NeuroQuantology | September 2009 | Vol 7 | Issue 3 | Page 482-490 482 Saniotis A, Evolving brain and neuroanthrophology

OPINION AND PERSPECTIVES—

Evolving Brain , , and Cognitive Frontiers

Arthur Saniotis Abstract Emergence is an interesting concept for explaining human . An understanding of emergence enables us to define the role of novelty and creativity in human beings and their complex behavioural repertoire. Emergence merits a neuroscientific approach since the brain is a process of biological evolution, therefore, signifying the biological basis of human consciousness and experience. In this paper I outline three areas of emergence and the human brain which may further assist us in understanding the relationship between brain and .

Key Words: Neuroanthropology, emergence, and cognitive frontiers NeuroQuantology 2009; 3: 482-490

Introduction1 certain features can be described as emergent This paper will examine the concept of due to the “increase in complexity from the emergence in relation to the human brain. The physical components out of which it emerged” notion of emergence has been extensively (Huyssteen 2006: 653). Clayton further notes: examined in terms of cosmic and biological “When in addition internal changes in biological evolution. Alternately, there have been entities themselves become productive of comparatively few studies on emergence and complex behaviors, and in particular when they human evolution. The central thesis of enhance the organism’s prospects for survival emergence is that biological increase in and reproduction, we speak of them as their level of self organization and complexity. purposive behaviors” (2004: 97). As organisms This is in a nut shell. In nature emergence is increase in their complexity they manifest a depicted in complex and multitudinous range of qualitatively complex and flexible biological forms “of self-generating networks” behaviours which ultimately defines them as (Capra 2002:13). Evolution is adumbrated by being markedly different (Clayton 2004:99). In novel forms and adaptation strategies which other words, greater “complexity and flexibility” increase the complexity of living organisms. For may posit the conditions for emergence in a Maturana and Varela (1987), life forms exhibit specific species (Huyssteen 2006:653). autopoeisis, based on self organising principles. In human beings, the emergence of Emergence implies that in biological evolution brain/mind must be examined through its evolutionary history from which brain has evolved. Understanding the relationship Corresponding author: Arthur Saniotis between brain/mind and between Address: Discipline of , School of Social Sciences. The University of Adelaide “consciousness and its neural correlates”— Phone: + +61 8 8303 5730 demands an understanding of the multilevel Fax: +61 8 8303 5733 e-mail: [email protected] structure of nature (Huyssteen 2006:654). This ISSN 1303 5150 www.neuroquantology.com

NeuroQuantology | September 2009 | Vol 7 | Issue 3 | Page 482-490 483 Saniotis A, Evolving brain and neuroanthrophology is in itself is a demanding task, one in which evolution of brain encephalisation and neuroscience in conjunction with biological and complexity was probably prompted by the behavioral sciences is exploring. According to increasing social complexities of early hominid Grof (1990:11), the neurophysical activities of life. Sociality was an essential factor in neural the brain and its creative intelligence manifest development and informed social behaviour in the ingenious principles of nature. On this such a way that it fostered the advent of culture. theme, the cybernetician Gregory Bateson For the Russian neurophysiologist A. R. Luria, expresses that the properties of mind are human consciousness was also contoured by a expressed throughout nature (1971). Bateson “rich net of essential relations” (Luria 1987). sums this up in the following: “If you want to According to one popular theory understand mental process, look at biological encapsulated by Diamond’s phrase “The Great evolution and conversely if you want to Leap Forward”, there was an explosion in art, understand biological evolution, go look at ritual, technology and social organization around mental process”(Manghi 2002, xi). If, then, the 40,000 years ago (Diamond 1991). Numerous emergence of human consciousness is visible in artifacts of this period support this cultural evolution, how much more will it be evident in efflorescence. In comparison, Neanderthal tools cultural evolution which is undoubtedly the show little innovation from 100,000-40,000 hallmark of Homo sapiens (Huyssteen 2006: years ago (Diamond 1991:37). Diamond’s thesis 655). Culture as a product of the brain’s is interesting since it is apparently supported neuroplasticity is embedded in novelty and with modern scientific findings which show that utmost flexibility due to its reliance on symbolic two genes regulate brain growth – language. Unlike biological evolution, cultural microcephalin and ASPM (abnormal spindle-like evolution is rapid and incredibly novel. The microcephaly associated). According to Nitzan efflorescence of culture has accelerated the et al (2005), the microcephaly allele in humans brain’s intelligence and ability to assess arose around 37,000 years ago, about the time incredible amounts of in a relatively of the hypothesized Great Leap Forward. The short amount of time. Moreover, cultural ASPM allele emerged around 5,800 years ago at transmission has been able to “codirect genetic the advent of the Second Great Leap Forward evolution” (Laland et al 2000:132; Boyd & which saw the emergence of cities, complex Richerson 1985). social hierarchies, , improved This essay will locate the evolving brain technologies and sophisticated aesthetic and emergence in three areas: Brain evolution. awareness – the hallmarks of civilization. In Secondly, I provide a neurophysiological addition, the recent ASPM selected variant overview of ritual. The area of ritual and brain suggests that the Homo sapien brain is still provides a fruitful area for understanding the evolving, an aspect which I will discuss later on. emergence of novelty and its neural substrate. Intelligence and novelty was an ongoing In the third section, I proffer new possible process in the hominid line over millions of years evolutionary directions of the brain due to the and is not the sole property of Homo sapiens. advent of nano-bio-information technologies. For instance, the cranial impressions of the brain of Homo habilis (circa 2.2 mya) shows indications Evolving Emergence of developed Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas Numerous studies reveal that the Homo sapien which may have given this early hominid the brain has increased three times its size since the ability for rudimentary (Bradshaw Pliocene period. Over the last five million years 1997:38). Since there is little genetic variation increases in the hominid brain have been between apes and humans, the growth of paralleled by an increase in body size cortical areas was likely to have been influenced (Henneberg 1998:745). For example, the three by “regulatory genes” over time (Bradshaw fold increase in brain size over the past four 1997:38). Furthermore, encephalisation of early million years has been from the hominid ancestors (Homo rudolfensis, Homo Australopithecines (450 ml) to modern Homo habilis, Homo ergaster, and Homo erectus) was sapiens (1350 ml) (Henneberg 1998:746). The coupled with cerebral reorganization and brain

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NeuroQuantology | September 2009 | Vol 7 | Issue 3 | Page 482-490 484 Saniotis A, Evolving brain and neuroanthrophology lateralisation (Arsuaga & Martinez 2006:126- ‘deep structure.’ According to Levi-Strauss, the 127). Increases in the neo-cortex was probably human brain orders the world into oppositional prompted by the developments in social categories i.e. male/female, hot/cold/up/.down, organization and the concomitant development right/left, raw/cooked. These oppositional of ‘social intelligence’ (Arsuaga & Martinez categories reflect the binary structure of the 2006:127). The hypothesis that social brain (Levi-Strauss 1963, 1966). On this point, organisation was a driving force in early hominid both authors mention that their structural encephalisation may have been advantageous in model privileges the neuroplasticity of the brain predicting changing social patterns and and its massive neural matrix (Lipp 2000). pressures which ensued novel social adaptations Moreover, the brain is not limitless in its (Bradshaw 1997:163; Humphrey 1976). The fact neuroplasticity but is regulated and constrained that primate and Homo social organisation by a genetic precursor. The genetically exhibits high complexity gives credence to this predisposed neural model organises experience argument (Ehrlich 2000:113). As early hominid in particular ways – a process called social organisation increased on several levels neurogenesis (Laughlin et al 1979:8; Guthrie within the group and between other groups, this 2000). Laughlin and d’Aquilli insist that human led to a positive which allowed behaviour is characterised by the interplay individuals to become adept to the requirements between “the central nervous system and the of the changing social environment. These new environment” (1974:195). While this idea is not environmental pressures fostered an array of new it does confirm the role of the neural adaptation strategies, further eliciting brain substrate when engaging with the environment. evolution (Ehrlich 2000:113). Thus, social The strength of the biogenetic structuralist intelligence became crucial to hominid theory lies in its ability to explain cognitive an behavioural repertoire. “Intense consciousness” structural elements by directing them to specific may have concomitantly emerged with social neural structures and functions (Laughlin & intelligence and early hominids’ “ability to d’Aquilli 1974:14-15). This is an area in which generate ever better cognitive maps and internal anthropology and have hitherto been representations or models of reality” (Bradshaw reluctant to pursue. 1997:146). What is implicit is that the A major role of biogenetic structuralism has emergence of social intelligence in our early been in elucidating the neurobiology of ritual. ancestors was associated by the enlarged pre- Ritual is an apt target for this model’s frontal cortex and heteromodal association exploration due to its universality and central cortex which occupies a quarter of the total place in human . In Homo sapiens ritual cortical area in Homo sapiens (Bradshaw 1997: has become an intrinsic social adaptation in 168-169). coordinating human behaviour. Ritual’s onus on collective action is contingent on various Ritual, Emergence and Neurogenesis communicative strategies which elicit prescribed The relationship between ritual and brain has behaviours (Laughlin et al 1979:28). In human been explored by a modern theory called societies rituals observe three criteria: biogenetic structuralism. This model was 1. Rituals follow a structured pattern. conceived by Eugene d’Aquilli and Charles 2. Rituals are characterised by repetitive Laughlin in the 1970’s. Biogenetic structuralism and stereotypical behaviours within a conjoins the disciplines of neuroanatomy, time framework. Rituals often employ psychology and anthropology. Its rhythmic and redundant patterns which interdisciplinary approach is intended to can lead to a coordinated arousal of the transcend the Cartesian based sciences which cortical limbic system (Guthrie 2000). still encourage a body/mind split. Both authors 3. Rituals manoeuvre participants towards suggest such adherence to Cartesian dualism a certain goal or formalised objective ignores the phenomenological aspect of human (Laughlin et al 1979:29). perception (Merleau-Ponty 1963). Both authors apply Levi-Strauss’s and Chomsky’s concepts of

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The adequate adaptation to a ritual’s symbolic correlates with mutation in organic evolution milieu necessitates the incorporation of (Turner 1983:237). The ludic recombinations of “sensory-neuroendocrine-motor subsystems” of familiar elements in unfamiliar patterns a participant’s central nervous system (Laughlin experienced during liminality are rooted in the et al 1979:30). Therefore, appropriate responses dialectic between the brain’s right and left within the ritualised environment requires “a hemispheres and their corresponding ergotropic balance between sympathetic and and trophotropic systems (Turner 1983:237). parasympathetic systems” (Laughlin et al The central nervous system comprises the 1979:30). Additionally, ritual and its aural sympathetic (arousal) system (SNS), and the correlate, myth, organise cognitive development parasympathetic (quiescent) system (PNS). The and socialisation. Ritual provides a means for former is connected to the adrenal glands and structuring and transforming “neuromotor the amygdala and is arouses the left hemisphere subsystems in developing organisms” (Laughlin (Guthrie 2000). Its interaction is called et al 1979:35). ergotropic (Greek: ‘ergo’ = ‘to work’). The latter According to Laughlin et al human beings is connected to the endocrine glands, thalamus have a drive towards creating and maintaining and hypothalamus and arouses the right order in their environment. This “cognitive hemisphere. Its interaction is termed imperative” refers to the human drive in trophotropic (Greek: ‘trophos’ = ‘to nourish’) achieving a semblance of existential control in (Guthrie 2000; d’Aquilli 1979). The arousal of the life-world by unifying different elements and the ergotropic system during ritual behaviour events into a unified whole (Laughlin et al excites the trophotropic system, leading to 1979:10). The cognitive imperative emerges as a “hyperarousal and hyperquiescent states” response to existential imbalances and the stimulating the limbic system (Guthrie 2000). subsequent redressing of these. Either too much The switching back and forth between the two or too little novelty leads to cognitive imbalance systems often triggers altered or non-ordinary (Laughlin et al 1979:10). What is certain is that states of consciousness. From this perspective human beings cannot live with uncertainty for a multiple stimulations provided by the interacting protracted period, and therefore, create rituals systems ensues a reduction in ambiguity and which order spatial and symbolic elements into increases uniformity among ritual participants systematic cognitive maps – ways of (Lex 1979:120). experiencing order and coherence in the face of Ergotropic response consists of indeterminacy (Jackson 1998). augmented sympathetic discharges, Myth provides a mechanism for increased muscle tonus, and excitation in understanding the present and its tie with the the cerebral cortex manifested as past, as well as, the social and moral templates “desynchronised” resting rhythms; the of human sociality. Ritual as the motor aspect of trophotropic pattern includes heightened myth seeks to control antimonies apparent in parasympathetic discharges, relaeased life and resolving them. Victor Turner’s theory skeletal muscles, and synchronized of ritual is instrumental here. Turner, a la van cortical rhythms (Lex 1979:135; Gellhorn Gennep (1909), divides ritual into three phases: & Kiely 1972). separation, limen and reaggregation. The limen phase is the most significant since during this This interaction between binary systems is phase ritual participants are symbolically stated by Newberg et al (2002) in relation to manoeuvred to experiencing “liminality” – a attaining transcendental states of awareness state “betwixt and between” social categories culminating in a state referred to as Absolute (Turner 1969, 1974). Turner contends that the Unitary Being; a Unio Mystica, characterised by symbolically indeterminate properties of the dissolution of self. What these authors liminality demand new ways for exploring the privilege is the collective emotional synchrony of self. In this way, creative novelty is emergent in ritual in achieving transcendental states. liminality. Liminality’s amorphous structure Similarly, Turner cites that the intense emotions stimulates variations in human behaviour which that are aroused during ritual can lead

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NeuroQuantology | September 2009 | Vol 7 | Issue 3 | Page 482-490 486 Saniotis A, Evolving brain and neuroanthrophology participants to experiencing communitas – a same time, the initiate must be provided with a state characterised by feelings of equality, new worldview – a cognitive model for egalitarianism and unity between participants understanding self and its new place in the social (Turner 1969, 1974). According to Myerhoff world (McManus 1979: 238). During the liminal (1974), communitas may also include unity phase previous cognitive models collapse – the between participants and the cosmos as initiate enters into an entropic state and is expressed by the Huichol pilgrimage to Wirrikuta forced to make sense of his/her situation (the creation point of the Huichol cosmology and (McManus 1979: 239). As previously discussed, home of their deities) in the south-west United apart from promoting anxiety, liminality may States. Having entered Wirrkuta, the Huichol also foster the emergence of new and novel incorporate the psychotropic plant peyote in to ways of thinking which are reintegrated into the their rituals which aids in inducing cosmic initiate’s new prescribed cognitive model communitas. Communitas in this sense can be (McManus 1979: 238). This process is suggested to be prompted by ritual activities ontogenetic; upon re-entry into the ordinary which are intimately linked to cortical structures world the initiate’s past is discarded, their new such as the limbic and autonomic systems psycho-social identity is emerged (Turner 1969, (Newberg et al 2002:59). Since communitas type 1974). A ritual’s mythic content, invested with rituals are found in many societies across the sacred and authority recoordinates globe implies the importance of altered states of “the neural and cognitive apparati in the new being in relation to myth and ritual. mode,” thereby directing the transformation Studies of the hemispheric dialectic process (McManus 1979: 240). In addition the suggest that rhythmic and repetitive movements power of ritual lies in its putative ability to alter such as dancing, clapping, and body swaying reality such as the distortion of temporal engage the right hemisphere, whereas repetitive ordering in which time and space are dissolved chanting such as Hindu and Buddhist mantra (Newberg and Lee 2005:484). According to monopolises the verbal logical left hemisphere, Newberg and Lee “time and duration are not enabling “the right hemisphere to function absolutes”. I would contend that this sense of freely” (Lex 1979:126; Ornstein 1972, d’Aquili timelessness which participants experience and Newberg 1999). Thus, it can be shown how during meditative states is a source of creative ritual behaviour as a symbolic complex insight and leads to the emergence of mythic stimulates the autonomic nervous system. The genre, and is akin to Eliade’s formulations of dynamic interplay between the sympathetic myths as to an eternal return, an illud nervous system and parasympathetic nervous tempus, the origin of existence. system tends to strive towards an internal equilibrium which is different for each Future Cognitive Evolution participant (Lex 1979:132-133). While the architecture of the brain is genetically Here, John Teske’s neuromythology is determined its neuronal connectivity is subject relevant. Narrative forms such as myth act as a to adaptation and change as a result of cultural mnemonic device, combining in order factors. As Geertz (1973), points out, human to heighten emotion (Teske 2006). Since myths brains without culture exist in an inescapable are multileveled, that is, they provide various vacuum. At present, researchers have mixed social and psychological functions, so their responses as to whether bigger brains will engagement organises human actions that are equate to further intelligence in Homo sapiens. both rational and immersed in mythical power, For thinkers such as the renowned physicist such as the construction of virtual realities or the Stephen Hawking, the human brain has reached sacred retrieval of a mythical past (Teske 2006: and evolutionary impasse. He argues that our 187; Eliade 1954). Rites of passage are a present level of intelligence isn’t advanced poignant example of myth’s narrative quality. enough to voyage to the stars. Consequently, During a passage rite the initiate enters the ritual we need to be more intelligent. Hawking’s world which symbolically and spatially answer is to provide an external and simulated demarcates from the ordinary world. At the uterine medium for developing foetuses. Such

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NeuroQuantology | September 2009 | Vol 7 | Issue 3 | Page 482-490 487 Saniotis A, Evolving brain and neuroanthrophology an environment would extend the gestation from Henneberg, the special qualities of human period of the foetus, whereby increasing the size intelligence may not be due to either its size or of its cranium and brain. One may query anatomical structure (1998:748). On this note, it whether the absence of the maternal uterine might be more beneficial to explore brain in environment may pose unbeknown neuro- terms of the distribution of its neuronal network developmental problems and conditions to the rather than by any empirical study of its developing foetus. This is because the uterus is neuroanatomy (Adkins-Regan 2006). an important site for the transmission of This does not mean that Homo sapiens necessary growth hormones and other chemical are evolving to be less intelligent. This is properties to the foetus. Whether a simulated apparently not the case. What I propose is that uterus can perform a similar bio-chemical the human brain is on the verge of a unique function is problematic given the significance of evolution via the emergence of nano- the interplay between mother and foetus, such biotechnologies which will expedite and enhance as the foetal responsiveness to the maternal cortical functions in the future. Recent literature cardiac rhythm. It could be argued that a on the nano-brain interface is both promising foetuses’ reposeful response to the rhythmic and visionary. Away from the sci-fi Drexlerian maternal cardiac cycle may be indicative of a visions of nano constituted brains, the strength nascent parasympathetic reaction which is of nanobiotechnologies may in the near future aroused during ritual. If this is the case, future come in the form of various implants in selected foetuses being deprived of the maternal uterine Brodman’s areas to enhance memory and environment could have compromised sensory perceptions (Garcia-Rill 2003:228). subcortical responses in the trophotropic system Brain-machine interfaces (BMIs) would be based which would create an imbalance between the on a feedback mechanism between neural ergotropic and trophotropic systems and their circuits and bio-chips which would be driven by corresponding neural substrates. the electrical impulses of neurons (Nicolelis Possibly, Hawking’s way of dealing with 2003:252). BMIs could provide various the intelligence issue is awkward considering applications from restoration of motor functions that human intelligence is not posited on in quadriplegics to complex sequence training by encephalisation alone. This can certainly be trainees in virtual reality environments (Nicolelis challenged. As Bradshaw (1997:155) claims, the 2003:253). human brain has a lot of spare room, not the Another possible area in which opposite. He points out that hemidecortication nanobiotech may converge with the brain is in (a consequence of Rasmussen’s encephalitis) if measuring the levels of human ‘sensory gating’ performed in the formative years of human life via a helmet incorporating P50 midlateracy may result in the individual functioning without recording electrodes (Garcia-Rill 2003:230). The apparent loss of cortical function (1997:155). nanotech helmet would have a range of self The bigger brain hypothesis leads us to further monitoring and therapeutic functions such as problems. The comparative anatomist ascertaining the level of blood flow to the frontal Henneberg cites that the size of the “human cortex. Insufficient ability to sensory gate may cranial capacity” has decreased by derive from decreased blood flow to the frontal approximately 10% (100-150ml) from “the late cortex called hypofrontality. Hypofrontality is Pleistocence period until the early 20th century” evident in various neurodegenerative and (Henneberg 1998:747). It should be noted that psychiatric disorders such as Alzheimer’s and this micro-cranialization has appeared at a time Huntington’s diseases and Schizophrenia of advanced technological and cultural progress (Garcia-Rill 2003:231). by Homo Sapiens. In this case, decrease in brain Hypothetically, the long term application size is the result of the proportional decline in of neural prosthetic devices could spurn the the musculoskeletal system. The latter’s decline emergence of cognitively enhanced human coincides with the evolution of agriculture, beings, thus, altering neural organization over technology, science, writing systems, and time. This may come about via nanobots urbanisation (Henneberg 1998:747). Taking up (nanotechnological robots) which may in part

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NeuroQuantology | September 2009 | Vol 7 | Issue 3 | Page 482-490 488 Saniotis A, Evolving brain and neuroanthrophology simulate neurons (Kurzweil 1999). If in the conceptualisation which forms the basis of future, computational systems are based on the human consciousness and experience (Nelson principles of the nervous system this would 1999:48). Lipp (2000:156), contends that “rapid provide a more informed knowledge on the evolutionary adaptation” might be produced by neuro/machine interactivity (Cauller & Penz environmental changes. An interesting issue 2003:256). From an evolutionary viewpoint, here is “how fast genetic adaptation and nano-neuro fusion may provide novel neural speciation can occur” given the possible organizational patterns which we cannot influence of microcephalin and ASPM genes foresee. This is because of the neuroplasticity of have had on the brain in our previous evolution the brain which allows for “the continuous (Lipp 2000:156). It seems likely that emergence refinement of neural functions” (Cauller & Penz as a novel form of evolutionary adaptation may 2003:257). Intrasomatic biofeedback which either “accelerate or decelerate” future human enables individuals to control physiological evolution (Laland et al 2000:140). Laland et al functions such as heart rate, blood flow to skin, claim that it was advantageous for early human and muscle tension via the conditioning “of ancestors to pass on more information to their autonomic and brainwave signals” could over a offspring, as this increased human capacity to period of time induce biological changes to the control and regulate the cultural and physical human body (Pope 2003:268). environment (Laland et 2000:142). In other words, more information enabled for greater Conclusion cultural novelty in creating new forms of This article has proposed various areas in the information which led to greater control. It can study of emergence and the human brain. The be hypothesised that the present information concept of emergence is a productive area for age explosion may lead to different kinds of neuroscientific research given that the brain is mutualisms which are evident in nascent cyber still evolving. From the social scientific space interactions. If the brain is posited on a approach, emergence is a significant area since modular model as evolutionary psychology human neurological connectivity is dependent professes then algorithms are central to the on cultural evolution. The domain of cultural brain’s input. This being the case, algorithms evolution needs to be addressed more by may themselves be open to change as neuroscientists, particularly in the area of individuals learn new knowledge (since inputs “cultural selection processes” (Knudsen & modify the brain’s wiring) (Aunger 2000:147). Hodgson 2006). For example, ideas are more On this theme, I conclude by citing Cohen (2005) than evolutionary units, and social organizations who states: are more than gene like simulations (Knudsen & Hodgson 2006). In other words, an organismic It remains to be seen whether the prefrontal approach to cultural evolution fails to elaborate cortex (and associated structures) has the on our intense consciousness as meaning capacity to meet the challenges that its makers. Emergence not only embodies human appearance seems to have introduced, or whether evolution has truly taken a bite of complexity but defines our unique evolution. Eden’s apple. Here, the human brain exemplifies an autopoietic network in that it is self organizing and self regulating and engages in symbolic

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