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Early Marriage and Its Effects on Girls' Education in Rural Ethiopia

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Early Marriage and Its Effects on Girls' Education in Rural Ethiopia Early Marriage and Its Effects on Girls’ Education in Rural Ethiopia: The Case of Mecha Woreda in West Gojjam, North-Western Ethiopia Overleaf: 9 years old girl, forced to marry at the age of 8 while she was attending first grade, and her husband, a farmer (Photo: Guday Emirie, Rim Peasant Association, January 2004) Early Marriage and Its Effects on Girls’ Education in Rural Ethiopia: The Case of Mecha Woreda in West Gojjam, North-Western Ethiopia Dissertation Submitted for Doctorate/Doctoral Grade in Ethnology (Social and Cultural Anthropology) to the Faculty of Social Sciences, Georg-August University of Goettingen By Guday Emirie from Ethiopia Göttingen, June 2005 Examiners: 1st Examiner Prof. Dr. Brigitta Benzing (Ethnology) 2nd Examiner Prof. Dr.Ulrich Braukämper (Ethnology) Date of Defense: July 22, 2005 To my husband and sons CONTENTS Table of Contents……………………………………………………………….………………. v Acknowledgements………………………………………………...……………...…………..… ix Preface……………………………………………………………………...………..…………... xi PART I 1. Research Background, Aims and Scope of the Study………...…………...…….….……… 1 1.1 Research Background………………………………………………………...……………. 1 1.2 Statement of the Problem…………………………………………………………………... 4 1.3 Objectives and Methods of the Study……………………………………………………… 7 1.4 The Study Area and Ethnographic Research Sites………………..……..………...………. 7 1.5 Scope, Limitation and Significance of the Study……………………...…………………... 9 2. Literature Review: Theoretical Approaches, Empirical Studies, Analytical Concepts and Frameworks………………………………………………………………...……...…... 11 2.1 Theoretical Approaches……………………………………………….……………………... 11 2.1.1 Anthropological Approaches to Gender Roles and Relations….……………………… 11 2.1.2 Feminist Perspectives on Gender in Education…………….…….……………….…. .. 15 2.1.3 Gender Issues in Development……………………………………….………………... 19 2.1.4 Perspectives on Early Marriage………………………………………….………...…... 23 2.1.4.1 The Socio-Cultural Framework: Customs and Traditions Related to Early Marriage ………………………………….…………………………..……..…. 23 2.1.4.2 The Economic Framework: The Links between Early Marriage and Poverty … 24 2.1.4.3 The Human Development Framework: Early Marriage Hinders Overall Development…………………………………………………………………… 26 2.1.4.4 A Right-Based Approach: Early Marriage and the Human Rights of Girls and Women …………...……………………………………………….….……....... 27 2.1.4.5 The Ethiopian Legal Framework: Early Marriage and the Law ........................... 31 2.2 Review of Empirical-Statistical Studies on Gender and Education in Ethiopia ………..…… 33 2.2.1 Analysis of the Gender Gap in the Ethiopian Education System…………….…..……. 33 2.2.2 Empirical Studies on Gender and Education in Ethiopia……….…………………....... 35 2.3 Literature Review on Early Marriage………………...……….….………………...………... 39 2.3.1 An Overview of Early Marriage in the International and Regional Contexts…….…… 39 2.3.2 Early Marriage in the Ethiopia Context……………………………………….….......... 44 2.3.2.1 Prevalence of Early Marriage in Ethiopia…………………………….………. 44 2.3.2.2 Types and Patterns of Early Marriage Arrangements in Ethiopia…... …….…. 45 2.3.2.3 Causes of Early Marriage in the Ethiopian Context…………..………………. 46 2.3.2.4 Consequences of Early Marriage in the Ethiopia Context……………………. 48 2.4 Analytical Concepts Used in the Study…………………………………...………………….. 51 2.4.1 “Childhood-Girlhood” ………………………………………....................................... 51 2.4.2 “Early Marriage”…………………….………………………........................................ 54 2.4.3 “Education”……………………...………………………………................................. 56 2.4.4 “Rural-Urban Settings”………..………………...…………..…………….….............. 57 2.5 Model of the Analytical Framework Used in the Study……………………………………... 59 3. Research Methodology and Fieldwork Experiences……………………………….….…… 61 3.1 Frame of the Ethnographic Fieldwork……………………..…………………......……….. 61 3.2 Methods of Data Collection: Secondary and Primary Methods…..……………...……….. 63 3.2.1 Secondary Data Collection Methods…………..……………….………..….……….. 63 3.2.2 Primary Data Collection Methods………………………………………….………... 63 3.3 Methods of Data Analysis……………………………………………………………...…. 68 3.3.1 Network-Analysis…………………………………….…………………………..… 68 3.3.2 Document Analysis……………………………….…………….…………………... 68 3.4 Critical Research Appraisal and Fieldwork Experiences ………...……………….……… 68 v PART II 4. The Local Setting: Mecha Woreda in West Gojjam……………………………………….. 73 4.1 Natural Surrounding, Ecology and Economic Basis of Mecha Woreda…………………. 73 4.1.1 Natural Surrounding and Ecology………………………………………………… 73 4.1.2 Economic Basis: Mixed Farming…………………………………………………. 74 4.2 Ethnographic, Political and Socio-Economic History of Mecha Woreda……………...... 76 4.2.1 A Bird’s Eye View on the Ethnographic History of ‘Mecha’ Woreda…….……… 76 4.2.2 The Political and Socio-Economic History of Mecha Woreda……….…………… 77 4.3 Current Demographic Profiles and Social Amenities…………………………………… 79 4.3.1 Demographic Profiles and Ethnographic Remarks………………………………. 79 4.3.2 Social Amenities: Health and Education Services……………………………...... 80 5. Social Structure and Organization …………………...………………………………...…. 83 5. An Overview of the Social Structure and Organization in Northern Ethiopia…..…….…. 83 5.1 Kinship Structure and Dynamics…………………………………………………....... 84 5.1.1 Kinship, Descent and Marriage……………………………………………..… 84 5.1.2 Kinship Relations through Religious and Social Ties………………………… 85 5.1.3 Kinship, Gender and Inheritance……………………………………………... 86 5.2 Rites of Passage……………………………..……………………………………....... 86 5.2.1 Pregnancy and Childbirth……………………………………………..………. 86 5.2.2 Circumcision and Baptism………………………………………………......... 90 5.2.2.1 Male and Female Circumcision……...…………………………….…. 90 5.2.2.2 Male and Female Baptism ………...…………………………………... 90 5.2.3 Marriage - Childhood - Adulthood…………………………………………… 91 5.2.4 Death and Funeral Ceremonies……………………………………………….. 92 5.3 Values and Belief Systems …………………………..……………………………...... 93 5.3.1 Values………………………………………………………………………..... 93 5.3.1.1 Values Attached to “Virginity” and “Fertility”……………………… 93 5.3.1.2 Values Attached to Children…………………………………………. 93 5.3.1.3 Gender-Specific Values Attached to “Childlessness” and “Having Many Children”……………….………………..……………………. 94 5.3.2 Belief Systems ………………………………………..…………………......... 95 5.4 Local Institutions and Organizations…..….……………………………..…..........….. 96 5.4.1 Household: Compositions, Structure and Decision-Making Patterns….....…... 96 5.4.1.1 Household: Its Compositions and Structure……..……………...…….. 96 5.4.1.2 Decision-Making Patterns in the Extended Family Structure…..…….. 98 5.4.2 Traditional Community-Based Associations…………….………..….............. 100 5.4.3 Councils of Elders (Yagär-Šəmagəlločč): Roles and Constraints….…............. 101 5.4.4 Government-initiated Political Structure: Changes and Constraints……......... 101 5.5 Socio-Economic Differentiation and Major Livelihood Strategies ………................. 103 5.5.1 Economic and Social Differentiation…………..…………………................... 103 5.5.2 Major Livelihood Strategies ...……………………………….…...……........... 105 6. Gender Socialization and Formal Schooling Among the Peasant Communities of Mecha Woreda…………………………...…………………………………...……....…..… 107 6. Gender Socialization and Formal Schooling: An Overview………………….………….. 107 6.1 Gender Socialization: Training at Home…………………………………...………… 108 6.2 Gender-Based Division of Labor in the Family………………………….……………. 109 6.3 Levels and Curricula of Primary Education …………………………….…………... 113 6.4 Primary Education in Bachema and Rim Peasant Associations (PAs)………………... 114 6.4.1 Levels and Profiles of Primary Schools in Bachema and Rim PAs…………….. 114 6.4.2 Gender and Primary Education in Bachema and Rim PAs……………………... 115 6.5 Gender-Specific Barriers to Formal Schooling ………………………………………. 117 vi PART III 7. Marriage Customs and Practices Among the Peasant Communities of Mecha Woreda…………………………………………………………...…………………………….. 123 7.1 Marriage Customs…………………………………..………………………………….… 123 7.2 Forms and Types of Marriage ……………………………………………………………. 123 7.2.1 Primary Forms of Marriage……………………………………………….……….. 123 7.2.2 Secondary Forms of Marriage………………………...…………………………... 124 7.3 Types and Procedures of Early Marriage Arrangements…………………………….......... 125 7.3.1 Types of Early Marriage Arrangements…………………………………………... 125 7.3.2 Procedures of Early Marriage Arrangements……….…………………………….. 126 7.3.3 The Economics of Early Marriage Arrangements………………………................ 129 7.4 Marital Dissolution-Divorce and Serial Marriages ………………………………………… 130 7.4.1 Prevalence and Trend of Divorce……….…………………………………………. 130 7.4.2 Gender-Specific Reasons for Marital Dissolution-Divorce……………………….. 132 7.4.3 Divorce as a Survival Strategy ……………. ……………………………………… 133 8. Prevalence, Causes and Consequences of Early Marriage Among the Peasant Communities of Mecha Woreda…………………………………….……………….…….. 137 8.1 Prevalence and Trend of Early Marriage ………………………………..…..……….…. 137 8.2 Causes of Early Marriage……………………………………………...…….…….…...... 137 8.2.1 Economic Motives and Life Insecurities………………………………………….. 139 8.2.2 Socio-Cultural Justifications and Gender Ideologies…….…………………….….. 140 8.3 Consequences of Early Marriage……………………………….…………….……….… 142 8.3.1 Health and Psychosocial Consequences of Early Marriage……………………….. 142 8.3.2 Illiteracy, Divorce-Widowhood and Poverty……………...………………………. 144 8.3.3 Educational Consequences of Early marriage…………………………………….. 146 8.3.4 Personal, Social and Economic Consequences of Early Marriage…………….….. 146 8.3.5 Overall Consequences of Early Marriage…………………………...…………...... 147 9. Effects of Early Marriage on
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