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Visual Side Effects Linked to Sildenafil Consumption: an Update

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Visual Side Effects Linked to Sildenafil Consumption: an Update biomedicines Review Visual Side Effects Linked to Sildenafil Consumption: An Update Eva Ausó, Violeta Gómez-Vicente and Gema Esquiva * Department of Optics, Pharmacology and Anatomy, University of Alicante, 03690 Alicante, Spain; [email protected] (E.A.); [email protected] (V.G.-V.) * Correspondence: [email protected] Abstract: Phosphodiesterase type 5 (PDE5) inhibitors such as Viagra® (sildenafil citrate) have demon- strated efficacy in the treatment of erectile dysfunction (ED) by inducing cyclic guanosine monophos- phate (cGMP) elevation followed by vasodilation and increased blood flow. It also exerts minor inhibitory action against PDE6, which is present exclusively in rod and cone photoreceptors. The effects of sildenafil on the visual system have been investigated in a wide variety of clinical and preclinical studies due to the fact that a high dose of sildenafil may cause mild and transient visual symptoms in some patients. A literature review was performed using PubMed, Cochrane Library and Clinical Trials databases from 1990 up to 2020, focusing on the pathophysiology of visual disorders induced by sildenafil. The aim of this review was not only to gather and summarize the information available on sildenafil clinical trials (CTs), but also to spot subpopulations with increased risk of developing undesirable visual side effects. This PDE inhibitor has been associated with transient and reversible ocular side effects, including changes in color vision and light perception, blurred vision, photophobia, conjunctival hyperemia and keratitis, and alterations in the electroretinogram (ERG). Sildenafil may induce a reversible increase in intraocular pressure (IOP) and a few case reports suggest it is involved in the development of nonarteritic ischemic optic neuropathy (NAION). Citation: Ausó, E.; Gómez-Vicente, Reversible idiopathic serous macular detachment, central serous retinopathy and ERG disturbances V.; Esquiva, G. Visual Side Effects have been related to the significant impact of sildenafil on retinal perfusion. So far, sildenafil does Linked to Sildenafil Consumption: not seem to cause permanent toxic effects on chorioretinal tissue and photoreceptors as long as An Update. Biomedicines 2021, 9, 291. https://doi.org/10.3390/ the therapeutic dose is not exceeded and is taken under a physician’s direction to treat a medical biomedicines9030291 condition. However, the recreational use of sildenafil can lead to harmful side effects, including vision changes. Academic Editor: Enzo Maria Vingolo Keywords: phosphodiesterase; guanylyl cyclase; viagra; retinal toxicity Received: 7 January 2021 Accepted: 5 March 2021 Published: 12 March 2021 1. Introduction Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral 1.1. Phototransduction Cascade with regard to jurisdictional claims in The phototransduction process is a G-protein mediated signaling cascade where published maps and institutional affil- rod or cone opsins couple photon absorption to current flow at the photoreceptor outer iations. segment plasma membrane [1]. In the dark, cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), which is at a relatively high concentration in the photoreceptor outer segment, binds and maintains cyclic nucleotide-gated (CNG) channels in the plasma membrane in an open state, resulting in an influx of Na+ and Ca2+ ions into the cytosol. To maintain Ca2+ Copyright: © 2021 by the authors. homeostasis within the photoreceptor, K+ and Ca2+ are, in parallel, continuously extruded Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. via the potassium-dependent sodium-calcium exchanger (NCKX). This constant inward This article is an open access article current, referred to as the dark current, causes photoreceptor depolarization and glutamate distributed under the terms and release at the synaptic terminal, inhibiting postsynaptic second-order neurons (bipolar conditions of the Creative Commons cells). Absorption of photons by rhodopsin leads to the sequential activation of G-protein Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// transducin and phosphodiesterase 6 (PDE6), responsible for the hydrolysis of cGMP and creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ 4.0/). the consequent closure of CNG channels. This interrupts the dark current, resulting in the Biomedicines 2021, 9, 291. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomedicines9030291 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/biomedicines Biomedicines 2021, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 2 of 24 Biomedicines 2021, 9, 291 2 of 23 cGMP and the consequent closure of CNG channels. This interrupts the dark current, resulting in the hyperpolarization of outer segments due to the continued activity of NCKX. As a result, the generation of this electro-chemical signal halts the release of neurotransmittershyperpolarization at of the outer photoreceptor segments due axon to terminal the continued and the activity visual ofsignal NCKX. is propagated As a result, tothe postsynaptic generation cells of this [1]. electro-chemical signal halts the release of neurotransmitters at the photoreceptorThe role of axoncGMP terminal as a second and messenger the visual signalis key isin propagatedthe regulation to postsynapticof phototransduction cells [1]. since theThe whole role of signaling cGMP as cascade a second depends messenger on the is balance key in the between regulation its synthesis of phototransduc- by retinal guanylyltion since cyclase the whole (GC) signaling and its cascadehydrolysis depends by PDE6. on the Thus, balance it seems between obvious its synthesis that the by disruptionretinal guanylyl of cGMP cyclase metabolism (GC) and implies its hydrolysis serious byconsequences PDE6. Thus, for it visual seems obviousfunctioning, that includingthe disruption photoreceptor of cGMP toxicity metabolism and cell implies death (reviewed serious consequences in [2]). Processes for visual such as function- retinal oxidativeing, including stress photoreceptor entail the generation toxicity andof reac celltive death nitrogen (reviewed intermediates in [2]). Processes such as such nitric as retinal oxidative stress entail the generation of reactive nitrogen intermediates such as oxide (NO), a second messenger that stimulates retinal GC, increasing free cGMP levels nitric oxide (NO), a second messenger that stimulates retinal GC, increasing free cGMP [3]. Likewise, genetic mutations are also involved in the pathological intracellular levels [3]. Likewise, genetic mutations are also involved in the pathological intracellular concentrations of cGMP. For instance, some forms of inherited retinal degeneration such concentrations of cGMP. For instance, some forms of inherited retinal degeneration such as retinitis pigmentosa, Leber congenital amaurosis, or cone–rod dystrophies are related as retinitis pigmentosa, Leber congenital amaurosis, or cone–rod dystrophies are related to increased cGMP levels (reviewed in [4]). Moreover, pharmacologically targeting the to increased cGMP levels (reviewed in [4]). Moreover, pharmacologically targeting the cGMP pathway has been postulated as a novel and interesting therapeutic approach for cGMP pathway has been postulated as a novel and interesting therapeutic approach for the the treatment of inherited retinal degenerations [5]. Although the mechanisms linking treatment of inherited retinal degenerations [5]. Although the mechanisms linking elevated elevated cGMP to photoreceptor demise have not been completely elucidated yet, two cGMP to photoreceptor demise have not been completely elucidated yet, two targets of targets of cGMP, whose overactivation contributes to rod cell death, have been proposed: cGMP, whose overactivation contributes to rod cell death, have been proposed: protein protein kinase G (PKG) and CNG channels [6]. kinase G (PKG) and CNG channels [6]. ItIt is is known known that that the the NO/GC/cGMP/PKG NO/GC/cGMP/PKG signaling signaling pathway pathway is is functional functional and and widely widely distributeddistributed in in specific specific cell cell types types of of both both the the in internalternal and and external external retina retina of of mice mice [3]. [3]. Studies Studies performedperformed in in the the murine murine models models of ofretinitis retinitis pigmentosa pigmentosa rd1rd1 andand rd10rd10, which, which carry carry loss-of- loss- functionof-function mutations mutations in the in beta the betasubunit subunit of rod of PDE6 rod PDE6 [7], have [7], shown have shown that high that cGMP high levels cGMP duringlevels duringretinal retinaldegeneration degeneration trigger trigger an over an overactivationactivation of ofPKG, PKG, which which contributes contributes to to photoreceptorphotoreceptor deathdeath [8[8].]. Although Although cGMP-dependent cGMP-dependent phosphorylation phosphorylation of PKG of inPKG photore- in photoreceptorsceptors has already has already been demonstrated been demonstrated in 1977 in [9 ],1977 Paquet-Durand’s [9], Paquet-Durand’s study was study the was first theto linkfirst excessiveto link excessive PKG activity PKG directlyactivity todirect cellly death to cell [8]. death On the [8]. other On hand,the other as mentioned hand, as mentionedabove, cGMP above, regulates cGMP the regulates opening the of opening the CNG of channels the CNG present channels in thepresent plasma in the membrane plasma membraneof the photoreceptor of the photoreceptor outer segment. outer Therefore, segment. excessive Therefore, cGMP excessive alters cGMP Ca2+ homeostasis, alters Ca2+ homeostasis,impairing the impairing function the of Ca function2+-dependent of Ca2+ phototransduction-dependent phototransduction proteins such proteins as recoverin
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