Community-driven ecological restoration in Diane Campbell-Hunt

The health of the planet is a matter of global concern, with the past 50 years bringing more rapid changes in biodiversity than at any other time in human history. These changes include species (the current rate is an estimated 1000 times greater than that indicated by the fossil record) and homogenisation through the spread of non-local species around the globe (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003). One response to the perception of biodiversity under threat has been a growing commitment of human effort to ecological restoration, which has been defined as “the process of assisting the recovery of an ecosystem that has been degraded, damaged or destroyed” (Society for Ecological Research 2004). Ecological restoration often entails the elimination or control of harmful exotic species and the deliberate reintroduction of native species that have been lost from an area.

The ecosystem restoration movement distinctive endemic flora and fauna fea- servation purposes, but the effect of int- has captured the enthusiasm of ecolo- turing diverse and but no roduced pest species is ongoing. gists, resource managers and the public , apart from three species of The most effective way to protect indi- in many parts of the world, and has led bat. There are an estimated 80,000 spe- genous flora and fauna in New Zealand to the deep involvement of numerous cies of native plants, animals and fungi is by the creation of natural environ- non-governmental agencies and the do- and a large proportion of these species ments that are free of these introdu- nation of countless hours by citizen vo- do not occur naturally anywhere else on ced pest mammals, a strategy that has lunteers (Clewell and Aronson 2006). Re- earth (Ministry for the Environment been widely employed on offshore is- storation is a long-term commitment of 2007). New Zealand was one of the lands. However, the creation of such en- land and resources, and a restored eco- last places on earth to be settled by hu- vironments on mainland New Zealand, system often requires ongoing human mans, with indigenous peoples arriving through intensive and/or management to counteract the invasion from elsewhere in the Pacific about 900 the use of pest-exclusion fencing, is a of opportunist species, the impacts of years ago, and a major colonisation by more recent phenomenon. various human activities, climate change British settlers in the 19th century. This and other unforeseeable events. This ar- comparatively recent invasion has had a Pest-exclusion fencing ticle describes community-based ecolo- dramatic impact on indigenous biodiver- The technology of pest-exclusion fen- gical restoration in New Zealand, focus- sity; New Zealand has experienced one cing has been developed in New Zea- sing on the creation of fenced ecological of the highest species extinction rates in land for New Zealand’s particular needs; sanctuaries as a citizen response to the the world and currently almost 2500 of fences are designed to exclude all intro- threatened status of New Zealand’s in- native land-based and freshwater species duced mammals. The exclusion fence digenous biodiversity. The article iden- are listed as threatened (Ministry for the shown in the photo stands around 1.9 tifies some of the issues faced by com- Environment 2007). The two main dri- metres high. It has stainless steel mesh munity sanctuaries and describes current vers of biodiversity loss have been ha- so fine that not even baby mice can fit research on the long-term challenges for bitat change (such as the felling of fo- through the gaps. This mesh continues community-driven restoration in New rests and the draining of wetlands) and down to form a skirt at ground level that Zealand. introduced mammalian species. The lat- blocks burrowing animals. On top is a ter (which include rats, mice, hedgehogs, steel canopy that prevents cats and pos- Ecological restoration in NZ mustelids, rabbits, cats, possums, deer sums from climbing over the top. Out- New Zealand is an island state that offers and goats) destroy native flora and fauna side the fence a clearance of at least 4 a poignant case study of the impact of through browsing, direct and metres prevents pests from using neigh- human activity on biodiversity. Isolated competition for food. Habitat loss has bouring trees to leap across the top of from other land masses for 80 million stabilised, with just over 32% of New the fence. The fence must be closely in- years, New Zealand developed a highly Zealand’s land area protected for con- spected on foot several times a week to

12 Pacific News Nr. 30 • Juli/August 2008 check for damage that might allow pests to Turn the Tide”, which has as its first The costs through and thus compromise the sa- goal: The cost of exclusion fencing is in the fety of the sanctuary. Special culverts realm of $200,000 per kilometre and and water gates allow native fish to swim “To enhance community and indivi- so fundraising becomes a major chal- in and out of the protected area while dual understanding about biodiver- lenge for groups that choose to establish preventing access by pest animals, even sity, and inform, motivate and sup- a fenced pest-free sanctuary. The New when the streams are in flood. port widespread and coordinated Zealand Biodiversity Strategy recogni- Exclusion fencing is an ambitious ap- community action to conserve and ses the role of community engagement proach to ecosystem protection and re- sustainably use biodiversity; and with biodiversity and since the Strategy storation because of the high establish- To enable communities and indivi- was launched special funds have been es- ment costs and the need for a long-term duals to equitably share responsibi- tablished at local, regional and national commitment to fence maintenance, re- lity for, and benefits from, conserving levels of government to support private pair and eventual replacement. Fur- and sustainably using New Zealand’s landowners who want to protect or res- thermore, a pest-free ecosystem in the biodiversity” tore biodiversity on their land. However, current New Zealand situation is an an- (Department of Conservation and these funds are not of sufficient size to omaly and calls for vigilant monitoring Ministry for the Environment 2000) make more than a minor contribution to and the capacity to respond rapidly and pest-exclusion fencing projects. Further- effectively to reinvasions. Fenced sanc- The author is currently engaged in a more, where a community group has ob- tuaries are ambitious in their long-term three year research project on fenced tained permission to use publicly-owned goals, which generally entail the restora- sanctuaries in New Zealand, focussing land for a fenced sanctuary (as is the case tion of a healthy ecosystem that is natu- on projects that have a community fo- in five of the six sanctuaries being resear- rally authentic to the site. In the New Ze- cus, evidenced by a formally constituted ched), that group is not eligible to access aland context this implies the re-growth community-based organisation (such as those funds because they are intended to of mature forest if the area has been a charitable trust or incorporated soci- support biodiversity on private land. For previously felled; this regrowth can take ety). The six case study sites that are the the six case studies, fencing costs have many hundreds of years. Restoration subject of this research are all at least 100 been met by a combination of grants also entails the return of species that are hectares in size and have completed con- from gaming, philanthropic and com- known to have become locally extinct, struction of a pest-exclusion fence. The munity trusts, private donations and in many of which are now nationally thre- purpose of the research is to identify the some cases government grants. Whereas atened or endangered. Their transloca- essential ingredients for successful esta- the exclusion fence is the major estab- tion to a sanctuary requires commitment blishment of a community-based sanc- lishment cost, there are also substantial to their appropriate care in the short and tuary and to explore the issue of long- costs associated with pest eradication long term. term sustainability from the viewpoints (usually entailing aerial poison drops and of community support and ­operational trapping) and with the reintroduction of Conclusions funding. threatened species. The concept of fenced pest-free sanc- tuaries on mainland New Zealand arose in the late 1990s, the lead being taken concurrently by a private landowner in the Waikato region (upper North Island) and a community trust in the capital city of (lower North Island). Since then the idea has taken hold, with the past ten years seeing the initiation of more than twenty fenced sanctuary projects, varying in size from less than 1 hectare to 3,400 hectares. Some are the private initiatives of wealthy landow- ners and a few have been undertaken by the Department of Conservation for the protection of particular threatened spe- cies. More than half, however, have been initiated within the citizen sector and feature high levels of community invol- vement. These community-based restoration projects are consistent with New Zea- Source: Diane Campbell-Hunt 2008 land Biodiversity Strategy, “Our Chance Xcluder TM fence and pedestrian access gate at Tawharanui Open Sanctuary, NZ

Pacific News Nr. 30 • Juli/August 2008 13 cing the level of external funding requi- red (Salafsky, Cauley et al 2001). Tawharanui Open Sancturary In New Zealand, community-based fenced sanctuaries are a comparatively recent phenomenon, and none of the Maungatuatari Ecological Island six case study sanctuaries has yet achie- ved full financial self-reliance. Five of Rotokare Scenic Reserve the six are planning to use ecotourism Bushy Park to a greater or lesser degree as a source of operating income. (The sixth, Ta- Karori Wildlife Sanctuary wharanui Open Sanctuary, is a regional park with free public access; its opera- ting costs are paid by the Auckland Re- gional Council.) However, the choice to create an ecotourism enterprise brings 45º South latitude line additional establishment costs, such as a visitor centre, walking tracks and toilets. Orokonui Ecosanctuary Long-term operating costs are also inc- reased as these must include marketing

Source: Tobias Danielmeier and promotion, care of visitors on site, Location of Case Study Sanctuaries in New Zealand and the maintenance of visitor facilities. Whether full financial self-reliance can Once the sanctuary has been estab- tions are engaging with the marketplace be achieved through ecotourism is yet lished, the community group faces the to complement or replace grants and to be seen. Two of the six cases (Karori ongoing challenge of meeting opera- charitable donations through the estab- Wildlife Sanctuary and Orokonui Eco- ting costs, which include fence mainte- lishment and operation of a social enter- sanctuary) are planning to rely primarily nance (the integrity of the fence is vital prise (Dees, 2001; Nicholls, 2006). A so- on ecotourism and the Karori Wildlife to the pest-free status of the sanctuary), cial enterprise commonly operates in a Sanctuary, which has been open to pay- vigilant monitoring for accidental pest business that has a link with the mission ing visitors for eight years, already meets re-invasion, care of threatened species, of the organisation, but its primary pur- a significant proportion (30%) of its staff salaries, maintenance of plant and pose is to generate income. operating costs from visitors and retail equipment, and saving for eventual fence For a community-based ecological sales (Karori Wildlife Sanctuary, 2007). replacement. The life span of exclusion project the obvious enterprise choice is These two cases are urban sanctuaries, fences is not known, and could be any- ecotourism, which not only provides in- which are potentially more able to attract where from 20 to 50 years. come but also offers opportunities for visitors than are rural sanctuaries. advocacy and education for conserva- Two of the rural sanctuaries (Rotokare The role of ecotourism tion, and the employment of commu- Scenic Reserve and Maungatuatari Eco- In general community-based conserva- nity members (Alter, 2006; Ross and logical Island) face the additional chal- tion has relied on donations, govern- Wall, 1999). In this context it is impor- lenge of Scenic Reserve status for their ment grants and philanthropic trusts tant to make the distinction between a land. This reserve category requires free for meeting costs. Such fundraising has commercial ecotourism venture, (which public access; these sanctuaries therefore been combined with keeping costs down focuses on establishing a profitable busi- cannot charge an entry fee although they through the use of volunteers and dona- ness), and a community-based biodi- can charge for value-added experiences tions of goods and services. Thus com- versity project that looks to ecotourism such as guided tours. If ecotourism is munity-based conservation has been to provide some degree of indepen- unable to generate sufficient funds for firmly within the not-for-profit sector, dence from fundraising and government financial self-reliance, where is the ba- along with community organisations in grants. There may be limits to the extent lance of funding to come from? In some the realms of education, health and so- to which an enterprise approach can of- cases local government is willing to as- cial welfare. Authors from a diversity of fer full financial self-reliance. Enterprise sist with operating costs, although this countries note that such not-for-profit strategies for biodiversity conservation depends on the status of the land. For groups face an increasingly competitive are in use throughout Asia and the Paci- example, the Wellington City Council funding environment, due to rising costs, fic and cover a range of “soft” manage- owns the land used by the Karori Wild- declining support from the government, ment uses, including not only ecotou- life Sanctuary and has been paying an reduced giving by individuals and cor- rism but also the extraction of plant oils operating grant to supplement ecotou- porations, and growing demands on the and forest fruit. Research has indicated rism income since the sanctuary opened, philanthropic sector (Weerawardena and that these enterprises seldom facilitate but in the expectation of eventual sanc- Sullivan Mort 2006). In this funding en- full financial self-reliance, although they tuary self-reliance. A second example vironment many not-for-profit organisa- do make a useful contribution to redu- is the Rotokare Scenic Reserve, which

14 Pacific News Nr. 30 • Juli/August 2008 is vested in the South Tara- naki District Council. That council has supported the sanctuary financially during the establishment phase and has indicated a willingness to meet some of the ongoing operating costs in perpetuity. Where land is not controlled by local government, such support is generally not fort- hcoming.

Sustaining ­community ­ownership All six sanctuaries have worked to build a sense of ownership of the project wi- thin the wider community by establishing a group of trust members or “Friends” of the Source: Diane Campbell-Hunt 2007 sanctuary. These groups pro- vide essential support in the Xcluder TM fence at Maungatautari Ecological Island in the Waikato, NZ forms of volunteer ­labour, advocacy for the sanctuary, address the issue of how to maintain Nicholls (editor) Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 205-232. and donated skills and expertise. Their community enthusiasm in the longer Clewell, A.F. and J. Aronson (2006) Motivations for annual subs or donations provide an im- term and this is a matter of considera- the restoration of Conservation Biology 20(2): portant source of income and they can ble uncertainty. All six sanctuaries either 420-428. also support the ecotourism enterprise have, or are developing, active education Dees, J.G (2001) The meaning of “social entrepreneur- by bringing themselves, their families and programmes that attract schoolchildren ship” www.fuqua.duke.edu/centers/case/about/:5 friends to visit the sanctuary. Volunteers and older students; education is seen as Department of Conservation and Ministry for the En- play a key role in keeping operating costs an important part of sustaining commu- vironment (2000) New Zealand’s Biodiversity Strategy: Our Chance to Turn the Tide New Zealand Government. down in all six sanctuaries. Even at Ta- nity support. Karori Wildlife Sanctuary (2007) Annual Report July wharanui where operating costs (inclu- The ambitious ecological restoration 2006 to June 2007 Karori Wildlife Sanctuary (Inc.) ding staff salaries) are paid by the Auck- projects being undertaken by commu- Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2003) Ecosystems land Regional Council, the associated nity groups in New Zealand represent and Human Well-Being: Biodiversity Synthesis World community group (Tawharanui Open an exciting new development in conser- Resources Institute, Washington DC. Sanctuary Supporters) contributes many vation. However, these groups face the Ministry for the Environment (2007) Environment New hours of volunteer labour and fundrai- challenge of sustaining their sanctuaries Zealand 2007 New Zealand Government. sing which make possible much of the into the future. The major issues are the Nicholls, A. (2006) Introduction. In Social Entrepre- ecological restoration at the site. development of secure operating reve- neurship: New Models of Sustainable Social Change A. Nicholls (editor) Oxford University Press, Oxford. Pages nue and engaging the ongoing support 1-35. Community Involvement of the wider community. Ross, S. and G. Wall (1999) Ecotourism: towards con- Location influences the scale of com- The extent to which ecotourism can gruence between theory and practice Tourism Management munity support; sanctuaries that are ur- support full financial self-reliance re- 20: 123-132. ban or close to an urban area have lar- mains to be seen, and raises the associa- Salafsky, N., H. Cauley et al. (2001) A systematic test ger memberships and therefore higher ted question of the appropriate role for of an enterprise strategy for community-based biodiversity conservation. Conservation Biology 15(6): 1585-1595. numbers of volunteers. One of the ur- government in supporting and sustai- Society for Ecological Research (2004). The SER Primer ban sanctuaries under study has a volun- ning these initiatives. on Ecological Restoration. Science and Policy Working teer workforce of 400, roughly ten times Group, Society for Ecological Restoration International. that of one of the rural sanctuaries. The Tuscon. www.ser.org. concept of ecological restoration is very Selected References Weerawardena, J. and G. Sullivan Mort (2006) Investi- appealing to the New Zealand public at Alter, S. K. (2006) Social enterprise models and their gating social entrepreneurship: a multidimensional model. this point in time, but sanctuaries must mission and money relationships. In Social Entrepre- Journal of World Business 41: 21-35. neurship: New Models of Sustainable Social Change A. Diane Campbell-Hunt [[email protected]] is a PhD Candidate at the Department of ­Geography, University of Otago in , New Zealand. Her research looks at community-driven ­biodiversity initiatives. Since 2003 she has been closely involved with the Orokonui Ecosanctuary project.

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