inability to interpret or use (Yap & Lock, 2017) employees available information in the organisation
3.1.2 Organisational Aspect (Livesey, 2016). Teamwork between employees contributes to KM Besides that, the Malaysian culture of the implementation. The team conducted a construction industry still prefers the series of preliminary meetings to discuss traditional tools and methods, which conflicting issues, resolve potential hinder new technologies which is much problems, and answer project-related costly to implement (Takhtravanchi, 2017; questions. Such meetings enabled the Yap & Lock, 2017). There is a lack of real- team to understand their involvement in time and readily exploitable methods of the overall project implementation and learning and sharing processes that are provide a clear picture of the effects of feasibly difficult to evaluate in practice team decisions on the schedule of the (Belay et al., 2016; Hartmann & Dorée, project. 2015; Yap & Lock, 2017). This means project members have insufficient time to It was further confirmed by both the capture and share their knowledge and consultant and contractor that the sense of experiences, because of being busy with belonging and respect for others complex loads of project tasks. encouraged collaboration among team members. It is important for positive Effective communication management project performance to speed up the plan promotes a collaborative culture production of new knowledge in the form which creates a cohesive project team of decision making or problem solutions.
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Table 2 Organisational aspects
Dimensions Sub-Dimensions Descriptions Authors There is a lack of real-time and (Hartmann & Dorée, readily exploitable methods of Poor management of 2015) Organisational learning and sharing processes that time and resources (Belay et al., 2016) are feasibly difficult to evaluate in (Yap & Lock, 2017) practice (Yap & Lock, 2017) Fragmented nature of the Nature of construction (Takhtravanchi, construction industry 2017) Knowledge from the design phase is Management of (Takhtravanchi, not readily available at the knowledge 2017) construction phase Ineffective Communication management plan (Livesey, 2016) communication between the project team
3.1.3 Economic Aspect Besides that, Yap, Abdul-Rahman and Chen (2017), also state that the setup of Some Malaysian employers are not willing KM for short-term projects like to invest for their employee's development infrastructure projects might be too costly and favour more towards experienced and impractical in the overall project employees such as implementing KM implementation. For short-term projects, program (Abdul-Rahman et al., 2006 cited the employees are being hired as contract by Yap, Abdul-Rahman and Chen, 2017). bases until the project completed than it is Due to costly KM courses provided by the such a waste for some company to invest outside organisation, some company may more in their career development find that better investing towards especially in KM. It is because after the experienced and skilled employees which project completed some of the employees are better than career development. may not being hired for the next project.
Table 3 Economic aspects
Dimensions Sub-Dimensions Descriptions Authors The private sector is unable to Absence of Economic provide this public good, which is (Tan, 2015) technology also costly (Abdul-Rahman et al., 2006 cited by Yap, The cost of training is high with no Cost of training Abdul-Rahman and guarantee of return Chen, 2017), (Tan, 2015) Company size to some extent (Yap & Lock, 2017) influences KM practices but Size of company generally not determined by the age of the company Impractical to setup KM for short- (Yap et al., 2017) Period of project term projects
3.0 CONCLUSION identified that KM challenges can be classified into three aspects namely The findings of this paper identify the people, organisation and economic challenges of managing knowledge in aspect. It was found the challenges mainly highway projects which may affect the came from the employee’s own behavior process of implementation of KM in an towards KM. Starting from employee’s organisation. The literature review behavior it affects the culture of the
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organisation and with the highly cost of KM Highway Construction Projects, (Kalling training, it leads the employers to not 2003), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)ME.1943- invest into KM for their employee’s career 5479.0000429. development. Belay, A. M., Torp, O., & Thodesen, C. (2016). The literature review highlighted that KM Managing Concurrent Construction Projects requires more exploration in the Using Knowledge Management and Set- based Thinking. Procedia Engineering, construction industry in terms of how to 164(June), 235–242. manage knowledge across projects. KM https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.11.615 implementation mainly dependent on attitudes of the employer to encourage and Ceric, A. (2014). Minimizing Communication Risk motivate employees thus put mutual trust in Construction: a Delphi Study of the Key Role of Project Managers. Journal of Civil and the awareness to employees about Engineering and Management, 20(6), 829– the importance of KM on project 838. performance. https://doi.org/10.3846/13923730.2013.8027 39 Therefore, to improve the awareness of Economic Planning Unit Malaysia. (2018). Mid- employees on the importance of KM, Term Review of The Eleventh Malaysia Plan implementing KM in construction 2016-2020. organisations faced many challenges such as capturing, sharing and transferring Hartmann, A., & Dorée, A. (2015). Learning information and knowledge across between projects: More than sending messages in bottles. International Journal of projects, due to the nature of construction Project Management, 33(2), 341–351. projects which are unique, short-term, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2014.07.00 project-based, or task-oriented. 6
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DEVELOPMENT OF A FRAMEWORK FOR BIM-ENABLED FM IMPLEMENTATION IN A DEVELOPING COUNTRY
M. Z. Muhammad *1 and M. Mustapa 2
1, 2 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The potential of BIM in FM is widely recognised in both the construction industry as well as in academic circles. The unique combination of visualisation, interoperability and information exchange capabilities of BIM is globally believed to be capable of producing efficient FM activities. However, its application is much less explored compared to the earlier stages of a building lifecycle. The lack of standard process or set of best practices for creating an FM enabled BIM that addresses the requirements of different type of organizations is an increasing concern that contributes to the slow uptake of BIM in FM. This paper discusses recent research on BIM-FM integration with a view to evaluating the pre-requisites necessary for developing a framework for implementing BIM-enabled FM with Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM) as a case study. Literature review of relevant studies that dealt with the potential of BIM for FM, its implication to owners and recent case studies of BIM- FM implementation globally was conducted. Findings reveal that a significant barrier to BIM adoption for owners is the challenge of identifying and formalizing the information requirements needed to support model-based project delivery and asset management. Cultural changes and interoperability issues are also difficult barriers to deal with. It concludes that BIM-FM implementation demands conformity to specific organisation setting among other context-specific issues including socio- economic and technological environment.
Keywords : Building Information Modelling, BIM-FM, Facilities management, Implementation, Malaysia
1.0 INTRODUCTION being of able to cater for all the phases of a building’s life cycle as opposed to other Building information modelling (BIM)- digital technologies that tend to cater for based Facility Management (FM) only specific phases. Its ability to support processes have the potential for FM is seen as an important value-added collaborative approach towards delivery of feature for the BIM approach in the intelligent facilities in the construction industry (Aziz, Nawawi, & Ariff, 2016a & industry. In addition, BIM facilitates Edirisinghe, et, al., 2017). Parsanezhad & information integration during the Tarandi, (2013) reported that BIM operations and maintenance (O&M) implementation across the entire lifecycle phases and has the unique feature of
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of a building benefits the owners the most implementation in developing countries where it increases the value of information pales in comparison to those in developed in their possession as well as increasing countries (Aziz, Nawawi, & Ariff, 2016b; the amount of return on investment (ROI). Kwok, et, al,. 2018; Parsanezhad & The overall purpose of utilizing BIM for Tarandi, 2013). Consequently, there is facility management is to leverage facility less BIM research in developing countries data through the facility lifecycle to provide and even less research in BIM safe, healthy, effective and efficient work implementation in FM in those countries. environments (Jawadekar, 2012). The This study will therefore investigate the commonly outlined benefits associated pre-requisites necessary for developing a with BIM and FM integration include framework for implementing BIM-enabled increased utility and speed for data FM in a university facility management retrieval from a centralised BIM model, organisations with UTM as a case study. enhanced collaboration through BIM This is part of an ongoing doctoral process and modelling, improved research work in the Department of embedded building data in a centralised Quantity Surveying, UTM Johor. model, visualisations of assets, longer equipment asset life and more effective Literature review of relevant studies that space/move planning (Pärn, et. al., 2017). dealt with the potential of BIM to FM, its The changes created by BIM in the implication to owners and recent case industry is described as having a gradual studies of BIM-FM implementation globally but ultimate mission of promoting current was conducted. The literature review BIM models to be deployed as ‘as- presents four themes in which critical gaps commissioned’, ‘as-operated’ and ‘as- were identified. In addition, case study maintained’ models in facility management research was discovered as the most because the final destination of any widely used technique for studying BIM- construction project is its operation phase FM implementation as evidenced by (Parsanezhad & Tarandi, 2013). studies conducted by (Akcamete et al., 2010; Becerik-gerber et al., 2012; According to Pishdad-Bozorgi, et, al., Sattenini et al., 2011; Cavka et al., 2015; (2018), research has confirmed the Kassem et al., 2015; Matejka et al., 2016; commonly accepted belief that, with Pishdad-Bozorgi et al., 2018; Thabet, strategic planning, BIM implementation Lucas, & Johnston, 2016). In this case, an stands to be of great value to facilities insight on current state of planning and management, since “the inherent execution of facility maintenance, the complexity of FM presents opportunities current technology in use and the strategic for encapsulating rich semantic data within decisions employed in the implementation BIM” at the design and construction stages of these technologies for facility of a building life cycle. maintenance in UTM’s Office of Asset and development or Pejabat Harta Bina (PHB) Despite compelling reasons for leveraging will be addressed by the main study BIM for facility operations, its utilization for FM is not as common as what obtains in 2.0 MAIN RESULTS the earlier phases (Akcamete, Akinci, & Garrett, 2010; Liu, 2012; Lu et al, 2017). (1) knowledge and technology gap Specifically, BIM research and between design and FM professionals (2) implementation in the design and the success of BIM-FM implementation construction phases outstrip similar efforts depends on how well workflow and in the operation and maintenance (O&M) information flow is streamlined, (3) the phase. Standard process or set of best requirements for successfully utilizing BIM practices for creating an FM enabled BIM for FM are not clearly understood in terms that addresses the different requirements of interactions and interrelations between of organisation are also not readily BIM and FM, (4) cultural changes and available. Furthermore, BIM interoperability issue are difficult barriers
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to deal with; (5) construction firms often http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.253 struggle with the socio-economic and technological environment found in Becerik-gerber, B., Asce, A. M., Jazizadeh, F., Li, N., & Calis, G. (2012). Application Areas and developing countries, and (6) so far there Data Requirements for BIM-Enabled has been little discussion on the details of Facilities Management, 138(March), 431– BIM-FM implementation requirements in 442. http://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)CO.1943- Malaysia are some of the findings 7862.0000433. However, the expected findings of the Cavka, H., Staub-French, S., & Pottinger, R. main study includes the identification of (2015). Evaluating the Alignment of methods, workflow processes and Organizational and Project Contexts for BIM prominent interoperable BIM tools and FM Adoption: A Case Study of a Large Owner systems, the implementation readiness, Organization. Buildings, 5(4), 1265–1300. capability and maturity, and the type of FM http://doi.org/10.3390/buildings5041265 information required for supporting Edirisinghe, R., London, K. A., Kalutara, P., & maintenance in UTM Aranda-mena, G. (2017). Building Information Modelling for Facility 3.0 CONCLUSION Management: are we there yet? Engineering, Construction and Architectural Management, 24(6), 1119–1154. BIM implementation for FM holds potential for collaborative practices towards the Jawadekar, S. P. (2012). A Case Study of the Use delivery of intelligent facilities. However, of BIM and Construction Operations Building such an undertaking demands conformity Information Exchange (COBie) for Facility to specific organisation setting among Management, (August), 109. other context-specific issues including Kassem, M., Kelly, G., Dawood, N., Serginson, M., socio-economic and technological & Lockley, S. (2015). BIM in facilities environment. This study therefore management applications: a case study of a advocates for a framework for the large university complex. Built Environment implementation of Building Information Project and Asset Management, 5(3), 261– 277. http://doi.org/10.1108/BEPAM-02-2014- Modelling-enabled facility management for 0011 maintenance in research universities in Malaysia with a view to key into Malaysia’s Matejka, P., Kosina, V., Tomek, A., Tomek, R., strategic vision on BIM adoption and Berka, V., & Sulc, D. (2016). The Integration production of National BIM standards as of BIM in Later Project Life Cycle Phases in Unprepared Environment from FM well promoting similar research efforts. perspecticve, 164, 550–557. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2016.11.657 REFERENCES Pärn, E. A., Edwards, D. J., & Sing, M. C. P. (2017). Akcamete, A., Akinci, B., & Garrett, J. H. (2010). The building information modelling trajectory Potential utilization of building information in facilities management: A review. models for planning maintenance activities. Automation in Construction, 75, 45–55. Proceedings of the International Conference http://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2016.12.003 on Computing in Civil and Building Engineering, (March 2015), 151–157. Parsanezhad, P., & Tarandi, V. (2013). Is the age of facility managers’ paper boxes over? Aziz, N. D., Nawawi, A. H., & Ariff, N. R. M. (2016a). Proceedings of the 19th CIB World Building Building Information Modelling (BIM) in Congress. Retrieved from http://kth.diva- Facilities Management: Opportunities to be portal.org/smash/get/diva2:665801/FULLTE Considered by Facility Managers. Procedia - XT01.pdf Social and Behavioral Sciences, 234, 353– 362. Pishdad-Bozorgi, P., Gao, X., Eastman, C., & Self, http://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2016.10.252 A. P. (2018). Planning and developing facility management-enabled building information Aziz, N. D., Nawawi, A. H., & Ariff, N. R. M. (2016b). model (FM-enabled BIM). Automation in ICT Evolution in Facilities Management (FM): Construction, 87(October 2017), 22–38. Building Information Modelling (BIM) as the http://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2017.12.004 Latest Technology. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 234, 363–371. Sattenini, A., Azhar, S., & Thuston, J. (2011).
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Preparing a Building Information Model for Facility Maintenance and Management. Proceedings of the 28th International Symposium on Automation and Robotics in Construction, Seoul, South Korea, 150–155.
Thabet, W. &, Lucas, J. &, & Johnston, S. (2016). A Case Study for Improving BIM-FM Handover for a Large Educational Institution. Construction Research Congress, 1731– 1741.
Wong, J. K. W., Ge, J., & Xiangjian, S. (2018). Digitisation in facilities management: A literature review and future research directions. Automation in Construction, 92(March), 312–326. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.autcon.2018.04.006
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APPLICATION OF RELATIONAL CONTRACT IN ENGINEERING, PROCUREMENT AND CONSTRUCTION PROJECTS: EFFECTS TO COST OVERRUN AND TIME SCHEDULE IN MALAYSIAN OIL AND GAS INDUSTRY
N. A. M. Said *1, N. E. Mustaffa 2 and H. L. T. Ariffin 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Multifaceted nature and vulnerability in oil and gas industry are unquestionable. Regardless, notwithstanding this declaration, the industry had come up with a various contracting technique. Many contracting strategies in Malaysian oil and gas industry are concentrating on formal contractual mechanism. Hence, this study is conducted to achieve three objectives. Firstly, to identify the present contract in Malaysian oil and gas industry, secondly, to investigate how relational contract improvising the formal contract in oil and gas industry and finally, to investigate the effect of relational contract to cost overrun and time schedule in oil and gas industry. The data collected through two principles sources; primary and secondary data. The findings demonstrate the relational contract exist in Malaysian oil and gas industry. In the findings, it shows that relational contract helps in improvising the restriction of the formal contract such as difficulty in getting a win-win situation, contractual clauses issue as well as time limitations. Relational contract counters the issues of formal contract by developing a good relationship among contracting parties and helps in reduction of cost in the contract and projects. It can be concluded that the relational contract helps in overcoming the limitation of formal contract, cost reduction and time completion. Therefore, more exposure to the relational contracting strategies to all the oil and gas industry players should be made.
Keywords: Relational Contract, Oil and Gas Industry, Project Management
1.0 INTRODUCTION Planning Unit, 2016). Oil and gas activities comprises of upstream and downstream. Malaysia had identified the oil, gas and Upstream activities are dealing with energy sector as the National Key exploration and production activities, while Economic Areas (NKEA) under Economic downstream, deals with refining and Transformation Programme (ETP). processing of crude oil and gas products Despite the rise and fall of oil prices in including the distribution and marketing 2014, Malaysian oil and gas sector (Khan, 2015). The global audit and relentlessly continue to serve as one of the professional services firm, Ernst and main source of income (Economic Young had reviewed the performance of
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365 infrastructure projects delivered in oil However, to reach a win-win situation, the and gas industry. The results showed that, stakeholders have to get around about the at least 64% of the projects were faced out interest they are willing to have in taking cost overruns. Another result found that and sharing the project risks and rewards 78% of upstream oil and gas megaprojects (Sylvester & Abdul Rani, 2011). To get into faced significant cost overruns or delays a mutual agreement, a good working when 50% of the projects were over relationship should be developed between budget or late (Yap, Abdul-Rahman, & Malaysia and all major international Chen, 2017). Governing projects in the oil centers around the world to ensure the and gas industry is laborious due to the continuity flow of investments and co- utmost circumstances faced in oil and gas operation. environments that lead to project disruptions and difficulties (Handfield, Through long-term partnerships, project Primo, Paulo, & Oliveira, 2015). It entails parties can effectively build collaborative allegiance between the stakeholders to working arrangements to enable reduction sustain the profit gain from the business of project costs, while creating mutual investment. benefits for all parties involved (Müller & Turner, 2007). Clients or owners benefit A significant set of challenges associates primarily by reduction of project costs and with the oil and gas projects had been risks, whilst improving overall project identified. One of the challenges is in performance; contractors can increase contracting (Handfield et al., 2015). overall profitability through shared gains Traditional approaches to contract and predictability of project workflow, management is not effective in light of the allowing improved workforce stability and current situation of the industry. The resource management and allocation. The industry is facing challenges such as mechanics of achieving these outcomes, supply shortages, corrupt local however, are not well understood (Müller influencers, volatility, project uncertainty & Turner, 2007) especially in Malaysian oil and as well as macroeconomic factors and gas sector. (Handfield et al., 2015). Due to this situation, collaborative approaches in Long-term partnership and mutual benefits managing supplier contracts that share the relationship are also known as relational risks and rewards of the projects is contract. Relational contract is one of the needed. This can be seen in the oil and contracting strategies. Relational gas construction industry, where they are contracting is a measure of the relational starting to encourage collaborative strength between collaborating partners, working arrangements in all contracting reflects the extent to which they are fused and procurement activities (Jelodar, Yiu, & together in their collaborative venture Wilkinson, 2016; Oyegoke, Dickinson, through formal and informal link Khalfan, McDermott, & Rowlinson, 2009). (Kumaraswamy, M. Motiar Rahman, Ling, & Phng, 2005; Florence Y Y Ling, Ke, All stakeholders have the same vision to Kumaraswamy, & Wang, 2014). In a complete the project on schedule, within simple explanation, relational contracting planned budget, with highest quality and in do not always go after the legal the safest manner, either in public or mechanism offered by formal contracts but private sector (Khan, 2015). But the to mutual benefits and “win-win” scenarios complexity of oil and gas projects make (Moazzami, Dehghan, Jergeas, & the firms are unfit to take up on alone (Abd. Ruwanpura, 2015). Hence, this study will Rahman Sabri, Abdul Rahim, Wong, & be focusing on achieving three objectives Ismail, 2017). This has created vast that are to identify the current contract in opportunities for international and national oil and gas industry, to investigate the Engineering, Procurement and application of relational contract in the Construction (EPC) contractors to play formal contract of Malaysian oil and gas vital roles in accomplishing the tasks. industry and to identify the effect of
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relational contract to cost overrun and time a project. Taking into example of formal schedule in Malaysian oil and gas industry. contract. Formal contracts unable to fit in with the expectations and obligations that 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW suits all stakeholders’ objectives especially in a case of disturbance arise Constructing a new offshore oil platform or (Florence Y Y Ling et al., 2014). Besides, rebuilding the existing platform is complex the costliness of formal contract pushes as it takes in various stakeholders. (Khan, organizations to seek for less costly 2015) said that the success of projects alternative (Ma-Tay & Fascina, 2010). In leans on the proper setup of systemic oil and gas industry, client tend to make a organizational frameworks that promote complex contract that define all possible cooperation amongst the institutions terms and conditions. This is to mitigate involved. Contracting will bring an effective the possibility of the contractors taking project organization which is a advantage over them that make the fundamental to a win-win risk benefit contract become more expensive to craft sharing. and enforced. This is how relational mechanism help to fill the incompleteness 2.1 Relational Contract in the Oil and of formal contract by maintaining the Gas Industry continuity of the relationship. It can be reach in a mutually acceptable resolution Relational Governance has become one that overcomes the contractual the most significant current discussions in deficiencies. When trust exists among the contract management. Relational contracting parties at the negotiation governance refers to a governance in stage, it can bring down overall costs of which the parties’ personal relations contracts (Florence Y.Y. Ling, Ning, Ke, & become heavily intertwined with the Kumaraswamy, 2013). Because of high economic change (Gil, 2009). In Australia, levels of trust, contractors perceive low majority of the huge and complex civil level of risk from clauses in the contract. works projects, either by private or public sector, had applied relational contracting Joint venture, partnering and project techniques. Apart from that, relational alliancing are the common types of contract is also a better route to revamp relational contracting form used in the the cooperative relationship among the project. Further explanations on the types stakeholders especially in the face of of relational contract in the next section. uncertainty (M. M. Rahman & Kumaraswamy, 2007). There are four 2.2. Common Relational Contract main components to be considered in Form in Oil and Gas Industry implementing relational contract as mentioned by (Jelodar et al., 2016; There is various type of relational Florence Yean Yng Ling, Rahman, & Ng, contractual models used in oil and gas 2006). The four components include; field to handle the exchange condition such as how specific contingencies should a) Top management and client be solved or specify processes or support for relational contract procedures for handling unforeseen b) Alignment of team objectives contingencies. The common form of c) Relationship building culture relational contract is described in Table 1. among team members d) Appropriate contractual incentives
Relational contract emphasize client- contractor cooperative behaviours, reciprocity and mutual dependency (Ma- Tay & Fascina, 2010). Relational contract is a risk sharing among the stakeholders in
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Relational Contract Explanations Form • Equal partner will enter into a contractual relationship with several contractors based on mutual sharing of risk, rewards and resources (Olsen, Haugland, Karlsen, & Husøy, 2005). • The purpose of project alliance is to avoid duplication of positions and efforts. Partners joint effort through alliance by sharing resources, skills and competencies. • Project alliancing contract is one of the relational contracts that requires Project Alliancing absolute dedication in behaviour between the project participants in order to success. • Project alliancing demands collaboration, cooperation and best for project decision making (Sakal, 2005) • British Petroleum (BP) is one of the companies that developed project alliancing when facing with incredibly complex and uneconomical North Sea oil reserve. BP had developed the projects by acknowledging a change in behaviour is necessary to work with designers and contractors. • Partnering can be defined as a commitment-building process that lead to the establishment of a social contract that binds the membership to a common purpose and approach (Wang, Tang, Qi, Shen, & Huang, 2016) • Partnering is applicable for quick, complex and uncertain projects. • Partnering contract is beneficial in terms of inter-organizational transactions that conforming to a mutually agreed objectives but not efficient in fulfilling own interest such as refining technical aspects of project like value Partnering engineering. • It helps to reduce the cost and increase the effectiveness of transaction by enabling more direct and uninhibited communication (Tang, Qiang, Duffield, Young, & Lu, 2009) • Partnering was first applied in the United Kingdom for the North Sea oil and gas industries in early 1990s. Major industry players such as BP were driven to this new model to achieve profitability from what would have been otherwise uneconomic oilfields. • In integrated project delivery system, owner/operator together with the designer and contractor will sign a contract. Then, the owner/operator will make the final selection of primary members among the project team through qualification-based selection (Mesa, Molenaar, & Alarcón, 2016) • IPD can suit the needs of oil and gas sector by collaborating with the Integrated Project stakeholders (Azhar, Kang, & Ahmad, 2014) Delivery (IPD) • When parties in contract is engaged in developing the project design, they will develop the commitment to the project wholly, thus will built trust from the competency, reliability and integrity among the IPD members. • Construction industry in United States has started to implement IPD to achieve more collaboration and better performance (Mesa et al., 2016) • This contract is also known as lump sum turn key contract. • This contract involved owner/operator and main contractor. Main contractor Engineering, is responsible for managing all the relationships with the sub-contractors and Procurement, suppliers. Construction, Installation, • Main contractor has a full control of the project and as well as project performances. But for owner/operator, the risk is lesser. Commissioning (EPCIC) • EPCIC is a complex contracting vehicles as it involved many parts; main contractors and a number of sub-contractors (Tait, Kadir, & Kamarudin, 2016).
2.3 Importance of Relational to build up a strong working relationship Contract in Formal Contract with governments around the globe Traditional method of competitive although it is hard. If International Oil tendering together with one-sided Companies (IOC) have a good contracts and ineffective administration, relationship with host government, they lead to cost overruns and late completion have the tendency to preserve the (Christenson & H.T.Walker, 2004). It is profitability of the projects when really important for oil and gas companies negotiating the agreement. Chinese
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companies were successful in Angola (Olsen et al., 2005) had conducted a because China facilitated soft-oil backed comparison analysis of two companies loans for infrastructure development and from Norway and United Kingdom that had Sinopec obtained equity stakes in several applied contractual mechanism with or blocks (Mitchell & Mitchell, 2014). This without relational mechanism. The shows that the relationship between IOC analysis shows that the company from and host government managed to Norway who had implemented both preserved a mutual benefit between contractual and relational governance had Angola and China. a positive end result in profit and manage to keep up with a good relationship. To encounter this inherent problem in However, for the company from United contract such as adversarial relationships Kingdom, it obtain a negative outcome between clients and contractors, from the project which is delayed in project inadequate information exchanges and completion. inappropriate contracting styles, the industry has come out with various ways From the above analysis, relational including forming a long-term contracts governance is broadly referring to and collaborative working relationships mechanisms based largely on trust and (Davis & Walker, 2009; Florence Y.Y. Ling social identification. While focusing on et al., 2013; M. M. Rahman & positive outcome on cost, quality and Kumaraswamy, 2007). Formal contractual schedule, for example partnering, trust is mechanism is not enough in the required in the contract. It prioritized the uncertainties business like oil and gas formal systems for conflict resolution field. Therefore, most of the formal based on two-way communication and contractual initiatives are supported and joint problem solving. As for contractual embraced by the concept of relational governance, the scope is more open. contracting. Multiple researchers had Contractual governance creates no formal found that when contractual and relational alternatives in unresolved conflict and the mechanism works together, it became identity of parties is critical. Relationally more efficient and produce great outcome integrated teams should ideally be able to rather than stand-alone (Enger, 2011; trust each other to the extent of reducing a Kadefors, 2004; Kumaraswamy, Ling, great deal of transactional red- tape and Rahman, & Phng, 2005; Florence Y Y Ling project documentation, minimal et al., 2014). contractual and process safeguards and key basic documentation needed even in Contractual and relational governance the closest of alliances, in case should be considered as complementary relationships break down (M. M. Rahman mechanisms (Ferguson, Paulin, & & Kumaraswamy, 2007). Bergeron, 2005). Previous studies shown that combining the use of contracts and 3.0 METHODOLOGY relational governance will increases performance in the project rather than This research adopted a qualitative data relying on one single mechanism which is collection that includes the triangulation of insufficient (Ferguson et al., 2005). By literature analysis and semi-structured having relational forms of governance, the interview with the procurement manager project more likely to be successful as it who had involved in the preparation of leads to win-win situations between contract in oil and gas industry. By using stakeholders. The combination of various technical textbooks and journal contractual and relational mechanism is articles, the data will be gathered and an idea of developing new interfaces compared to obtain a final concluded basis between parties to enhance procurement information for further process. The semi- and contracting efficiency. structured interview had been conducted via Skype video call due to geographical factor. The range of the interview is
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between 35 minutes to an hour. The fulfilled by relational contract. (Jatarona, informants were asked to comment on the 2007). (Rowlinson, 2017) defined status of the existence of current contract relationship contracting as the “recognized in Malaysian oil and gas industry, of and strive for mutual benefits and win- application of relational contract in formal win scenarios through more cooperative contract as well as the importance of relationships between the parties”. In relational contract to cost reduction and another words, relational contracting is a time completion of the project. broad concept comprising of various approaches including partnering, joint- All the interview data were recorded and venture, alliancing and other collaborative transcribed. The analysis of the interview working arrangements. However, in this was carried out in two stages; a) within study, the findings displayed that the case-analysis that involved write ups of application of relational contract is still not each case; b) the cross-case analysis that broad in the formal contract. This is involved searches for cross-case patterns. relevant to (Florence Y Y Ling et al., 2014) The volume of data in this study was where oil and gas construction projects are condensed through the process of coding usually procured through a competitive while the activities of finding themes and bidding process that the client have lesser pattern were run simultaneously based rights to offer for future relationships to upon a coding scheme developed for contractors. Oil and gas companies in study. Since the focus of the research was Malaysia is still looking up for the best to demonstrate how application of contracting strategies and not fully being relational contract affects the cost overrun exposed to relational contract form in their and time schedule of the project, the organizations. But, that does not imply that transcripts of each case were examined the industry did not apply relational carefully and were coded based on contract form at all. The ambience of themes. The design of this study also lent contracting strategy in Malaysia is not in a itself to cross-case analysis of data. The position to offer future relationship data from the three case studies were incentives as most of the projects must be assembled and arranged to a manageable procured through competitive bidding form towards identifying the similarities process. Nevertheless, major company in and difference among the three cases. Malaysia such as Petronas has started to Then, an analytical discussion was change their contracting strategies by conducted by comparing the emergent applying relational contract form, project concepts and theory against the existing alliancing. literature. For company A, to cross check the main 4.0 MAIN RESULTS documents required a longer period of time as it is normally attached in a The main content of the interview was separate volume. This lead to the problem related to the existence of current contract such as the details spell out in the main in Malaysian oil and gas company, contract contradict with the supporting application of relational contract in formal document, to arise. Formal contract contract as well as the importance of required a meticulously clauses relational contract to cost reduction and preparation. A key managerial challenge is time completion of the project. The results to craft contracts or governance of the interview with three different oil and arrangements that are capable of coping gas companies in Malaysia are tabulated with the before mentioned pitfalls (Nicole as Table 2 below. Vermeulen, 2010). This is due to the reason that a more complete and specific 4.1 Relationship of Relational contract provide a stronger alignment of Contract with Formal Contract the parties’ outcome expectations. Thus, to reach those expectations is quite The loopholes in formal contract can be impossible as the time for preparation of
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the formal contract is tight which is contractor. There is a need to less focus relevant to what had been told by on normal contracting process because it Company B. This is where relational has opportunities for sending far too many contract devised the loopholes of formal negative signals. For that particular contract. A literature on supply reason, the relationally-oriented approach management affirmed that the joint use of to contracting is more effective in oil and contractual and trust may provide ground gas industry in Malaysia. for more efficient outcomes than the use of either of them in isolation. This is because Somehow, it is often believed that applying the operator enters a contractual relational contract in organizations will relationship with several contractors increase the competitiveness among the based on mutual sharing of risk, rewards companies which is good for them. In spite and resources. Relational contract is of that, looking at the different perspective based on recognition of mutual benefits of formal contract for unestablished and win-win scenarios through company, they cannot survive competing cooperative relationships between with those major company. Relational contracting parties (Faisol, 2010). contract come to encounter this problem in this industry. Company B uttered that oil Company C had experienced a situation and gas is an oligopoly market, not an where the sub-contractor willing to waive open market. Oligopoly is a market out the penalty that they should claim from structure in which a small number of firms the client just to maintain the good has the large majority of market share. relationship. Relational contract Thus, only certain big player who is ready established mechanism to reach a and able to sustain, can enter the market. decision making together and a formal It is unfair for the small oil and gas system for conflict resolution that rely on company in Malaysia, but this is what two-way communication and joint problem happened in the real market condition. solving (Enger, 2011). In any certain Realizing this situation, the major oil project, the owner’s goal can best be company such as PETRONAS started achieved by selecting the contract type doing strategic alliancing and detached that will effectively motivate the contractor the use of formal contract. By doing this, it to desired end (Zaghloul & Hartman, allows several firms, especially the small 2003). Formal contract act in an atomized firms to work together on long-term basis manner where the contracting parties with major company to undertake the have their own personal interests. Even projects. This will provide opportunity for though parties had been acting all parties to achieve continuous cooperatively, mutual trust did not follow. improvement and enhance their A more specific contract rather than less reputation. Although relational contract contract can offer more protection and can helps achieving good relationship but decrease uncertainty. But the more it still focuses on the oil and gas business. specific the contract, it shows the lower Any ethical partnership will be entered into level of trust among contracting parties. In freely with no coercion involved on any of contrast, relational contract embraces the partners to join or stay within the different approaches that establish relationship (Jelodar et al., 2016; Wood, working relationships between parties McDermott, & Swan, 2002). This is related aimed at win- win situations for all. People to the findings of the study where not all oil cooperated more without any history of a and gas companies in Malaysia applying contract before, rather than having a and prefer a formal contracting process. contract before. Reflecting on this matter, The reason is because they desired the it happened in formal contract as the contractors to comply with their company contract is stricter and complicated. In requirement since it involved company case of any dispute occur, the other party ethics and corporate governance. especially the owner will definitely refuse Relational contract is an ethical trust and to collaborate with the problematic trust is an ethical construct (Bygballe,
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Jahre, & Swärd, 2010; Ferguson et al., lead to a positive impact. However, in 2005; Wood et al., 2002). It has been another sentiment, the contractor should assured that if a company were bad in a not lower down the price though a good moral as well as commercial sense, relationship with the client had been client/owner would not trade with them at established. This is due to the reason that any price. This shows a trust among the contracts incur transaction costs both contracting parties. Developing trust is not before drafting and after contract a guarantee that ethical purposes are monitoring completion. The contractor being pursued. For instance, many may choose to reduce the costs and not criminal groups develop high level of trust include certain elements in the contract, but they are not ethical. Thus, each partner but later on it will make a contract become in contract must come openly and more complex due to incompleteness of genuinely into a relationship based upon the clauses. mutual advantage. Having a good relationship is just having better Large construction projects comes with a opportunity being called for tender, but the high complexity and capital requirements tender still being conducted fairly as they (Vafaiee, Owlia, & Vahdat, 2010). For have to follow stipulated technical and example, the oil and gas industry in Iran. commercial criteria due to corporate Owing to the fact that the involvement of governance and subjected to internal audit highly fragmented stakeholders had of there is any non-compliance or constantly caused the projects being misconduct. But it is believed that trust- behind the schedule and lead to budget based partnering lead to an improvement concern. The complexity of the oil and gas in ethical standard of the oil and gas industry projects cannot be settled with industry. formal contracting form. Hence, the higher degree of flexibility is required in order to 4.2 Project Cost Reduction reduce transaction costs and additional cost savings that can be derived from Client’s lack of knowledge of project engaging in relational contract. processes could lead to an inadequate Also, in the findings of this study, brief and feasibility study or inaccurate Company B mentioned that good pretender estimate which may eventually relationship in contract allow the result in cost overrun (Florence Yean Yng willingness of the contractor to offer a Ling & Leong, 2014). In reflection to that, lower cost in case of variation order and execution of the project within the legal liquidated damages clauses. This is due to framework of business lead to failure as the existence of trust and contractors well as significant disputes, claims perceive low level of risk from the inclusion (Olaniran et al., 2016). This will results in of disclaimer clauses in the contract increase of project cost. (Zaghloul & Hartman, 2003). Considering that the delayed is still happened in According to the findings in this study, relational contract, liquidated damages still Company A found that the main contractor need to be enforced. This is to ensure the has been considerate with the fairness among the contracting parties. In subcontractor. This can be seen through certain situation, the other party might go their willingness to revised the rate agreed beyond the limit that will cause an integrity in the contract when the market rate issues such as corruption. supply suddenly went lower than expected due to economic recession. Looking back 4.3 Project Time Completion at the aim of partnering which can build stronger relationship to the contracting One of the incentives of relational contract parties (Pongsiri, 2004), it can be seen in is the ability to exercise better time control the situation facing by the respondents with proper scheduling, more timely where the good collaborative decision and reliable programming arrangements between the stakeholders (Florence Y Y Ling et al., 2014). Findings
Q 238
in this study are equal to the literature that analysis showed the upper hand of adopting relational contract helps the relational contract including legitimate the project to complete on time. In Beijing, the contracting parties to have a good past public construction projects had relationship that lead to a mutual adopted relational contract mechanism agreement, easy to surmount between and has positively impact the time stakeholders and unlocked the performance of the project (Florence Yean opportunities for NOC to venture or Yng Ling & Leong, 2014). Also, the alliance with International Oil Companies application of project-based partnering (OIC). On the downside, relational during the construction of Kuala Lumpur contract might kill the industry and lead to International Airport (KLIA) has been integrity issues. It is ethical to keep the among of the key factors that enable the relationship with the contractors or project to be completed on time (N. A. supplier. But it should be considered that it Rahman, 2009). That is due to the reason will closed the door for the small oil and of the unnecessary administration gas company to collaborate in a project. In procedures can be avoided in a reflection to that, oil and gas company in relationship-based contracts. Malaysia prefer the formal contract instead of adopting relational contract. Even so, company C has a thought that it is a responsibility of the contractor to Relational contract gives positive outcome complete the project tasks within the in cost of the contract and project itself. In agreed period, either having a good case of reduction of cost especially in relationship or not. From the findings, it contract clauses like VO, liquidated can be concluded that the contractors are damages and procurement of items. Take concerned in time completion rather than into current situation where the oil price is cost. This is because delays are costly and low, having relational contract will lead to often results in disputes and claims. contractor to reduce the cost just to get Schedule pressured can indirectly into the contract with the client or operator. influence an increase in spending as the Regardless of how, the contracting parties contracting parties focus more on still need to complete the project as per delivering their project on time rather than time agreed in the contract and if delayed cost. In order to have a successful happened, owner/operator will still have to relational contract, a considerable amount evaluate the cause of changes. Having a of time is needed to find the right partners good relationship is not a ticket for the and develop the relationship. Once the contracting parties to delayed the tasks relational partner has been found, the given. This study is focusing on the collaborative arrangements between the application of relational contract in oil and parties will flow smoothly. gas industry and its effect to cost overruns and time schedule. There are some 5.0 CONCLUSION recommendations for future study include how relational contract affect the In Malaysian oil and gas industry, it can be contractual clauses in oil and gas concluded that the application of relational economy in Malaysia as well as the major contract is still relatively new. Therefore, effects of relational contract to the the government has start to encourage the Malaysian economy. National Oil Companies (NOC) to start using relational contract. However,
Q 239
Table 2 Interview Results
Themes Company A Company B Company C
a) Engaging with contracting a) Relational contract a) Getting a win-win parties in the execution of helps in encountering situation among EPCIC contract helps to the oligopoly market. contracting parties is facilitate a clear b) Effective hard as the contract is Relationship of preparation of the communication leads prepared by client. relational contract. to a good relationship b) Adopting a contract with b) Engaging a good among contracting relationship-based formal contract contractual relationship parties. contract allow the will prevent the problems communication such as disputes and lack become easier. of communication between contracting parties. a) Relational contract does a) Engaging a good a) Exchange of not directly translate into relationship helps in information, joint a reduction of cost but reduction of cost in the problem solving and Cost reduction helps the contractor in contract especially on trust helps to reduce certain situation. the liquidated project cost overruns b) A good relationship damages clause. and improve client contractor willing to offer satisfaction. a lower cost. a) Good relationship a) Adopting the a) Having a good among contracting relationship based on relationship among parties will lead to early contract still require contracting parties is completion of the the contracting parties not the ticket to Project time project. to complete the project delayed the completion b) However, due to within the time. completion of the professionalism, if delay project. occur, company A will still evaluate the reasons behind it, strictly.
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Q 242
IDENTIFYING THE PREFERRED LEARNING STYLE OF UNDERGRADUATE QUANTITY SURVEYING STUDENTS
A. F. A. A. Fauzi *1, K. N. Ali 2 and R. Amirudin 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Nowadays, technology has proved to be a beneficial aid in teaching and learning because of its versatility and usability. Technology has been deemed important because people nowadays depend on technology for various task and reasons. Technology can help improve productivity and aid the process of teaching and learning. Furthermore, to survive current and future development, it is smart to acknowledge the benefits of technology and start developing and incorporating technology. To incorporate technology into teaching, educators have to find out what learning style does their students prefer. Researchers have concluded that there are different learning styles among students. In the area of construction, students have their own preference in ways they receive information. Therefore, this study will be focusing on identifying the quantity surveying student’s preferred learning style. This study will be using the Felder-Silverman model of learning style and adapted to suit quantity surveying education. This study will be implementing a quantitative method of analysis to measure the mean score of each question from the questionnaire based on the student’s responses. Results from the study show that quantity surveying students prefer learning by sensory perception, visual input, inductive organisation, deductive organisation and sequential understanding as this learning style is above the threshold from the mean score obtained.
Keywords: Quantity surveying, Learning style, Undergraduate education
1.0 INTRODUCTION Zakaria et al., (2006) implies that the use of technology in education is significant The current teaching and learning process and should be implemented toward the of quantity surveyors is considered teaching and learning of quantity outdated and many learning institutes are surveying students. However, before still using the traditional method to educate implementing a new method of teaching students Lee, (2009b) and J. K. W. Wong, and learning, it is vital to know what the et.al, (2016). The teaching and learning student’s preferred learning style is. method has to be updated to cope with the current technological advancements. The Studies from other researchers have study by Hasan & Rashid, K., (2005); suggested that each individual has a Hodgson, (2008); C. C. Lee, (2009b) and distinct preference for learning style
Q 243
(Filippidis & Tsoukalas, 2009). Students, among students. The findings of the in particular, have their own preference for research have shown that students in the how they acquire information. engineering courses tend to have a Determining the learning styles is preference toward active, visual learning important for the student’s success on where they can experience and obtain the course (Cagiltay, 2008, citing Gilbert assess the information they gain from the & Han, 1999). The learning style theory course (Felder, et. al, 2000; Felder & infers that how much an individual learns Silverman, 1988; Wankat & Oreovicz, has more to do with whether the 2015). instructive experience is intended for their specific style of learning. In a Table 1 Summary of Felder-Silverman’s traditional classroom setting, there are preferred student learning and teaching usually one instructor and several style adapted from Ayer, (2013) citing students, which is a one-to-many Felder & Silverman, (1988) relationship. Preferred Description of Learning Style If the instructor teaching and learning Learning Style session are positively received by a Sensory Students prefer to gather data majority of the student’s learning style Perception through the senses and learn the class will perform well. Moving through specific facts and data. toward 21st-century learning and MyHE Intuitive Students prefer to learn through 4.0, an update toward the conventional Perception speculation, imagination, and method of teaching and learning have to hunches and be taught basic be done. Therefore, knowing the current principles and theories. student’s preference for learning style Visual Input Students prefer to learn through will be beneficial in the development of pictures and figures and they an updated approach to teaching and retain more course content from visual stimuli. learning. Moreover, Quantity surveying Auditory Input Students prefer to learn through subjects have been utilising the words and sound and they retain traditional method of teaching (Lee, more of course content from 2009). discussions and explanations. Inductive Students prefer to learn from 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW Organisation simple examples to form their understanding of the broader Determining the learning styles is general concepts. important for the student’s success on the Deductive Students prefer to learn broad course (Cagiltay, 2008 citing Gilbert & Organisation general concepts and then back Han, 1999). The learning style theory up these concepts with more infers that how much an individual learns specific applications. has more to do with whether the instructive Active Students prefer to experiment experience is intended for their specific Processing with learning content and assess style of learning. In a traditional classroom outcomes to learn educational setting, there are usually one instructor concepts. and several students, which is a one-to- Reflective Students prefer to manipulate many relationship. If the instructor Processing and experiment with information teaching and learning session are introspectively. positively received by a majority of the Sequential Students learn processes in a student’s learning style the class will Understanding step by step process gradually perform well. building up their understanding of the material. Previous studies by Felder & Silverman (1988) and Filippidis & Tsoukalas,(2009) For this theory to be applied toward has identified and described meticulously measurement teaching and learning, the different learning styles preferred preferred learning styles of quantity
Q 244
surveyors have to be identified based on and 5 being the most preferred. the four skills crucial for a quantity surveyor as coined by Ali et al., (2015) Each question will ask them how they which are visualisation, quantification, prefer learning the subjects based on the planning and scheduling and learning styles as shown in table 4. After management. that, the results were weighted, this is done by multiplying the dominant Likert Based on the four skills crucial for a scale point gathered with the number of quantity surveyors, Ali et al (2015) has respondents, the points will be divided by (퐿×푛) also listed out the core subjects for the total of respondent . Then the quantity surveying students which are 푇표푡푎푙 (푛) draughtsmanship, construction number for the mean score of each technology, construction services, cost learning style was totaled out. estimating, construction measurements, cost planning and scheduling, Next, the total mean was calculated and construction contract, professional used as a guideline for determining which practice and project management. These learning style is preferred by the students. subjects will be the basis of this research The learning styles with points lower than as this the subjects that the students the mean is ruled out as the student’s have to learn and master in order to preference. become a successful quantity surveyor. This study will also be applying the 4.0 MAIN RESULTS Felder & Silverman (1988) model of learning style (FSLSM). The findings of the pilot study show that the learning style that is preferred by the 3.0 METHODOLOGY students are sensory perception, visual input, inductive organisation, deductive The study was conducted via an electronic organisation and sequential questionnaire/survey and distributed to the understanding as this learning style is 1st until 4th-year quantity surveying above the threshold from the mean score students in Universiti Teknologi Malaysia. obtained. Table 1 shows the results of the The students are required to answer a nine study on quantity surveying student’s section questionnaire in the form of a preferred learning style Likert scale ranging from 1 being the least
Table 2 Quantity Surveying Students Preferred Learning Styles
Quantity Surveying Core Subjects
Learning Styles (Mean:18.52)
Draughtsmanshi p Construction Technology Construction Services CostEstimating Construction Measurements Cost Planning & Scheduling Contract Professional Practice Project Management TOTAL Sensory 1.72 2.34 2.07 2.11 2.28 2.08 2.56 2.29 2.04 19.50 Perception Intuitive 1.03 1.59 1.63 1.81 2.07 1.44 1.27 1.47 2.04 14.35 Perception Visual Input 2.93 3.28 2.78 2.17 2.24 1.92 1.66 2.24 2.22 21.44 Auditory Input 1.31 1.38 1.63 1.74 1.55 1.60 1.95 2.35 1.42 14.93 Inductive 1.93 2.59 1.85 2.36 2.07 1.68 2.56 2.24 2.33 19.62 Organisation
Q 245
Deductive 2.07 2.16 1.85 2.17 2.16 1.76 1.95 2.35 2.13 18.59 Organisation Active Processing 1.38 2.07 2.00 1.96 1.98 2.08 2.07 2.20 2.13 17.88 Reflective 2.00 2.33 2.31 1.43 1.90 1.60 1.66 1.88 1.51 16.62 Processing Sequential 2.84 2.84 2.84 2.74 2.93 1.60 2.56 2.04 2.67 23.72 Understanding
5.0 CONCLUSION REFERENCES
Based on the findings, we can see that Ali, K. N., Mustaffa, N. E., Keat, Q. J., & Enegbuma, quantity surveying students prefer to learn W. I. (2015). Building Information Modelling (BIM) Educational Framwork for Quantity through sensory perception, visual input, Surveying Students: The Malaysian inductive organisation, deductive Perspective. 9th BIM Academic Symposium, organisation and sequential 21(November 2015), 140–151. understanding. This align with the findings of Ayer (2013) which indicates that Cagiltay, N. E. (2008). Using Learning Style Theory engineering students tend to be visual in Engineering Education. European Journal of Engineering Education, 33(4), 415–424. learners to fully process the concept and information that they learn. There are Felder, R. M., Woods, D. R., Stice, J. E., & many studies that suggest that Rugarcia, A. (2000). the Future of incorporating new technologies in the Engineering Education Ii. Teaching Methods learning environment could offer That Work. Chem. Engr. Education, 34(1), 26–39. https://doi.org/10.1.1.34.1082 improvement to the current traditional method of teaching and learning. Felder, R., & Silverman, L. (1988). Learning and teaching styles in engineering education. Therefore, an improvement and Engineering Education, 78(June), 674–681. integration of technology on the current https://doi.org/10.1109/FIE.2008.4720326 teaching method is important for the Filippidis, S. K., & Tsoukalas, I. A. (2009). On the students. Furthermore, the study of use of adaptive instructional images based on identifying the preferred learning style of the sequential-global dimension of the quantity surveying students is vital for Felder-Silverman learning style theory. teaching and learning of the subjects. Interactive Learning Environments, 17(2), 135–150. Educators could enhance the teaching https://doi.org/10.1080/10494820701869524 modules and cater to the needs and preference of the students. The results of Gilbert, J. E., & Han, C. Y. (1999). Adapting this study could be beneficial for those who instruction in search of “a significant want to introduce a new method of difference.” Journal of Network and Computer Applications, 22(3), 149–160. teaching and learning to the students. This https://doi.org/10.1006/jnca.1999.0088 helps in finding what learning approach does the students response to and prefer. Hasan, S., & Rashid, K., A. (2005). Innovative Teaching Techniques in Quantity Surveying ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Training and Education: Measurement Studio for Building Quantities. COBRA 2005 (Construction and Building Research The authors sincerely acknowledge Conference). Research Management Center (RMC) of Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), and Hodgson, G. (2008). An e-learning approach to the Government of Malaysia for funding quantity surveying measurement. (December this research through research grant no. 2015), 1639–1649. Retrieved from R.J130000.7721.4J280 http://en.scientificcommons.org/57981537 Lee, C. C. (2009). An Interactive Approach To Teaching Quantity Surveying Measurement. Q 246
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NEED FOR SUSTAINABLE CONSTRUCTION IN THE NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION INDUSTRY
M. J. Abubakar *1, F. Abdullah 2 and S. Bandi 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Construction plays a vital role in the economic development of many countries. Construction activities produce not just buildings, but other essential infrastructures required for the development. Providing not only construction products but sustainable ones are critical since economic and physical development is meant to serve both this generation and others to come. Nevertheless, bold statements as to the weak sustainability nature of construction products seen in many developing countries globally have been stated in numerous studies. This research, therefore, assessed current status and the need for sustainable construction in the Nigerian construction industry. Review of relevant literature was carried out. The findings revealed that the current construction activities in Nigeria are unsustainable and are at variance with Nigeria’s INDC pledge in achieving SD. Sustainable practice is still an emerging concept in the Nigeria construction industry. Presently, Nigeria lacks enabling rules, regulations, skills, knowledge, and capacity for substantial scale change despite experiencing rapid urbanisation that is coupled with the absence of critical infrastructure. The significant barriers to sustainable construction in Nigeria are mainly related to proper sustainability awareness, lack of clear government roles, construction (technology) related and finance related. To attain significant progress on the sustainability of construction projects, clear stringent government policies and leadership roles on sustainable construction needs to be put in place and abandoning the current age-old traditional method of construction is crucial. Consequently, if sustainability is to be accomplished, a critical appraisal of construction activities and processes within the Nigerian construction industry is compulsory. However, very little is known about sustainable construction practice in developing countries, such as Nigeria (Dania et al., 2014).
Keywords : Barriers, Sustainability, Sustainable development, Sustainable construction, Nigerian construction industry
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1998; Robinson, 2004 and Redclift, 2005). SD has been defined as the development The inevitability for sustainable development (SD) is extensively “that meets the needs of the present documented in the works of Barbier, 1987; without compromising the ability of future Reid, 1995; Clark et al., 1987; Mebratu, generations to meet their own needs”
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according to the Brundtland Commission The construction industry produces (1987). residential and non-residential buildings, factories, highways, bridges, dams, and The report further highlighted that SD is tunnels. The construction sector is dependent on the equilibrium of economic, probably the largest consumer of social and environmental considerations resources and the most significant waste (Edum-Fotwe and Price, 2009; Parkin et generator, and because it has a al., 2003). According to Ortiz et al. (2009), significant environmental impact. SD “can be expressed as an improvement in the quality of life and thus allow the The construction industry, which can be populace to live in a healthy environment considered as one of the primary with a better social, economic and contributors to global greenhouse gas environmental conditions for present and (GHG) emissions, has a significant impact also for the generations to come”. on global warming (Hong et al., 2015). The Spangenberg (2004) further stated that amount of GHGs produced annually these conditions should equally be taken worldwide by construction activities is into thought when strategies for projected to be around 42.4 billion tonnes accomplishing and improving by 2035, 43% more than the 2007 level sustainability are selected. (USEIA, 2010) and there is the need to be mitigated. The construction industry is Throughout human history, there are often at the crossroads of improving several instances where civilisation has quality of life through its provision of the spoiled its environment and greatly built environment and critical infrastructure affected its chances of existence necessary for development on the one (Diamond, 2005) because human hand and eroding the natural balance of civilisation takes resources to sustain the the earth on the other (du Plessis, 2007). way of life (EPA, 2015). All economic Studies have shown that the construction sectors like power, energy, transportation, sector is responsible for some of the most agriculture, construction contribute unsustainable actions of humans. Authors significantly to emisión of carbon (figure 1) have demonstrated that the construction which is the chief gas constituent in GHG industry has a significant impact on the emission. All economic sectors must environment (Chan et al., 2009; Chen et embrace sustainability if SD is to be al., 2010; Shen et al., 2007), also on social attained. and economic life (Darko and Chan, 2017; Geng et al., 2012), as a result of its activities, and it has become an increasing worry. The clue of sustainable construction (SC) according to Kibert (1994) was first reported during the 1994 first international conference. Hill and Bowen (1997) introduced a definition of SC during that conference: according to them, SC is
“creating and operating a healthy built environment based on resource efficiency and ecological design.” Bowen (1997)
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
Figure 1 Global Greenhouse gas 2.1 Sustainable construction (SC) emissions by economic Sectors (GABC, SC according to Dickie and Howard (2000) 2018) is defined as the contribution of construction to SD, which is in agreement
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with Kibert’s (2008) proposition that SC is o Use recyclable resources a subset of SD. Indeed, Shen et al. (2007) (Recycle) maintained, o Protect nature (Protect) o Eliminate toxicity (Toxic) “construction sustainability performance o Apply life-cycle costing is indispensable to the attainment of (Economics) sustainable development.” o Focus on quality (Quality).
The ideologies of SC apply throughout the The concept SC according to Pearce et al., construction life cycle to its (2012) concerns with the responsibility of deconstruction. The philosophies also the construction industry in producing built apply to construction resources (land, products sustainably (environmentally materials, water, energy and ecosystem) friendly, socially responsible and required for producing and operating the economically supportive). Sustainable structure during its entire life cycle. The construction is centred on the economic, consideration of the numerous aspects of social, and environmental impact of sustainability such as, environmental, creating a built product. In other words, it social, economic, technical and political; requires all stakeholders (client’s also, the dynamics and synergies between designers, professionals, contractors and them are essential in order to maximise suppliers) to accept and implement the solutions to complex building and construction practices that will minimise infrastructure challenges (Kibert, 2007; the adverse effect on the environment. Oni, 2015). The construction industry is at Constructing sustainable buildings the very centre of the global challenge in reduces the use of raw materials and land, transiting from the traditional way of minimises the consumption of energy and development to a sustainable economy. water (Oni, 2015). It also reduces This, therefore, demands more dedication emissions, waste and pollution in the from stakeholders in developing environment (McMahon et al., 2015). Du businesses and practices with sustainable Plessis (2002) describes sustainable products and services. construction as “a holistic process aiming to restore and maintain harmony between 2.3 Sustainable Construction in the natural and the built environment and Developing Countries create settlements that affirm human dignity and encourages economic equity”. ‘Developing country’ is a term widely used From the earlier definitions and noting the in literature albeit without characterisation basic definition put forward by the (Dania, 2016). This study adopts the World Brundtland Commission (1987), It, Bank income classification built on Gross therefore, follows that human, natural and National Income (GNI); Low income economic systems are interconnected and economies, less than $1,045, lower- that the present generations are indebted middle income economies of between to the future generations in terms of earth’s $1,045 to $4,125, upper-middle income resources (Kibert, 2005). economies of between $4,125 and $12,746; and high-income economies of 2.2 Basic Principles of SC over $12,746 (The World Bank, 2014). Most developing countries – particularly in According to Kibert (2007), the doctrines of one of the most important sectors that SC are hinged on seven crucial principles contribute to any country’s Gross as suggested by CIB (1994). These Domestic Product (GDP) is the principles include: construction industry in which it employs o Reduce resource consumption an ample portion of the populace. (Reduce) An important achievement of the o Reuse resources (Reuse) Brundtland Commission was bringing to the fore burner the dynamic tensions
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between poverty and environmental note that there is little or no evidence in the concern. Nonetheless, developed extant literature on the progression made countries have experienced a fair share of in SC by the developing countries of the environmental challenges, ‘softer’ social world. In order to implement SC, an challenges are more prevalent in the efficient, viable, and responsive developing world (Dania, 2016). In most of construction industry is essential to drive the developed countries, responsible and the implementation process. The ethical deliberations are beginning to stakeholders in the construction sector dominate the corporate world and equally have crucial roles to play in the especially in the construction industry actualisation of SC to achieve SD. (Kibert, 2013). As developing countries strive for growth and development, 2.5 Implementing SC in Nigeria concerns as regards if lessons have or can be learnt from the developed countries Activities in the construction industry are contexts or if there are original client driven, and as such the level of perspectives from these developing awareness and adoption of SC by clients countries (Dania, 2016). play a significant role in the A vast majority of available literature on implementation. There is enough evidence sustainability are fixated on the context of in the literature to suggest that Nigeria has developed countries. However, studies on some interest in pursuing development sustainability in construction in developing that is sustainable. Nigeria is a signatory to countries context, especially African several international conventions and continent perspectives are rather few and protocols which support the goals of hard to access, with South Africa being the sustainable development such as the predominant country research is being United Nations Framework Convention on reported on (Bourdeau, 1999; du Plessis Climate Change (UNFCCC) and MDGs. It and Landman, 2002; du Plessis et al., has actively participated in the Rio, Rio+5, 2003; Gunnell et al., 2009). Johannesburg and Rio+20 summits. Local stakeholder’s summits for sustainable 2.4 Sustainable Construction in development have been convened, while Nigeria some local environmental legislation has been and continue to be developed. Most developing countries like Nigeria are Whether this has resulted in any tangible facing severe challenges of development results in the construction sector cannot be such as overpopulation, housing, high deduced from this extensive review of urbanisation rate, infrastructure gaps, literature thus far. What has been lacking weak institutions, high-level poverty, in these efforts are: faltering economy and low human (a) inadequate institutional guidance, development index according to Du drivers and regulation; and Plessis (2007). The Construction activities (b) the absence of a specific in these developing counties of the world construction industry focus to these are somewhat contradictory. On the one efforts as is the case in much of the hand, they try to bridge the gaps developed world. infrastructurally for social-economic (c) Most of the regulatory efforts are growth; on the other hand, these activities aimed at the Oil and Gas sector. result in further plundering of the For example, in 2011, five Natural environment which is socially harmful and Environmental regulations were economically disadvantageous. With gazetted, all related to oil spills. sustainability becoming a serious global issue, it is essential that the developing 3.0 METHODOLOGY countries give the much-needed attention to it, given the negative implications its Many methods have been proposed for neglect possess. However, Thorpe and conducting systematic reviews. Content Ryan, (2007) contend that it is worrying to analysis, for example, has been proven
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useful for inductive and deductive some sustainability studies on the research on extensive data (Gaur and Nigerian Construction Industry exist, the Kumar, 2018); systematic literature review direction, content, vigour and reliability of (SLR), on the other hand, seems more these studies does not address the appropriate for smaller data volumes myriads of challenges or the inadequacies (Tranfield et al., 2003). The present study, of provisions within the country to drive therefore, undertook an SLR (Cook et al., SC. 1997; Cooper, 2010; Tranfield et al., 2003), based on the work of Tranfield et al. Many challenges to SC have been (2003). An SLR is a comprehensive and identified in several studies in different reproducible method used to identify, country context as the challenges needed evaluate and synthesize all available to be overcome by various stakeholders in research produced by researchers, the implementation of robust sustainability scholars and practitioners on a particular in construction agenda. Häkkinen and topic area, research question or Belloni (2011) studied the ‘softer’ barriers phenomenon of interest (Becheikh et al., to sustainable construction such as 2010; Coombes and Nicholson, 2013; steering mechanisms, economics, client Sandberg and Aarikka-Stenroos, 2014; understanding and process changes. Tranfield et al., 2003). Others are underpinning knowledge risk perceptions and unforeseen costs. SLR is particularly suited to studying Barriers to SC practices were equally “what” and “how” issues in a literature identified by Williams and Dair (2007) to review (Abatecola et al., 2013) and include perceived cost implications, identifying avenues for future research stakeholders’ lack of consideration of (Denyer and Tranfield, 2009) after sustainability, inadequate expertise in classifying the studies concerned with sustainable designs, clients’ reluctance, a these issues (Aquilani et al., 2017). An lack of the right information, unavailability SLR was undertaken to assist in the of sustainable construction materials, and identification of the most pertinent papers inadequate capacity for execution of relevant to the study from Emerald, sustainable construction projects. Zhou Elsevier and Wiley. The literature findings and Lowe (2003) assert that sustainable were assessed and presented. construction is faced with other barriers such as the ignorance of its economic 4.0 MAIN RESULTS benefits, absence of appropriate building regulations and planning policies that 4.1 Challenges of SC enforce sustainable construction. The perceived higher cost of sustainable Findings show that the awareness of construction compared with the traditional sustainable construction is still in the very approach in terms of capital has been early stages in Nigeria as shown in the further argued as one of the major barriers sustainability timeline in figure 2. The to the implementation of sustainable existence of some literature especially construction (Sodagar and Fieldson, 2008; dating from the later years of the 2000s Hakkinen and Belloni, 2011). The wrong indicates that sustainability in construction perception that sustainable construction is on the horizon in Nigeria. Increasingly, will cost more reduces investors and in the local Nigerian academic literature, construction organisations’ interest (Zhou sustainability is becoming a buzzword for and Lowe, 2003). However, the perception built environment research (Dania, that sustainable buildings cost more is not Kehinde, & Bala, 2007; Oladiran, 2009; accurate. The issue of higher cost Daramola, Adedeji and Ibem, 2010; involvement in sustainable construction is Dahiru, Abdulazeez, and Abubakar, 2012; addressed with the adoption of the whole Otegbulu & Adewunmi, 2009; Amao and life cycle costing technique which Ilesanmi, 2013; Oko et al., 2010). While emphasises long term.
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Figure 2 Timeline of notably sustainable development/sustainable construction Globally and in Nigeria (Dania, 2016)
4.2 Drivers of SC construction. Strengthening the identified drivers of SC requires significant consideration. The study concludes from Sustainability literature identifies a series the findings that the most critical of drivers of corporate sustainability. The challenges to SC are; proper sustainability RICS classifies these drivers as having awareness, lack of clear government either ‘push’ or ‘pull’ effects (RICS, 2016). roles, construction (technology) related The ‘push’ and ‘pull’ effects are and finance related. This implies that the distinguished by what is deemed within the processes and methods in the Nigerian influence of a stakeholder or not. construction industry do not support the Neeteson et al. (2004) distinguish attainment of sustainable construction and between formal (awareness, knowledge) consequently affects achieving SD. This and informal drivers of Sustainable means that if SD is to be attained, then Construction (legislation, regulations, there is a strong need for the adoption of treaties and voluntary schemes). Sayce et sustainable construction that Will bring al. (2007) discuss bottom-up and top- about a review of construction methods down forms of drivers while Williams and and processes in the Nigerian construction Dair (2007) discussed pressures such as industry. political and advocacy for a sustainable built environment. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
5.0 CONCLUSION The authors would like to express their appreciation for the support of the Faculty The role of sustainable construction in a of the Built Environment and Surveying, country’s socio-economic development Nigerian Tertiary Education Trust Fund cannot be overemphasised. However, in and Federal University Birnin Kebbi. developing countries like Nigeria, the unsatisfactory nature of sustainability in REFERENCES construction is observed. The Nigerian construction industry processes and Aghimien, D. O., Adegbembo, T. F., Aghimien, E. methods are unsustainable, and if this is to I., & Awodele, O. A. (2018). Challenges of change, then Sustainable Construction Sustainable Construction: A Study of must be the focal point. This can be Educational Buildings in Nigeria. International Journal of Built Environment and achieved by understanding the country- Sustainability, 5(1), 33–46. context challenges to the adoption and https://doi.org/10.11113/ijbes.v5.n1.244 implementation of sustainable
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Amao, F. L.; Ilesanmi, A. O. (2013). Housing Daramola, Adedeji; Ibem, E. O. (2010). Urban Delivery in Nigeria : Repackaging For Environmental Problems in Nigeria: Sustainable Development. International Implications for Sustainable Development. Journal of African and Asian Studies - An Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, Open Access International Journal. 12(31), 124–145. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.phrs.2014.06.016 Denyer, D. and Tranfield, D. (2009), “Producing a Aquilani, B., Silvestri, C., Ruggieri, A. and Gatti, C. systematic review”, in Buchanan, D. and (2017), “A systematic literature review on total Bryman, A. (Eds), The Sage Handbook of quality management critical success factors Organizational Research Methods, Sage, and the identification of new avenues of London, pp. 671-689. research”, The TQM Journal, Vol. 29 No. 1, pp. 184-213. Edum-Fotwe, F.T. and Price, A.D.F. (2009), “A social ontology for appraising the Barbier, E. (1987), “The concept of sustainable sustainability of construction projects and economic development”, Environmental developments”, International Journal of Conservation, Vol. 14 No. 2, pp. 101-110. Project Management, Vol. 27No. 4, pp. 313- 322. Becheikh, N., Ziam, S., Idrissi, O., Castonguay, Y. and Landry, R. (2010), “How to improve Gaur, A.S., Kumar, V. and Singh, D.A. (2014), knowledge transfer strategies and practices “Institutions, resources, and in education? Answers from a systematic internationalization of literature review”, emerging economy firms”, Journal of World Research in Higher Education Journal, Vol. 7, pp. Business, Vol. 49, pp. 12-20. 1-21. Häkkinen, T. and Belloni, K. (2011), “Barriers and Chen, Y., Okudan, G.E. and Riley, D.R. (2010), drivers for sustainable building”, Building “Sustainable performance criteria for Research & Information, Vol. 39 No. 3, pp. construction method selection in concrete 239-255. buildings”, Automation in Construction, Vol. 19 No. 2, pp. 235-244. Hill, R.C. and Bowen, P.A. (1997), “Sustainable construction: principles and a framework for Clark, W., Munn, R. and Conway, G. (1987), attainment”, Construction Management and “Sustainable development of the biosphere”, Economics, Vol. 15 No. 3, pp. 223-239. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, Vol. 29 No. 9, pp. Kibert, C.J. (1994), “Establishing principles and a 25-27. model for sustainable construction”, Proceedings of First International Conference Darko, A. and Chan, A.P.C. (2017), “Review of of CIB TG 16 on Sustainable Construction, barriers to green building adoption Tampa, FL, November 6-9, pp. 3-12. sustainable development”, Sustainable Development, Vol. 25 No. 3, pp. 167-179. Kibert, C.J. (2008), Sustainable Construction: Green Building Design and Delivery, Wiley, Dahiru, D., Abdulazeez, a D., & Abubakar, M. Hoboken, NJ. (2012). An evaluation of the adequacy of the National Building Code for achieving a Mebratu, D. (1998), “Sustainability and sustainable sustainable built environment in Nigeria. development: a historical and conceptual Research Journal of Environmental and Earth review”, Environmental Impact Assessment Sciences, 4(March 2010), 857–865. Review, Vol. 18 No. 6, pp. 493-520.
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FIRE RISK ASSESSMENT WITH SIMULATION APPROACH IN THE HOSPITAL
Z. Senin *1, Y. M. Yatim 2, H. Othman 3 and L. Ismail 4
1 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
2, 3, 4 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: b-yahya@utm., [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the study on fire risk assessment with simulation approach in the hospital. Fire risk analysis of hospital building is of critical importance due to the reason that there still lacks efficient systematically fire extinguish method to ensure a safety evacuation process. A case study is conducted for a hospital building to expatiate the procedure and methodology of fire risk assessment for public hospital buildings in Malaysia. Good management of fire safety is essential to lower the probability of fire occurrence and to mitigate the consequence if a fire does occur. It is paramount important that occupants in the building are able to escape to a place of safety easily and quickly if a fire occurs and is out of control. The risk assessment is to identify the hazards, quantify the risk and propose measures to mitigate and control the risk. A fire risk assessment is an organized and methodical review of a specific building, the activities carried on there and the likelihood that a fire could start and cause harm to the occupants and properties in and around the premises. The aims of the fire risk assessment are to (1) identify the fire hazards, (2) reduce the risk as low as reasonably practicable, and (3) decide what physical fire precautions and management arrangements are necessary to ensure the safety of people in the premises if a fire does start, it can help the building manager to decide whether any risks identified are acceptable or need to reduce or control the risks.
Keywords : Risk assessment, Fire safety, Fire hazard, Building architecture route
1.0 INTRODUCTION that can aggravate a fire to become large and uncontrolled. To identify fire risk The purpose of this study is to identify a assessment in the hospital, there are five mechanism, and methods to reduces and (5) key elements that should be carry out controls this fire hazards from occurs. Fire i) look for the Hazard; ii) identify people at hazards can be defined as all types of live risk: iii) evaluate and act on the risk, flames, causes of sparks, hot objects, and record; iv) plan and train your finding and; chemicals that are potential for ignition, or v) review your assessment.
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In identifying or looking for the fire Secondly is to identify who at risk. hazards, it is reasonable to do the fire risk Everyone is at the risk if there is a fire, assessment on what could reasonably be identify whether the risk is greater for expected to cause harm and concentrate some because of when or where they work only on signification hazards that could such as night staff, or because they’re not result in serious harm or affect several familiar with the location, condition. people. The first is to analyses the layout plan and the potential of hazard in the Risk assessment should take into contact of room function. consideration and inform any person who may be affected by the risk and assess the Ahmad, C.A; Zin, I.N and Othman, M.K risks that will be encountered by them. An (2016) indicate that hazard has close appropriate control measure shall take relationship with the risk. Risk is a place to reduce the risk to an acceptable measurement to analyse and evaluate the level. When focusing into healthcare hazard. The measurement is made by industry, a few group of peoples should be identification on how severe and when is taken into consideration such as i) staffs / likely of the Hazard to occur. The results of workers; ii) visitors; iii) contractors; and iv) risk assessment been presented in a risk people with disabilities. For people with matrix (Table 1) that essential to make disabilities, there should be certain decisión on risk control. consideration such as i) patient that are unable to walk and using beds to move; ii) Table 1 Risk assestment matrix patients using wheelchairs; iii) patients using walking stick and; iv) patients that are slow moving such as pregnant women, heart patients and children.
Next is to evaluate or control and act on the risk. Evaluate steps 1 and 2 and after all risks have been fully compiled and documented, the competent person must highlight what measures can be put into
place to minimize or completely eliminate According to warwick.ac.uk (2017), these hazards. workplace hazards can be categorized into four (4) main categories such as; Risks must be assessed and must to be controlled to ensure that the level of risk i) Physical hazard can be described is should be maintain low and practicable. the most common workplace hazards Moreover, all residual risks outlined in a that including vibration, noise and risk assessment must be accepted and slips, trips and falls; person who approved and sign off the risk assessment, must have a sufficient ii) Ergonomic hazard is a physical knowledge and someone that expertise on factor that harm the musculoskeletal the areas. system, such as repetitive movement, manual handling and poor body For the risk management is best placed positing. with the person(s) who create the risks with risk control being a line management iii) Chemical hazard is any hazardous responsibility, there could be situations substance that can cause harm to your that arise, through the process of risk employees; assessment where, even after the implementation of all control measures (as iv) Biological hazard such as bacteria stated above), a number of residual risks and viruses that can cause health remain, which are either 'Moderate' or effects, such as HIV/AIDS disease. 'High'.
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Fourthly is keep a record of any fire an (2011), evacuation model and building hazards and what you have done to simulation can be use to mitigate fire risk. reduce or remove them. Any business that The used of Building Exodus evacuation has 5 or more people must by law have a model is able to design for large space and written record of fire risk assessment and high numbers of people to escape and it is must put measures in place to effectively applicable for simulation of supermarket, reduce or manage the risks identified. Next hospitals, airport terminals and dangerous is you must have a clear plan of how to building. prevent fire and how you will keep people safe in case of fire. And you should make Table 2 Building layout characteristic your staff know what to do in case of fire, Parameter Effect On Fire Risk Management and if necessary, are trained for their roles. Building height Measured from ground level up to the floorplate of the highest story. Height is [m] determinative for the wind effect in case of an airlock stairwell, and for the probability of effectiveness of the pressurization system in case of a pressurized stairwell. Other effects are incorporated through the number of stories. Lastly on the fire safety risk is to review the Number of stories The number of stories defines the number of occupants. The number of occupants [-] determines the travel time when evacuating by the stairs, through the regression proposed assessment. Keeping the risk assessment by Proulx. The number of stories is determinative for the expected number of fire ignitions per year, the warning time in the absence of a dedicated warning system, the setup time for the fire and rescue service, and the size of the property losses in case of a total failure under regular review and aware the risks of the property protection scheme. may change anytime, and the plan need to Area per story The area per story influences the expected number of fire ignitions per year and the size [m2] of the property losses (as a function of the fire spread extent). The influence of the floor area on the total evacuation time is neglected relative to the influence of the building be changes accordingly and share the height. Occupants per Determinative for the total number of occupants in the building. updates plan to everyone. apartment [persons] Apartments per Determines the total number of occupants in the building, and the property loss as long Building Exodus evacuation model story [-] as the fire remains contained in the compartment (i.e. apartment) of origin. Façade access Influences the number of persons that can be evacuated by the fire and rescue service. (for assisted Conservatively, it is assumed that façade access is not feasible for modern curtain wall software is used to stimulate people evacuation) façade systems. evacuation in case of high-rise building. It Spandrel height Limits the probability of external fire spread between stories for traditional façade systems [m] by limiting the incident radiation to the next floor. The incident radiation decreases with also can be importance reference for increasing spandrel height through the relationship proposed in Ref. [11]. Façade system Influences the probability of fire spread beyond the story of origin. Traditional façade systems limit the probability of external fire spread due to the spandrel height and by actual evacuation time in case of fire and giving the fire and rescue service additional time for external intervention. Modern curtain wall facades lack these safety features. Intricate aspects related to external fire spread in has a high value of development and the façade due to material choice and design failures have not been included. Amongst others, this implies that noncombustible façade is assumed. popularization. Glass For traditional façade systems, the window type (single, double, triple) influences the available time for fire and rescue service to prevent external fire spread. As a default, the windows are assumed to be closed. Stair width [m] The stair width influences the distribution for the total evacuation time, with a wider stair This study focuses on the data analysis of having a larger capacity for evacuation. Apartment value The apartment value per m2 directly influences the property risk evaluation as the simulation with Building Exodus model, C0 [EUR/m2] property losses are considered proportional to the apartment value and the extent of fire spread. contrastive analysis between simulation data and experimental data by Jiang Table 3 Staircase types and Zhang-an (2011). characteristic
2.0 MAIN RESULTS Parameter Effect On Fire Risk Management Stairwell type Barriers against smoke spread Direct access The fire rating of the apartment door (compartment of fire origin – when door is closed), and sprinkler system (when available and effective) as effective sprinkler suppression 2.1 Potential Risk And Parameter contains the fire to the compartment of origin. Effects On Fire Risk Management With lobby Barriers of direct access stair well + additional fire rated door linking lobby to stairwell Pressurized Barriers of lobby stairwell + additional barrier of successful pressurization. Failure of the pressurization system is assumed to result either from a failure to activate or a failure to perform effectively. Activation failure is considered to result from a detection failure. The effectiveness of the system is considered a function of the building height as specified by The study done by N.D. Hansen (2018), Eq. (6). However, when the door to the staircase is blocked open, the pressurization had identified two (2) potential risk areas system is considered not to be effective, based on [30]. Air lock The air lock is open to the outside and thus large smoke spread to the stairwell is considered to be possible only in conjunction with negative wind effects. The probability of that need to consider in mitigating the risk negative wind effects is assumed proportional to the wind velocity and evaluated in function of the building height. Given the occurrence of negative wind effect, the air lock i) the building layout characteristic and: ii) system still has the same barriers as the lobby stairwell + an additional barrier staircase types and characteristic. Table 2 constituted by the (fire rated) door giving access to the airlock. and Table 3 indicate the parameter related with building layout characteristic and The model presented is also aplicable to staircase types and characteristic and in the present and more practical evacuation relation to its effect of fire risk simulation results by inputting evacuation management. factors including various behavior characteristic (such as physical, 2.2 Evacuation Process Using psychological, behavior attributes of Simulation evacuation people), and fire hazardous features (such as hazardous attributes of According to the study from Jiang Zhang- heavy smoke, temperature, poison gas).
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Therefore, the evacuation simulation By using Building Exodus model software results by using Building Exodus model is able to simulate evacuation of people of with evacuation situation analysis and single attribute in multilayer buildings by factors setting can be an important reasonably defining the attributes of reference for actual evacuation time in evacuee. case of fire and has a high value of development and popularization. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Next factors are basic layout of the The authors would like to express their building for numerical simulation. These appreciation and gratitude to Department factors will be highlighted on the building of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built layout such as the location of the building, Enviroment and Surveying, Universiti floor and stair hall and fire-resistive grade Teknologi Malaysia. of the building. Next is building fire evacuation simulation experiment and REFERENCES parameters setting such as evacuation scene design to ensure the design of the Andrew Furness, m. M. (2007). Introduction to Fire building is able to guide people during the Safety Management . Jordan Hill, Oxford : fire hazard occurs. Furthermore, BH Butterworth-Heinemam . evacuation parameters setting shall be considered on the evacuation direction Bayat, N. (2018). Panic and Human Behavior in Fire & Emergency Situations. CTIF, such emergency exits which have to be International Association of fire and rescue selected according to the shortest path service, Tehran, Fire Department. strategy as examples below: Berita Harian . (2018, ogos 13). Next is evacuation options is to ensure that www.bharian.com.my/dunia/asia/2018/08/ 461292/pusat-jagaan-terbakar-sembilan- evacuation time is to be calculated maut. Retrieved november 5, 2018, from according to total amounts of people, https://www.bharian.com.my/dunia/asia/: numbers of floors and width of the building https://www.bharian.com.my/dunia/asia/ after setting parameters at the exits of the building. The evacuation strategy is set as Berita Harian. (2016, oktober 25). www.bharian.com.my. Retrieved 11 5, including emergency escape, shortest 2018, from path decision, pre-action time and so on. https://www.bharian.com.my/node/206022
3.0 CONCLUSION C, M. G. (2011). ICU fire evacuation preparedness in London: A cross-sectional study. British From the literature review from 2010 until Journal of Anaesthesia. 2018, this study noted that with the Cristoph Schirmer, P. M. (2006). HOSPITAL implementation of computer simulation, it ARCHITECTURE - Specialist Clinics and able to identify or detect the risk of fire that Medical Department. . Germany: : potentially to occurs. Furthermore, by Pageone. adding this simulation process, it also helps in identify and streamline the fire risk D.Canter. (1980). fires and Human Behaviour: assessment and able to covered the whole Emerging Issues. Fire Safety Journal, vol 3 , 41 - 46 . process of identifying the potential of fire towards the building. By having the Dato Hj Baharudin Hj Mat Isa, S. N. (2012). computer simulation process, it will assist Keselamatan Bangunan dan Kawalan on the assessment of the evacuation Kebakaran.: . Batu Pahat, Johor, Malaysia: process from the vertical and horizontal Penerbit UTHM. perspective of the building. It also focusing Goldenson, R. (. (1984). Dictionary of Psychology on the implication of road barrier, distance and Psychiatry. New York: Longman. of route, exit door and the stairway path is an area that has been identified as a Harian, B. (2019, march 30). bharian.com.my. hazardous area during an emergency fire. Retrieved from
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https://www.bharian.com.my: Building. Advances in Environmental https://www.bharian.com.my Biology, ., 122-132.
Jing-hong Wang, J.-h. S. (2014 ). Principal Aspects Utusan. (2016, 10 25). regarding to the Emergency Evacuation of www.utusan.com.my/berita/kebakaran Large-scale . Procedia Engineering, Vol 71 hospital sultanah aminah johor bahru. (a. , 1 – 6 . majid, Editor, utusan, Producer, & WWW.UTUSAN.COM.MY © 1997-2018 Johnson, R. (1987). Panic at The Who Concert UTUSAN MELAYU (M) BERHAD, 46M, Stampede: An Empirical Assessment. Jalan Lima Off Jalan Chan Sow Lin, 55200 Social Problems.Vol. 34, No. 4, 362-373. Kuala Lumpur.) Retrieved november 5, 2018, from www.utusan.com.my: Keating, J. (1982). The myth of panic. . Fire https://bharian.com.my/berita Journal, 76(3), 57–61. Wabo Nero C, O. P.-M. (2012). hospital Kosmo. (2019, mac 30). kosmo.com.my. Retrieved evacuation: planning, assessment, from http://www.kosmo.com.my: performance and evaluation. jurnal of http://www.kosmo.com.my/dunia/hospital- acute disease. korea-selatan-terbakar-1.597871
Margrethe Kobes, I. H. (2010). Building Safety and human behavior in fire : A literature review . fire safety Journal , 1-11.
Margrethe Kobes, I. H. (2010). Way finding during fire evacuation; an analysis of unannounced fire drills. Building and Environment, vol 45, 537–548.
Mohamed, Z. (2019, March 2019 31). bharian.com.my. Retrieved from www.bharian.com.my: https://www.bharian.com.my/node/205772
Murphy, G. R., & foot, c. (may, 2011). ICU fire evacuation preparedness in London: A cross-sectional study. British Journal of Anaesthesia, https://doi.org/10.1093/bja/aer033, Volume 106(Issue 5), 106(5), 695–698. doi:https://www.doi.org/10.1093/bja/aer03 3
N.D. Hansen, F. S. (2018). A fire risk assessment model for residential high-rises with a single stairwell. Fire Safety Journal, 95(journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/firesaf), 160- 169.
Quarantelli, E. (1957). The behavior of panic participants. Sociology and Social Research, Vol 41, 187-194.
Rita F. Fahy, G. P. ( July 13, 2009). ‘Panic’ And Human Behaviour In Fire. Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Human Behaviour in Fire (pp. 387-398 ). Robinson College, Cambridge, UK,: Canadian laws, policies, regulations and international agreements.
Suleiman., W. C. (2015). Fire Safety Management Problems in Fire Accidents in Hospital
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FIRE SAFETY AUDIT MANAGEMENT: DEVELOPING STANDARD OPERATING PROCEDURES AFFECTING FIRE HAZARDS
R. M. Isa *1, Y. M. Yatim 2, L. Mahpot 3 and Z. Senin 4
*1,2,3, Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
4, Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Hospitals are considered a safer place, it is not impossible for the accident to occur at the hospital even following safety measures because the hospital environment is exposed to different risks such as biological, chemical, physical and fire hazards. Systematic auditing of fire safety management can save lives and properties when conducted on a scheduled basis especially on building occupants. Fire cases occurring in Malaysia have been identified among them that the building was not maintained on a scheduled basis and the adoption of an audit procedure adopted was not in accordance with standards and standards from the Fire Services Act 1988 and Uniform Building By-laws 1984 (UBBL 1984). The findings show that Standard Operating Procedures (SOP) relating to fire management plans prepared by 3 hospitals is not uniform. Consequently, the establishment of an audit procedure for the purposes of carrying out the inspection is not comprehensive and the report issued does not provide a comprehensive picture of the firefighters in a building. This paper identifies the problems in implementation of fire safety management in Malaysia government hospital since there is a lack of development of audit checklist on this subject.
Keywords : Audit, Fire safety, Fire management
1.0 INTRODUCTION management is a standard procedure, policy, tool, information and practices that Fire safety management is very important can be used by an organization purposely in any organizations and been studied by to makes an analysis and evaluation in many researchers such (Aslani & Habibi, the fire management (Howard & Kara- 2018) India, (Kavosi et al., 2019) Iran, Zaitri, 1999). According to Fire Safety (Shastri, Raghav, Sahadev, & Yadav, Management Handbook, creating and 2018) India, (Lee et al., 2018) Hong imposing a high quality fire safety management application brings a lot of Kong, (Ab Ghani & Aripin, 2018) benefits; encompass lowering property Malaysia. Fundamentally, fire safety insurance plan premiums, stopping
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business interruptions, boosting Ayarkwa, & Amoah, 2016). In the same purchaser service and public images, vein, similar issues occurs in Malaysia fostering an friendly work environment, such as improper documentations, realizing pleasant features and impacting combustible materials, lack of installation the profitability of an organization (Della- of fire measures or outdated fire safety Giustina, 2014). Indeed, the strategy of technology, locked doors due to the fire safety management demands a security reasons, lack of training and systematic policies and procedures to blocking of fire safety systems (Ong & ensure the effectiveness of the operation Suleiman, 2015). Based on the above and it should be continued where the notion, this study conducted to evaluates system's fire safety tools need to be the compliance of the SOP establishment checked and maintained periodically to the hospital building on fire safety (Pickard, 1994). At the same time, management based on the requirements Periodic inspections benefited an of UBBL 1984 and the Fire Services Act organization and building residents from 1988. In addition, this study will assist the all safety measures that placed and auditor to develop an audit checklist to functioned properly in the situation of fire conduct regular checks based on the (Ramachandran, 1999). standard operating procedure that has been provided. A study conducted in Sri Lanka hospitals reveals 22 aspects of fire safety 2.0 MAIN RESULTS management need to be addressed. Alarmingly, three major aspects need to This study was carried out by using be taken seriously such the content analysis method to make disadvantages of education and training comparisons for data from the SOP in programs, providing clear signboards developing audit checklist of ten variables showing exit routes and fire safety based on fire safety management equipment sites, as well as providing and categories such organization, risk maintaining passive and active fire assessment compliance with fire safety protection measures (Waidyasekara, legislation, emergency plans and fire Thilini, & Dahanayake, 2018). It was procedures, communication and discovered that the emergency hospital information, reporting and investigating experienced issues in flame wellbeing fires, fire training, maintenance of fire the board, for example, documentation equipment and standards, budget and issues, flammable materials, absence Audit proposed by (Howarth & Kara-Zaitri, of establishment of flame measures or 1999). obsolete flame security innovation, bolted entryways because of the For the purpose of this study, one local security reasons, absence of preparing government hospitals were selected. The of medical hospital staff and hindering applied methods in data collection were of flame security frameworks (Chin Ong observation, reviewing documents and & Sulieman, 2015). interviews with hospital staff and management. Furthermore, most of the issues in fire safety management particularly in A total of three (3) SOP developed by hospital building reveals five critical three (3) government hospitals in challenges such inadequate electrical Malaysia have been sampled for analysis wiring and installations, inadequate water and comparison (Table 1) and one (1) distribution systems, inadequacies in the audit checklist used to conduct regular fire departments, passive attitudes of checks (Table 2). organization towards maintenance and protection and passive attitudes towards personal fire protection (Agyekum,
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Table 1 Government hospital standard operating procedure
No. Scope Criteria • Fire prevention and control systems • Telephonist action 1. Fire Action Teluk Intan Hospital • List of duty officer (safety officer) department / unit Plan Policy Perak • List of duties of fire department / unit fire extinguisher • List of security assistant duties • Action in case of fire • Steps to prevent fire Manual Fire Seri Manjung Hospital 2. • Procedure for building discharge (Evacuation) Action Plan Perak • Duties and responsibilities of fire safety employees • Fire safety policy 3. Fire Sultanah Aminah • Appointment of members of fire committee Disasters Hospital Johor Bahru, • responsibilities of all levels of staff Emergency Johor • Fire prevention plans Response • Inspection and maintenance control systems Plan • Emergency exit plan • Office inspections • Basic training for staff • Action plan when fire • Evacuation action • patient's transfer technique during the fire • Fire prevention and detection systems
Table 2 Sultanah Aminah Hospital, Johor Bahru audit checklist
No. Scope Criteria • Fire safety policy • Floor plan • Emergency light 1. Fire safety management • Emergency route • "EXIT" sign • Fire door • Emergency evacuation / Stairs • Local medical gas channel • Fire extinguisher • Smoke detector • Heat detector 2. Fire fighting facility • Fire alarm • Hose reel • Sprinkler • Fire hydrant • Fire program 3. Fire drill • Action card • Fire drill • Assembly area
Total 19 Criteria
Comparative findings of the SOPs developed according to (Howarth & Kara- developed by the Sultanah Aminah Zaitri, 1999) studies by taking into Hospital are the most comprehensive account the two major factors of building compared to Teluk Intan Perak Hospital fire management especially fire and Seri Manjung Perak Hospital. prevention and fire prevention. The two Meanwhile SOP Sultanah Aminah main factors of building fire safety Hospital Johor Bahru has been
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management are the major contributors The fire safety audit checklist only to the cause of fire in the building. covered half of the criteria and need to acquire more attention in preparing this However, the SOP of Teluk Intan Hospital checklist. However, there are two only emphasizes on the inspection of fire important main aspects that need to be prevention and control systems, hospital improved in the audit checklist especially staff responsibilities and firefighting on Fire Service Act 1988 (electrical measures. Meanwhile, the SOP of Seri system and the provision of government Manjung Perak Hospital only focused on control centers) to avoid a fire incident at Fire Prevention Measures, Building Sultanah Aminah Hospital on October Evacuation Procedures (Evacuation) and 2016 due to failure of electrical capacitor the duties and responsibilities of fire and caused 6 people died. safety officers. The data shows most of the formation of the SOP has not yet As the countermeasure of issues in fire reach the standards as applicable in Fire safety management, Auditor-General of Services Act 1988 and UBBL 1984. Malaysia proposed three major audit processes involves planning, Referring to Part VII of UBBL 1984, 2 implementation and reporting. The main points to be considered in relation to process of planning requires the auditor the management of fire safety of buildings to prepare the Audit Planning are firefighting requirements and Part VIII Memorandum (APM) which outlines key fire alarms, firefighters, fire extinguishers details of the audit strategy with reference and fire penetration access. Whereas the to the SOP of a ministry or department. Fire Services Act 1988 under the Fire As such, the SOP developed by a Services Regulations (Fire Certificate) ministry / department is a basic document 2001, the application for the Fire that needs to be detailed as it will be the Certificate establishes compliance with basis for the process of forming an audit the six (6) key elements to obtain a Fire checklist. Certificate, including self-safety facilities (8 criteria), fire prevention (4 criteria), fire 3.0 CONCLUSION protection (7 criteria), firefighting facilities (16 criteria), special provisions (2 criteria) Overall, government hospitals do not and fire safety on premises (6 criteria). In have to develops own SOP since general there is fourty three (43) criteria governed and administrated by Ministry of that was provided from The Fire and Health (MOH). It is becomes the Rescue Department of Malaysia in order responsibility of MOH in providing a to obtain the certifícate. The finding also comprehensive SOP for reference to all contradicted with the SOP developed by government hospitals in Malaysia. all the three government hospitals. Developed SOP should take into account all of the factors as outlined in the Fire Conversely, the SOP developed by Services Act 1988 and UBBL 1984. Sultanah Aminah Hospital Johor Bahru Therefore, in order to achieve the complied with the requirements of both objective of regular inspection of fire the 1984 UBBL Rules and the Fire safety management, several aspects Services Act 1988. Therefore, the need to be undertaken in SOP such as establishment of the audit checklist is supporting by government order as a guided by the SOP and has fulfilled the compulsory to conduct yearly inspection, criteria of both regulations. Table 2 shown more effective action against departments that, there is nineteen (19) audit criteria in that do not conduct fire safety audits the audit checklist as a guidance for annually. auditor to examine building fire safety management. Ultimately, the establishment of SOP on audit procedure becomes guidelines of
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fire safety management in organization. If PLoS ONE, 13(7), e0199747. the guidelines are not made comprehensively, the audit findings will Ong, W. C., & Suleiman, Z. (2015). Problems in implementation of fire safety management provide a non-exhaustive picture of the in Malaysia Government hospital. management of fire safety for an Advances in Environmental Biology, 47- organization. Reports must be audited by 51. professional and ethical auditors in the course of their duties. Overall, this study Pickard, R. (1994). Fire safety and protection in historic buildings in England and Ireland– gives an initial idea that the Part I. Structural Survey, 12(2), 27-31. implementation of audits on fire safety management should be improved to Ramachandran, G. (1999). Fire safety reduce the risk of accidents and safe management and risk assessment. human life. Facilities, 17(9/10), 363-377. Shastri, B. A., Raghav, Y. S., Sahadev, R., & Yadav, B. P. (2018). Analysis of Fire REFERENCES Protection Facilities in Hospital Buildings. In Advances in Fire and Process Safety Ab Ghani, M. Z., & Aripin, S. (2018). A (pp. 183-190): Springer. Comparative review of design Waidyasekara, K., Thilini, P., & Dahanayake, K. requirements for natural smoke ventilation (2018). Investigate fire safety aspects of in hospital buildings. Planning malaysia high rise buildings in Sri Lanka: strategies journal, 16(6). framework.
Agyekum, K., Ayarkwa, J., & Amoah, P. (2016). Challenges to Fire Safety Management in Multi-Storey Students’ Hostels.
Aslani, A. M., & Habibi, E. (2018). Evaluation of the Risk of Fire by the FRAME Method and Survey of the Effect of Crisis Management Team, on the Level of Fire Risk at a University Hospital During Year 2017. Health Scope(In Press).
Chin Ong, W., & Sulieman, M. (2015). Problems in Implementation of Fire Safety Management in Malaysia Government Hospital.
Della-Giustina, D. E. (2014). Fire Safety Management Handbook: CRC Press.
Howarth, D. J., & Kara-Zaitri, C. (1999). Fire safety management at passenger terminals. Disaster Prevention and Management: An International Journal, 8(5), 362-369.
Kavosi, A., Rohaninasab, M., Shirdelzadeh, S., Mohammadi, G., Movahedi, A., Nasiri, H., . . . Mohammadi, A. A. (2019). Evaluation of Safety Standards Accomplishment in Educational Hospitals of Neyshabur University of Medical Sciences-Iran. MethodsX.
Lee, P. H., Fu, B., Cai, W., Chen, J., Yuan, Z., Zhang, L., & Ying, X. (2018). The effectiveness of an on-line training program for improving knowledge of fire prevention and evacuation of healthcare workers: A randomized controlled trial.
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THE INFLUENCE OF PANIC BEHAVIOUR DURING FIRE EVACUATION PROCESS IN HOSPITAL
Z. Senin *1, Y. M. Yatim 2, H. Othman 3, A. Zolkefly 4, L. Ismail 5 and L. Mahpot 6
1, 4 Department of Architecture, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected])
2, 3, 5, 6 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
This paper presents the factors influencing panic situation in the event of fire evacuation in hospital. This study focuses the panic behaviour with the fundamental concept of fire itself and human perception towards it. Sensory perception can be used as one of the methods for people to identify, detect and process information that gathered from their surrounding environment i.e using their senses, sight and hearing. Each people may have felt same sense but may interpret differently each one another. Both may be right in what they see or hear, and each is real as the other. People tends to fill in the gap in order to form a complete picture and different people brains may do so in different ways. This antithesis of behaviour is attributed to people’s panic reaction and behaviour which may contribute to occupants demonstrating dysfunctional and irrational responses. The present study is aimed at demystifying panic definition and investigates the factor on what people’s actual behaviour is in case of fire emergency and how to control the panic situation through some previous research findings. These factors shall provide more understanding on the quality of risk assessment and safety measures in designing a building.
Keywords : Panic behavior, Factor of panic, Process fire evacuation
1.0 INTRODUCTION also be the same if it is not control. These can be predicting and control through a Influence of panic situation during fire planning and understanding in control of evacuation in hospital will take a big risk anxiety or panic situation. for the occupied if the situation not be controlled and mitigate. The situation of Margrethe Kobes I. H. (2010) stated that anxiety or panic behaviour is difficult to with a view to trigger a response of fire contain in behaviour of an individual. The emergency situations considering the fire panic situation will also be triggered due to events can be controlled and ruled by those surrounding him and her that will designing the space or the environment
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rather than with selfishness or panic specific factors leading to panic could be behaviour patterns. The most crucial identified in the earlier stage, there will be aspect of a building’s safety in the aspect possibility to predict on how panic could of fire is the possibility of safe escape. happen and take advance measures to change such outcome. In a panic or critical situation, an individual will act or response in discernment Sahl & Hartwig (1994) stated that the towards his or her surroundings. The darker, impulsive, irrational, more animal- person will go to the nearest exit door that like side of the human creature will be they found even though the pathway is exhibited in highly stressful situations. In crowded or being blocked. This exhibited other words, human beings are not reeds that the individual actions and response is that bend easily with the wind, instead, much more complex and unpredictable. they are even more fragile saplings that Furthermore, D.Canter (1980) stated that will break and snap under the surge of a it is necessary for a clear exit sign that is very threatening event. suitable and well situated to be placed for people to react and behave in a certain 1.1 Definition Of Panic manner in case of emergency., Oxford English dictionary defines panic as Human behaviour during fire emergency an “excessive feeling of alarm or fear can be defined as the action of the people, leading to extravagant or injudicious based upon their perception of the efforts to secure safety”. Clarke, (2002) situation, their intention to act and the proposed that some definitions of panic considerations involved before any actions gleaned from different sources. It has been are being carried out (Margrethe Kobes I. defined by Goldenson, as “reaction H., 2010). Therefore, how people behave involving terror, confusion, and irrational during the escape is referred to the fire behaviour speeded up by a threatening evacuation behaviour. For example, to situation”. move immediately or to move slowly or waiting for the scenario of environment. Quarantelli (1957) on the other hands According to the situation, people will feel described panic as dysfunctional escape panic if the situation could not be behaviour generated by fortuitous, ever controlled by the hospital staff. varying circumstances, but involving impending danger. He also defines panic Panic behaviour cannot be understood as a collective flight based on a hysterical well unless, it is shown from different belief. According to the Medical Online aspects and angle in the fire safety dictionary, panic is a sudden strong feeling including fire evacuation (Goldenson, of fear that prevents reasonable thought or 1984). Panic in fire situation normally action. could also be involved in the designing process, the most important thing the Keating (1982) suggested four elements of architect needs to design is the layout panic: i) hope to escape through dwindling plan, which the design may reduce the resources; ii) contagious behaviour; iii) human casualties, personal loss, property aggressive concern about one’s own damage and the general social disruptions safety and; iv) irrational, illogical which occur as a result of natural responses. catastrophes or technological accidents (Rita F. Fahy, July 13, 2009). 1.2 Misconceptions Of Panic Behaviour In Fire Event. As mentioned, it is important to attempt the better understanding of this concept and Most of the fire that spreading promptly identify the factors that need to be due to the time consuming is quite high for observed to conclude that the panic an individual to evacuate the building. response took place. Additionally, if There is actually plenty of factors that
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affect the situations occurred. Association occupation of building is important to (2015) stated that there are five factors of vindicate the people along the hospital human behaviour appropriate of evacuation process. To minimise the panic misconceptions of panic in fire event; i) situation and the faster movement by the people are irrational; ii) people are selfish; occupation to the save area. iii) people are unpredictable; iv) people are unreliable and; v) people are ignorant or at 1.4 Irrational And Panic Factor Of least ill-informed. Human Behaviour.
People often lack a sophisticated The latter may result in irrational understand of fire, sometime harbouring behaviours (e.g., denial or enduring) or in dangerous misconception, but in generally the behaviours that are neither rational nor have good, albeit inexplicit understand of irrational as they may involve the use of risk. These five elements should be trust, emotion, and intuition. In the case of considered in the part of design especially incomplete information, trust, emotion, in the hospital. Understand the and intuition in combination can facilitate misconceptions concept will make the more effective decision making (Marin designer aware the need of human Lujak, 2017). behaviour in building hospital. In general, building evacuation due to 1.3 Relationship Human Behaviour imminent danger is accompanied by With Time Required For Escape considerable physical and psychological stress. When individuals perceive life The evacuation time totally dependent threatening risk in hazardous upon the occupants responding to the fire environmental conditions, multiple evacuation warning. Once the occupants negative psychological factors such as, of a building have been warned of danger e.g., nervousness, fear, anxiety, of fire, there is always a delay when a frustration, and panic may emerge (R.F. number of initial behaviours can occur Fahy, 2012). before they begin to travel to the exits. What’s more, frustration might occur when Regarding of that, time evacuation can be performed actions do not result in a seen as having four phases of process that desired outcome. Excessive stress might involve the emotion of occupation if the diminish sensory functioning and reduce staff can’t control. Process of fire situation awareness while increasing evacuation has relationship with the panic disorientation (J. Koo, 2014). situation with the emotional occupation. General disorientation with excessive Bestowing the fire situation the people frustration might burst into mass panic normally involve with four process of where panicking agents run towards phase in fire evacuation. The phases of exit(s) thus trampling down or crushing time process involve are: i) Phase 1 – Alert other agents. time from fire initiation to detection/recognition. ii) Phase 2 – Pre - 1.5 Factor Of Panic Behaviour movement time taken by behaviour that diverts an individual from the escape The factor of panic behaviour involves with routes, iii) Phase 3 - Travel time physically many aspects, and the influence of panic movement by the human behaviour get to if can’t control will impact more serious an exit door. And phase 4 – flow time, how scenario in fire event and cause the more long it taken for the occupants to move fatal and injured for the occupations. through the various stage of the escape When the event of fire, people will more route. (Andrew Furness, 2007) complicated and more horrible, so the action from the staff of hospital is more From the process of evacuation time the important to control the panic situation.
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In others cases, Bayat (2018) point out observation and judgment, and their that if people had to leave a building in the mobility. event of fire occurring and they are not familiar with the building structure well Three personality traits, in particular, are enough, they would run for the exit they significant. used as an entrance, even if other exits are much easier to reach or even safer. i) The most important distinction is between leaders and followers. In the They also might disorient themselves in event of fire, most people adopt the their surroundings and thus indicate role of a follower, who initially does “herding” or “flocking” behaviour. It is not respond to danger signals, but meant by herding, a human group dynamic waits for others before taking action. visible in emergency situation. To put it simply, when people feel panic, they may ii) The level of stress resistance. During start acting non-logically and their ability to a fire, someone’s psychological decide on their own volition can be stress levels may rise because their minimized, if not entirely lost. capacity for processing information is exceeded, or they are confronted Tingguang (2011) mentioned that panic is with an unfamiliar situation. Too not something that can be measured, but much psychic stress can impair it can be inferred. Most first responders cognitive processes and how an inferred the panic from the outcomes, individual respond to a given retrospectively, and not observing any situation. An increased stress level is actual panic from the scene. One may not the same as panic, which can be assume that panic is a concept similar to defined as irrational, illogical and the entropy in thermodynamics. uncontrolled behaviour.
Suggestions by Heide (2004) that various iii) The belief in self-efficacy, which circumstances should interplay in order to influences the choices that people trigger panic: i) the victim perceives an make, the effort that they put in, how immediate threat of getting entrapped in long an action is persisted with if an enclosure space; ii) escape and exit obstacles are encountered (and routes appear to be rapidly closing; iii) people fail) and feelings (Kobes, flight seems to be the only way and the last Helsloot, De Vries, & Post, 2009). resort to survive and; iv) no one is available to help. The Crucial social characteristics are the interactions between people present, the Marin Lujak (2017) explained from degree of task commitment, and the roles previous research proposed that or responsibilities of those in the building. functioning of the fire evacuation involve Incident evaluation has shown that in an with the human behaviour in the three emergency, people are more inclined to modules composing the architecture collaborate instead of acting on an involve are; i) the evacuation routes’ travel individual basis. time optimization; ii) routes’ safety optimization and; iii) the human factor Moreover, if there are strong social bonds module. between those involved in a fire, such as between family members, people will try to In another influences factor in terms of respond as a group for as long as possible. human characteristics, the critical Task commitment means that people cling elements are individual, social, and to role patterns or expectations. situational features. Crucial personal characteristics are the personality traits of Again, incident evaluations have revealed the people in a building, their knowledge that when unexpected events occur, in the and experience, their powers of first instance people adhere to the role
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expectations appropriate to the function of smoke will initiate a different the building where they are located. response than directly seeing the fire. In another part is situational of characteristics are awareness, physical The concept of commitment that is position (passive or in motion) and described as people to be committed to familiarity with the layout of a building. their ongoing activity even when realized Awareness refers to the occupants’ state there is a fire outbreak may be another of alertness, which is temporarily reduced cause. In other words, people have a by the consumption of alcohol, drugs and decision plan to carry out a specific activity narcotics. and are reluctant to switch their attention to something unrelated. People who are asleep also have a low level of alertness. Indeed, in many fatal This paper expresses the factor of panic in fires, those present were asleep when it the fire evacuation event, managing the started. Our knowledge of the influence of level of panic for the patient and building physical position is limited. On the three occupied and method to reducing the risk factor the of human behaviour this inked of of panic behaviour for the patient and panic situation if the people can’t control occupied. This paper will appropriate the the situation. issue from the previous article and will discussed according to the Malaysia On that situation, panic behaviour can’t be context. measured, but panic can be described with scenario of categorise or the action of 2.0 MAIN RESULTS behaviour by individual, to describe the panic influence. 2.1 Previous Study Of Panic Behaviour The characteristic of panic influence in the event of fire, Proulx (1995) proposed that From the previous research that has been differences in accordance with the three conduct, those factors could be present in major characteristic of human behaviour in the very first place which is from analysing the fire event; the design of building, signage, lighting, ventilation and the nearest emergency exit i) Occupant characteristics which and door. including occupants’ profile such as occupants’ age, mobility, knowledge, Most of the fire spreading promptly due to experience, the condition of the the time consuming is quite high for an person at the time of the event, individual to evacuate the building. A personality and decision-making significant number of key factors panic styles, and finally, the occupants’ role behaviour in the evacuation process in the in the building can explain different event of fire at the hospital has been responses. identified based on the prior studies as shown in Table 1. ii) Building characteristics that encompass types of occupancy, the There is actually plenty of factors that architecture of the building, the affect the situations occurred as human activities happening in the building at behaviour in general but in the building the time of the fire, and finally, the hospital that is the different situation for building fire safety features. examples, firstly the warning sign could not be heard or seen, secondly there is no iii) Fire characteristics that is heavily effective order especially for the patients intertwined with people’s perception that is staying alone like in ICU. The and interpretation of the situation. hospital management is also playing such For example, perceiving a smell of a big role to ensure that everyone is not
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panic when the evacuation process is during evacuation generally include being done when the fire incident consideration of the building environment. happened unexpectedly in the hospital building. The parameter of mass evacuation in emergencies can be divided into three Table 1: Previous study of panic behavior categories. The first is grounded in the psychology of panic behavior, the second Author Year Type of Key of study building is decision-making of occupation and the
(Chen, Wang, 2018 General An experimental study of visibility third is urgency level of action by Wang, Liu, & building effect on evacuation speed on stairs. Wang, 2018) Human speed in staircase occupation (Jing-hong Wang, 2014 ). Movement of human with the design of staircase These three categories involved in a
(Dong, Gao, 2014 Subway Crowd Evacuation Optimization by variety of self-organized phenomena in Gao, Sun, & station Leader-follower Model. Wang, 2014) Creating the human movement in crowd movement, which contains with four evacuation process modelling categories of typical phenomena;
(Koo, Kim, & 2012 Residential Estimating the impact of residents Kim, 2012) with disabilities on the evacuation in a high-rise building: A simulation study i) Vaulted distribution phenomenon of Modelling the speed of human disabilities on evacuation pedestrians at bottlenecks.
ii) The layering phenomenon in (Huang et al., 2011 Hospital A Study for the Evacuation of Hospital 2011) on Fire during Construction opposite pedestrian flows. Method of evacuation from fire event (E. Kuligowski, 2015 Residential Stair evacuation of older adults and iii) The zone action phenomenon in Peacock, people with mobility impairments Wiess, & cross pedestrian flows. Hoskins, 2015) (E. D. 2017 General Modelling and influencing human Kuligowski, behaviour in fire iv) The shockwave phenomenon in Gwynne, Kinsey, & high-density populations. Hulse, 2017) (Haghani & 2016 General Human exit choice in crowded built Sarvi, 2016) environments: Investigating underlying behavioural differences From the phenomenon mention, the between normal egress and emergency evacuations designer or architect should be designing (Bode & 2013 General Human exit route choice in virtual Codling, 2013) crowd evacuations the space and the emergency route (Ronchi & High rise Fire evacuation in high-rise buildings: according to the problem. Nilsson, 2013) building a review of human behaviour and modelling research (Kobes et al., 2009 General Building safety and human behaviour 2009) building in fire: A literature review 2.3 Influence Of Individual In Mass Area
2.2 Influence Of Panic In Mass Area The problem associated with the behaviour of individual in the event of fire The building evacuation method process are increasing when large number of that is being conduct in Standard people are gathered together. The Operating Procedure (SOP) of Ministry of behaviour of individuals in a crowd often Health (MoH) of Malaysia must be refined differs from when those same people are and improved so the panic situation could by themselves or smaller groups. The be prevent. And it is could be better if there normally behaviour will happen are; is training and awareness campaign being conduct for the hospital personnel to i) Can be greatly influenced by action ensure that all of them have the knowledge of others in a crowd, e.g if one or two regarding the matter when there is people in a crowd take short cut, then unpredictable fire incident happened to the others will tend to follow. hospital building as we all know that ‘prevention is better than cure’. ii) Are more likely to voice collective frustration at delays caused by Various parameters associated with the excessive queuing. movement and perception of people iii) Are more likely to be susceptible to
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panic and once panic start in a crowd escape from an emergency and it can quickly spread. dangerous situation, there must be adequate amount of space for every iv) Individual will be coming more individual to egress the place safely, aggressive in order to escape. otherwise people may be trampled or suffocated. v) Individual emotions are often highlighted in a crowd, sometimes as vi) Demographics – Particular locations a consequence of public or groups of people cause crisis entertainment, sometimes by the events. experience of just being in a large group of people. When people feel panic, they perception may start acting non-logically and their The reason that it is vital to establish good ability to decide on their own volition can clear communication with a crowd and be minimized, if not entirely lost. (Rita F. provide other good. assistance to it in Fahy, July 13, 2009) As a consequence of order to give the crowd confidence in the the lack of independence, people tend to arrangement. This will minimise individual follow others in hope that they could get in the crowd going their own way and them out of the dangerous situation leading others into danger. (Quarantelli, 1957).
These is other part in the crowd area, 3.0 CONCLUSION when the people in panic the different situation can’t be control if the staffing of Evacuation is the process in which the hospital did not have experience, training people present in a building notice a fire and knowledge about the fire evacuation and whereupon they experience several in building hospital. mental processes and carry out several actions before or during the movement to In other hand, Bayat (2018) proposed that a safe place in or outside the building. In the designer should focus to the main this matter, people on panic situation could cause’s triggers of panic behavior are not predicted how the people would include; behave, their motivations of doing what they wanted to do, time taken on making i) Fire - can be fatal and deadly and if the decisions and way that would lead to required and necessary emergency people on choosing the right escape exits and escape procedures are routes. People behaviour is unpredictable. vague or hard to find and follow, No matter what happen, evacuee have to panic is inevitable. leave the building in the event of fire occurring. Eventhoods they are not ii) Emotional instability – A simple flight familiar with the building structure or floor that develops out of control could plan; they would definitely run to the exit result in a sense of insecurity in a where they used for entrance even if other specific area in the environment. exists are easier to be reached and safer to be used. They also might disorient iii) Fear – Fear of endangerment and themselves in the surroundings and thus entrapment may arise from emotions indicate herding or flocking behavior. associated with panic and may lead to deadly and tragic consequences such as stampede and trampling. iv) Anger/violence - Violence is foreseeable when feelings of anger or rage take over a crowd. v) Spatial limitations – Endeavoring to
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Quarantelli, E. (1957). The behavior of panic participants. Sociology and Social Research, Vol 41, 187-194. The authors would like to express the appreciation for the completion of this R.F. Fahy, G. P. (2012). Panic or not in fire: research and continuous support from Clarifying the misconception. Fire and Department of Architecture and Materials , 36(5–6). Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty Rita F. Fahy, G. P. ( July 13, 2009). ‘PANIC’ AND of Built Environment and Surveying, HUMAN BEHAVIOUR IN FIRE. Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM). Proceedings of the 4th International Symposium on Human Behaviour in Fire REFERENCES (pp. 387-398 ). Robinson College, Cambridge, UK,: Canadian laws, policies, Andrew Furness, M. M. (2007). Introduction to Fire regulations and international agreements. Safety Management. Jordan Hill, Oxford : Butterworth- Heinemann of Elsevier . Tingguang, M. (2011 ). The Utility of a Panic Model on Simulating Crowd Disasters. Association, F. P. (2015). Fire Safety & Risk Department of Fire Protection and Safety Management . New York: Routledge . Tech, Oklahama State University,, 2-6.
Bayat, N. (2018). Panic and Human Behavior in Fire & Emergency Situations. CTIF, International Association of fire and rescue service, Tehran, Fire Department.
D.Canter. (1980). fires and Human Behaviour: Emerging Issues. Fire Safety Journal, vol 3 , 41 - 46 .
Goldenson, R. (. (1984). Dictionary of Psychology and Psychiatry. New York: Longman.
Heide, E. (2004). Common Misconceptions about Disasters: Panic, “The Disaster Syndrome”, and Looting. Linclon (Neraska): University Publishing.
J. Koo, B.-I. K. (2014). Estimating the effects of mental disorientation and physical fatigue in a semi-panic evacuation, Expert Systems with Applications. Expert Systems with Applications 41(5), 2379–.
Jing-hong Wang, J.-h. S. (2014 ). Principal Aspects regarding to the Emergency Evacuation of Large-scale . Procedia Engineering, Vol 71 , 1 – 6 . Keating, J. (1982). The myth of panic. . Fire Journal, 76(3), 57–61.
Margrethe Kobes, I. H. (2010). Building Safety and human behavior in fire : A literature review . fire safety Journal , 1-11.
Margrethe Kobes, I. H. (2010). Way finding during fire evacuation; an analysis of unannounced fire drills. Building and Environment, vol 45, 537–548.
Marin Lujak, S. O. (2017). Evacuation route optimization architecture considering human factor. AI Communications 30 , 53– 66.
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THE IMPACT OF UTILIZATION OF HEALTH AND SAFETY OFFICIAL ON PERFORMANCE OF WORKERS ON CONSTRUCTION SITE IN ONDO STATE, NIGERIA
O. E. Olowolayemo *1, M. O. Alabi 2, H. O. Obagboye 3, S. K. Aroge 4 and D. I.Ajayi 5
1, 2 Department of Quantity Surveying, Rufus Giwa Polytechnic, School of Environmental Studies, Owo. NIGERIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
4 Department of Geoinformation, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA (E-mail: [email protected])
5 Physical Planning Unit, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba Akoko, Ondo State. NIGERIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Most construction sites witness unprecedented occurrence of accidents which always leads to loss of life and a number of fatalities, this was as a result of lack of safety awareness in various construction site. This study assessed the impact of utilization of health and safety official on performance of workers on construction sites in Ondo State, Nigeria. This was with a view to improve the level of health and safety on construction site. Primary and secondary data were used for the study. A valid questionnaire for survey was developed and administered on the professionals in the construction industry, with a retrieval of one hundred (100). The data from the questionnaire was analyzed statistically. Mean scores analysis, descriptive statistics and standard deviation were used to assess the level of utilization of health and safety official on construction sites. Findings revealed that the level of utilization of health and safety official on construction site in the study area is high and utilization of health and safety official leads to reduction of accident and increase the efficiency of worker on construction. The study recommends that health and safety officials should do more to impart the workers in the construction site so as to reduce accidents on site.
Keywords : Accident, Health and safety, Construction site, Construction workers, Utilization
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1.0 INTRODUCTION organizations. The Federal Ministry of Labour and Productivity is responsible for In Nigeria, just like many other countries of the enforcement of these laws. These laws the world, construction comes high when it have not been effective in identifying comes to list of accidents and health miscreants probably due to inadequate hazards comparatively. Taking a look at funding as well as lack of basic resources the statistics, little data is available on the and training. Also, a safety oversight of aggregate of accidents rate which takes other enterprises, particularly construction place on construction sites yearly. From sites and non-factory works, was statistics, it is discovered that most neglected. The labour decree does not hazards, accidents and ill-health problems provide workers with the legal right to are not reported (Okoye and Okoli, 2014). remove themselves from dangerous work However, the limited information made situations without loss of employment available by Inspection Division of the (Dodo, 2014). At the same time, the Federal Ministry of Labour and intervention of government in the area of Productivity indicates that Nigeria’s safety and health be economically justified construction industry is responsible for when there are lacuna in risk information about 7.5% of all occupational accidents, 49.5% of these injuries are fatal, 12.2% of 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW partial disabilities and 7.4% of minor injuries (Umeokafor et al., 2014).The According to Alli (2009) health and safety construction industry has been ranked the official contributes a very crucial role in second highest in terms of injuries, after maintaining the health and safety of mining (Mbuya and Lema, 2002). Over a workers by cautiously assessing the work number of years, construction industry has carried out on site for possible occurrence increased its efforts towards improving that can cause accident and also reduce safety and health performance, according or prevent the risk associated with them. to Ezenwa (2011). As a recommendation Also, the accident and injury rates of the in any construction site, appropriate health Nigerian construction industry are very and safety methods should be considered high. Idoro (2011) He further maintained and used so as to reduce or eliminate risk that a more suitable approach is to focus to death or injury. According to Onyejeji on proactive efforts affecting the factors (2011), occupational health and safety responsible for such accidents and injuries programmes were first brought and and the control measure. Unfortunately, introduced in Nigeria when she was a Olatunji and Bashorun (2006) regretted British colony. The initial effort adopted in that although prequalification has gained regulating and controlling safety and tremendous support and popularity in health at sites gave birth to the Factories contract procurement in Nigeria, health Act of 1958. However, there is lack of and safety factors of contractor provisions for the enforcement of health performance are not popularly prioritized. and safety standards in construction The resultant of health and safety non- industry. This initiative led to the performance in Nigerian construction enactment of legislation that included the industry is untold and can be seen in the Factories Act of 1987 and The Workman’s number of hazards and injuries arising Compensation Act of 1987. Both were from construction activities throughout the signed into the law on June 12, 1987, but country. became effective in 1990. These regulation and programmes make sure 3.0 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY that occupational health workers were sent to industrial plants and other Ondo state is one of the thirty-six states of commercial undertakings even plantations Nigeria. The state which is also called the under monitoring. No evidence from the sunshine state is made of eighteen local reports of unhealthy exposure to risks of government areas according to last workers and employees in various election in October, 2016 (INEC). Most of
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the ongoing projects in the state were in Table 1 Level of utilization of health and the State Capital, particularly Akure south safety official local government in Ondo central senatorial district. In view of this, the study Level Frequency Percent was carried out in Akure south local LOW 20 20.0 MODERATE 13 13.0 government in Ondo central senatorial HIGH 65 65.0 district other Local government in the state VERY HIGH 2 2.0 are as follows Akoko North-East, Akoko TOTAL 100 100.0 North-West, Akoko South-East, Akoko South-West, Akure North, Ese Odo, Table 1 shows the respondents’ view Idanre, Ifedore, Ilaje, Ile Oluji/Okeigbo, about the level of utilization of H&S official Irele, Odigbo, Okitipupa, Ondo East, Ondo which shows that there is high level of West, Ose and Owo. In addition, data for utilization of H&S official. Means score for the study were from both primary and each of the professional against the secondary source. Primary data were selected views to examine the impact of mainly through well structured H&S official on the performance of workers questionnaire and personal observation on construction sites. made during visits to the study areas. To identify potential respondents a preliminary survey was done in 2018 and found out that most of ongoing projects in the state were in the State capital, particularly Akure south local government in Ondo central senatorial district. In view of this, the study was carried out in Akure south local government in Ondo central senatorial district. From this arrangement, 10 selected construction site were selected in the State capital, particularly Akure south local government in Ondo central senatorial district sample sizes were determined, and respondents were identified.
4.0 FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION The data from the questionnaire was analyzed statistically, using mean scores analysis, descriptive statistics and standard deviation. Two important issues were examined considering assessment of the use of health and safety official on construction sites in Ondo State, Nigeria. These are: the level of utilization of health and safety official on construction sites and the impact of health and safety official on performance of workers on construction sites.
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Table 2 Mean score for each of the professional against the selected views
SPECIALIZATION REDUCE IMPROVED PRODUCTIIVITY MORALS EFFICIENCY POSTIVE TOTAL TOTAL ACCIDENT HEALTH EFFECT RANK
ND Contractor 5.0000 5.0000 5.0000 5.0000 4.0000 4.0000 31 2 TH Quantity Surveyor 4.0000 4.0000 4.0000 4.0000 4.1250 3.8750 27.375 8 ST Architect 4.2632 3.5789 4.1053 4.9474 7.0000 4.4211 31.737 1 RD Engineer 4.7500 4.9167 4.9167 3.2500 3.7083 4.6667 28.7501 3 TH Builder 3.8182 4.1818 3.8182 4.3636 4.1818 3.7273 28.4545 5 TH Project manager 4.5000 3.5000 4.0000 3.5000 4.0000 4.0000 28.5 4 TH Skilled labor 3.8333 4.0833 4.6667 4.2500 4.4167 3.5833 28.25 7 TH Unskilled Labor 4.0588 3.9412 4.3529 4.1176 3.8824 3.9412 28.3529 6 Total 4.2340 4.1702 4.3936 4.0957 4.5957 4.1489 29.0849
Table 3 ANOVA table
S/N Sum of Df Mean F Sig. Squares Square 1 The operation of the Between (Combined) 11.923 7 1.703 2.767 .12 health and safety officials Groups leads to reduction of Within Groups 52.928 86 .615 accident on site Total 64.851 93 *Area of specialization 2 The involvement of Between (Combined) 22.817 7 3.260 6.929 .000 health and safety officials Groups has improved status of Within Groups 40.459 86 .470 workers Total 63.277 93 *Area of specialization 3 The involvement of Between (Combined) 14.628 7 2.090 11.368 .000 health and safety officials Groups has improved the Within Groups 15.808 86 .184 productivity of the Total 30.436 93 workers *Area of specialization 4 Health and safety Between (Combined) 33.631 7 4.804 8.884 .000 officials can increase the Groups employee morals Within Groups 46.508 86 .541 *Area of specialization Total 80.138 93 5 Increase productivity of Between (Combined) 142.487 7 20.355 .706 .667 health and safety officials Groups leads to efficiency of Within Groups 2480.151 86 28.839 worker *Area of Total 2622.638 93 specialization 6 Positive effect of health Between (Combined) 15.035 7 2.148 4.116 .001 and safety officials in the Groups site for achievement of Within Groups 44.880 86 .522 project’s objective Total 59.915 93 *Area of specialization
For this objective six questions are site since the p-value (0.12) is greater than compared which relate to the objective in significant value of 0.05, while for question comparing the mean score of the 2,3, 4 and 6 there is no difference in their professionals and contractors’ view in mean scores with the p-value(0.000) relation to the questions. The questions which is below the level of significance picked are questions 1, 3, 4, 11, 13 and 14. (α=0.05). For question 5, there is The ANOVA table is used to test if significant difference with p-value(0.666) significant difference in the mean score of greater than the level of significance the professionals and contractors’ views. (α=0.05), therefore, utilization of health The operation of the health and safety and safety official also increases the officials leads to reduction of accident on efficiency of worker on construction site.
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The study assesses the impact of construction sites and that utilization of utilization of health and safety (H&S) health and safety official leads to reduction official on construction site in Ondo State, of accident on construction sites. Nigeria. A well-structured questionnaire The study recommends that health and was used to collect information from safety officials should do more to impart respondents. One hundred and thirty the workers in the construction site so as (130) questionnaires were administered, to reduce accidents on site. selected through random sampling method, with a retrieval of One hundred ACKNOWLEDGEMENT (100). Data collected were used to assess the level of utilization of H&S official on The authors would like to express their construction sites and examine the impact appreciation to the organisers of the of H&S official on performance of workers conference. on construction sites in the study area. Data were analysed using mean scores REFERENCES analysis, descriptive statistics and standard deviation. The result of the data Dodo M. (2014) The application of health and analysis shows that the respondents’ view safety plan in Nigeria construction firms. Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering, Volume 8, No. 1, about the level of utilization of H&S official 81 – 87. on site in the study area is high with 65%. Furthermore, the scores of each item were Mbuya E. and Lema N.M. (2002) Towards computed as a single measure for the level Development of Framework for Integration of of utilization of H&S official and was Safety and Quality Management Techniques in Construction Project Delivery Process. subjected to descriptive statistics, while a Proceedings of the 1st International Conference minimum and maximum obtained scores of CIB W107: Creating a sustainable on the scale was 0 and 100 respectively Construction Industry in Developing Countries. with a mean and standard deviation 11th – 13th November. (X=62.5 & SD=16.68). The result also Okolie K.C. and Okoye P.U. (2013) Appraising the shows that operation of the H&S officials influence of cultural determinants of leads to reduction of accident on site since construction workers safety perception and the p value (0.12) is greater than behavior in Nigeria. International Journal of significant value of 0.05, while for Engineering and Medical Science Research (1) questions 2, 3, 4 and 6 there is no 11 – 24. difference in their mean scores with the p- Olatunji O.A. and Bashorun N. (2006). A system value (0.000) which is below the level of View of the Labour Profile Structure of the significance (α=0.05) for question 5 there Construction Industry in the Developing is significant difference with p-value Countries: Nigeria, A Case Study. International (0.666) greater than the level of Conference in the Built Environment in the 21st Century (ICIBE), Kuala Lumpur, 13 (15), 881 – significance (α=0.05). 892.
5.0 CONCLUSION Umeokafor N.I, Isaac D., Jones K.G and Umeadi B. (2014) Enforcement of occupational Safety The impact of utilization of H&S official on and Health regulations in Nigeria: An exploration. European Scientific Journal, construction site in the study area is high Special Edition, 3, 93 – 104. and utilization of H&S official leads to reduction of accident and increase the efficiency of workers on construction site. The result of health and safety non- performance in Nigerian construction industry is untold and can be seen in the number of hazards and injuries arising from construction activities throughout the country. Having seen the high level of utilization of health and safety official on
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THE PROBLEMS IN RENOVATION AND RETROFITTING WORKS TO ACHIEVE GREEN BUILDING PERFORMANCE: A REVIEW
R. D. Juliardi *1, M. S. Misnan 2 and A. G. Khalid 2
1 Department of Architecture, School of Architecture, Planning & Policy Development, Institut Teknologi Bandung, ITB, 40132 Bandung, West Java, INDONESIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected]; [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Both renovating and retrofitting works for existing building, is a part of construction management scope. In order to achieve this purpose, studies on identification of the problems that carried out by different researchers over the years in different countries are presenting in this section. To provide clear overview for reader, which are barriers and obstacles in Green Building. Then Green building is one of the measures forward to mitigate significant impacts of the building stock on the environment, society and economy. However, this paper consists of a critical review of the existing body of knowledge of researches related to the strategies of green building achievement. The typical research themes and findings identified. These common themes are the definition and scope of renovation and retrofitting on green building, and discussions approach to achieve green buildings by researchers. It found that the emphasis played predominately focus on knowledge, and stakeholder role as the aspects which are affecting of green building achievement. Future research opportunities were identified such as climatic of all countries to consider to green building assessment tools and future proofing on pre-construction. Identified the problems to achieve on renovation and retrofitting, they are barriers and obstacles. We suggest developing awareness to managing and controlling the problems to consider in construction work for achieving green achievement. Moreover, studies to investigate on barriers and obstacles of Green Building were increasing to sustainable design and construction, then boosting the identified driving factors, the industry can begin to move more aggressively to achieve the goals of sustainability in the built environment due to itsproblems. The points are on technology and awareness starting to develop to the next research.
Keywords : Green building barriers, Green building obstacles, Renovation, Retrofitting
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1.0 INTRODUCTION in worldview from mechanistic to regenerative, and to do so we must Fowler stated that worldwide there are engage with the living world by (re)aligning hundreds of building evaluation tools that human and natural systems. The purpose focus on different areas of sustainable a ‘proactive’ retrofit approach which seeks development and any designed to integrate net-positive, restorative and implementation. These tools include life regenerative design concepts into building cycle assessment, life cycle costing, retrofits. A regenerative design model that energy systems design, performance explores the key interactions between evaluation, productivity analysis, indoor physical, human and natural systems is environmental quality assessments, developed to achieve these proactive operations, and maintenance optimization, outcomes. A set of regenerative design whole building design and operations principles for building retrofits are tools, and more (Fowler & Rauch, 2006) proposed to emphasize the positive interactions an existing building can have The evaluation tools have used by many with its surrounding environment. More countries with any types of climate specifically, this paper will explore how an characteristics of the nations. Then we energy efficient building retrofit can recognized with the rating tools in Green improve occupant health and wellbeing, Evaluation that focus on the buildings and restore and enhance local project, more specific than Fowler’s ecosystems. A detailed example will then statement. All about thermal comfort of the be used to demonstrate the principles as a interior and environment, they are indoor means of shifting the way designers and climate, water management, material decision makers view the building retrofit management, building management, and design process. green space. And moreover, Nandish (Kavani & Pathak, 1.1 Green Construction 2014) found that retrofitting of an existing building into a green building taking into Green construction looks beyond the account the aspects of energy, water, and readily apparent aspects of the office or materials along with cost considerations building to create a space that addresses such that the occupant well-being, the comfort, health and broader environmental performance, and environmental impacts of the economic returns are improved. In the construction/remodeling process (Boma, present project, we have proposed to give n.d.). credits to rate the chosen building for its various green features according to the 1.2 Renovation & Retrofitting rating system of LEED and suggest measures to improve the green A renovation is the consequences of performance of the building. current, and future obsolescence and redundancy need to bear in mind in any 1.3 Green Assessment adaptation proposal to responses the obsolescence and redundancy (Douglas, For green evaluation, Kats (Kats & E, 2006). The current building retrofits 2003) found that the benefits of green predominantly focused on energy and cost buildings are most significant for public efficiency at an individual building or entities that have explicit responsibility to building component scale (Craft, Ding, & be concerned about broader societal Prasad, 2017). benefits such as health. Programming, design & planning, construction, While the aspirations of these retrofits are operation, and demolish (part, retrofit or crucial to the sustainable development of energy evaluation) used for new and our built environment, we can and need to existing building evaluation of green do better. Many argue that we need a shift assessment in Indonesia, with categories
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on mandatory, recommended and how to response local climate & local voluntary. Towards broader societal geographic. benefits of health, based on thermal comfort. It means to increase the energy One of the most important parts of this efficiency on a new and existing building, research as the purpose is to develop that focused on building skin, appliances, systematic work plan for the research and effort on attitudes & behavior, and lastly on its aim is to explain the procedure and renewable energies. And this might be technique applied in this research in order based on this research related existing to achieve the research objectives. It building, particularly post-occupancy on involves the introduction of research government buildings. approaches with the aim to ensure the method used in this research is suitable to Thus, Samari (Samari, Godrati, obtain sufficient and useful information. Esmaeilifar, Olfat, & Shafiei, 2013) found There are also five stages involved in this the findings suggest that government roles chapter which are preliminary study, especially incentive instruments such as literature review, data collection, data structural incentives, subsidy and rebate analysis as well as conclusion and program, tax incentive scheme, low- recommendations. Then, data collection interest mortgage loan, voluntary rating approach and data analysis method used system and market and technology in this research were also discussed in this assistance are the significant drives for chapter. eliminating barriers to green building development. 3.0 RESULT & DISCUSSION
2.0 METHODOLOGY The study has an identification of sustainability initiatives that will develop a The primary data is collected by using solution for the problems on pre- qualitative research method. The construction of strategy on renovating & qualitative method in this research is using retrofitting to the current building to interview (questionnaire) to collect the achieve the green assessment. The new data for achieving the research objective. scheme of the strategy is a finding that Who involved to this interview is in building involves much thinking and practical sector such as professionals (architects, consideration of the local institutional and construction management, M & E building sector issues to the future as the engineer, structural engineer). Due to target of the Green Renovation & current spaces in the building, there only Retrofitting on the existing (current) daily use as office spaces. Hence, related building. The study has found an to this research only on occupied spaces achievement strategy of green aspects on of daily office activities will be used for renovating and retrofitting work through collecting data stage. the objective identifications, which is the objective of the targets and components of Case study taken from three current office renovation & retrofitting works. buildings that located in three municipalities in Java island with different This section is to provide the climates & geographic characteristics understanding on the problems on such as high land on 700 AMSL, middle renovating and retrofitting works to land on 100 AMSL and lowest land on 2 achieve the green assessment. In order to AMSL. And sampling of respondents achieve this purpose, studies on taken from professionals. There are only identification of the problems that carried 25 professionals who representing out by different researchers over the years professional engineers of each province, in different countries are presenting in this West Java, Jogjakarta and East Java, 75 section. To provide clear overview for total who concern in green development reader, which are barriers and obstacles in Green Building as follows.
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However, studies to investigate on barriers involved in the design, including of Green Building were plenteous, studies architects and engineers, must on increasing to sustainable design and work more collaboratively to construction, then boosting the identified achieve green building driving factors, the industry can begin to objectives. move more aggressively to achieve the goals of sustainability in the built e. Role of Green Building Rating environment due to its barriers. The points Systems in Selecting Structural are on technology development and Materials awareness. Thus, this section to identify barriers in Green Building. It shows in table f. Systems Integration has been found identification as follows. The ability to use exposed structural concrete and even Numerous studies have attempted to steel as thermal mass to explain about the barriers of Green dampen interior temperature Building development to overcome swings, help optimize the size unresolved barriers on reducing to of mechanical systems, and sustainable design and construction. reduce the amount of energy According to Griffin (Griffin, Knowles, required for heating and Theodoropoulos, & Allen, 2009), the cooling. findings are:
a. Structural Selection Process: Once the structural material is selected, the stakeholders then determine how to improve the green aspects of the chosen material system.
b. Barriers to Green Structural Materials and Systems: Contractors often address uncertainty by increasing the cost of these materials in cost Table 1 Literature Review estimates and bids. This potential increase in cost often 3.1 Barriers In Green Building deters other stakeholders from pursuing the green structural Tarja (Häkkinen & Belloni, 2011) found material. that the barriers are outlined as steering mechanisms, economics, a lack of client c. Information Gaps understanding, process (procurement and Two of the commonly recorded tendering, timing, cooperation and barriers, stakeholder networking), and underpinning knowledge understanding of green options (knowledge and common language, the and the time available to availability of methods and tools, identify and evaluate innovation). The most important actions to alternatives, are the result of promote sustainable building are the information gaps about green development of the awareness of clients structural materials and about the benefits of sustainable building, systems. the development and adoption of methods for sustainable building requirement d. Green Building Advocates management, the mobilization of As the term “design team” sustainable building tools, the suggests, stakeholders
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development of designers’ competence Leung (Leung, Chau, Lützkendorf, & and team working, and the development of Balouktsi, 2013) found that reveal the new concepts and services. types of policies that have been implemented by various governments to Moreover, cited from Eisenberg (2002), overcome different types of barriers to there are several reasons to adopt building green or sustainable building regulations to encourage and developments. And many barriers have accommodate green building. Generally, been found to hinder the development of the study found current building regulators green buildings as follows: are unaware of the “risks and unintended consequences inherent in current a. Commodity-Related Barriers practice”. And the most building A lack of knowledge of departments lack the time and resources constructors / designers on to educate building officials about these green buildings creates issues and essential elements of green additional barrier. building. The researchers found a b. Process-Related Barriers surprising 65% of surveyed code users The diverse nature of green intentionally left out green building building requires close elements because they anticipated that interaction of suppliers, code officials would deny the design professionals and users. (Garman et al., 2011). Then Afshari found c. Organizational And Personal that Main Barriers per – types are as Behavioral Barriers follows: (Afshari, Issa, & Peng, 2013) A general lack of incentives & a. Financial barriers environmental for investors to invest in b. Managerial barriers green buildings. Some barriers may be c. Social barriers created by the organization itself. Whilst, d. Technical barriers individuals’ behavioral characteristics can also be barriers to green building Thus this involved investigating barriers to development. the design, construction, operation and maintenance of green building in the Later, Yong (Ahn, Pearce, Wang, & Wang, literature and developing general 2013) found that the result indicated that recommendations to overcome them. A the most important driving factors of detailed analysis of those barriers and sustainable design and construction were recommended solutions was undertaken, energy conservation, improving indoor the aim being to conduct a state of the art environmental quality, environmental / review to establish a new vision for resource conservation, and waste researchers and practitioners. Samari reduction. In addition, the most significant (Samari et al., 2013) found that the main barriers to sustainable design and barriers can be listed as: lack of credit construction were first cost premium of the resources to cover upfront cost, risk of project, long payback periods from investment, lack of demand as well as sustainable practices, tendency to higher final price. The findings suggest maintain current practices, and limited that government roles especially incentive knowledge and skills of subcontractors. instruments such as structural incentives, Based on these findings, the study subsidy and rebate program, tax incentive suggests the direction of sustainability scheme, low-interest mortgage loan, policies and programs as well as the voluntary rating system and market and direction of future research and technology assistance are the significant development. The identified barriers can drives for eliminating barriers to green be used to guide how construction building development. stakeholders can be influenced to make improvements in sustainable design and construction.
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However, studies to investigate on barriers buildings have been repeatedly mentioned of Green Building were plenteous, studies as the key issue to the slow progress and on increasing to sustainable design and reluctance in getting involved in green construction, then boosting the identified buildings: driving factors, the industry can begin to move more aggressively to achieve the 1.Lack of Architects, Engineers, goals of sustainability in the built Consultants, & Client Awareness environment due to its barriers. The points 2.Lack of Education & Information are on technology development and 3.Lack of Public Awareness awareness. 4.Lack of Political Awareness
The identified barriers can be used to Later, (Heather Benjamin, 2016), found guide how construction stakeholders can that the top obstacles in developing be influenced to make improvements in markets included lack of public awareness sustainable design and construction: and lack of political support, as noted by Brazil, Colombia, India and Poland. 1. Construction 2. Materials
3. Information OBSTACLES IN GREEN BUILDING 4. Advocation 120% 5. Knowledge & Education 100% 80% 6. Cost 60% 40% 20% 7. Investment AGREEMENT 0% 8. Client Awareness IO2-1 IO2-2 IO2-3 IO2-4 9. Process of Building Production Agree 61% 72% 83% 83% Disagree 36% 25% 14% 11% 10. Awareness
STATEMENT 3.2 Obstacles In Green Building Disagree Agree
According to the research, topics focus on BARRIERS IN GREEN BUILDING achievement strategy of Green Building 100% 80% assessment. Thus, this section to identify 60% barriers in Green Building. It shows in table 40%
AGREEMENT 20% 0% has been found identification as follows. IB1- IB1- IB1- IB1- IB1- IB1- IB1- IB1- IB1- IB1- 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Numerous studies have attempted to Agree 78% 81% 86% 100% 94% 72% 69% 64% 94% 83% Disagree 22% 19% 14% 0% 3% 25% 28% 33% 3% 14% explain about the obstacles of Green STATEMENT Building development to overcome unresolved obstacles, nevertheless Disagree Agree studies between Barriers and Obstacles have similarity meanings of findings by Figure 1 West Java Professionals other countries researchers. Respond
According to Esa (Reza Bin Esa et al., 2011) the findings show that the main BARRIERS IN GREEN BUILDING 100% obstacle in the adoption of green buildings 80% 60% 40% in the country is to create a paradigm shift 20% 0% IB1- in environmental issues in the construction AGREEMENT IB1-1 IB1-2 IB1-3 IB1-4 IB1-5 IB1-6 IB1-7 IB1-8 IB1-9 10 industry. Agree 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 80% 60% 60% 100% 80% Disagree 0% 0% 0% 0% 0% 20% 40% 40% 0% 20% The main hurdles are lack of awareness, STATEMENT even from the architects, consultants, Disagree Agree clients, education and information on the benefits of the construction of green
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OBSTACLES IN GREEN BUILDING Table 2: Professional Characteristic & the Buildings 100% 80% 60% 40% 20%
AGREEMENT 0% IO2-1 IO2-2 IO2-3 IO2-4 Agree 80% 60% 60% 40% Disagree 20% 40% 40% 40%
STATEMENT
Disagree Agree
Figure 2 Yogyakarta Professionals Professional characteristics have an Respond impact on what they do in the area. According to table 2, it shows that professional practice in the regions still BARRIERS IN GREEN BUILDING has minimal potential. The average 120% 100% competence possessed is already 80% registered in the area (75% west Java, 60% 40% 100% Yogyakarta, and 100% East Java), AGREEMENT 20% 0% While that is certified not only more than IB1- IB1-1 IB1-2 IB1-3 IB1-4 IB1-5 IB1-6 IB1-7 IB1-8 IB1-9 10 75% and not less than 56%. Furthermore, Agree 100% 78% 67% 89% 78% 67% 67% 78% 100% 78% it is shown in green certificates that are not Disagree 0% 22% 33% 11% 22% 33% 33% 22% 0% 22% owned by professionals (11% - 47%).In STATEMENT this study, pre-construction work will be
Disagree Agree the goal of how professionals work according to their competencies, and how professionals recognize the pre- OBSTACLES IN GREEN BUILDING construction work scope as well as the 120% readiness to start work. If you look at table
100% 2, only a few professionals who have
80% certificates of work for green buildings, but
60% those who practice architecture found that none in Yogyakarta and Surabaya had AGREEMENT 40% green buildings. 20%
0% IO2-1 IO2-2 IO2-3 IO2-4 Answering the objective to identify the Agree 89% 56% 100% 67% problems on renovating and retrofitting Disagree 22% 33% 0% 33% STATEMENT works to achieve the green assessment through: Disagree Agree 1. Identifying the barriers can be used to guide how construction stakeholders Figure 3 East Java Professionals can be influenced to make Respond improvements in sustainable design
and construction: 4.0 CONCLUSION i. For West Java, needs: In conclusion, the research answered all - Advocation: The primary advocates questions regarding on identifying the for greener-than-standard problems through barriers and obstacles performance objectives both the for pre-construction on renovation and client and the design team retrofitting for green construction. This suggests, design stakeholders, could be developed to the next research architects, and engineers, must on developing strategy on green work more collaboratively to achievement for construction. achieve green building objectives.
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ii. For Yogyakarta, needs: determine if the green aspects of - Construction: The most significant the system are chosen. barriers to sustainable construction were first cost premium of the 2. The main hurdles are identifying of the project, long payback periods from obstacles are the lack of awareness, sustainable practices, tendency to even from the professionals, maintain current practices, and consultants, clients, education and limited knowledge and skills of information on the benefits of the subcontractors. construction of green buildings have - Materials: As the specifying of a been repeatedly mentioned as the key green material can often take place issue to the slow progress and a year or more before the actual reluctance in getting involved in green purchase and procurement of the buildings: materials, there is uncertainty about future costs and availability. For East Java, needs: - Information: Information gaps about - Lack of Public Awareness: green structural materials and Developing awareness strategies systems of green options for the to increase the chances of opportunity to identify and evaluate obtaining green building designs alternatives. approved, and created a list of - Advocation: : The primary deficiencies in a building that advocates for greener-than- facilitate broader acceptance of standard performance objectives green building practice knowledge. both the client and the design team suggests, design stakeholders, REFERENCES architects, and engineers, must work more collaboratively to Afshari, H., Issa, M. H., & Peng, Q. (2013). Barriers achieve green building objectives. to the Design, Construction, Operation and - Knowledge & Education: The Maintenance of Green Building: a state-of- the-art review. Proceedings, Annual current building regulators are Conference - Canadian Society for Civil unaware of the risks and Engineering, 1(May 2016). unintended consequences inherent in current practice, the building Ahn, Y. H., Pearce, A. R., Wang, Y., & Wang, G. sector lack of the time and (2013). Drivers and barriers of sustainable design and construction: The perception of resources to educate building green building experience. International officials about these essential of Journal of Sustainable Building Technology green issues. and Urban Development, 4(1), 35–45. - Process of Building Production: https://doi.org/10.1080/2093761X.2012.7598 The selected material needs to 87 determine if the green aspects of Boma. (n.d.). Environment Guide: Introduction To the system are chosen. Green Construction. In Environment Guide.
iii. For East Java, needs: Craft, W., Ding, L., & Prasad, D. (2017). - Construction: The most significant Development of a Regenerative Design Model for Building Retrofits. In World barriers to sustainable construction Sustainable Built Environment Conference were first cost premium of the (Vol. 180, pp. 716–721). The Author(s). project, long payback periods from https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.04.225 sustainable practices, tendency to maintain current practices, and Douglas, J. (2006). Building Adaptation (second limited knowledge and skills of ed.). Edinburgh - UK: Spon Press. subcontractors. Fowler, K. M., & Rauch, E. M. (2006). Sustainable - Process of Building Production: Building Rating Systems Summary. The selected material needs to https://doi.org/PNNL-15858
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Garman, J., Bowyer, J., Bratkovich, S., Frank, M., Fernholz, K., & Howe, J. (2011). Building Codes: Barriers to Green Innovation. (J. Garman, Ed.). Dovetail Partners Inc.
Griffin, C. T., Knowles, C., Theodoropoulos, C., & Allen, J. H. (2009). Barriers to the implementation of sustainable structural materials in green buildings.
Häkkinen, T., & Belloni, K. (2011). Barriers and drivers for sustainable building. Building Research and Information, 39(3), 239–255. https://doi.org/10.1080/09613218.2011.5619 48
Heather Benjamin. (2016). World Green Building Trends in 2016: Motivators and Obstacles. Retrieved from http://www.usgbc.org/articles/world-green- building-trends-2016-motivators-and- obstacles
Kats, G. H., & E, C. (2003). Green Building Costs and Financial Benefits. Massachusetts - USA: Environmental Business Council of New England, Inc. Retrieved from http://www.bankerandtradesman.com/pub/4_ 91/commercial/185123-1.html
Kavani, N., & Pathak, F. (2014). Retrofitting of an Existing Building Into a Green Building. International Journal of Research in Engineering and Technology, 03(06), 339– 341. https://doi.org/10.15623/ijret.2014.0306062
Leung, T. M., Chau, C. K., Lützkendorf, T. P., & Balouktsi, M. (2013). A Review on Barriers, Policies and Governance for Green Buildings and Sustainable Properties. Urban Density & Sustainability, (September), 1–8.
Reza Bin Esa, M., Marhani, M. A., Yaman, R., Arzlee, A., Hanisah, H. N., Rashid, N., & Adnan, H. (2011). Obstacles in Implementing Green Building Projects in Malaysia. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 5(12), 1806–1812. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.vhri.2015.12.002
Samari, M., Godrati, N., Esmaeilifar, R., Olfat, P., & Shafiei, M. W. M. (2013). The investigation of the barriers in developing green building in Malaysia. Modern Applied Science, 7(2), 1– 10. https://doi.org/10.5539/mas.v7n2p1
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A SYSTEMATIC REVIEW OF CONSTRUCTION SAFETY INTEGRATION IN BUILDING INFORMATION MODELLING (BIM)
M. Y. Nordin *1, R. A. Hamid 2, K. N. Ali 3 and H. A. Haris 4
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The emergence of Industrial Revolution 4.0 has urged all industry to implement technology and construction industry is no exception. The construction industry is known as a very hazardous working environment with the highest statistics of accidents that cause death. Current technology is crucial to be implemented to enhance the construction safety management thus reducing the rate of accidents in this industry. Construction safety needs to be managed for the whole life-cycle of as it is essential to achieve the zero-accident goals. Building Information Modelling (BIM) is one of the technologies that is currently getting much attention from the Architecture, Engineering, and Construction (AEC) industry. Therefore, in this study, we review the integration of construction safety management with BIM. The aims of this study are to review the existing adoption of BIM in construction safety management and provide the suggestion for further research. A Systematic Literature Review (SLR) was adopted to conduct this study. This study shows that the BIM adoption in construction safety is growing especially for the design and planning of the safety but BIM for managing safety in the Malaysia construction industry is yet to be implemented and the system that can help to monitor the construction safety at the construction site for the whole construction sequence is limited.
Keywords: Building Information Modelling, BIM, Construction Safety.
1.0 INTRODUCTION 4D industry [Difficult, Dirty, Dangerous, and Death] (Mohd, 2017). Construction The construction industry has been workers are the personnel that will face the considered as one of the most hazardous highest risk of fatality and injury compared industries (Lingard & Rowlinson, 2004; to other industries (Bansal, 2011). Pinto, Nunes, & Ribeiro, 2011) in which Currently, safety in the construction accident that cause fatal and injury happen industry is still critical and alarming. This is most frequently (Im et al., 2009). It is due highlighted by the recent statistics from the to the complexity of the construction Department of Occupational Safety and industry and its working environment Health Malaysia (DOSH) which shows a (Chong & Low, 2015). Furthermore, the significant number of deaths, non- construction industry is also known as a permanent disability, and permanent
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disability (DOSH, 2018). According to introduce advanced technology in occupational accidents statistics up to managing the construction projects. October 2018, construction industry rank According to (Irizarry, Gheisari, & Walker, at third place behind the manufacturing 2012), the adoption of technologies in the industry and agriculture, forestry & fishery construction industry is behind the other industry in terms of a total number of industries. Recently, many studies have accidents occurred. But, in terms of focused on the employment of advanced accidents that cause deaths, construction technology to enhance construction safety industry recorded the highest number of management (Cheung et al., 2018) and fatality (81) compared to other industries. one of the technologies that grew rapidly The number of accidents in the in the Architecture, Engineering, and construction industry especially accident Construction (AEC) industry is Building that leads to death will endlessly boost Information Modelling (BIM) (Martínez- over time if the construction safety is not Aires et al., 2018). Rokooei (2015) claim properly managed. Therefore, it is vital to that BIM can influence the successfulness introduce a new way to manage of construction project management and construction safety. the way of construction works can be approach is changing by the existence of Safety in the construction project is very BIM (Zhang et al., 2013). vital because as Alomari, Gambatese, & Anderson (2017) said, safety is one of the Miettinen & Paavola (2014) had defined very pivotal aspects that will affect the BIM as “a digital representation of a performance of the construction project. It building, an object-oriented three- is crucially needed to be managed across dimensional model, or a repository of the project life-cycle (Martínez-Aires et al, project information to facilitate 2018). For instance, construction safety interoperability and exchange of planning is very vital to be incorporated information with related software into the design phase and project applications”. Even though the growth of execution planning to identify and mitigate BIM implementation towards improving or eliminate the hazards before the construction project management is construction is commenced. On the other increasing over time and BIM has shown hand, safety monitoring during the many benefits toward construction safety construction phase is also crucial. As Park (Zhang et al., 2015), the application of BIM et al. (2017) said, continuous monitoring at still shows minimal usage on construction the construction sites is required to spot safety and health (Zhang et al., 2013). hazardous environments and shelter According to Getuli, Ventura, Capone, & personnel from prospective injuries and Ciribini (2017), safety in the construction fatal accidents. industry still depends on the traditional method by using paper-based and 2D Numerous studies related to construction drawing which are human-intensive, error- safety stressed that most accidents on the prone and often greatly incompetent. It has site could have been decreased and been broadly recognised that construction avoided with the establishment of the safety demands for enhancement (Teizer proper and coherent safety management & Melzner, 2018). Thus, the integration of process or planning, education//training, construction safety management with BIM and inspection (Park & Kim, 2013). A is crucially needed. major hurdle in construction safety which is poor construction safety management This paper aims to review the existing can be enhanced by the employment of adoption of BIM in construction safety and advanced technologies (Cheung, Lin, & provide the suggestion for further Lin, 2018). research. The result of the review is very pivotal as it will give the view to the In line with the emergence of the Industrial researcher for further their research in Revolution 4.0 (IR4.0), it is essential to
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utilising BIM in construction safety The search with these keywords returned management. a total of 85 literature as stated in Figure 1. From these 85 kinds of literature, only 2.0 RESEARCH METHOD journal articles will be used for this systematic review because they are This study adopted a Systematic meticulously peer-reviewed and Literature Review (SLR) as the research acknowledged as the highest quality of methodology. Database that was used for academic contribution (Charef, Alaka, & the purpose of this review is Scopus Emmitt, 2018) and only articles that were because as Aghaei Chadegani et al. written in English is selected to next (2013) said, Scopus covers a large screening. number of journals and more recent articles compared to Web of Science During the screening stage, 1 paper has (WOS). The search was carried out using been excluded because the title is not the ‘‘Article Title/Abstract/ Keywords’’ field related to our review. Then, 14 paper out of the databases. The keyword “BIM” and of 31 was excluded from this review “Construction Safety” was inserted in the because it was not relevant and not Scopus to search for the related literature. available. So that only 17 papers were The year of 2010 till 2019 was selected as selected to be reviewed in this paper. the study period for this paper.
Identification: Document type excluded (Edt) Excluded ➢ Conference paper (40) Record identified through database searching ➢ Review (3) "BIM" and "Construction Safety" (n=85) Excluded ➢ Book chapter (2) ➢ Conference review (2) Screening: ➢ Short survey (1) (Edt=48) Records screened by titles assessment Excluded (n=32) Language excluded (El) ➢ Chinese (5) Eligibility: (El=5) Abstract articles assessment for eligibility (n=31) Title excluded, with reasons (Et) Excluded (Et=1) Included: Total number of studies used for the review Abstract excluded, with reasons (Ea) (n=17) ➢ Not relevant (10) ➢ Not available (4) (Ea=14)
Figure 1 Flowchart of Systematic Literature Review (SLR) Process
3.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION were summarised in Table 1. The articles are studied on the integration of BIM in the The research on the integration of construction safety management and construction safety with the Building according to Park & Kim (2013), Information Modelling (BIM) has been construction safety management consists conducted in many countries as stated in of construction safety planning process, Figure 1. The figure shows that the United education/ training, and inspection/ States is taking a lead in this research area monitoring. with the highest number of publication (7) followed by China and the United Design/planning phases of construction Kingdom. safety are gaining the highest attention of the researcher. They are using BIM Articles that were selected to be reviewed technology and also other technologies in
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construction safety management to designed models against any potential risk enhance the construction safety that could arise in the whole life-cycle of performance in this industry. the project.
Zhang et al. (2013) proposed a framework BIM-based automated safety rule- for a rule-based checking system for checking was developed by Zhang et al. safety planning and simulation. Automatic (2015) to give automation in the safety hazards identification and identification and prevention of hazard. prevention method can be gained through This automation is just focusing on the fall this framework. The questions of why, hazards only without looking at another where, when, and what safety measure type of potential hazard that exists in the required at the construction site to restrain construction project. The location of the accident from happening can be potential fall hazard can be determined answered. Furthermore, S. Zhang, automatically during the design and Boukamp, & Teizer (2015), proposed a planning stages with this system and it can new way of organizing, storing, and re- provide installation guideline of the safety using the construction safety knowledge measures that need to be installed in that by developing a prototype application of particular area/location. Choe & Leite ontology-based job hazard analysis (JHA) (2017) stated that the traditional method of and visualisation using BIM. This is aiming construction safety planning has an issue to integrate safety knowledge with project with the information because they don’t planning and execution to enable early include site-specific temporal and spatial hazard identification and visualisation. information. Therefore, to address this Another research related to the safety issue, Choe & Leite (2017) proposed a knowledge library is from the Hossain et al. framework to execute the process of (2018) and Yuan et al. (2019). They constructions safety planning in the 4D proposed a Dfs rule-based knowledge environment that consists of site-specific library and PtD knowledge base library temporal and spatial safety information. respectively. These knowledge libraries will assist the designer to check on their
Number of Publication According to Country
3
7 2
1
1 3
United States China Australia Germany Singapore United Kingdom
Figure 2 Number of Publication According to Country
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Next, Zhang, Teizer, Pradhananga, & monitoring (Park, Kim, & Cho, 2016). This Eastman (2015) develop a framework and BLE has been used to acquire a real-time prototype methods which gather, workers’ location and it will assist in formalise, and reuse historical activity- determining the potential accident when specific workspace data to model an the workers are exposed to the hazards. automated activity-based workspace and identification of work congestion by Wireless Sensor Network (WSN) visualisation and safety analysis in BIM. technology also has been used with BIM to They have collected the data of workers’ enhance the performance of construction location by tracking them using the Global safety. Cheung, Lin, & Lin (2018) use this Positioning Systems (GPS) that was technology to monitor the existence of employed in their Personal Protective hazardous gas inside the tunnel and the Equipment (PPE) such as in the safety alarm system will warn the personnel helmet. This method will help in identifying inside the tunnel to evacuate immediately the activity-based space needs, detect from the tunnel if the sensor detects the space conflicts, and potential for inter hazardous gas. conflict settlement by measuring impacts and severities. The usage of GPS in The research that was carried out during tracking the location of workers will have this study period shows that the integration the limitation because the signal only will of construction safety into BIM be accurate if it is used outdoor while for environment focusing more on the design indoor, the signal may lose and the data and planning phase while another two captured is not accurate. The integration of important aspects in construction safety Bluetooth Low-Energy (BLE) with BIM and which is education/training and a cloud-based communication platform will monitoring/inspection were lacked behind. enhance the construction safety
Table 1 BIM in Construction Safety Management
BIM in Construction Safety Management Integrate with Author/s Education / Design / Monitoring / another Training Planning Inspection technology (Park & Kim, 2013) √ √ Augmented Reality (Zhang et al., 2013) √ (Zhang et al., 2015) √ (Zhang et al., 2015) √ (Zhang et al., 2015) √ √ GPS (Teo, Ofori, Tjandra, & Kim, 2016) √ (Malekitabar, Ardeshir, Sebt, & √ Stouffs, 2016) (Shen & Marks, 2015) √ (Zhang et al, 2016) √ (Riaz et al., 2017) √ WSN (Tixier, Hallowell, Rajagopalan, & √ Bowman, 2017) (Park et al., 2016) √ BLE (Choe & Leite, 2017) √ (Alizadehsalehi, Yitmen, Celik, & √ UAV Arditi, 2018) (Cheung et al., 2018) √ WSN (Hossain et al., 2018) √ (Yuan et al., 2019) √
4.0 CONCLUSION construction industry is changing the perspective of late implementation of new Recently, with the emergence of Building technology in their working approach. BIM Information Modelling (BIM), the can provide a platform for enhancing the
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performances of the construction project. monitoring/inspection and education/ It can be used for the whole life-cycle of training with BIM should be carried out in the project from the design phase until the order to utilize BIM in improving safety demolishment of the project. BIM is performance in the construction industry. changing the way of a construction project can be approach and construction safety ACKNOWLEDGEMENT is included. The 3D visualisation and 4D scheduling/simulation playing a major role We would like to acknowledge Universiti in improving the bad reputation of Teknologi Malaysia for supporting this construction safety performance. It is Project under UTM Zamalah. believed that the traditional approach of construction safety management that REFERENCES using paper-based and 2D drawing which is human-intensive, error-prone and often Aghaei Chadegani, A., Salehi, H., Yunus, M., Farhadi, H., Fooladi, M., Farhadi, M., & Ale greatly incompetent need an Ebrahim, N. (2013). A comparison between enhancement. two main academic literature collections: Web of Science and Scopus databases. According to the review, BIM adoption in Asian Social Science, 9(5), 18–26. managing construction safety is increasing Alizadehsalehi, S., Yitmen, I., Celik, T., & Arditi, D. especially for the design and planning of (2018). The Effectiveness of an Integrated the safety at the early stage of the BIM / UAV Model in Managing Safety on construction. Safety planning is very vital Construction Sites. International Journal of to be incorporated into the design phase Occupational Safety and Ergonomics, 0(0), and project execution planning to identify 1–36. https://doi.org/10.1080/10803548.2018.1504 and mitigate or eliminate the hazards 487 before the construction is commenced. Alomari, K., Gambatese, J., & Anderson, J. (2017). On the other hand, safety monitoring Opportunities for Using Building Information during the construction phase is also Modeling to Improve Worker Safety crucial. Continuous monitoring at the Performance. Safety, 3(1), 7. https://doi.org/10.3390/safety3010007 construction sites is required to spot hazardous environments and shelter Bansal, V. K. (2011). Application of geographic personnel from prospective injuries and information systems in construction safety fatal accidents. But the adoption of BIM for planning. International Journal of Project construction safety monitoring and Management, 29(1), 66–77. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijproman.2010.01.00 inspection is quite low compared to the 7 design/planning phase. Other technologies also can be used to acquire Charef, R., Alaka, H., & Emmitt, S. (2018). Beyond the real-time data at the construction site the third dimension of BIM: A systematic to monitor and inspect the safety and to review of literature and assessment of professional views. Journal of Building ensure the personnel on site are in a safe Engineering, 19(October 2017), 242–257. working environment. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jobe.2018.04.028
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PREVENTION OF CONSTRUCTION CONFLICT AND DISPUTE THROUGH BIM IMPLEMENTATION
O. O. Titus *1, H. L. T. Ariffin 2 and K. N. Ali 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected],[email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Construction disputes are epidemic and when not resolved in a timely and effective matter result to project abandonment, cost and time overrun and client dissatisfaction. Modern projects present new challenges and are becoming more complex. To the owner, the fear of completing project in the face of dispute is increasing and to the contractor, the owner’s default in payment and honouring claims when they occur is becoming worrisome. Many studies have facilitated the resolution of disputes through alternative dispute resolution (ADR). ADR is seen as reactive and not preventive. Also, the opportunism and poor handling of ADR itself has been suggested as trigger to adversarial dispute resolution, hence reduces its effectiveness and makes the need for a method that is preventive and reactive becomes more essential. Building information Modelling (BIM) an integrated digital model that cut across the entire project life cycle possess more benefits both as preventive and reactive method of reducing conflicts, overcoming barrier in claim process and effective in resolution of dispute. This study reviewed the existing current dispute resolution method in Nigeria and look at the potential benefits of implementing BIM in resolving disputes.
Keywords: Dispute , BIM , Alternative Dispute Resolution (ADR)
1.0 INTRODUCTION together of stakeholders (owner/clients, consultant and contractor) who have Construction disputes are common all different interest, background, educational over the world and when not resolve in a training and incorporation of different timely and effective manner, it becomes works (civil, mechanical and electrical very expensive, adversarial and affect the works) to complete a project. Hence, performance of the project. Construction conflict and dispute are taken to be part of project in modern age are now becoming the project life cycle. Disputes are more complex resulting in more complex epidemic, disruptive and always comes construction activities and complex with undesirable occurrence that leads to disputes arising from fragmented nature of delay, time & cost overrun and client the industry characterized with uncertainty dissatisfaction (Alias, Dhanya, & and mostly long period of time. Ramasamy, 2015).
Construction industry involves coming
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In Nigeria, Presidential Projects method in Nigeria and look at the potential Assessment Committee (PPAC) report of benefit of implementing BIM in resolving 2011 have it that at least 11,886 Federal disputes projects were abandoned or have not been completed. This was further highlighted by 1.1 Risk, Conflict, Claim and Dispute Ayodele & Alabi (2011) citing Osemenan (1987) and Kotangora (1993) that Nigeria As risk is common to human relationship, has become the world scrapyard of so is risk to relationship in construction abandoned projects, having over 4000 project, though more when compared to uncompleted projects belonging to project in other industries. This is due to its Federal Government. The increase in fragmented nature of activities coupled number of project abandonment confirmed with long period, intricate processes, the widespread of dispute in the industry. offensive environment, financial intensity and dynamic organization structures Construction industry sector has been (Simon A Burtonshaw-Gunn, 2017). rated as one of the most important sectors that contribute to the growth of any nations Conflict is defined as any divergence of in the world. Research have shown that interests, objectives or priorities between the sector account between 5-10% of individuals, groups, or organizations; or world Gross Domestic Product (GDP) non-conformance to requirement of a task, (Okoye, Ngwu, Ezeokoli, & Ugochukwu, activity or process (Ejohwomu, Oshodi, & 2016). However, in Nigeria construction Onifade, 2016). Unmanaged risk result to industry growth rate when compared to conflicts. Idowu et al (2015) stated that the other industries in non-oil sector is low only place where there is no conflict is in (“Nigeria’s Q2, 2018 GDP Report: 5 the world of perfect construction. Hence, Takeaways,” n.d.) and the drop in the since there is no perfect construction, growth rate is attributed to the prevalence conflict is unavoidable in construction of dispute in the industry (Babalola & Ojo, project. 2016). Ideally conflicts and disputes should be Alternative dispute resolution (ADR) has dealt with quickly so that a claim situation been suggested by many researchers as is not allowed to exist. Although claims solution to the increase number of conflict may be perceived by many from its and dispute considering its advantage of negative impact, the right to claim cost effectiveness and short period which additional payment and extension of time alleviate the shortcoming of litigation and are essential provision in construction arbitration (Idowu, Ogunbiyi, & Hungbo, contract (Ashworth, Hogg, & Higgs, 2013). 2015). However, the prevalence of dispute and the popularity of litigation and Dispute is defined as assertion of right by arbitration revealed that the system is not one party and the rejection by the other effective enough. Akinradewo (2017) after party. Subsequently it is concluded that a the assessment of dispute resolution mere claim without rejection does not system in Nigeria suggested the need for constitute dispute, but the rejection of the a dispute prevention strategy rather than claim and non-acceptance of the rejection settlement. Hence, the need to adopt a is what constitute dispute (Mohamed, model that can prevent and resolve Ibrahim, & Soliman, 2014). dispute easily becomes more important. Many studies have facilitated resolving The connection between risk, conflict, disputes by alternative dispute resolution, claims and dispute as suggested by but none has attempted potential benefit of acharya et al (2006) in figure 1 shows that Building Information Modelling (BIM) as an early identification of risk and its proactive and reactive model for resolving management will offer the stakeholders disputes. This paper will attempt to review the opportunity to collaborate and have a the existing current dispute resolution resourceful construction activities, then
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occurrence of dispute can be reduced to 1.3 Current dispute resolution barest minimum. Hence, it can be method in Nigeria suggested that a system that will eliminate or minimize the occurrence of dispute As common to most developing countries must have in its design an early in the world, dispute resolution in Nigeria identification of conflict and dispute. is classified under three main group: litigation, arbitration and alternative 1.2 Causes of Disputes dispute resolution (ADR).
Several Studies have identified causes of Litigation, in which a judge or jury dispute, their relevancies and classified determines the outcome. This process is them in different categories. Cakmak & lengthy, expensive and the outcome is Cakmak (2014) classified the causes of always adversarial and affect business dispute into seven categories: owners relationship, related, contractors related, design related, contract related, human behavior Consensual / Extrajudicial processes, related, project related and external factor such as mediation, arbitration, negotiation, related . The studies concluded that etc. in which the parties to dispute attempt contractor related dispute and its subset to reach agreement. are the most common dispute in the industry. Hybrid methods is the combination of two extrajudicial processes such as Med-Arb, Jelodar, Yiu, & Wilkinson (2015) Mini-trial, Med-con (Oke, & Lawal, 2013). categories causes of disputes into project uncertainty, contract & process and Also dispute resolution method can be people & behavior issues and submitted classified in terms of their bidding effect, that although the classified causes of the bidding been litigation and arbitration dispute can be an early trigger, however and the non-bidding as ADR which can be the opportunism and poor handling of further classified to conciliation, mediation, conflict and dispute are the main cause of adjudication, mini trial and others. Fenn et dispute. al (1997) suggested that the finality of the decision is the critical thing to be In Nigeria, Akinradewo (2017) and considered be it binding or non-binding. Olarewanju & Anavhe (2014) having assessed the causes of dispute concluded Generally going for dispute resolution that financial related issues are the method which allow the parties to resolve causes of dispute in Nigeria. Looking disputes without going to method which critically at all the causes of disputes, it is are binding and adversarial in nature has clear that disputes manifest in the been the contractual requirement (Mohd, construction stage nevertheless the real Suhaimi,M. D.; Zahira, Mohd,I.; Nur, cause have been existing during the Emma, M.; Mohd, Salleh, 2012). planning stage, this confirm the submission of Love, Peter, Kerry, & Jasper Over the years, giant stride has been (2008) that the seeds of disputes are made to resolve dispute in non-adversarial usually planted during the design stage but method by means of alternative dispute emerge during construction. resolution (ADR). However, dispute Consequently, it can be suggested that continue to increase in the industry understanding and prevention of the root evidence in the number of project failure cause of dispute is critical to an effective and this ineffectiveness has been dispute resolution method. attributed to opportunism, poor handling, non- binding and voluntary nature of many ADR (Idowu et al., 2015). Also the fact that ADR comes into play after dispute occurrence make it
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ineffective when considering dispute should exercise teamwork, build trust prevention/avoidance consequently to among each other in managing such achieve a step change in minimizing the dispute. occurrence of dispute, there is need for a flexible and effective method of dispute This afirmed the the suggestion of Sinha & resolution with a strategic approach of Wayal (2007) that to mitigate dispute, dispute prevention and resolution that scope changes should be minimized and foster collaboration among project identification, allocation and proactive stakeholders.. Akinradewo (2017) management of risk are of important suggested the need for the parties to adopt consideration. a system that can prevent dispute rather than settlement and when it occurs, they
Figure 1 Risk, conflict, claim and dispute continuum model, Source(Acharya et al., 2006)
1.4 Potential Benefit of BIM in collaboratively using a coherent system of minimizing the occurrence of Dispute computer models rather than a separate set of drawings(Autodesk(DLT), 2014) Building information modelling (BIM) greatly improve project predictability and Generally, the definition that seems to gain performance. It is an innovation that brings global acceptance is given by US National about paradigm shift in the Architecture Building Information Model Standard Engineering and Construction (AEC) Project Committee.(Smith, 2014) which sector around the world. BIM as a valuable defines BIM as a digital representation of tool and process provide the concept of physical and functional characteristics of a collaborative working and decision making facility which can be shared across all based on the generation and exchange of stakeholders and be maintained across data and information between the various the life of a building from inception to end parties in the life cycle of a project from of its life. From this definition BIM is a conception to the end of its life. process that allow all stakeholders to work together accurately and efficiently than BIM concept goes beyond been a software using the traditional process which is but a method of producing and handling based on 2D CAD drawing and building information data which enables fragmented work process parties to insert, extract, update or modify information in the model at any phase of Prevention they say is better than cure. the project life cycle (Tiong, Nath, & Studies have shown BIM as a model long Attarzadeh, 2015). Also, it can be sorted for by Architectural, Engineering described as combination of technology and Construction industry (AEC) which and a set of work methods that allows decrease project cost, increase building and infrastructure to be designed productivity & quality, and reduce project
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delivery time (Khoshnava & Ahankoob, starting from its use to the end of its 2007). BIM has a potential of resolving life.(Azhar, 2011) disputes at all stages of construction from inception to end of its life(Charehzehi, 2.0 FINDINGS AND CONCLUSION Chai, Yusof, Chong, & Loo, 2017; Khaled & Shami, 2018) This is an emerging area of study. However, preliminary study has shown The rich data available with BIM enable it that BIM has a great potential in to function in all stages of construction to eliminating conflicts and resolving prevent dispute, as discussed below. disputes. Also, the BIM application process that span from inception to 1.5 Pre - construction Stage operational phase of project qualified it as ‘’one size fit all model’’. The root causes of dispute at the stage are unclear scope of work and estimating Although conflicts and dispute cannot be error. These is due to the inability of the eliminated, BIM is suggested as a model client and contractor to understand the which can prevent and cure the inevitable scope of work based on 2D drawing. musketeer of project (conflicts and However, with 3D visualization which dispute). allow virtual mock-up of the project before actual construction on site and 5D which BIM implementation with the support of its allow the Quantity surveyor to prepare an tools create a culture of collaboration & accurate bill of quantities eliminates innovation which is changing the industry disputes at the stage (I. O. Onungwa, operation to meet up the world rising Uduma-Olugu, & Igwe, 2016; 2017). population which increase at average of 200,000/day in the urban area(“Future of 1.6 Construction Stage Construction | World Economic Forum,” n.d.) BIM if adopted in Nigeria construction Disputes mostly emerge as a result of industry will in turn reduce project poor-quality design, change order, lack of abandonment cost and time overrun which constructability, poor schedule & will increase the contribution of construction method, payment issues, construction industry to country economy improper procurement & material delivery growth. plan and poor health and safety plan. The availability of 3D visualization, 3D REFERENCES coordination and clash analysis couple with 4D has been suggested to eliminates Acharya, N. K., Dai Lee, Y., & Man Im, H. (2006). all these causes of dispute. BIM eliminates Conflicting factors in construction projects: Korean perspective. Engineering, rework, provide an effective claim Construction and Architectural Management, management and effective health and 13(6), 543–566. safety plan.(Charehzehi et al., 2017; Love, https://doi.org/10.1108/09699980610712364 Smith, Ackermann, & Irani, 2019; Marzouk, Othman, Enaba, & Zaher, 2018; Akinradewo, O. F. (2017). Assessment of Dispute Resolution in the Construction Industry in Soltani, Anderson, & Kang, 2017; Zhang, Lagos State , Nigeria. 8(18), 22–27. Lee, Venugopal, Teizer, & Eastman, n.d.). Alias, M., Dhanya, R., & Ramasamy, G. (2015). 1.7 Post Practical Completion. Study on factors affecting the performance of construction projects and developing a cost BIM process updates the as-built drawing prediction model using ANN. International Journal of Earth Sciences and Engineering, as the work progresses which guarantee 8(5), 2189–2194. accurate and reliable as-built drawing. Also, BIM data base provide all needed Ashworth, A., Hogg, K., & Higgs, C. (2013). Willis’s information for maintenance of the building practice and procedure for the quantity surveyor. Retrieved from https://www.worldcat.org/title/williss-practice-
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INTEGRATION OF BIM INTO FACILITIES MANAGEMENT (FM): IDENTIFYING THE GAPS BETWEEN BIM AND FACILITY MANAGEMENT (FM)
E. Y. Ariffin *1, N. E. Mustafa 2 and Maimunah 3
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
ABSTRACT
The exploitation of Building Information Modelling (BIM technology for Facility Management (FM) field is mainly to overcome fragmentation of the building process as well as to make effective the use of BIM models for the entire asset lifecycle. Thus, this paper present the gaps and identify the challenges in utilizing BIM associated with FM. Relying upon literature, this paper is written based on the discovery of significant gaps regarding the integration of BIM into FM through content analysis conducted on selected papers and journals by using specific keywords. This research aims to shed new knowledge on the gaps and limitation to earlier and meaningful adoption of BIM into FM. This research also indicates that there are interlinking factors related to the challenges identified.
Keywords : BIM, FM, Challenges, Interlinking factors
1.0 INTRODUCTION inherent capabilities of BIM in capturing, storing and sharing accurate and Facility Management (FM) entails the comprehensive information about building responsibility for: "the safe operation and elements and systems from pre-design maintenance of a corporation or project stages to post-construction stages organization's real estate as well as its (Becerik-Gerber et al, 2012, Shalabi and systems" (Levitt, 2013). The amorphous Turkan, 2016, Terreno et al, 2015 and Pärn range of FM operations and maintenance et al, 2017). However, even though the (O&M) activities contribute significantly to need for BIM in FM operation has been costs during the building's whole lifecycle acknowledged since 2010, facility operators (Perera et al., 2016). BIM with its proven have yet to embrace the benefits of BIM capabilities in data storage and information (Akcameta et al., 2010, Vollk et al., 2014 exchange among multiple systems is ideally and Ilter and Ergen, 2015). According to a positioned to streamline FM activities (Ilter survey done in Netherland in 2015, even for and Ergen, 2015, Shalabi and Turkan, the companies that have already 2016, Pärn et al., 2017). The value of implemented BIM in the design and integrating BIM for FM resides in the construction phases, the added value of
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BIM in the facility operation phase is 1.2 Technology Transformation marginal. The main reason for this low- value realization is "a lack of alignment The FM team have their own facility between people, processes, and systems, information systems such as CAFM and particularly in a manner that agrees with the CAMM. To integrate with BIM, FM unit must basic principles of BIM" [Bosch et al., 2015]. first undergo their own digital transformation Researchers and industry professionals with significant levels of integration required need a state-of-the-art overview of BIM across existing tools and processes. As developments in facility management, reported by many researchers, the issues especially in Malaysia once the government most relevant with the technology mandate the implementation of BIM in FM transformations are level of interoperability in 2020. between software, the lack of open and standardized data libraries that can be Currently, the increasing level of utilised as a bridge for BIM and FM and data implementation and maturity of BIM is more exchange in standard format from BIM apparent in design and construction phase. system to FM system (COBie) are the most According to J.Jupp and R.Awad, (2017), barriers hindering the integrating of BIM in the maturity of BIM across the design and FM. construction activities are being documented in literature and project 1.3 Organizational Transformation activities which once dispersed and siloed, are slowly being integrated via digital project The availability of new BIM technologies delivery methods. With such changes to allows for a substantial reshaping of an project delivery, opportunities for integrated owner’s business processes. This has a information management in operations are dramatic impact on an owner’s internal beginning to be realized especially in facility organization. BIM-FM integration requires a management. close analysis of the way a building owner is engaging in design, construction and However, there are several factors operations processes. That is how they contributing to the barriers of the specify and manage requirements, engage implementation BIM in FM such as in design reviews, collaborate with project transitioning from traditional approach, stakeholders, integrate processes and technology transformation and information, and collect, use and reuse organizational transformation. data.
Thus, this research aims to identify the gaps 1.1 Transitioning Traditional in the challenges and barriers associated Approach with BIM-FM integration. This paper involves a literature review on both In traditional approach, FM teams are not academic and applied publications that involved at early phase of the project. They focus on BIM applications in FM. The review become a separate team from the project process consists of four main steps: (1) activities and only gets involved when the defining the research scope and identify the project at the handover phase. Thus, to keywords used for searching in the maximize the use of BIM in FM, the database. (2) collecting the articles that are involvement of FM team must be within the scope of this review. (3) content considered from inception phase. Besides analysis and identify the challenges that are the lack of information requirement, hindering BIM in FM field are summarized specification process and competencies and evaluated in the main finding and (4) relating to information management across discussing the identified gaps and the stakeholder also become a challenge to limitation of the challenges. implement BIM in FM (J.Jupp and R.Awad, 2017).
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2.0 METHODOLOGY papers were examined in following the scope of research. The aspects have been This paper involves a literature review on reviewed as follows: academic papers and journals. After the scope of paper has been identified, 1. The research method collection of the papers and journals are 2. Whether the benefits of BIM and FM conducted from a keyword search in the implementation are discussed Web of Science database to identify the 3. Whether the challenges and obstacles journals and papers that are published with of BIM in FM are discussed related topics. The keywords used to search the papers are “BIM”, “FM”, “BIM in Through the review process, the research FM” and “BIM and FM Challenges”. As a has identified three main barrier factors that result, 151 articles were identified. Among are hindering the implementation of BIM in the 151 papers and journals, after filtering FM which are people, process and out the articles outside of the scope technology and these factors are being a research through content analysis of the gap of adoption of BIM in FM. abstract, there were 16 papers pertinent to BIM and FM challenges 3.0 MAIN RESULTS
2.1 Literature Research and content According to content analysis on literature, analysis the gaps that hindering BIM integrate into FM are represented in Table 1. In this step, 15 papers pertinent to BIM and FM challenges were reviewed. All the
Table 1 The Gaps and Interlink Factors Between BIM And Facility Management (FM)
INTERLINKING CHALLENGES FINDING PAPERS OF AUTHOR FACTORS
Rebekka Volk, Julian Stengel, Frank Schultmann (2013), Mohamad Kassem, Graham Kelly, Naswan Dawood Michael There is a large gap between the Serginson and Steve Lockley (2014), practitioners in the building industry Graham Kelly (2015), Ruwini Edirisinghe, on how to adjust their routines of Lijun Shen, Yang Miang Goh, (2016), Awareness and works processes and potential Mehmet Yalcinkaya And Vishal Singh People culture benefit offered by BIM into FM. The (2016), Ruwini Edirisinghe, Pushpitha
adoption of BIM into FM requires the Kalutara And Kerry London (2016), changing from traditional non- S.Neda Naghshbandi (2016), M.K Dixit intelligent data to BIM-based And V.Venkatraj (2017), Ruwini . intelligent information system. Edrisinghe, Kerry Anne London, Puspita Kalutara And Guillermo Aranda-Mena (2017), E.A Parn, Dj Edward (2017), Marit Støre-Valen (2018) Successful implementation of FM function depends on the identification of major requirements, function, and Rebekka Volk, Julian Stengel, Frank communications of the Schultmann (2013), S.Neda Naghshbandi development at the earliest Information (2016), M.K Dixit And V.Venkatraj (2017), possible time. Incompleteness, management Technology Ruwini . Edrisinghe, Kerry Anne London, value inaccuracies and Puspita Kalutara And Guillermo Aranda- unnecessary of the information Mena (2017), E.A Parn, Dj Edward (2017), during the hand over is a Marit Støre-Valen (2018). challenge to assess the information quality of the BIM model for facility management. A standard method is needed to
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identify the required information thus will improve the quality and reliability of data in the management phase. The lack of understanding about how BIM is applied into FM contributes to misunderstanding Rebekka Volk, Julian Stengel, Frank on perspectives of how BIM can Schultmann (2013), Mohamad Kassem, support FM. No legal execution Graham Kelly, Naswan Dawood Michael and guidelines in place for Serginson and Steve Lockley (2014), updating and maintaining the Graham Kelly (2015), Ruwini Edirisinghe, model makes it extremely difficult Lijun Shen, Yang Miang Goh, (2016), Standard and to gather usable FM data from Processes Mehmet Yalcinkaya And Vishal Singh Processes the developed BIM during design (2016), Ruwini Edirisinghe, Pushpitha
and construction phase. Hence, Kalutara And Kerry London (2016), S.Neda the clarification of the structure Naghshbandi (2016), M.K Dixit And and legal roles and V.Venkatraj (2017), Ruwini .Edrisinghe, responsibilities among the key Kerry Anne London, Puspita Kalutara And players is highly needed Guillermo Aranda-Mena (2017), E.A Parn, contractually to understand the Dj Edward (2017), Marit Støre-Valen (2018) legal responsibilities of various participants within the projects. The lack of standardised tools and processes and determining the specific data required Rebekka Volk, Julian Stengel, Frank remains as a key challenge to Schultmann (2013), Mohamad Kassem, both the design team and Graham Kelly, Naswan Dawood Michael building owners. The only Serginson and Steve Lockley (2014), recognized open standard Graham Kelly (2015), Ricardo Codinhoto Data promoted by Building Smart is And Arto Kivinimemi (2016), Ruwini Requirements IFC, but currently, software is not Technology Edirisinghe, Pushpitha Kalutara And Kerry able to correctly display the data London (2016), S.Neda Naghshbandi structure. Moreover, it is (2016), M.K Dixit And V.Venkatraj (2017), necessary to operate with regard Ruwini . Edrisinghe, Kerry Anne London, to organizational and procedural Puspita Kalutara And Guillermo Aranda- interoperability to define a shared Mena (2017), E.A Parn, Dj Edward (2017), framework among the building Marit Støre-Valen (2018) process.
Interoperability between BIM technologies and the FM platform is still an issue even though the added value is of undeniable interest. Current FM systems are Rebekka Volk, Julian Stengel, Frank based on CAD and spreadsheet, Schultmann (2013), Mohamad Kassem, so the integration with a graphical Graham Kelly, Naswan Dawood Michael database does not have Serginson and Steve Lockley (2014), immediate resolution in terms of Graham Kelly (2015), Ricardo Codinhoto visualization and correct And Arto Kivinimemi (2016), Ruwini Interoperability transposition of data and tables. Technology Edirisinghe, Pushpitha Kalutara And Kerry
Moreover, at the moment, it is not London (2016), S.Neda Naghshbandi clear which information is correct (2016), M.K Dixit And V.Venkatraj (2017), to include in the BIM model and Ruwini . Edrisinghe, Kerry Anne London, what is more useful, in economic Puspita Kalutara And Guillermo Aranda- terms and workforce, to insert Mena (2017), E.A Parn, Dj Edward (2017), directly into widely used Marit Støre-Valen (2018) applications of Computerized Maintenance Management Systems.
The compatibility between BIM Rebekka Volk, Julian Stengel, Frank and FM technologies is limited Schultmann (2013), Mohamad Kassem, Data exchange Technology because of considerable Graham Kelly, Naswan Dawood Michael difference among life cycle BIM Serginson and Steve Lockley (2014),
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technologies and FM Graham Kelly (2015), Ricardo Codinhoto technologies. The Construction And Arto Kivinimemi (2016), Ruwini Operation Building information Edirisinghe, Pushpitha Kalutara And Kerry exchange (COBie) standard has London (2016), S.Neda Naghshbandi been introduced as a reference (2016), M.K Dixit And V.Venkatraj (2017), for the transfer of 3D BIM Ruwini . Edrisinghe, Kerry Anne London, information into spreadsheet Puspita Kalutara And Guillermo Aranda- format. However, this format is Mena (2017), E.A Parn, Dj Edward (2017), extremely complicated and Marit Støre-Valen (2018) contains too much information to be included in a model. In addition, the debate concerns on who should enter this data during the building process and with what kind of classification.
4.0 CONCLUSION 3rd issue is about the cost. The reason why BIM is left behind in FM is that the clients Overall, this paper concludes that to reach are not ready to allocate some money on the fruitful application of BIM for FM it and see it as an additional cost. Most of integration, the stakeholder needs to client are not concerned with the lifecycle overcome the gaps that is hindering the cost of the asset. They are very sceptical application of BIM to support FM activities. and concerned on the investment at initial The research indicates, all the challenges cost such as the cost related to the new are about three mains interlink factors technology. They also think about the cost namely people, processes and of staff training and cost related to technology. information management. Thus, all these issues will be hindering the adoption of 4.1 People BIM in FM.
st 1 issue is knowledge barriers. To ensure In order to ensure the FM industry is well that BIM is growing in the FM world, the prepared for engaging with other key need for knowledgeable FM staff primarily stakeholders in BIM projects it is essential related to IT is vital. Existing technologies that the level of awareness of BIM and how need to be well balanced with the ability to facilities management professionals see handle the technology. The major BIM impacting on the FM industry are well challenge is the lack of those who have the understood. knowledge and skills in BIM technology. Human resources involved in this industry 4.2 Process need to be trained and enhance their knowledge with information technology to BIM nowadays has matured in enable BIM to be adopted within FM. construction where all the construction players have much good knowledge of 2nd issue related to people is awareness BIM, but they do not realize what FM of BIM technology. BIM has the potential needs from BIM and same goes to FM to deliver a significant benefit to FM and team, they do not know what they want reduce operational cost over the lifecycle, and how they are going to use the data but client and FM professional are slow to supplied. Implementation of BIM in the embrace it. Most of them have heard, construction industry encourages the clearly and sincerely believed that BIM will integration of construction knowledge have significant impact on FM industry earlier of the design stage. However, however some of them also indicate that different contract approach and they are not really clear about what is BIM. arrangement is the most significant changes that the construction team have to face when implementing BIM
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technology. It is different from the integral digital representation of all traditional approach of contract and building information for each phase of the workflow. By implementing BIM project lifecycle in the form of a data intensively, it is using a shared building repository. The most difficult challenge in model from the design stage of the project, adoption of BIM in FM is that the gap then coordinate a set of building model between the BIM system and FM system during construction and fabrication is already in place. The data is not process as the basis of all working process integrated or compatible with an existing for collaboration. Thus, communication FM system. The information transfer between the FM team and the construction through the exchange format is also a team is vital. Both parties do not problem in technology issue in BIM and thoroughly understand each other on FM FM. Besides, interoperability in BIM is vital needs, and FMs do not know what the to bridge the gap between data construction team wants. requirements in FM and BIM for seamless system integration. The FM team claimed a lack of integration of workflows as a challenge. Lack of The BIM technologies can be broadly connection with the construction process divided into two categories, geometric and from the beginning of the project to the non-geometric. After over a decade of handover stage. The disconnection development, software solutions have between who designs the building and become more and more mature in who operates and maintains the building geometric modelling, object library will risk the accuracy of the core building creation, and interoperable integration. information drops off and it then becomes Nevertheless, modelling and model necessary to re-procure information in the updating are still largely based on the operational phase. Thus, an earlier team manual processes, which are time should provide the right details and the consuming and costly (Volk et al. 2014). information because they will rely on the This is one of the major challenges of BIM data input into the model to maintain the adoption in the FM. The non-geometric building in the future. technologies include a wide spectrum of information and communication Unclear roles and responsibilities among technologies (ICT) and data technologies. the players due to no standard guideline to FM-BIM is still one of the areas that needs identify the person responsible for more significant innovations, for example, updating and maintain the model is also an smart and sustainable applications. Table issue to the barriers of implementation BIM 2 summaries the interlink factors (created into FM. by the challenges) facing the implementation of BIM in facility 4.3 Technology management practice . Technology approach in BIM is related to the application of and maintaining an
Table 2 BIM - FM Parameter Interlinks Factor
INTERLINK FACTORS INTERLINK FACTORS PARAMETER
PEOPLE Culture; Satisfaction; Experience; Cost
PROCESS Productivity; Flexibility; Reliability; Adaptability; Quality Improvement; Collaboration TECHNOLOGY Integration tools, interoperability, data exchange, data capture; data requirement
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REFERENCES management applications: A case study of a large university complex. Built Environment Project and Asset Mgmt, 5(3): 261-277. A. Bosch, L. Volker, A. Koutamanis. (2016). BIM in the operations stage: Bottlenecks and implications for owners Built Environ. Project Levitt, J.D. (2013), Facilities Management, Asset Manage., 5 (3) (2015). 331- Momentum Press, New York, NY 343, 10.1108/BEPAM-03-2014-0017 Manish K. Dixit, Varusha Venkatraj, Mohammadreza, Ostadalimakhmalbaf, A. Akcamete, B. Akinci, J.H. Garrett. (2010). Fatemah Pariafsai, Sarel Lavy (2019) Potential utilization of building information "Integration of facility management and building models for planning maintenance activities, in: information modeling (BIM): A review of key Proceedings of the International Conference on issues and challenges", Facilities, Vol. 37 Computing in Civil and Building Engineering: Issue: 7/8: 455-483 151- 157. ISBN
Perera, B., Ahamed, M., Rameezdeen, R., B. Becerik,Gerber, F. Jazizadeh, N. Li, G. Calis. Chileshe, N. and Hosseini, M.R. (2016), (2012). Application areas and data “Provision of facilities management services in requirements for BIM-enabled facilities Sri Lankan commercial organisations: is in- management J. Constr. Eng. Manage. - house involvement necessary?”, Facilities, Vol. Asce, 138 (3): 431-442 34 Nos 7/8: 394-412
D. Ilter, E. Ergen. (2015) BIM for building R. Edirisinghe, K.A. London, P. Kalutara, G. refurbishment and maintenance: current status Aranda-Mena. (2017). Building information and research directions Struct Survey, 33 (3) : modelling for facility management: are we there 228-256 yet? Eng. Constr. Arch. Manage. 24 (6) (2017) :1119–1154. Edirisinghe, R., London, K. and Kalutara, P. (2016), “An investigation of BIM adoption of owners and Shalabi, Y. Turkan. (2016). IFC BIM-based facility facility managers in Australia: institutional case management approach to optimize data study”, The RICS Annual Construction and collection for corrective maintenance, J. Building Research Conference (COBRA 2015), Perform. Constr. Facil 04016081 Toronto,
S. Neda Naghshbandi. (2016). BIM for Facility Edirisinghe, R., London, K. and Kalutara, P. (2016), Management: Challenges and Research “An Investigation Of Bim Readiness Of Owners Gaps. Civil Engineering Journal Vol. 2, No. 12 And Facility Managers In Singapore: Institutional Case Study, CIB World Building Congress Talebi, S. (2014), “Exploring advantages and challenges of adaptation and implementation of E. Pärn, D. Edwards, M. Sing. (2017) . The BIM in project life cycle”, 2nd BIM International building information modelling trajectory in Conference on Challenges to Overcome, facilities management: a review Autom.Consr., BIMForum. 75: 45 55 Terreno, S., Anumba, C.J., Gannon, E. and Dubler, Marit Støre-Valen, Martine Buser, (2019) C. (2015), “The benefits of BIM integration with "Implementing sustainable facility facilities management: a preliminary case management: Challenges and barriers study”, Proceedings of the 2015 International encountered by Scandinavian FM Workshop on Computing in Civil Engineering practitioners", Facilities, https://doi.org/10.1108/ F-01-2018-0013 Volk, R., Stengel, J. and Schultmann, F. (2013), “Building information modeling (BIM) for M H Hossain and JKW Yeoh(2018), BIM for existing buildings – literature review and future Existing Buildings: Potential Opportunities and needs”, Automation in Construction, Vol. 38: pp. Barriers IOP Conf. Series: Materials Science 109-127. and Engineering 3576178(920‘1’8“)” 012051 Yalcinkaya, M. and Singh, V. (2014), “Building Julie Jupp ad Ramsey Awad. (2017). A Change information modeling (BIM) for facilities Management Perspective On BIM-FM management– literature review and future Implementation. EPiC Series in Education needs”, in Fukuda, S. et al. (Eds), IFIP Science, Volume 1:361-370 International Federation for Information Processing, PLM 2014, IFIP AICT 442: 1-10. Kassem, M., Kelly, G., Dawood, N., Serginson, M., & Lockley, S. (2015). BIM in facilities
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ESTABLISHING THE INFLUENCE OF THE LOWEST-BID SELECTED CONTRACTOR ON THE NIGERIAN CONSTRUCTION PROJECT PERFORMANCE USING PLS-SEM
G. S. Buba *1, R. A. Hamid 2, Z. M. Ramly 3 and I. Mohamad 4
1, 2, 3 Department of Quantity Surveying, Faculty of Built Environment and Surveying, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected])
4 Department of Mathematical and Science, Faculty of Science, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 Johor Bahru, Johor, MALAYSIA. (E-mail: [email protected])
ABSTRACT
Delivering a performing project is very important to both the client and the contractor in the construction industry. Therefore, procurement is considered to be the key to performance improvement in the construction industry. The lowest bid system of selecting a contractor has remained the most popular procurement approach. Many users have documented the poor performance and poor quality of contractors that have been procured using the lowest bid process. The relationship between the Lowest Bid contractor selection approach and the project non-performance challenges in the Nigerian construction industry was established with this hypothesis: “There exist a significantly positive relationship between the Lowest Bid contractor selection process and non-performance of projects in the Nigerian construction industry. A total of 314 questionnaires were collected from construction professionals in the Nigerian construction industry. Exploratory factor analysis and Partial Least Squared Structural Equation Modelling were employed. It was established that there exists a significantly positive relationship between the Lowest Bid contractor selection process and project’s non-performance in the Nigerian construction industry. Hence, a better contractor selection approach should be looked into such as, the Best Value Procurement approach. This approach, from research, is known to help increase value and quality, assign accountability and encourage continuous improvement also, minimize project cost. Consequently, has the potential of stabilising the construction project delivery in Nigeria by selecting and expert contractor.
Keywords: Best Value Performance Information Procurement System (BVPIPS), Construction industry, Nigeria, Lowest-Bid contractor selection, Project performance
1.0 INTRODUCTION the project delivery system (Hughes, 2012; Ayandike, 2000 and Aqua Group, The construction procurement process is 1999). Delivering a performing project is broad and involves every single phase of very vital to both the client and the
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contractor in the construction industry. other procurement methods as the Thus, procurement is well-thought-out to strategy is sequential and construction be the key to performance improvement in cannot be commenced prior to the the construction industry (Ibrahim, 2008). completion of the design. Also, no input Lim (2014), established that, Procurement into the design or planning of the project encompasses the process of selecting by the contractor as they are not appointed contractors, establishing payment terms, during the design stage (Cooperative strategic vetting, and selection, the Research Centre for Construction negotiation of contracts and actual Innovation, 2004). This kind of purchasing of goods. Mahmood (2010), procurement is the most practised in added that “public procurement represents Nigeria. The separation and sequencing of 18.42% of the world GDP”. In developing activities in which design is completed countries, public procurement is before construction commence became progressively acknowledged as important the traditional sequence and it is now in-service delivery (Bashaka and referred to as Design-Bid-Build or the Bisangabasaija, 2010) and it accounts for lowest-bid procurement approach (Daniel, a high percentage of overall expenditure. 2006).
The importance of the construction 1.1 Problem Statement industry to economic development of any country cannot be played down. It is an The lowest bid approach has continued to important contributor to the be the most popular procurement system competitiveness and wealth of the and many users have documented the economy this is because, a modern poor performance and poor quality of efficient infrastructure is the key driver of contractors that have been procured using productivity and, the construction industry the lowest bid process (ENR Staff Writer has a major role in providing the built 2003; Illia 2001and Post 1998). This has infrastructure in an innovative and cost made owners or clients worried in terms of effective way (Walesbusiness, 2013). This projects not being on-time, within budget, infrastructure can only be delivered and inability to meet expected quality of through the procurement process. The the owners, have persisted (Kashiwagi, variants of procurement methods available Parmar and Savicky, 2004) thereby, today metamorphosed from the need to making client not to be satisfied as a result improve construction project delivery, that poor project value. Arguably, poor is, project completion within budget and methods and procedures of selection of time” (Babatunde, Opawole, and, contractor could be linked to this. Ujaddughe 2010). Hence, Daniel (2006), However, these methods are not only had this to say “the emphasis on subjective; decisions on public contract procurement methods is on optimising all awards are based on informal parameters involved in project delivery relationships between contractors, public namely, time, cost and quality”. Procuring officials, and project teams. Thus, most of projects in these constraints has the models of assessment used for the constantly being a challenge to the design selection of contractors are not based on team, the contractors, and managers of value and merits of bids but on tender investments (Adesanya, 2008). price and “initial” lowest bids, as well as other informal factors” (Olatunji, 2007). In Usually, the procurement approach used agreement the former Chairman of the focuses on the lowest bid system which Nigerian Institute of Quantity Surveyors, can be a timely process to produce the full (NIQS), Lagos chapter, Mr Jide Oke, cited contract documentation; Tenders by Njoku (2013), added saying that “the documents from an incomplete design can major problem facing the procurement of be produced but can lead to less cost and projects in Nigeria is corruption and lack of time certainty, and may lead to disputes; transparency in contract awards and overall project duration may be longer than execution”.
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projects in Nigeria. Therefore, this research tends to establish the The challenges faced in the Nigerian relationship between the Lowest Bid construction projects delivery as a result of contractor selection approach and the the lowest bid approach are: Construction project non-performance challenges in the Professional’s inability to define clients’ Nigerian construction industry using objectives (Dim and Ezeabasili, 2015; Partial Least Squared Structural Equation Odediran and Windapo, 2014), clients’ Modelling (SEM-PLS). This is intended to project management procedure and be achieved by testing the following inability to reduce project cost (Aibinu and hypothesis: Jagboro, 2002), unrealistic schedules
(Kasimu, 2012; Nwosu, 2003), inaccurate H0 = There exist a significantly positive estimate (Eshofonie,2008; Otunola, 2008; relationship between the Lowest Bid Omoreige and Radford, 2006; Mansfield et contractor selection process and al.,1994), variation of works (Otunola, project non-performance in the 2008; Ogunsemi, 2002), shortage of Nigerian construction industry. requisite skills and manpower (Fatoye,
2012), cost overrun (Dim and Ezeabasili, H1 = There exist no significantly positive 2015; Bello and Odusami, 2009; Balogun, relationship between the Lowest Bid 2005), project delay (Omoreige and contractor selection process and Radford, 2006), delay in interim payment project non-performance in the (Fatoye, 2012), time overrun (Dim and Nigerian construction industry. Ezeabasili, 2015; Ogunsemi and Jagboro, 2006; Aibinu and Jagboro, 2002). 2.0 Literature Review
The importance of contractor selection is In Nigeria the majority of building clients mostly underestimated and neglected in still adopt the traditional procurement construction (Turkis, 2008). The contractor strategy in selecting contractors (Oladinrin selection is a risk management process for et al, 2013; Dada, 2012; Idoro, 2012). the fact that the duly selected should be From literatures, research has shown that competent to bear portions of the risks in traditional procurement method is still the the project. Selecting a competent preferred method in Nigeria by both public contractor has been observed to be a key and private clients (Alejo, 2015 and Kadiri to the success of a project and Ogunkola, 2014). (Anagnostopoulos and Vavatsikos, 2006). 2.1 Traditional (Separated) Hence, Contractors are one of the key Procurement Method players in the construction industry and the services they render are critical to the “The 'traditional' procurement route, quality of the end product as well as sometimes referred to as 'design-bid-build' meeting cost and time targets (or 'bid build' by contractors) remains the (Mshelbwala, 2005). So, selecting a most commonly used method of procuring suitable contractor increases the odds of a building works. The client first appoints successful construction project completion consultants to design the project in detail, which fulfils the client’s goals of keeping and then prepare tender documentation, the schedule as regarding the cost, time including drawings, work schedules and and quality (Jiya, 2012). bills of quantities. Contractors are then invited to submit tenders for the 1.2 Purpose of the Study construction of the project, usually on a single-stage, competitive basis. This may From literature reviews, there are be referred to as a 'traditional contract'. assumptions stating that the contractor The contractor is not responsible for the selection methods in Nigeria has an design, other than temporary works. influence on the performances of public Typically, the client retains the design
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consultants during the construction phase In this study, two things were considered to prepare any additional design to be the factors that made up the Lowest information that may be required, to review Bid selection model they are: any designs that might be prepared by the contractor, and to inspect the works. 1. The conditions warranting the use of Normally, one consultant (often, but not lowest-bid procurement to select necessarily, the architect) will be contractor and, appointed to administer the contract. 2. The contractor selection criteria in Nigeria. In this type of contract, the contractor is appointed only once the design is 2.1.1 The conditions warranting the use completed, they are not able to help of lowest-bid procurement to select improve the buildability and packaging of contractor proposals as they develop. It is considered to be a low-risk method of contracting for According to Turner (1990), the following the client, as the contractor takes the were well-thought-out to be reasons for the financial risk for construction. However, if usage of the traditional procurement design information is incomplete at tender, approach: or if significant variations are required after a. The use of programme which allows the contractor has been appointed, the for sufficient time; cost to the client can be significant. As a b. Design from Consultant is result of this, and because of the necessary; separation of design and construction, c. A client wishes to separately appoint traditional procurement can be seen as designers and contractors; adversarial” (Designing Building Ltd., d. Price certainty is required before the 2016). start of construction; e. Product quality is required; and Alzahrani and Emsley (2013), and Yimam f. A balance of risk is to be placed (2011), established that construction between the client and constructor. projects and their successes are highly Also, dependent on contractors. Therefore, g. The contractor is engaged after the contractors’ role in the construction design team produces complete industry cannot be overemphasised; their design documents (Seeley, 1997 competence and capability is a function of and Kadiri and Odusami, 2003). performance and output in the construction industry (Odediran, 2.1.2 The contractor selection criteria in Adeyinka, Opatunji, & Morakinyo, 2012; Nigeria Yimam, 2011). As opined by Ogunsemi and Aje (2005), that “many mistakes and “Generally, the processes of public potential claims can be avoided if sufficient contract procurement in Nigeria is thought and planning is put into the pre- stipulated by Budget Monitoring and Price tender stage of a project. It is worthy of Intelligence Unit (BMPIU) of the Office of note that the lowest-bid may provide the the President, Federal Republic of Nigeria lowest possible tender figure also known whom administer the ‘Due Process Policy’ as the lowest bid. However, it does not which must pass through the following: guarantee the lowest final account and Project planning, Advertisement, very often completion of the project on Prequalification, Short-listing, Tender time may be in doubt due to failure to action, Determination of Winning Bid, resource the project properly. Therefore, Award of Contract and project execution. the selection of contractors by the client or At Most times, consultants are engaged to his professional advisers for construction handle Project Planning, while Invitations projects is a critical function requiring for prequalification for major projects are careful thought and judgment”. done via major national dailies and the Federal Tenders’ Journal. Prequalification
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is a significant aspect of selecting candidate contractors as having null contractors for public projects in Nigeria. weightings. However, competitors may be Arguably, it aims at filtering out disqualified for not having them. Such incompetent hands from the contract include evidence of incorporation of procurement system” (Olatunji, 2008). business name registration, registration with Federal Ministry of works (in relevant “The Due Process Policy Model (DPPM) is category), company’s audited account for not designed for rigid application in the three years, and evidence of tax clearance Nigerian procurement process. Evidently, certificate for three years. Arguably, these this is why some criteria carry heavy points items might be considered imperative to on some projects and may be considered the success of some other projects and be less significant on other projects. For awarded points” (Olatunji, 2008). Table 1 instance, the DPPM used as shows the criteria and the stipulated prequalification criteria guide reflects weightings as stated in the DPPM some fundamental information about prequalification guide.
Table 1 Criteria for Contractor Selection and Stipulated Weightings Source (Olatunji, 2008)
S/No. CRITERIA FOR SELECTION WEIGHT (%) 1 Evidence of financial capability and banking support 15% 2 Experience / Technical qualification and experience of key personnel 25% 3 Similar Projects executed and knowledge of the industry 20% 4 Equipment and Technology capacity 20% 5 Annual turnover 5% 6 Faithfulness to Value Added Tax (VAT) 5% 7 Bonus of 5% each for contractor’s evidence of commitment to Local content emphasis and Community Social responsibility. 10% TOTAL 100%
Olatunji (2008), also added that “the performance of construction projects in stipulated criteria and weightings are not Nigeria. fixed. Contract administrators in various public procurement offices have the 3.0 METHODOLOGY mandate to review the criteria and weighting at their discretion. Though it In this study, for the purpose of uncovering must be done in fairness, and commitment those factors that made up the lowest Bid to openness and accountability”. This is for contractor selection model and the project a successful implementation of the project. non-performance model, literatures (journals, conference papers and thesis) Oladinrin, Olatunjii and Hamza (2013), review was carried out. After which as stated that the industry is faced with the McLeod (2018), confirms that challenge of cost overrun, declining level “questionnaires can be an effective means of client’s satisfaction, poor quality of measuring the behaviour, attitudes, performance of the projects, time overrun preferences, opinions and intentions of and poor workmanship by contractor. relatively large numbers of subjects more Hence, the key performance indicators cheaply and quickly than other methods” used for measuring project performances therefore, a questionnaire survey from in this study are: Time performance, construction professionals namely: Quality performance and Cost Architects, Quantity Surveyors, Civil Engineers, Builders and Services
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Engineers in Nigeria was carried out using path analysis. This helped to test the the Likert scale to determine their level of hypothesis and draw conclusion form the agreement with each item measuring the analysis. traditional procurement factors and the project non-performance factors. A total 4.0 MAIN RESULTS number of 314 questionnaires were completed and returned for data analysis. 4.1 Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) From the literature review a list of 15no. items measuring the lowest bid factors Yong & Pearce (2013), contributed that were identified. This was followed by the “The broad purpose of factor analysis is to used of the “statistical package for social summarize data so that relationships and sciences (SPSS)” software version 24 patterns can be easily interpreted and towards performing exploratory factor understood. For that reason, it is normally analysis (EFA) as observed by Rahn used to regroup variables into a limited set (2018), that Factor analysis enables of clusters based on shared variance. researchers to explore ideas by way of Hence, it helps to isolate constructs and variable reduction to small number of concepts”. The 15 items were subjected to unrevealed factors capable of being principal component analysis (PCA) using understood. Lastly, a Partial Least SPSS version 24. Before performing PCA Squared Structural equation modelling the suitability of data for factor analysis (PLS-SEM) was carried out to confirm the was assessed. The inspection of the relationship between the Traditional correlation matrix revealed the presence (lowest bid) selection model and the of many coefficients of .3 and above. project non-performance model by the use Below are the findings. of the software SmartPLS3 to carry out the
Table 2 KMO and Bartlett's Test
Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling Adequacy. .793 Approx. Chi-Square 2125.879 Bartlett's Test of Sphericity df 105 Sig. .000
Table 2 shows the KMO and Bartlett's Test revealed the presence of a simple for Hindering Factors of which the structure (Thurstone, 1947), with all KaiserMeyer-Olkin Measure of Sampling component showing a number of strong Adequacy value is .793, greater than the loadings and all variables loading proposed minimum value of .6 (Kaiser, substantially on three components. The 1970; Kaiser, 1974) and Bartlett's Test of three component solution explained a total Sphericity (Bartlett, 1954), was statistically of 58.5% of the variance explained with significant, encouraging the correlation component 1 contributing 37.41%, matrix factorability. Revealing the component 2 contributing 11.27%, and presence of three (3) component from the component 3 contributing 9.86%. The PCA with an eigenvalues exceeding 1, interpretation of the three is shown in the which is explaining 37.41%, 11.27%, and, table 3. 9.86% of variance respectively. An inspection of the scree plot revealed a clear break after the third component. Using Catell (1996), scree test, it was decided to retain three (3) component for further investigation. To help interpret these three components, varimax rotation was performed. The rotated solution
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Table 3 Rotated Component Matrixa
Component 1 2 3 Evidence of financial capability is important .765 The use of specification to monitor quality .763 there should be a balance of risk between client and contractor .736 Lowest Price Certainly necessary before the start of construction .731 Client appoints designers and contractors separately .617 Experience and qualification is important .581 All contractors bidding are assumed to be experts .830 Sufficient time allowed by the use of a programme .827 Contractor not engaged at the planning stage .810 Consultant design is necessary .588 Contractor Pays his Value Added Tax (VAT) regularly is important .770 The contractors annual turnover should be considered .718 Equipment and Technology Capacity of the contractor is important .657 Contractors commitment to local content and social responsibility is .623 important knowledge of the industry and similar project executed is important .505 Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis. Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.a a. Rotation converged in 5 iterations.
LBSM
2 LBSMF2 LBSMF3 3
Contractor Pays his Value Added Tax (VAT) regularly is important, All contractors bidding are assumed to be experts, The contractors annual turnover should be considered, Sufficient time allowed by the use of a programme, Equipment and Technology Capacity of the contractor is important, Contractor not engaged at the planning stage, Contractors commitment to local content and social Consultant design is necessary. responsibility is important, Knowledge of the industry and similar project executed is important
Evidence of financial capability is important, The use of specification to monitor quality, There should be a balance of risk between client and contractor, Lowest Price Certainly necessary before the start of construction, Client appoints designers and contractors separately, Experience and qualification is important
LBSMF1 1
Figure 1 Underlying Factors of the Lowest Bid Selection Model (LBSM)
Figure 1, shows the underlying factors ❖ Component 2 - Lowest Bid Selection discovered from the exploratory factor Model Factor 2 (LBSMF2) analysis (EFA) with each measuring item ❖ Component 3 - Lowest Bid Selection that was used to measure the low-bid Model Factor 3 (LBSMF3) selection model in the Nigerian construction industry. From the EFA three (3) component were discovered which were named as shown in Figure 1 as follows: ❖ Component 1 - Lowest Bid Selection Model Factor 1 (LBSMF1)
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4.2 Partial Least Squared Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM)
H0 Low-Bid Selection Model Project Non-Performance Model +Ve
Figure 2 Hypothetical Path Model to be Confirmed by the use of SmartPLS 3
Relationships between indicators and explain at least 50% of the variance in constructs loadings for reflective each of its indicators (Hair et al., 2014). constructs (Hair et al., 2014). The Therefore, the AVE, which is the mean of measurement models for this research, the squared loading values of all of the were all reflective. indicators associated with a certain latent construct, should be greater than .50 for a 4.2.1 Evaluating Reflective Measurement latent variable to have convergent validity. Model Discriminant Validity Reliability and validity were assessed to determine the suitability of these models Finally, for the reflective measurement measurement of the constructs. In model, discriminant validity was assessed. assessing the reflective measurement Discriminant validity, which can be seen as model the following were assessed: the inverse of convergent validity, occurs i. Composite Reliability, when two measurement scales ii. Convergent Validity and, purportedly measuring different constructs iii. Discriminant Validity. share a low correlation (Allen & Yen, 1979). The discriminant validity Composite Reliability assessment has the goal to ensure that a reflective construct has the strongest Composite reliability is a preferred relationships with its own indicators for alternative to Cronbach's alpha this is example when compared with any other because Cronbach’s alpha is a construct in the PLS path model (Hair et conservative measure which tends to al., 2017). Henseler, et al. (2015), underestimate reliability in a reflective proposed assessing discriminant validity model compared to composite reliability, based on the multitrait-multimethod which may lead to higher estimates of true matrix: the heterotrait-monotrait ratio of reliability. Hence, composite reliability was correlations (HTMT). Henseler, et al. computed instead. This statistic ranges (2015), demonstrate this approach’s from 0 to 1, with values greater than 0.6 superior performance by means of a considered acceptable in exploratory Monte Carlo simulation study, in which studies such as this (Hair et al., 2014). they compare the new approach to the Fornell-Larcker criterion and the Convergent validity assessment of (partial) cross-loadings. Therefore, for this study the heterotrait- Convergent validity, which is established monotrait ratio of correlations (HTMT) is when two supposed measures of the same used to assess discriminant validity. The construct are positively correlated (Allen & authors opined that when sample size is Yen, 1979). This was measured by the use large HTMT. 90 has higher specificity rates of the average value extracted statistic than HTMT. 85 and the sample size used (AVE). It is based on the requirement that here is more than 100 which is the the formulation of a latent variable should minimum that is, 314 samples was used Q 317
and if the HTMT value is below 0.90, Hence, each measurement model was discriminant validity has been established evaluated in accordance to these three (3) between two reflective constructs. criteria and are shown as follows:
Figure 3 Lowest Bid Selection Measurement Model
Table 4 Composite Reliability and Convergent Validity of Lowest Bid Selection Measurement Model
2nd order 1st order Measurement CR AVE Construct Construct Model Type
LBSMF1 Reflective 0.881 0.554
Bid -
Low LBSMF2 Reflective 0.895 0.682 Selection
LBSMF3 Reflective 0.832 0.623
Table 5 Discriminant Validity of Lowest Bid Selection Measurement Model
LBSMF1 LBSMF2 LBSMF3
LBSMF1
LBSMF2 0.619
LBSMF3 0.563 0.542 Q 318
Figure 3, shows the Lowest Bid Selection resulting reliability values were all above Measurement Model having a second the accepted minimum for each constructs order construct and Tables 4 and 5 as shown in Table 4 which were all above showing the composite reliability, 0.6. Convergent validity and discriminant validity respectively of the same model. From these reflective measurement The reflective measurement models for models after establishing the composite the LBSMF1, LBSMF2 and LBSMF3 when reliability the AVE which is the convergent analysing composite reliability, LBSMF1 validity of the constructs were as follows had six indicators, LBSMF2 had four as shown in indicators and LBSMF3 had five indicators. With all this indicators of the Table 4: LBSMF1 (0.554), LBSMF2 constructs included, the resulting indicator (0.682) and, LBSMF3 (0.623) respectively reliability values fell below the accepted confirming that convergent validity has minimum from each constructs. Therefore, been established. after removing the following items of the Table 5, shows discriminant validity values constructs with low indicator reliability for the reflective constructs with all values LBSMF3 (CCTRIA3 and CCTRIA constructs HTMT value below 0.90. 7), the composite reliability values of Therefore, discriminant validity has been LBSMF3 constructs increased to (0.832) established for the Lowest Bid selection which is well above the minimum measurement model. acceptable values of 0.6. While, other constructs like LBSMF1 and LBSMF2 with all the indicators of the constructs the
Figure 4 Project Non-Performance Measurement Model
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Table 6 Composite Reliability and Convergent Validity of Project Non-Performance Measurement Model
2nd order Measurement 1st order Construct CR AVE Construct Model Type
Cost Performance Reflective 0.771 0.535
-
Quality Performance Reflective 0.771 0.530
Project Project Non Performance
Time Performance Reflective 0.914 0.779
Table 7 Discriminant Validity of Project Non-Performance Measurement Model
Cost Quality Time Performance Performance Performance Cost Performance Quality Performance 0.482 Time Performance 0.557 0.479
Figure 4, shows the Project Non- the accepted minimum for each constructs Performance Measurement Model having as shown in Table 6 which were all above a second order construct also and Tables 0.6. 6 and 7 showing the composite reliability, Convergent validity and discriminant From these reflective measurement validity respectively of the same construct. models after establishing the composite The reflective measurement models for reliability the AVE were as follows as the Cost Performance, Quality shown in Table 6: Quality Performance Performance, and Time Performance (0.530), Cost Performance (0.535), Time when analysing composite reliability, Performance (0.779) respectively Quality Performance had four indicators, confirming that convergent validity has Cost Performance had three indicators been established. and time performance had three Table 7 shows discriminant validity values indicators. With all this indicators of the for the reflective constructs with all constructs included, the resulting indicator constructs HTMT value below 0.90. reliability values fell below the accepted Therefore, discriminant validity has been minimum from Quality Performance established. constructs. Therefore, after removing the following items of the construct with low 4.2.2 Evaluating the Structural Model indicator reliability values Quality Performance (QP3), the composite In evaluating the Structural model, the reliability values of Quality Performance following were assessed: constructs increased to (0.771) which is 1. Multicollinearity amongst the latent above the minimum acceptable values of constructs 2 0.6. While, other constructs like Time 2. Amount of Variance Explained (R Performance and cost performance with Statistics) all the indicators of the constructs the 3. Path Coefficient (Significance of resulting reliability values were all above relationship)
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Using the latent variable scores (LVS) showing the path weights and R2 values. from the path analysis the Standardisation Coefficient Path of Figure 6 was produced
Figure 5 Standardisation Coefficient Path Showing Path Weights and R2 Values by SmartPLS3
First, as with the formative measurement square value is 0.013 as shown in Figure model, the structural model need to be 8, meaning that about 1.3% of the variance assessed to detect any issues with in Project Non-Performance is explained multicollinearity amongst the latent by the model’s exogenous variables (that constructs. This was done by using the is, Lowest Bid selection approach). Chin latent variable scores for each participant (1998); Höck and Ringle, (2006), to conduct a multiple regression, with the describes results above the cut-offs 0.67, latent variable scores predicting the 0.33 and 0.19 to be “substantial”, Project Non-Performance Model. The “moderate” and “weak” respectively. magnitude of multicollinearity might be Therefore, the R-square here would be assessed statistically by the variance considered to be of weak strength. inflation factor (VIF) and the tolerance which is the reciprocal of VIF. A VIF value After running the PLS-SEM algorithm, of 5 and higher respectively indicate a estimates were obtained for the structural potential collinearity problem (Hair, Ringle, model relationships (i.e., the path & Sarstedt, 2011). Hair et al. (2014), coefficients), which represent the added that VIF < 5 means no critical levels hypothesised relationships among the of collinearity that is to say, it is constructs. Hair et al. (2014), opined that acceptable. therefore, from the data sets path coefficients have standardised values imputed, the maximum average VIF value between -1 and + 1 and estimated path was 1.000 from the predictor construct that coefficients close to +1 represent strong is LBSM, this is below the maximum positive relationships (and vice versa for allowable value, indicating no issue with negative values). For this model the path multicollinearity in the structural model. coefficients which show the relationship between the Low-Bid selection and Project The structural model was assessed as well Non-Performance, is (0.114). This shows for the amount of variance in the data that that there is a positive relationship is explained by the model, this was between the Lowest Bid selection and interpreted from the R2 statistic which is Project Non-Performance. A test of also known as the coefficient of significance was carried out so as to determination. For the endogenous access the relevance of these variable Project Non-Performance, the R- relationships.
Table 8. Bootstrapping (T test) of the Structural Model
Path T Statistics Coefficient (|O/STDEV|) Sig. Low-Bid Selection -> Project Non-Performance 0.114* 2.909 S Note 1: S = Statistically Significant, NS = Not Statistically Significant. Note 2: P < 0.05*, P<0.01**
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Table 8 shows the test of significance (T- (Kashiwagi and Byfield, 2002). For test) of the path coefficients of the example, The Best Value Procurement structural model in Figure 6. According to PIPS process which can counter non- Hair et al. (2014), When the empirical T Performance as it minimise cost, maximise value is larger than the critical value, it is technical competency, maximise profit, said that the coefficient is significant at a create a win-win environment, create certain error probability (i.e., significance transparency and accountability, level) of which the Commonly used critical maximise customer satisfaction, reduce values for two tailed tests are 1.65 cost by 98%, reduce time overrun by 98% (significance level= 10%), 1.96 and deliver an outstanding quality while significance level = 5%), and 2.57 adding value to the projects (Kashiwagi, (significance level = 1 %). Therefore, in 2016, PBSRG, 2016). this study, the error probability used is 5% making the significance level to be 1.96. Best Value encourages the contractor to Looking at the T-values in Table 8, Project describe and provide accurate solutions to Non-Performance was found to be the problem and methodology that a non- positively affected by the Lowest Bid expert contractor cannot identify. Also, an selection approach (H0 supported with β = expert contractor utilises expertise to 0.114, T-value 2.909 > 1.96, p < 0.005 lower cost and risk” (Kelly, Morledge and and, = 0.004). Therefore, from this Wilkinson, 2009). analysis the hypothesis H1 is rejected which states that “There exist no 5.0 CONCLUSION significantly positive relationship between the traditional (Lowest Bid) contractor It is evident from this study that the lowest selection process and project non- bid contractor selection approach is a way performance in the Nigerian construction of encouraging the delivery of poor industry”. This proves the assumption by performing projects in the Nigerian Olatunji (2007), stating that “Arguably, construction industry as it has been poor methods and procedures of selection established that there exists a significantly of contractor could be linked the positive relationship between the lowest- challenges of contract procurement bid contractor selection process and process for public construction projects in project non-performance in the Nigerian Nigeria”. Therefore, this substantiates that construction industry. It was found out actually there is a relationship between from the data collected and analysed that poor methods and procedures of selection on the key performance indicators time: of contractor and, the challenges of The lowest-bid contractor selection contract procurement process for public approach causes delay in early start on construction projects in Nigeria. site of project, causes deviation on the estimated time to execute the project and From this findings, it is obvious that the does not encourages the minimising of the lowest bid contractor selection does not construction time of project; Quality: The encourage the utilization of an expert lowest-bid contractor selection approach contractor in the Nigerian construction can affect the goal of achieving a project delivery hence, encouraging functional project that fits its purpose, it project non-performance in the industry. causes deviation in standard, can cause an increase in waste on site and at most Therefore, this paper recommends that a times hardly achieve a high aesthetic value based contractor selection approach quality outcome; Cost: The lowest-bid should be employed in the Nigerian contractor selection approach causes cost construction industry. Such that identifies overrun, hardly minimise construction cost expertise as the only factor that can during project execution and to achieve a minimise the risk of non-performance and building with low maintenance cost any attempt to manage and control a sometimes is like a mirage. Therefore, the contractor is inefficient and costly”
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innovative procurement approach that and Competitive Tendering System. Nigerian identifies expertise as the only factor that Institute of Quantity Surveyors. can minimise the risk of non-performance Babatunde, S.O., opawole, A., Ujaddughe, I. C. and discourages any attempt to manage (2010). An Appraisal of Project Procurement and control a contractor because it is Methods in the Nigerian Construction Industry. inefficient and costly has been looked into Civil Engineering Dimension, 12(1), 1–7. by the Best Value Performance Balogun, O. M. (2005). Clients’ Perception on Information Procurement System Measure of Indigenous Contractors (BVPIPS). The PIPS process may be used Performance in the Construction Industry. The to optimise construction project delivery as Professional Bulder, Journal of the Nigerian it uses many phases to select the highest- Institute of Building, 42–48. performing contractor who delivers best Bartlett, M. S. (1954). A note on the Multiplying value and can substitute the lowest-bid Factors for Various Chi Square Approximation. procurement approach which is known for Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, poor performance in Nigeria. 16(Series, 296–298.
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