Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

THE MAKING OF THE FINNISH AUTOMOBILE SOCIETY COMPARATIVE, SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC PERSPECTIVES

Tapio Bergholm

The making of the Finnish automobile society is part of a history of the permanent increase in all kinds of transport. This increase has been most dramatic in road transport in the twentieth century.1 In this article my intention is to look at one of the most fascinating fundamental questions of social and eco- nomic history: How have global technological and economic processes evolved locally and nationally? Therefore I examine statistics for the Nordic countries to find out what is different and characteristic for the Finnish adaptation of the automobile society.

Per Østerby has written about the making automobile has also had a profound impact of the automobile society in Norway. The on nearly all societies in the world. In many subtitle of his book, The integration of the countries it infiltrated many vital processes automobile to Norwegian society, clarifies his re- of society, such as road building, housing, search themes.2 I prefer the word ‘adaptation’ family life, holidays, economic develop- because it encapsulates nicely, how politi- ment, children’s hobbies etc. Therefore it is cal and economic structures and events of surprising how national automobile history Finnish development have influenced this has been.3 Looking at the Nordic statistics process, and how the breakthrough of an gives some hints as to what was special in automobile society has had a crucial impact the Finnish development. on political and economic development in This article is based mainly on statistics this peripheral country. The making of the that look accurate and precise in tables and Finnish automobile society is very much figures, but unfortunately only give a rough about the interaction of technological, draft and general picture of the develop- social, economic and political forces. This ment due to several problems with statis- interaction has had many shades: conflict, tical data. In the early 1900s the numbers divergence, confusion, dislocation, mutual of cars in the official registers varied from cooperation, rejuvenation of industries summer to winter.4 The Nordic countries and business and many structural changes have different ways of classifying and nam- in everyday life. ing different types of automobiles. This is Technological innovations and their ad- due to, for example, different tax codes. aptations are a pivotal part of all transport Therefore comparing Finnish development history. Canals, steam engines, combustion with other Nordic countries is very prob- and diesel engines, aeroplanes and shipping lematic until the breakthrough of private containers have all shaped transport net- cars, which happened later in than works, trade, industries and societies. The in the other Nordic countries. The popu-

38 Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

Chart 1: Number of all types of automobiles in the Nordic countries.

lation figures in the Nordic countries also and forests, based on their own choices of vary in different statistical sources. routes and tempo. Timo Kalanti has pro- A large amount of important research posed that the magic of the car is mainly in the field of road transport history has due to automobiles turning human beings been published in Finland, but this has into centaurs.6 Riding bicycles made people been mainly from some special and there- centaurs with human brains and additional fore limited angle. Road building and use, mechanical strength for the first time. Au- coach and bus transport, cultural and eco- tomobiles gradually multiplied this empow- nomic history of taxi transport, lorry trans- erment of individuals. Bicycles introduced port, road transport companies and trans- the personal experience of ecstasy connect- port workers’ trade unions have had their ed to velocity to the general public. Pleas- histories written. General and comparative ure rides, road trips and picnics away from approaches across Finnish borders where home were part of the enjoyment with historians have looked upon the develop- bikes. Professionals and workers also used ment of road transport and rise of the au- bicycles to speed up their journeys to cus- tomobile society have been rare.5 tomers and workplaces. In this way bicycles paved the way for the automobile society. In Finland the close connection between bicy- MOBILITY OF THE FUTURE cles and cars was obvious when the bicycle association in changed its name to Bicycles and cars were associated with the Automobile and Bicycle Club of Hel- speed and societal futuristic dreams in late sinki in 1907.7 19th and early 20th centuries The predic- It was obvious in the very early stages tions were correct in that the pace of mod- of automobility, that cars, lorries, coaches ern times was interwoven to independence and buses were inevitably the main features from capricious animals and the elevation and essence of transport in future societies. of men and women to master their own Predictions concerning impending trans- movement through neighbourhoods, fields port even in peripheral Finland were pre-

39 Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

Chart 2: Registered automobiles and motorcycles in Finland 1922–1952.

dominantly deterministic. Horsemen knew Tapani Mauranen has underlined the that they were part of the past and did substantial changes and underlying instabil- not belong to the future of transport even ity of the development of the number of though the development of the automobile automobiles in Finland before the 1970s. society was slow compared to other Nordic The fragility of the Finnish automobile so- countries and during and after the Second ciety was clear during the severe recession World War animal horse power had a mi- of the 1930s. Finland was the only Nordic nor revival in Finnish transport industry.8 country where the combined number of This general technological determinism did all motor vehicles as well as that of cars di- not prevent horse and cart men to resort to minished during the years 1930-1935. Dur- many kinds of resistance to postpone the ing the recession and the upturn following imminent destruction of their livelihoods.9 it the structure of Finnish road traffic took The development of organised and a divergent route compared to the other professional lorry, taxi and coach traffic Nordic countries. Private cars had a mi- was chaotic and piecemeal because these nor importance in Finland where coaches, were all mixed together. Coaches took care buses, lorries and vans had a more domi- of transporting general cargo, lorries were nant position. This dominance of utility used for personal transport and taxis could vehicles compared to private cars became have scheduled routes to serve local cus- more entrenched during the Second World tomers. The slow rise of motor road trans- War, when the majority of automobiles port in Finland was connected to criminal were supporting military operations. It took activities during the prohibition period, until 1952 before cars made over half of all from 1919 to 1932. The delivery of illegal registered vehicles in Finland. Lorries were li q uor provided additional income to many dominant even in personal traffic in the working in the Finnish transport industry first years after the war.11 during those years. It also enhanced the de- Even though motor road transport de- velopment of coach traffic during and after veloped in Finland at a much slower pace prohibition.10 than in the other Nordic countries some

40 Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

substantial structural changes are hidden if buildings and infrastructure in Northern one looks only at the number of vehicles. Finland, when they retreated after Finland In the 1930s, coaches, buses and lorries be- had made peace with the Soviet Union and came such an important part of Finnish so- abandoned Germany as an ally. Other parts ciety and economy that investment in better of Finland had to wait for upgrades in road roads and capacity to keep roads open dur- infrastructure, because rebuilding of roads, ing winters grew even during years of eco- railways and bridges in northern Finland nomic depression. The war effort – i.e. mil- was a priority in the 1940s. Therefore roads itary operations, agriculture and industrial in southern Finland were in very poor con- production – was so dependent on road dition in the 1950s. transport that the length of roads open to The Finnish State started to invest into winter traffic actually increased during the road infrastructure in more densely popu- Second World War in Finland.12 lated areas in southern Finland. The state issued special bonds to finance these road- building schemes. Upgrading Finnish roads FROM AUTOMOBILE SCARCITY meant the slow retreat of gravel and grit. TOWARDS AUTOMOBILE SOCIETY Paving increased gradually from town areas to the main roads connecting the biggest The poverty and backwardness of the cities. Heavy investment in the state-owned Finnish society between the World Wars is oil refinery gave support to the prerequi- perfectly portrayed in the number of au- sites for the breakthrough of the automo- tomobiles compared to the other Nordic bile society. That the state-owned com- countries. After the Second World War, pany could produce and deliver products war reparations to the Soviet Union took a to make tarmac and asphalt, and that the heavy toll on resources. German (actually to road transport authorities increased invest- a great extent Austrian) forces demolished ment in these materials, was not a coinci-

Chart 3: Number of private cars in the Nordic countries.

41 Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

Chart 4: Change in number of private cars in five year periods.

dence. Investment in the roads accelerated Norway and especially Finland were in late 1960s and early 1970s, when Finland very restrictive towards the import of cars got several loans from the World Bank for for private use until the foundation of the highway building projects.13 European Free Trade Association (EFTA) Resources were rationed and foreign in 1960. Finland was not a full member trade regulated heavily until 1952 in Fin- of EFTA but made an association agree- land. Even after rationing was abandoned, ment with the organisation in 1961. Finland import licensing made it difficult to import started to open up its market for import in automobiles to Finland. Sweden took an 1958. In Finland Eastern European cars early lead in the proper breakthrough of dominated the market of private cars and the automobile society after the Second taxis until 1958. The association agreement World War even though before the war with EFTA had surprising and unintended Denmark had been the forerunner in adap- consequences, when Finnish restriction on tion and use of automobiles. The Swedish automobile import diminished rapidly from automobile industry and Social Democratic 1962. Import of European and American government had a symbiotic relationship cars multiplied but Japanese cars also gained in the making of the mobile welfare state. a large market share. Finland became the In the years 1945–1960 Sweden outgrew all bridgehead for the intrusion of the Japa- the other Nordic countries combined in the nese automobile industry into European increase of the number of private cars. Its markets. Freedom of choice enhanced the share of the growth was much bigger than demand for new cars.15 its relative population within the Nordic Due to the severe restrictions in im- countries.14 porting cars, from the 1940s to the early

42 Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

1960s Finland resembled Cuba after the a steady increase in the number of cars af- US embargo. Even extraordinarily old cars ter the Second World War without any signs were kept in traffic in the 1950s because that economic conjunctures had an impact new cars were not available to satisfy the on the rise of car ownership. This is actually immense demand. One particular proof of not the case. Car sales were and are very vol- the very late development of the automo- atile. Good employment figures enhanced bile society in Finland was that the prob- sales and high unemployment meant a slow lem of abandoned scrap automobiles only down in registrations of new cars. Why is became acute and important in the mid- this not visible in Finnish statistics after the 1960s. Only then did the state nominate a Second World War? Why is the increase in committee to look into this problem and the number of registered cars actually quite introduced regulations about abandoned stable? An explanation for this superficial scrap automobiles.16 inconsistency is also connected to conjunc- Compared to the other Nordic coun- tures. During economic upturns old cars tries, Finland has been a relatively unstable were scrapped but during downturns they society in political and economic terms. The were kept in traffic. instability of the Finnish society is such an The making of the Finnish automobile important research topic that it should also society had many characteristics in com- be discussed in connection with the auto- mon with Norway, but Finland still lagged mobile society in Finland. The severe reces- substantially behind the western neighbour sion of the 1930s and the Second World of Sweden during the 1960s and 1970s. Fin- War substantially diminished and restricted land and Norway were followers of the ear- the number of automobiles in Finland. Es- lier developments in Denmark and Sweden. pecially the introduction of mass private car These two Nordic follower countries expe- ownership was delayed. The statistics show rienced a rapid increase from the 1960s, but

Chart 5: Change in all types of automobiles in the Nordic countries.

43 Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

Chart 6: Cars per 1000 inhabitants in the Nordic countries 1920–1990.

only during the ten-year period from 1975 and at same time car ownership accelerated to 1985 did they both manage to outgrow in Finland. A slowdown in Denmark meant Sweden and Denmark. The Nordic coun- that Finland bypassed that country in the tries had different rhythms and at the end mid-1980s, when automobile numbers are of the 1990s their paths looked quite di- measured in terms of population. Growth vergent. The rise of road transport became of numbers of private cars cooled down sluggish in Denmark from the mid-1970s in Norway in the second half of the 1980s

Chart 7: Lorries and trailers with over 10tn capacity per 1000 inhabitants in the Nordic countries 1968–1990.

44 Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

and in Sweden car sales heated up. From mobiles as a sign of civilisation and human chart 6 it is possible to see how the intru- adaptation to a new technological system. sion of the automobile society into Sweden This downward trend in accidents is also was about 10–15 years ahead compared to called Smeed’s law, because Reuben Smeed Finland. The Finnish and Swedish econo- presented this statistical pattern in an article mies were both overheated at the end of published in 1949.19 1980s. Inflated growth numbers in car sales For many decades, the Finnish legal during that decade were bad omens for the framework or the normative infrastructure future. for an automobile society was underdevel- The mass expansion of private car oped, at the same time weak and restrictive. ownership was not the only way in which As late as in 1934, a number of non-gov- Finland became thoroughly an automobile ernmental organizations started to organise society. Diesel buses, coaches and lorries traffic culture weeks which later, in 1937, took gradually over the road transport in- became the traffic security week. The Finn- dustry from the late 1950s onwards. Bet- ish road transport legislation was better ad- ter roads meant an enormous and rapid justed for an automobile reality when sev- increase in heavy lorries and trailers. Road eral laws were enacted, and governmental transport gained new capacity and a greater statutes and further guidelines from other share of all cargo transport. Road transport authorities given in 1937. Speed limits were prospered, inland waterways and railways changed so that on the highways private stagnated or lost freights. Finland still had cars had no speed limit at all.20 the smallest capacity in road freight traf- Both roads and automobiles improved fic in the Nordic countries in 1968, but in substantially in a very short time in the twenty-two years Finland became a republic 1960s. Average speeds increased which of truckers and all Scandinavian kingdoms meant a sudden upsurge in fatal traffic ac- were left behind. Chart 7 shows that Nor- cidents. In 1958 the death toll in Finnish way had a similar, but slower, development road traffic was 548 but eight years later, in in road cargo transport capacity.17 1966, it had doubled to nearly one thousand one hundred (1098). Major conflict ensued between automobile organisations and road SAFETY AGAINST FREEDOM safety reformers. Statutory speed limits were the hottest debated issue. Educational “Institutions matter” was a catch phrase in- work and advice were the only weapons troduced into comparative social sciences, against traffic accidents that the automobile history and economics at the turn of the lobby and right wing parties could accept. millennium.18 An essential part of the adap- The opponents of speed limits took a tation of new technologies and innovations short downturn in fatal accidents in 1967 into societal practice is the cultural and be- and 1968 as proof that education had havioural change of people in society. In changed the behaviour of Finnish drivers the making of the Finnish automobile so- to a more civilised direction. Unfortunate- ciety changes of formal and informal rules ly this positive trend was only temporary. were important and their codification and More bitter arguments ensued. The young implementation into practice were severely researcher Risto Näätänen wrote a book contested. Norbert Elias has described the in 1972 called Death on the Highway (Maan- diminishing number of road traffic acci- tiekuolema), which convinced even the dents compared to the number of auto- president of Finland, Urho Kekkonen, that

45 Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

Chart 8: Fatal road accidents in Finland.

educational work alone was not enough to of a peripheral Nordic country. Within the diminish traffic accidents. The sudden rise Nordic group, Finland was lagging behind in the price of crude oil started an energy in the number of cars for a long time. But crisis in 1973. This gave extra impetus to this is not the whole story. Suddenly, cars imposing speed limits on Finnish road traf- penetrated the fabric of Finnish society fic. The death toll nearly halved during the even more thoroughly than the Danish so- 1970s even though the number of automo- ciety. At the end of the 1990s Finland by- biles and traffic increased rapidly. Finnish passed Denmark and nearly caught up with car drivers were forced to become more the other Nordic countries. civilised and pedestrians – especially chil- dren – also learned to avoid unnecessary Tapio Bergholm is a Senior Researcher in Confe- risks. Finnish authorities helped to make deration of Finnish Trade Unions, SAK, Docent at Smeed’s law valid also in Finland.21 University of Eastern Finland and at University of Helsinki.

Charts by Terhi Ketolainen. THE NORDIC COUNTRIES ARE Author’s note: DIFFERENT The main arguments of this article have been previously published in Finnish as Bergholm, Looking at the development of road trans- Tapio: ”Suomen Autoistumisen yhteiskuntahisto- port reveals major differences between riaa”, in Toiskallio, Kalle (ed.) Viettelyksen vaunu. Autokulttuurin muutos Suomessa. SKS, Jyväskylä, the Nordic countries in the making of the 2001. They are here made accessible to those who automobile society. There are geographi- do not read the Finnish language. In reworking cal, historical, cultural, social, economic this text I had several new ideas. Therefore the and political reasons for this. The Finnish structure and content differ somewhat from the automobile history looks like many other Finnish version. New charts have been included to underline my new findings. So even those familiar features of social and technological history with the earlier version may find something new.

46 Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

1 Baker and Gerhold, 1993. BIBLIOGRAPHY: 2 Østerby, 1995. 3 Per Østerby has employed Nordic comparison in AALTO, Seppo, Rentola, Kimmo. Karkkilan eli his very insightful research only once. He does not Högforsin ja Pyhäjärven entisen Pahajärven compare Norwegian development during the years ihmisten historia, Jyväskylä, 1992. 1930-1985 to Finnish development even though he AHTOKARI, Reijo. Pirtua, Pirtua… Kieltolaki Suomes- has the information about Denmark, Finland, Nor- sa 1.6.1919-5.4.1932, , 1972. way and Sweden in the table appendix at the end of AHTOLA, Tellervo. Punainen sulkuviiva. Tästä on his book. See Østerby 1995, 304, 306. kysymys, 2, Helsinki, 1973. 4 For problems of Finnish automobile and road tran- ANTILA, Kimmo. Valtatieajatuksen synty ja toteu- sport statistics see Viita niemi,1998. tus, in Masonen Jaakko, Antila Kimmo, Kallio 5 Bergho l m, 1988, 1997, 2000; Blomberg, 1996; Veikko and Mauranen Tapani (eds.) Soraa, työtä, Blomberg, Kurkinen and Nummela, 2000; Herranen, hevosia. Tiet, liikenne ja yhteiskunta 1860-1945, 1990; Mauranen, 1995; Mauranen and Levä, 1999; Tielaitos, Helsinki, 1999. Moisala, 1983; Perko, 1977; Masonen and Hänninen, ANTILA, Kimmo, NENONEN, Marko. Relief Works, eds. 1995; Vähäkangas, ed. 2000; Seppinen, 1992; the World Bank and Private Business: Building Masonen, Antila, Kallio and Mauranen, eds. 1999; Highways in Finland. Vol. 48, Scandinavian Eco- Sornikivi, 1996; Viitaniemi and Mäkelä, 1978. nomic History Review 2/2000. 6 Kalanti, 2 001. BAKER, Theo and GERHOLD, Dorian. The Rise and 7 Bendtsen, 2005; Flink, 1990, 3-6, 9, 14, 16, 20, 27-29, Rise of Road Transport 1700-1990. Studies in 40, 45; Laaksonen, 1994, 8. Economic and Social History, Hong Kong, 1993. 8 Bergholm 1997, 337-342; Katajala-Pel tomaa, 1999a, BENDTSEN, Lasse. Cykling, ma rkedsføring og fart- 186-187; Mauranen 1995, 18-19, 52-55; Seppinen 1992, konsum i København ca. 1880-1900, Den Jyske 89-91; Sornikivi 1996, 74. Historiker 108/2005. 9 Mauranen, 2013. BERGHOLM, Tapio. Suomen Autoistumisen yhteis- 10 Aalto and Rent ola, 1992, 764-769; Ahtokari, 1972, kuntahistoriaa. In Toiskallio, Kalle (ed.) V iette- 29, 82, 120-122; Katajala-Peltomaa, 1999b; Mauranen lyksen vaunu. Autokulttuurin muutos Suomessa. 1995, 125-127, 132-133; Viitaniemi – Mäkelä 1978, 63-76, SKS, Jyväskylä, 2001. 154-160; 172, 482-486. BERGHOLM, Tapio. Kovaa pe liä kuljetusalalla I , 11 Bergholm, 2001, 71-73, 76-77; Moisala 1983, 195-197; , 1988. Mauranen, 2001, 53-55; Mauranen, 2012; Viitaniemi BERGHOLM, Tapio. Kovaa peliä kuljetusalalla II, and Mäkelä 1978, 291-292. Turenki, 1997. 12 Levä, 1992. BERGHOLM, Tapio. Kovaa peliä kuljetusalalla III, 13 Antila and Nenonen , 2000; Hiekka, 1989, 94-95; Keuruu, 2000. Karppinen, 1979, 52; Kuisma, 1997, 232-241. BLOMBERG Olli. Suomen Kuorma-autoliikenteen 14 Blomqvist, Paper pre sented at Oslo, 2000; Blom- historia I, Maanteiden tavaraliikenne – talouselä- qvist, 1999. About the development in Sweden see män perusedellytys, , 1996 also: Blomkvist, 2005. BLOMBERG Olli, KURKINEN, Jari, NUMMELA, Ilkka. 15 Bergholm, 2001, 78-80. About Norway see Øster- Ulkomaanliikenteen vuosisata. Suomalaiset kuor- by, 1995, passim. ma-autot maailman teillä, Jyväskylä, 2000. 16 Romuautokomitean mietintö, Komiteanmietintö BLOMQVIST, Pär. Ny teknik som politisk ideology, 1966:B90, Helsinki 1966. Arbetarhistoria 4/1999. 17 Bergholm 2001, 81-82; Blomberg 1996; Blomberg, BLOMQVIST, Pär. Infrasystems and the welfare Kurkinen and Nummela, 2000. state – The Swedish car society, its system buil- ders and lobbyists 1945-1965, Paper presented 18 See for example Ingram and Clay, 2000; at 19th International Congress of Historical Rueschemeyer, 2009, 204-227; Thelen, 1999; Hall Sciences, Oslo, 2000. and Soskice (eds.), 2001. BLOMKVIST, Pär. Fartens entreprenörer och den 19 Elias, 1995; Smeed, 1949 ; Summala, 2001. teknifierade hastigheten – lobbygrupperna och 20 Antila, 1999, 256-282; Laa ksonen 1994, 26-27; Per- massbilismens framväxt i Sverige under efter- ko 1977, 36-46, 62-90; Seppinen 1992, 84-101. krigstiden, Den Jyske Historiker 108/2005. 21 Editorial in Moottori 3/1969 ; Ahtola, 1973; Berg- ELIAS, Norbert. Technization and Civilization, Theo- holm 2001, 82-84; Flink 1990, 382-383; Lampinen, ry, Culture and Society, August 3/1995. 1985, 177-237; Härkänen, 1998, 9-93; Näätänen, 1972; FLINK, James J. The Automobile Age, MIT Press, Wahlgren, 1979. Cambridge MA, 1990.

47 Tekniikan Waiheita 3/13

HALL, Peter A. and SOSKICE, David (eds.) Varieties MAURANEN, Tapani: Autoja! Autoja! Autoja!: Lisää! of Capitalism. The Institutional Foundations Lisää! Lisää! In Lehtomäki, Kirsti (ed.) Autoja, of Comparative Advantage, Oxford University Autoja. Mobilia säätiö, , 2012. Press, Oxford, 2001. MAURANEN, Tapani: Echoes of a loser’s history – HERRANEN, Timo. Petsamosta Hankoon. Pohjolan Voices against the automobile in early-twentieth Liikenne 50 vuotta, Jyväskylä, 1990. century Finland, Tekniikan Waiheita 3/2013. HIEKKA, Lauri S. Asfaltti ja liikenne. Eilen – tänään MOISALA, U. E. Auto Suomessa. Auton kaupan, käy- – huomenna. Asfalttiurakoitsijain liitto ry. 1964- tön ja korjaamotoiminnan historia vuoteen 1983, 1989, Jyväskylä, 1989. Jyväskylä, 1983. HÄRKÄNEN, Kirill. Teitä turvaamassa. 30 vuotta tie- NÄÄTÄNEN, Risto. Maantiekuolema. Tutkimus laitoksen liikenneturvallisuustyötä, , 1998. liikenneonnettomuuksista, Porvoo and Helsinki, INGRAM, Paul, CLAY, Karen. The Choice-Within- 1972. Constraint – New Institutionalism and Implica- PERKO, Touko. Suomen teiden historia II, , 1977. tions for Sociology. Annual Review of Sociology Romuautokomitean mietintö, Komiteanmietintö 26/2000. 1966:B90, Helsinki 1966. KALANTI, Timo. Auto ja psyyke. Kiihdytys vauhtiin. RUESCHEMEYER, Dietrich. Usable Theory. Ana- In Kalle Toiskallio (ed.) Viettelyksen vaunu. Au- lytical Tools for Social and Political Research. tokulttuurin muutos Suomessa. SKS, Jyväskylä, Princeton University Press, Princeton and 2001. Oxford, 2009. KARPPINEN, Eino. Autovakuutus, Lahti, 1979. SEPPINEN, Ilkka. Valtaväylä Suomeen. Liikennemi- KATAJALA-PELTOMAA, Sari. Hevosmiesten huolet. nisteriö 100 vuotta. Helsinki, 1992. In Masonen, Jaakko, Antila, Kimmo, Kallio, SMEED, R. J. Some statistical aspects of road safe- Veikko and Mauranen, Tapani (eds.) Soraa, työtä, ty research, Journal of Royal Statistical Society, hevosia. Tiet, liikenne ja yhteiskunta 1860-1945, Series A (General), 112, 1949. Tielaitos, Helsinki, 1999a. SORNIKIVI, Ulla-Maija. Yhdeksän vuosikymmentä KATAJALA-PELTOMAA, Sari. Pirturalli. In Maso- liikenteen turvallisuutta. Ajoneuvojen rekis- nen, Jaakko, Antila, Kimmo, Kallio, Veikko and teröinti, katsastus ja kuljettajien tutkiminen, Mauranen, Tapani (eds.) Soraa, työtä, hevosia. Vammala, 1996. Tiet, liikenne ja yhteiskunta 1860-1945, Tielaitos, Helsinki, 1999b. SUMMALA, Heikki. Autoon oppiminen. In Toiskallio, Kalle (ed.) Viettelyksen vaunu. Autokulttuurin KUISMA, Markku. Kylmä sota, kuuma öljy. Neste, muutos Suomessa, SKS, Jyväskylä, 2001. Suomi ja kaksi Eurooppaa 1948-1979, Porvoo, 1997. THELEN, Kathleen. Historical institutionalism in com- parative politics. Annual Review of Political Science LAAKSONEN, Esko. Herraklubista koko Kansan auto- 2/1999. liitoksi. Autoliiton 75 vuotta, Jyväskylä, 1994. Vallankumouksen vaiheet (editorial), Moottori, LAMPINEN, Osmo. Yhteiskuntatieteellisen tutki- 3/1969. muksen hyödyntäminen poliittis-hallinnollisessa päätöksenteossa, Suomen Akatemian julkaisuja VIITANIEMI, Matti. Autoliikenteen ongelmalliset 6/1985, Helsinki, 1985. tilastot, Hyrysysy menolainen,1998. LEVÄ, Kimmo. Lumiaura. Koneellisen talvikunnossa- VIITANIEMI, Matti, MÄKELÄ, Aarne. Suomen linja- pidon historia. Jyväskylä, 1992. autoliikenteen historia, Jyväskylä, 1978. MASONEN, Jaakko and HÄNNINEN, Mauno (eds.) VÄHÄKANGAS, Ismo (ed.) Sata lasissa, Turun Histo- Pikeä, hikeä, autoja. Tiet, liikenne ja yhteiskunta riallinen Arkisto, Kaarina, 2000. 1945-2005, Tielaitos, Helsinki, 1995. WAHLGREN, Otto. Nopeutusrajoitusten historia MASONEN, Jaakko, ANTILA, Kimmo, KALLIO, Veikko Suomessa, Tie- ja liikenne 1-2/1979. and MAURANEN, Tapani (eds.) Soraa, työtä, ØSTERBY, Per. Flukten fra Detroit. Bilens integras- hevosia. Tiet, liikenne ja yhteiskunta 1860-1945, jon i det norske samfunnet. Sentret for tekno- Tielaitos, Helsinki, 1999. logi og samfunnet. Rapport nr. 24, Trondheim, MAURANEN, Tapani. Taksi! Matka suomalaisen 1995. taksin historiaan, Forssa, 1995. MAURANEN Tapani, LEVÄ Kimmo: Ostakaa automo- biili! Saatte sekä vaunut että vetojuhdan – voitte erottaa kuskin, Helsinki, 1999. MAURANEN, Tapani. Satavuotias autoilija. In Tois- kallio, Kalle (ed.) Viettelyksen vaunu. Autokult- tuurin muutos Suomessa, SKS, Jyväskylä, 2001.

48