Audio Production Techniques (206) Unit 1

Characteristics of Audio Medium

Digital audio is technology that can be used to record, store, generate, manipulate, and reproduce sound using audio signals that have been encoded in digital form. Following significant advances in digital audio technology during the 1970s, it gradually replaced analog audio technology in many areas of sound production, sound recording (tape systems were replaced with digital recording systems), sound engineering and telecommunications in the 1990s and 2000s.

A microphone converts sound (a singer's voice or the sound of an instrument playing) to an analog electrical signal, then an analog-to-digital converter (ADC)—typically using pulse-code modulation—converts the analog signal into a digital signal. This digital signal can then be recorded, edited and modified using digital audio tools. When the sound engineer wishes to listen to the recording on headphones or loudspeakers (or when a consumer wishes to listen to a digital sound file of a song), a digital-to-analog converter performs the reverse process, converting a digital signal back into an analog signal, which analog circuits amplify and send to aloudspeaker.

Digital audio systems may include compression, storage, processing and transmission components. Conversion to a digital format allows convenient manipulation, storage, transmission and retrieval of an audio signal. Unlike analog audio, in which making copies of a recording leads to degradation of the signal quality, when using digital audio, an infinite number of copies can be made without any degradation of signal quality.

Development and expansion of radio network in India

FM broadcasting began on 23 July 1977 in Chennai, then Madras, and was expanded during the 1990s, nearly 50 years after it mushroomed in the US.[1] In the mid-nineties, when India first experimented with private FM broadcasts, the small tourist destination ofGoa was the fifth place in this country of one billion where private players got FM slots. The other four centres were the big metro cities: Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai. These were followed by stations in Bangalore, Hyderabad, Jaipur and Lucknow.

Times FM (now Radio Mirchi) began operations in 1993 in Ahmedabad. Until 1993, All India Radio or AIR, a government undertaking, was the only radio broadcaster in India. The government then took the initiative to privatize the radio broadcasting sector.[citation needed] It sold airtime blocks on its FM channels in Indore, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Vizag and Goa to private operators, who developed their own program content. The Times Group operated its brand, Times FM, till June 1998. After that, the government decided not to renew contracts given to private operators. In 2000, the government announced the auction of 108 FM frequencies across India.

Radio City Bangalore, started on July 3, 2001, is India's first private FM radio station. It launched with presenters such as Rohit Barker, Darius Sunawala, Jonzie Kurian and Suresh Venkat.[2]

FM LRS (Local Radio Station) was inaugurated on 1 July 2001 at 14.28 in Kodaikanal in the frequency 100.5 MHz. The two radio persons Dr.Musiri.T.A.Veerasamy and B.Rajaram (Savitraa) made 100.5 popular and the LRS was upgraded to a "METRO FM" channel in just two months. The channel covered a radius of about 200 km due to its location at 2200 meters above MSL in Kodaikanal. Later, the stalwarts like Supra (K.Natarajan) in 2002 and Maha Somaskandamoorthy in 2003 joined KODAI FM, as it is popularly known. The biggest individual FM channel in India in both area coverage and listenership.

Indian policy currently states that these broadcasters are assessed a One-Time Entry Fee (OTEF), for the entire license period of 10 years. Under the Indian accounting system, this amount is amortised over the 10-year period at 10% per annum. Annual license fee for private players is either 4% of revenue share or 10% of Reserve Price, whichever is higher.

India's earlier attempts to privatise its FM channels ran into rough weather when private players bid heavily and most could not meet their commitments to pay the government the amounts they owed.

Content[edit]

News is not permitted on private FM. Nationally, many of the current FM players, including the Times of India, Hindustan Times, Mid-Day, and BBC are essentially newspaper chains or media, and they are making a strong pitch for news on FM. Private FM stations are allowed to rebroadcast news from All India Radio, as long as they do so without any changes or additions.[3] The Supreme Court of India on 17 October 2013 issued a public interest litigation to the Centre requesting that the rules should be changed to allow FM stations to broadcast news reports.[4]

FM stations in Ahmedabad[edit]

• Radio Mirchi - 98.3 FM (Times Group) • My FM - 94.3 FM (DNA Bhaskar Group) • Red FM - 93.5 FM (Sun Group) • Radio City - 91.1 FM (Music Broadcast Private Limited) • Radio One - 95.0 FM (Only Bollywood Retro Station of Ahmedabad) • Vividh Bharati - 96.7 FM (AIR)

FM stations in Hyderabad[edit]

• Radio City - 91.1 • Big 92.7 FM - 92.7 • South Asia firms (S FM) - 93.5 • Radio Mirchi - 98.3 • All India Radio (AIR / AIR / Twin Cities firms Rainbow)- 101.9 • All India Radio (AIR / AIR / Miscellaneous Bharti) - 102.8 • Gyan Vani - 105.6 • Vividh Bharati

FM stations in New Delhi NCR[edit]

• City FM 92 (Live Broadcasting Radio) • Radia Ditect FM 107.1 (107.1 MHz) • AIR FM Rainbow / FM-1 (102.6 MHz) • AIR FM Gold /FM-2 (106.4 MHz) • AIR Rajdhani/Gyanvani Channel (105.6 MHz) • Oye FM (104.8 MHz) • Fever 104 (104 MHz) • Radio Mirchi FM (98.3 MHz) • Hit FM (95 MHz) • Radio One FM (94.3 MHz)(Only English Radio station of Delhi) • Red FM (93.5 MHz) • Big FM (92.7 MHz) • Radio City (91.1 MHz) • Radio Nasha (107.2 MHz) • Radio Jamia 90.4 FM • Delhi University Educational Radio (Available only in University area) (DU Radio FM) (90.4 MHz) • Apna Radio IIMC 96.9 FM • Vividh Barti (100.1 MHz) • Noida FM (107.4 MHz)

Radio SD 90.8 FM NCR VIKASNAGAR UTTAR PRADESH FM stations in Kolkata[edit]

• Radio SRFTI (90.4 MHz, Available in and around the film institute area) • Radio JU (90.8 MHz, Available within a 5 km radius of the University, from 11:00 AM to 7:30 PM) • Y FM NSHM (91.2 MHz, Available within a 10 km radius of the institute, from 9:00 AM to 7:00 PM) • Friends FM (91.9 MHz) • Big FM (92.7 MHz) • Red FM (93.5 MHz) • Radio One (94.3 MHz) • Radio Mirchi (98.3 MHz) • AIR FM Gold (100.2 MHz) • AIR FM Vividh Bharati (101.8 MHz) • Fever 104 FM (104 MHz) • Oye (104.8 MHz) • Gyan Vani (105.6 MHz) • Aamar FM (106.2 MHz) • AIR FM Rainbow (107 MHz) • Power FM (107.8 MHz) - Last air date: April 21, 2016.

FM stations in Mumbai[edit]

• bansal24hr.fm 95.5 • Vividh Bharati • Jago Mumbai 90.8 • Radio City 91.1FM • Big FM 92.7 • Red FM 93.5 • Radio One 94.3 (Only English Radio station of Mumbai) • Radio Mirchi 98.3 FM 98.3 • Radio Dhamaal 106.4 • AIR FM Gold 100.7 • RAIN BOW FM 102.2 • Fever 104 FM 104.0 • Oye 104.8 104.8 • AIR FM Rainbow 107.1 • Mumbai One • Gyan Vani • Radio MUST

FM stations in Bengaluru[edit] Main article: List of FM radio stations in Bengaluru

• Radio City 91.1 FM - Kannada • Indigo 91.9 FM FM - English • Big 92.7 FM - Kannada • Red FM 93.5 FM - Hindi • Radio ONE FM 94.3 - Hindi • Radio 95 95 FM - Hindi • Radio Mirchi 98.3 FM Kannada • Amruthavarshini 100.1 FM (devotional) • FM Rainbow 101.3 FM (Kannada, Hindi, English) • Vividhabharathi 102.9 FM (Kannada, Hindi) • Fever FM 104 FM (Hindi) • Gnyanavani 106.4 FM (Kannada, English, Hindi)

FM stations in Chennai[edit]

• AIR FM - RAINBOW • AIR FM - GOLD 102.3 • Chennai Live 104.8 FM • Hello FM (106.4), • Suryan FM 93.5, • Fever FM 91.9, • BIG FM 92.7, • Radio City FM 91.1, • Radio Mirchi FM 98.3, • Radio one 94.3, • Anna FM

FM stations in Kerala[edit]

• Real FM 103.6 • Best FM 95.00, • Radio Mango 91.9, in Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode & Kannur • Red FM 93.5, • Club FM 94.3 in Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi & Kannur ; ClubFM 104.8 in Thrissur • Radio Mirchi 98.3 Thiruvananthapuram, • Big FM Thiruvananthapuram • FM Rainbow, • Ananthapuri FM, • AIR Thiruvananthapuram • AIR Kochi FM 102.3 • AIR Kannur • AIR Devikulam • AIR Manjeri • AIR Gyan Vani-Kochi • Radio MacFast Thiruvalla FM 90.4 • Radio Media Village Changanacherry FM 90.8 • Global Radio Alappuzha FM 91.2

Market view[edit]

Traditionally, radio accounts for 7% to 8% of advertiser expenditures around the world. In India, it is less than 2% at present.[citation needed]

List of FM radio Stations in India[edit] See also: List of FM radio stations in India

The ministry of broadcasting in India has no further plan to spread FM Radio to all parts of India.

List of FM Stations in Jaipur: 1. 94.3 MYFM (Listnership; 18 lacs plus) 2. 98.3 Radio Mirchi (Listnership; 12 lacs plus) 3. 93.5 Red FM (Listnership; 11 lacs plus) 4. 91.1 Radio City (Listnership; 10 lacs plus) 5. 95 Tadka (Listnership; 8 lacs plus)

Current allocation process[edit]

In FM Phase II — the latest round of the long-delayed opening up of private FM in India — some 338 frequencies were offered of which about 237 were sold.[citation needed] The government may go for rebidding of unsold frequencies quite soon. In Phase III of FM licensing, smaller towns and cities will be opened up for FM radio.

Reliance and South Asia FM (Sun group) bid for most of the 91 cities, although they were allowed only 15% of the total allocated frequencies. Between them, they have had to surrender over 40 licenses. All India Radio All India Radio (AIR), officially known since 1956 as Ākāshvāṇī (literally, "Voice from the Sky"), is the national public radio broadcaster of India and a division of Prasar Bharati. Established in 1930,[2] it is the sister service of Prasar Bharati's Doordarshan, the national public television broadcaster. AIR has covered more than 99% of the Indian Population as per the latest information given by Minister of Information and Broadcast. All India Radio is one of the largest radio networks in the world. Its headquarters is at the Akashvani Bhavan in New Delhi. Akashvani Bhavan houses the Drama Section, the FM Section and the National Service.Doordarshan Kendra (Delhi) offices are also located on the sixth floor at Akashvani Bhavan.

Etymology[edit] Main article: Akashvani (term)

The word ākāśavāni (आकाशवाणी) is taken from Sanskrit. In Sanskrit Akashvani means "celestial announcement," or a gift or message from heaven. Often in Hindu mythological stories, folk-tales and fables like Panchatantra & Hitopadesha, whenever Gods wanted to say something, an Akashvani occurred. Literally, akash means "sky" and vani means "sound" or "message".[3]

The word "Akashvani" was coined by M. V. Gopalaswamy after setting up the nation’s first private radio station in his residence, "Vittal Vihar" (about 200 yards from AIR’s current location in Mysore) in 1936.[4] Akashvaniseemed to be an appropriate name for a radio broadcaster and was later adopted as All India Radio's on-air name after independence.

History[edit]

In British India, broadcasting began in July 1923 with programmes by the Radio Club of Mumbai and other radio clubs. According to an agreement of 23 July 1927, the private Indian Broadcasting Company LTD (IBC) was authorized to operate two radio stations; the Mumbai station began on 23 July 1927, and the Calcutta station followed on 26 August 1927. On 1 March 1930, however, the company went into liquidation. The government took over the broadcasting facilities, beginning the Indian State Broadcasting Service (ISBS) on 1 April 1930 (on an experimental basis for two years, and permanently in May 1932). On 8 June 1936; the ISBS was renamed All India Radio.[2]

On 1 October 1939 the External Service began with a broadcast in Pushtu; it was intended to counter radio propaganda from Germany directed to Afghanistan, Iran and the Arab nations. When India became independent in 1947, the AIR network had only six stations (in Delhi, Mumbai, Calcutta, Chennai, Lucknow, and Tiruchirappalli); three radio stations at Lahore, Peshawar and Karachi fell in the share of Pakistan. the total number of radio sets at that time was about 275,000 in India. On 3 October 1957 the Vividh Bharati Service was launched, to compete with Radio Ceylon. Television broadcasting began in Delhi in 1959 as part of AIR, but was split off from the radio network as Doordarshan on 1 April 1976.[5] FM broadcasting began on 23 July 1977 in Chennai, and was expanded during the 1990s.[6]

Domestic services[edit]

AIR tower in Mangalore, Karnataka

Kolkata Centre of All India Radio

AIR has many services in a number of languages, each serving different regions across India. Vividh Bharati[edit]

Vividh Bharati is one of the best-known services of AIR. Its name roughly translates as "Multi-Indian Service", and it is also known as the Commercial Broadcasting Service (CBS). It is the commercially most accessible of the AIR networks and is popular in Mumbai and other large cities. Vividh Bharati offers a wide range of programmes including news, film music and comedy programs. It operates on different mediumwave- band frequencies for each city.

Some programs broadcast on Vividh Bharati are:

• Hawa-mahal: Radio plays based on novels and plays • Santogen ki mehfil: Comedy Other services include[edit]

• Primary Channel [1] • National Channel[7] Regional services[edit]

The headquarters of the Regional Deputy Directors General are located at Delhi and Chandigarh (NR), Lucknow and Bhopal (CR), Guwahati (NER), Kolkata (ER), Mumbai and Ahmedabad (WR), Chennai and Bangalore (SR).[8] All frequencies are in kHz, unless otherwise noted.

Northern regional service

City Frequency City Frequency City Frequency

Agra 1530 Ajmer 603 Allahabad 1026

Almora 999 Barmer 1458 Bikaner 1395

chairhara(budgam) 1485 srinagar 819 srinagar 666

Delhi D Delhi Delhi C (Vividh 1368 (Yuv-vani) 1017 (National 1215 Bharti) (�व�वधभारती) (युववाणी ) Channel)

Diskit 1602 Drass 1485 Gorakhpur 909

Jalandhar Jalandhar Jaipur A 1476 837 702 A B Kalpa Jammu A 990 Jodhpur A 531 1584 (Kinnaur)

Kargil A 684 Kargil B 1584 Khalsi 1485

Kota 1413 Kupwara 1350 Leh 1053

Lucknow Lucknow A 747 1278 Mathura 1584 C

Najibabad 954 Naushera 1089 Nyoma 1485

Padam 1589 Pauri 1602 Pithoragarh 1602

Rampur 895 Rohtak 1143 Shimla 774

budgam 1116 budgamA 1224 srinagar C 918

Tiesuru 1602 Udaipur 1125 Uttarkashi 1602

Sawai Varanasi A 1242 101.5 Madhopur

Northeast regional service

City Frequency City Frequency

Agartala 1269 Guwahati A 729 Shillong 864 Imphal 822

Eastern regional service

City Frequency City Frequency

594 & Bhagalpur 1458, 1206 Chinsurah (Kolkata A, 1 MW) 1134

Cuttack A 972 Darbhanga 1296

Jamshedpur 1544 Kolkata A 657

Kolkata B 1008 Kolkata C (Vividh Bharati) 1323

Patna A 621 Ranchi A 549

Muzaffarpur A 100.1 MHz Muzaffarpur B 106.4 MHz

Kolkata (FM Rainbow) 107 Kolkata (FM Gold) 100.2

Western regional service

City Frequency City Frequency

Ahmedabad A 846 Aurangabad 1521

Bhopal A 1593 Chhindwara 102.2 MHz Chhatarpur 675 Gwalior 1386

Indore A 648 Jalgaon 963

Mumbai B (Asmita Mumbai A 1044 558 Marathi Programme)

Mumbai C (Vividh Bharati) 1188 Nagpur A 585

Nagpur B (National Channel, 1566 Panaji A 1287 1 MW)

Panaji B (Vividh Bharati) 828 Pune A 792

Rajkot A 810 Ratnagiri 1143

Solapur 1602 Sangli 1251

South regional service

City Frequency City Frequency

Adilabad 1485 Bangalore A 612

Chennai C (Vividh Chennai A 720 kHz 783 kHz Bharati)

Chennai B 1017 kHz

Coimbatore 999 kHz Gulbarga 1107

Hyderabad A 738 Hyderabad B 1377

Kozhikode A 684 Madurai 1269 kHz

Nagercoil 101 MHz Udhagamandalam 1602 kHz

Port Blair 684 Thiruvananthapuram A 1161

Thiruvananthapuram 101.9 MHz Thrissur A 630

Tiruchirapalli A 936 kHz Tirunelveli 1197 kHz

Vijayawada A 837 Visakhapatnam Tirupati A 1075

Gautam 456 Pondicherry 1215

External services[edit]

The external services of All India Radio broadcast in 27 languages to countries outside India—primarily via high-power shortwave band broadcasts, although medium wave is also used to reach neighbouring countries. In addition to broadcasts targeted at specific countries by language, there is a General Overseas Service broadcasting in English with 8¼ hours of programming each day aimed at a general international audience. The external broadcasts were begun on 1 October 1939 by the British government to counter the propaganda of the Nazis directed at the Afghan people. The first broadcasts were in Pushto, beamed to Afghanistan and the North-West Frontier Province. Soon broadcasts began in other languages including Dari, Persian, Arabic, English, Burmese, Japanese, Chinese, Malay and French. The external services broadcast in 16 foreign and 11 Indian languages, with a total program output of 70¼ hours per day on medium- and shortwave.

External service transmitter sites Number of Location kW Frequency DRM ! transmitters

Aligarh (HPT) 4 250

Bengaluru (SPT) 6 500 100 kW

Chennai (Madras) 1 100 720 kHz MW

Gorakhpur 1 50

Guwahati 1 50

Jalandhar (Goraya) 1 300 702 kHz MW

Khampur-Delhi 7 250 (HPT)

Khampur-Delhi 2 500 (SPT)

Kingsway-Delhi 3 50

Kingsway-Delhi 2 100

Kolkata- 1134 kHz and Chinsurah/Mogra 1 1000 594 kHz(Kolkata - 1142 KHZMW (SPT) A)

Mumbai (Malad) 1 100

External service transmitter sites

Number of Location kW Frequency DRM ! transmitters

Nagpur (SPT) 1 1000 1566 kHz MW

Panaji (HPT) 2 250

1080 kHz(2 1071 kHz AIR Rajkot (SPT) 1 1000 MegaWatt)Vividha URDU Bharti

Tuticorin 1 200 1053 kHz MW

Two high powered FM stations of All India Radio are under installation in Amritsar and Fazilka in Punjab to supplement the programs put out from transmitters operating from Jalandhar, New Delhi, Chandigarh and Mumbai and to improve the broadcast services during disturbed weather conditions in the border regions of Punjab.

Today, the External Services Division of All India Radio broadcasts daily in 57 transmissions with almost 72 hours covering over 108 countries in 27 languages, out of which 15 are foreign and 12 Indian. The foreign languages are Arabic, Baluchi, Burmese, Chinese, Dari, French, Indonesian, Persian, Pushtu, Russian, Sinhala, Swahili, Thai, Tibetan and English (General Overseas Service). The Indian languages are Bengali, Gujarati, Marathi, Kokani, Kashmiri, Hindi, Kannada, Malayalam, Nepali, Punjabi, Saraiki, Sindhi, Tamil, Telugu and Urdu.

The longest daily broadcast is the Urdu Service to Pakistan, around the clock on DTH and on short- and mediumwave for 12¼ hrs. The English-language General Overseas Service are broadcast 8¼ hours daily. During Hajj, there are special broadcasts beamed to Saudi Arabia in Urdu. The external services of AIR are also broadcast to Europe in DRM (Digital Radio Mondiale) on 9950 kHz between 1745-2230 UTC.

The transmissions are broadcast by high-power transmitters located at Aligarh, Bengaluru, Chennai, Delhi, Gorakhpur, Guwahati, Mumbai and Panaji on shortwave and from Jalandhar, Kolkata, Nagpur, Rajkot and Tuticorin on mediumwave. Soon All India Radio Amritsar will start a booster service on FM band too. Some of these transmitters are 1000 kW (1 MW) or 500 kW. Programs are beamed to different parts of the world except the Americas and received in very good Reception Quality in the Target areas. In each language service, the program consists of news, commentary, a press review, talks on matters of general or cultural interest, feature programmes, documentaries and music from India and the target region. Most programs originate at New Broadcasting House on Parliament Street in New Delhi, with a few originating at SPT Bengaluru, Chennai, Hyderabad, Jalandhar, Kolkata, HPT Malad Mumbai, Thiruvananthapuram and Tuticorin.

The External Services Division of AIR is a link between India and rest of the world, especially in countries with Indian emigrants and people of Indian origin. It broadcasts the Indian point of view on matters of national and international importance, and demonstrates the Indian way of life through its programs. QSL cards (which are sought- after by international radio hobbyists) are issued to radio hobbyists by AIR in New Delhi for reception reports of their broadcasts.

Other services[edit] Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM)[edit]

Details of the transmissions and frequencies are as follows: 0130 - 0230 UTC on 11715 kHz Nepali (Nepal) 0315-0415 UTC on 15185 kHz Hindi, (E.Africa, Mauritius) 0415-0430 UTC on 15185 kHz Gujarati, (E.Africa, Mauritius) 0430-0530 UTC on 15185 kHz Hindi(E.Africa, Mauritius) 1300 - 1500 UTC on 15050 kHz Sinhala (Sri Lanka) 1615-1715 UTC on 15140 kHz Russian (E. Europe) 2245-0045 UTC on 11645 GOS-I English (NE Asia)

Above transmissions are in addition to following existing DRM txn's: 0900-1200 on 6100 Vividh Bharati, DRM NVIS 1745-1945 UTC on 9950 English W. Europe) 1945-2045 UTC on 9950 Hindi (W. Europe) 2045-2230 UTC on 9950 English (W. Europe) News-on-phone service[edit]

All India Radio launched news-on-phone service on 25 February 1998 in New Delhi; it now has service in Chennai, Mumbai, Hyderabad, Indore, Patna and Bangalore. The service is accessible through STD, ISD and local calls. There are plans to establish the service in 11 more cities: Ahmedabad, Bhopal, Guwahati, Gwalior, Jabalpur, Jaipur, Kolkata, Lucknow, Ranchi, Shimla and Thiruvananthapuram. English and Hindi hourly news bulletins may be heard live.[9] News in MP3 format may be directly played from the site, and filenames are time-stamped. AIR news bulletins are available in nine regional languages (Tamil, Kannada, Gujarati, Bengali, Marathi, North East, Punjabi, Telugu and Urdu). Direct-to-home service[edit]

Direct-to-home (DTH) service is offered on 21 channels via Insat. Documentaries[edit]

There is a long tradition of documentary features on AIR. There is great interest in radio documentaries, particularly in countries like India, Iran, South Korea and Malaysia. The doyen of English Features was Melville De Mellow and of Hindi Features was Shiv Sagar Mishra.This format has been revived because of its flexibility, cost-cutting capacity, messaging potential and creative potential with producers such as Viren Goyal,"Som Dutt Sharma", Chitra Narain, R. G. Narula and Danish Iqbal.Som Dutt Sharma's vast experience as Top Grade Film Division Writer is reflected in the calibre of his work in the feature production.He has brought the rare combination of Innovation,facts and creativity together to present an unforgettable aural experience for the senses.His acclaimed features are-"Anahad Naad,Kathak katha,Sadhna key Sakhsya and Vani mein Ithihas". Iqbal has brought his experience as a drama producer to the documentary field; his documentary "Yeh Rishta Kya Kehlata Hai" makes effective use of narrative and ambient sounds. The documentary is a heartfelt account of an unseen bridge between a Kashmiri, Shikarah Wala, and his auto rickshaw-driver friend in Delhi. Although they never met, their unseen bond transcends the barriers of political, religious and regional prejudice. Because Narula, Chitra and Danish had a long tenure at Delhi and creative collaboration with media institutes, their influence is seminal in shaping the thinking of their colleagues. Chitra and Narula were rewarded for their work, and Danish twice received the Public Service Broadcasting Award for his documentaries. Central Drama Unit[edit]

AIR's Central Drama Unit is responsible for the national broadcast of plays. Playwrights and producers such as Chiranjeet, Satyendra Sharat, Nirmala Agarwal and Danish Iqbal has been associated with the department. Plays produced by the CDU are translated and produced by regional stations. Since its inception in the 1960s the unit has produced more than 1,500 plays, and the CDU is a repository of old scripts and productions. The National Programme of Plays is broadcast by the CDU of AIR the fourth Thursday of each month at 9.30 pm. On the National Programme of Plays, the same play is produced in 22 Indian languages and broadcast at the same time by all regional and national network stations. The CDU also produces Chain Plays, half-hour dramas broadcast in succession by a chain of stations. Social Media Cell[edit]

News Service Division's Social Media Cell is responsible for providing AIR news on new media platforms viz. websites, Twitter, Facebook and SMS. Social Media Cell was established on 20 May 2013.

History of broadcasting

The first radio transmission consisting of Morse Code (or wireless telegraphy) was made from a temporary station set up by Guglielmo Marconi in 1895. This followed on from pioneering work in the field by a number of people including Alessandro Volta, André- Marie Ampère, Georg Ohm, James Clerk Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz.[2][3][4]

The broadcasting of music and talk via radio started experimentally around 1905-1906, and commercially around 1920 to 1923. VHF stations started 30 to 35 years later.

In the early days, radio stations broadcast on the long wave, medium wave and short wave bands, and later on VHF (very high frequency) and UHF (ultra high frequency).

(However, in the United Kingdom, Hungary, France and some other places, from as early as 1890 there was already a system whereby news, music, live theatre, music hall, fiction readings, religious broadcasts, etc., were available in private homes [and other places] via the conventional telephone line, with subscribers being supplied with a number of special, personalised headsets. In Britain this system was known as Electrophone, and was available as early as 1895 or 1899 [sources vary] and up until 1926.[4] In Hungary, it was called Telefon Hírmondó [1893-1920s], and in France, Théâtrophone [1890-1932]). The Wikipedia Telefon Hírmondó page includes a 1907 program guide which looks remarkably similar to the types of schedules used by many broadcasting stations some 20 or 30 years later.)

By the 1950s, virtually every country had a broadcasting system, typically one owned and operated by the government. Alternative modes included commercial radio, as in the United States; or a dual system with both state sponsored and commercial stations, introduced in Australia as early as 1924, with Canada following in 1932. Today, most countries have evolved into a dual system, including the UK.

By 1955, practically every family in North America and Western Europe, as well as Japan, had a radio. A dramatic change came in the 1960s with the introduction of small inexpensive portable transistor radio, the greatly expanded ownership and usage. Access became practically universal across the world.

Over the last 90 years or so, broadcasting has seen many improvements, refinements and challenges; these include (but are not confined to):

• international broadcasts, particularly confined to the short wave band; • better technology which saw radios becoming cheaper, and in almost every home, as well as in cars and portable sets; • the introduction of FM broadcasting and its effect on AM stations; • the challenge of television, which meant that radio broadcasters later concentrated on music of varying types, news, sport and discussion programs; • the invention of the transistor, meaning even greater portability and even cheaper sets; • digital radio; • internet radio Radio broadcasting

Radio broadcasting is a unidirectional wireless transmission over radio waves intended to reach a wide audience. Stations can be linked in radio networks to broadcast a common radio format, either in broadcast syndicationor simulcast or both. Audio broadcasting also can be done via cable radio, local wire television networks, satellite radio, and internet radio via streaming media on the Internet. The signal types can be either analog audio ordigital audio.

In 2009, there were 3,494 radio broadcasting stations in the United States.

History[edit] See also: History of radio § Broadcasting and History of broadcasting

The earliest radio stations were simply radiotelegraphy systems and did not carry audio. For audio broadcasts to be possible electronic detection and amplification devices had to be incorporated.

The thermionic valve was invented in 1904 by the English physicist John Ambrose Fleming. He developed a device he called an "oscillation valve" (because it passes current in only one direction). The heated filament, or cathode, was capable of thermionic emission of electrons that would flow to the plate (or anode) when it was at a higher voltage. Electrons, however, could not pass in the reverse direction because the plate was not heated and thus not capable of thermionic emission of electrons. Later known as the Fleming valve, it could be used as a rectifier of alternating current and as a radio wave detector.[2] This greatly improved the crystal set which rectified the radio signal using an early solid-state diode based on a crystal and a so-called cat's whisker. However, what was still required was an amplifier.

The triode (mercury-vapor filled with a control grid) was patented on March 4, 1906 by the Austrian Robert von Lieben[3][4][5] independent from that, on October 25, 1906[6][7] Lee De Forest patented his three-element Audion. It wasn't put to practical use until 1912, when its amplifying ability became recognized by researchers.[8]

By about 1920, valve technology had matured to the point where radio broadcasting was quickly becoming viable.[9][10] However, an early audio transmission that could be termed a broadcast may have occurred on Christmas Eve in 1906 by Reginald Fessenden, although this is disputed.[11] While many early experimenters attempted to create systems similar to radiotelephone devices by which only two parties were meant to communicate, there were others who intended to transmit to larger audiences. Charles Herrold started broadcasting in California in 1909 and was carrying audio by the next year. (Herrold's station eventually became KCBS). In The Hague, the Netherlands, PCGG started broadcasting on November 6, 1919, making it, arguably the first commercial broadcasting station. In 1916, Frank Conrad, an electrical engineer employed at the Westinghouse Electric Corporation, began broadcasting from his Wilkinsburg, Pennsylvania garage with the call letters 8XK. Later, the station was moved to the top of the Westinghouse factory building in East Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Westinghouse relaunched the station as KDKA on November 2, 1920, as the first commercially licensed radio station in America.[12] The commercial broadcasting designation came from the type of broadcast license; advertisements did not air until years later. The first licensed broadcast in the United States came from KDKA itself: the results of the Harding/Cox Presidential Election. The Montreal station that became CFCF began broadcast programming on May 20, 1920, and the Detroit station that became WWJ began program broadcasts beginning on August 20, 1920, although neither held a license at the time.

In 1920 wireless broadcasts for entertainment began in the UK from the Marconi Research Centre 2MT at Writtle near Chelmsford, England. A famous broadcast from Marconi's New Street Works factory in Chelmsford was made by the famous soprano Dame Nellie Melba on 15 June 1920, where she sang two arias and her famous trill. She was the first artist of international renown to participate in direct radio broadcasts. The 2MT station began to broadcast regular entertainment in 1922. The BBC was amalgamated in 1922 and received a Royal Charter in 1926, making it the first national broadcaster in the world.[13][14]

Radio Argentina began regularly scheduled transmissions from the Teatro Coliseo in Buenos Aires on August 27, 1920, making its own priority claim. The station got its license on November 19, 1923. The delay was due to the lack of official Argentine licensing procedures before that date. This station continued regular broadcasting of entertainment and cultural fare for several decades.[15]

Radio in education soon followed and colleges across the U.S. began adding radio broadcasting courses to their curricula. Curry College in Milton, Massachusetts introduced one of the first broadcasting majors in 1932 when the college teamed up with WLOE in Boston to have students broadcast programs.[16]

Types[edit]

Transmission diagram of sound broadcasting (AM and FM)

Broadcasting by radio takes several forms. These include AM and FM stations. There are several subtypes, namely commercial broadcasting, non-commercial educational (NCE) public broadcasting and non-profitvarieties as well as community radio, student-run campus radio stations and hospital radio stations can be found throughout the world.

Many stations broadcast on shortwave bands using AM technology that can be received over thousands of miles (especially at night). For example, the BBC, VOA, VOR, and Deutsche Welle have transmitted via shortwave to Africa and Asia. These broadcasts are very sensitive to atmospheric conditions and solar activity.

Arbitron, the United States-based company that reports on radio audiences, defines a "radio station" as a government-licensed AM or FM station; an HD Radio (primary or multicast) station; an internet stream of an existing government-licensed station; one of the satellite radio channels from XM Satellite Radio or Sirius Satellite Radio; or, potentially, a station that is not government licensed.[17] Shortwave[edit]

See shortwave for the differences between shortwave, medium wave and long wave spectra. Shortwave is used largely for national broadcasters, international propaganda, or religious broadcasting organizations. AM[edit] Main article: AM broadcasting

AM broadcasting stations in 2006

AM stations were the earliest broadcasting stations to be developed. AM refers to amplitude modulation, a mode of broadcasting radio waves by varying the amplitude of the carrier signal in response to the amplitude of the signal to be transmitted.

The medium-wave band is used worldwide for AM broadcasting. Europe also uses the long wave band. In response to the growing popularity of FM stereo radio stations in the late 1980s and early 1990s, some North American stations began broadcasting in AM stereo, though this never gained popularity, and very few receivers were ever sold.

One of the advantages of AM is that its signal can be detected (turned into sound) with simple equipment. If a signal is strong enough, not even a power source is needed; building an unpowered crystal radio receiverwas a common childhood project in the early decades of AM broadcasting.

AM broadcasts occur on North American airwaves in the medium wave frequency range of 530 to 1700 kHz (known as the “standard broadcast band”). The band was expanded in the 1990s by adding nine channelsfrom 1620 to 1700 kHz. Channels are spaced every 10 kHz in the Americas, and generally every 9 kHz everywhere else.

The signal is subject to interference from electrical storms (lightning) and other electromagnetic interference (EMI).

AM transmissions cannot be ionospherically propagated during the day due to strong absorption in the D-layer of the ionosphere. In a crowded channel environment this means that the power of regional channels which share a frequency must be reduced at night or directionally beamed in order to avoid interference, which reduces the potential nighttime audience. Some stations have frequencies unshared with other stations in North America; these are called clear-channel stations. Many of them can be heard across much of the country at night. During the night, absorption largely disappears and permits signals to travel to much more distant locations via ionospheric reflections. However, fading of the signal can be severe at night.

AM radio transmitters can transmit audio frequencies up to 15 kHz (now limited to 10 kHz in the US due to FCC rules designed to reduce interference), but most receivers are only capable of reproducing frequencies up to 5 kHz or less. At the time that AM broadcasting began in the 1920s, this provided adequate fidelity for existing microphones, 78 rpm recordings, and loudspeakers. The fidelity of sound equipment subsequently improved considerably, but the receivers did not. Reducing the bandwidth of the receivers reduces the cost of manufacturing and makes them less prone to interference. AM stations are never assigned adjacent channels in the same service area. This prevents the sideband power generated by two stations from interfering with each other.[18] Bob Carvercreated an AM stereo tuner employing notch filtering that demonstrated that an AM broadcast can meet or exceed the 15 kHz baseband bandwidth allotted to FM stations without objectionable interference. After several years, the tuner was discontinued. Bob Carver had left the company and the Carver Corporation later cut the number of models produced before discontinuing production completely.[citation needed] FM[edit] Main article: FM broadcasting

FM radio broadcast stations in 2006

FM refers to frequency modulation, and occurs on VHF airwaves in the frequency range of 88 to 108 MHz everywhere except Japan and Russia. Japan uses the 76 to 90 MHz band. Russia has two bands, 65.9 to 74 MHz (which was widely used in the former Soviet Union) and 87.5 to 108 MHz worldwide standard. FM stations are much more popular since higher sound fidelity and stereo broadcasting became common in this format.

FM radio was invented by Edwin H. Armstrong in the 1930s for the specific purpose of overcoming the interference problem of AM radio, to which FM is relatively immune. At the same time, greater fidelity was made possible by spacing stations further apart. Instead of 10 kHz apart, as on the AM band in the US, FM channels are 200 kHz (0.2 MHz) apart. In other countries greater spacing is sometimes mandatory, such as in New Zealand, which uses 700 kHz spacing (previously 800 kHz). The improved fidelity made available was far in advance of the audio equipment of the 1940s, but wide interchannel spacing was chosen to take advantage of the noise-suppressing feature of wideband FM.

Bandwidth of 200 kHz is not needed to accommodate an audio signal — 20 kHz to 30 kHz is all that is necessary for a narrowband FM signal. The 200 kHz bandwidth allowed room for ±75 kHz signal deviation from the assigned frequency, plus guard bands to reduce or eliminate adjacent channel interference. The larger bandwidth allows for broadcasting a 15 kHz bandwidth audio signal plus a 38 kHz stereo "subcarrier"—a piggyback signal that rides on the main signal. Additional unused capacity is used by some broadcasters to transmit utility functions such as background music for public areas, GPS auxiliary signals, or financial market data.

The AM radio problem of interference at night was addressed in a different way. At the time FM was set up, the available frequencies were far higher in the spectrum than those used for AM radio - by a factor of approximately 100. Using these frequencies meant that even at far higher power, the range of a given FM signal was much shorter; thus its market was more local than for AM radio. The reception range at night is the same as in the daytime. All FM broadcast transmissions are line-of-sight, and ionospheric bounce is not viable. The much larger bandwidths, compared to AM and SSB, are more susceptible to phase dispersion. Propagation speeds (celerities) are fastest in the ionosphere at the lowest sideband frequency. The celerity difference between the highest and lowest sidebands is quite apparent to the listener. Such distortion occurs up to frequencies of approximately 50 MHz. Higher frequencies do not reflect from the ionosphere, nor from storm clouds. Moon reflections have been used in some experiments, but require impractical power levels.

The original FM radio service in the U.S. was the Yankee Network, located in New England.[19][20][21] Regular FM broadcasting began in 1939, but did not pose a significant threat to the AM broadcasting industry. It required purchase of a special receiver. The frequencies used, 42 to 50 MHz, were not those used today. The change to the current frequencies, 88 to 108 MHz, began after the end of World War II, and was to some extent imposed by AM broadcasters as an attempt to cripple what was by now realized to be a potentially serious threat.

FM radio on the new band had to begin from the ground floor. As a commercial venture it remained a little-used audio enthusiasts' medium until the 1960s. The more prosperous AM stations, or their owners, acquired FM licenses and often broadcast the same programming on the FM station as on the AM station ("simulcasting"). The FCC limited this practice in the 1960s. By the 1980s, since almost all new radios included both AM and FM tuners, FM became the dominant medium, especially in cities. Because of its greater range, AM remained more common in rural environments. Pirate radio[edit] Main article: Pirate radio

Pirate radio is illegal or non-regulated radio transmission. It is most commonly used to describe illegal broadcasting for entertainment or political purposes. Sometimes it is used for illegal two-way radio operation. Its history can be traced back to the unlicensed nature of the transmission, but historically there has been occasional use of sea vessels—fitting the most common perception of a pirate—as broadcasting bases. Rules and regulations vary largely from country to country, but often the term pirate radio generally describes the unlicensed broadcast of FM radio, AM radio, or short wave signals over a wide range. In some places radio stations are legal where the signal is transmitted, but illegal where the signals are received—especially when the signals cross a national boundary. In other cases, a broadcast may be considered "pirate" due to the type of content, its transmission format, or the transmitting power (wattage) of the station, even if the transmission is not technically illegal (such as a web cast or an amateur radio transmission). Pirate radio stations are sometimes referred to as bootleg radio or clandestine stations. Terrestrial digital radio[edit]

Digital radio broadcasting has emerged, first in Europe (the UK in 1995 and Germany in 1999), and later in the United States, France, the Netherlands, South Africa and many other countries worldwide. The most simple system is named DAB Digital Radio, forDigital Audio Broadcasting, and uses the public domain EUREKA 147 (Band III) system. DAB is used mainly in the UK and South Africa. Germany and the Netherlands use the DAB and DAB+ systems, and France uses the L-Band system of DAB Digital Radio.

In the United States, digital radio isn't used in the same way as Europe and South Africa. Instead, the IBOC system is named HD Radio and owned by a consortium of private companies that is called iBiquity. An international non-profit consortium Digital Radio Mondiale (DRM), has introduced the public domain DRM system. Satellite[edit]

This section

requires expansion.(November 2008)

Satellite radio broadcasters are slowly emerging, but the enormous entry costs of space- based satellite transmitters, and restrictions on available radio spectrum licenses has restricted growth of this market. In the USA and Canada, just two services, XM Satellite Radio and Sirius Satellite Radio exist. Both XM and Sirius are owned by Sirius XM Radio, which was formed by the merger of XM and Sirius on July 29, 2008, whereas in Canada, XM Radio Canada and Sirius Canada remained separate companies until 2010.Worldspace in Africa and Asia, and MobaHO! in Japan and the ROK were two unsuccessful satellite radio operators which have gone out of business.

Program formats[edit] Main article: Radio format

Radio program formats differ by country, regulation and markets. For instance, the U.S. Federal Communications Commission designates the 88–92 megahertz band in the U.S. for non-profit or educational programming, with advertising prohibited.

In addition, formats change in popularity as time passes and technology improves. Early radio equipment only allowed program material to be broadcast in real time, known as live broadcasting. As technology for sound recording improved, an increasing proportion of broadcast programming used pre-recorded material. A current trend is the automation of radio stations. Some stations now operate without direct human intervention by using entirely pre-recorded material sequenced by computer control Committees on broadcasting

Chandra committee

Naresh Chandra (born 1934) is an Indian Civil Servant who has served as the Cabinet Secretary (1990–92), and the Indian Ambassador to the US (1996–2001).[1] He was awarded India's second highest civil awards, the Padma Vibhushan, for his service in 2007.

Early life[edit]

Born in Allahabad on 1 August 1934. He was educated at Allahabad and obtained M.Sc. (Math) degree from the Allahabad University. He was a lecturer in the Allahabad University for a short period.

Civil service[edit]

Naresh Chandra joined the Indian Administrative Service in May, 1956 and till 1964 served in different capacities in various districts of Rajasthan.[3]

Between 1965 and 1973, Naresh Chandra's served under Central Government of India as 'Deputy Secretary, Agriculture, Community Development and Cooperation', 'Deputy Secretary, Administrative Reforms Commission', 'Deputy Secretary, Ministry of Home Affairs' and 'Director, Third Central Pay Commission'.

Between 1973 and 1977, he was appointed as the Secretary, Industry and Mines Department, Government of Rajasthan and the Chairman, Rajasthan Electricity Board. He was posted as Joint Secretary, Ministry of Industry, Government of India in 1977, the assignment he held till 1981. That year he was appointed in the Commonwealth Secretariat as Adviser on export Industrialization and Policy, Colombo, Sri Lanka, a post he held up to May, 1984. In July, 1984, he took over as Finance Secretary, Government of Rajasthan and in July 1985, Shri Naresh Chandra became Chief Secretary, Government of Rajasthan.

He was also Adviser to the Governor of Jammu & Kashmir in 1986 for a period of 8 months. During 1987 to 1989, he served as Secretary, Ministry of Water Resources, Government of India. He worked as Defence Secretary from February, 1989 to March 1990 and from March 1990 to December, 1990 as Union Home Secretary, Government of India. In December, 1990 he became the Cabinet Secretary, Government of India which post he held till July, 1992. Thereafter, in August 1992, he was appointed as Senior Adviser to Prime Minister. Naresh Chandra took over as the Governor of Gujarat on 1 st July, 1995 and continued till 29.02.1996.

Ambassador Chandra's long official association with the United States spans more than three decades, beginning with his first visit to this country in 1963-64. He has been the Indian Co-chairman of the US-India Technology Group, and Member of the Indo-US Economic Sub-Commission, which lent him valuable insight into the broad range of Indo- US relations. Following the economic liberalisation program in India, he led the first official delegation to the US in 1992 to promote US investments in India. He has been deeply involved in several important conferences organised subsequently in the US by business development groups.[4][5]

His work in his words[edit]

Former Indian Ambassador to the U.S. Naresh Chandra in Delhi India on 23 July 2012.

‘Living in interesting times’ is how I would describe my tenure here. Something or the other has always been happening. There was a lot of interaction on the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty when I first arrived here. 1997 was a ‘feel good’ time – we were celebrating 50 years of Independence - there were series of functions and events – in fact we had more functions in the U.S. than in India. The major challenge came in May 1998 - dealing with the nuclear test. I remember going from one studio to another – TV, radio, and press – in addition to dozens of meetings in the Senate and the Congress. That was the most difficult and a very challenging period of my tenure here. Then began the rounds of discussions between Indian delegation, led by Jaswant Singh, and the U.S. delegation led by Talbot. I was present in every meeting and throughout. We saw the scene develop from a very tense dialogue into a very friendly and frank exchange of views. This brought about stability and progress in a positive direction in our relations with the U.S.

The Prime Minister’s visit in September 1998 was also an important one. It dissipated the demonising of India that had gone on before his arrival. People saw him and heard him speak. His statement that "India and the U.S. can be natural allies in the 21st century" struck a chord in the U.S. administration. President Clinton’s visit to India and then the return visit of the Indian Prime Minister put a feel on it. I witnessed a very fine chapter in the Indo-U.S. relations.

A specific instance that I will remember of my tenure, is the establishment of Gandhi Memorial - Mahatma Gandhi’s statue – in front of our Chancery building in Washington DC – and the way it was accomplished against heavy odds. We were able to have it up just in time to have it dedicated by the Prime Minister of India in the presence of the president of the United States on 16 September 2000. It was a great moment – for South Asians and Americans. I also received many messages from our friends in Pakistan – and the Pakistan Ambassador congratulated me and expressed her happiness at the establishment of the statue.[6]

Awards and recognition[edit]

• He was conferred Padma Vibhushan award in 2007.

Varghese committee

The Janta Government had appointed a Working Group on the autonomy of the Akashwani and Doordarshan in August 1977. The chairman of this committee was B.G. Verghese. The committee submitted its report on February 24, 1978. This committee’s main recommendation was “formation of Akash Bharti or the “National Broadcasting Trust“, both for the AIR and Doordarshan. The committee noted that the people want an independent corporation because, the executive, abetted by a captive parliament, shamelessly misused the Broadcasting during emergency and this must be prevented for all times. Such was the bold recommendation of this committee, which wanted substantial “Constitutional Safeguards” for the recommended body. But these recommendations could not find favour of even Janta rulers. The minister (LK Advani) commented: “The committee has recommended the creation of an independent, constitutional entity, parallel to the Judiciary on which the legislature has no control. No we can not accept it”. The result was that the report was “sent to hell”. This followed a bill in May 1979 introduced by LK Advani, who was information and Broadcasting minister in the Government. The bill proposed the “Autonomous Corporation” known as Prasar Bharti for both AIR and Doordarshan. But the bill was introduced in the compromised state, rejecting the provisions of the constitutional safeguards. Meanwhile the Lok Sabha dissolved guaranteeing the death of this bill. After that Congress was back in power, but it did not considered necessary to reintroduce such bill. Though it appointed PC Joshi Committee in 1982, whose main term of reference was to prepare a software plan for Doordarshan. But this group also emphasized on the absence of “Functional Freedom” in Prasar Bharti. This committee said that the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting should be reorganized and a separate board on the lines of Railway Board should be created, in which only people with professional experience should get entry. So, slowly a consensus developed for a Television Authority of India -as a public trust and under the control of the parliament and officed with only experienced professionals. In 1989, the National Front government came into power. It introduced Prasar Bharti Bill in December 1989. The bill was introduced by P Upendra, the minister, who borrowed some of the articles from the previous bill introduced by Advani and also added some new ethos as per the changed scenario. The Prasar Bharti Bill, moved by the VP Singh Government got the confidence of BJP, Leftists and Congress as well and was passed in Lok Sabha in August 1990. This was included in the election manifesto of the NF (National Front) Government, so we can imagine how difficult it must have been for the coalition government to get the support of the Congress, BJP and the lefts. However, all of them thoroughly indulged in amelioration and 400 amendments were moved :) Out of these 65 were accepted. So, to provide for the establishment of Broadcasting Corporation for India, to be known as Prasar Bharati, to define its composition, functions and powers and to proved for matters connected therewith or incidental thereto, the Prasar Bharti Act was passed. Now from April 1, 1991, it was to be given the president’s assent and the Prasar Bharti Corporation was to begin functioning from that date. But the Government changed meanwhile and the Chandrasekhar Government maintained status quo. In 1992, the Information and Broadcasting ministry of PV Narsihma Rao government noted down that “the time has changed now” and this mooted the idea of the autonomy of electric media. This had actually followed the coverage of Gulf war in 1991 by CNN. People wanted to see more channels. In September 1991, the Narsimharao Government set up a Vardan committee, under K A Vardan, the additional secretary in I& B Ministry. This committee recommended that a second channel of Doorsharshan should be leased out in 4 metro and some FM stations should also be leased out. So, now the Government was in dilemma. On the one side it was to liberalize the media, on the other side it did not want to lose the clutches over Doordarshan and Akashwani, which were actually a source of propaganda plus revenue for the Government. But the credibility of Doordarshan had already fallen and now it was to face the invasion of the global media. The Government could implement the Prasar Bharti Act, and infuse professionalism to bring back its credibility, but it was not done. Under the new policies the Narsimharao government allowed private and foreign broadcasters to engage in limited operations in India. Foreign channels like CNN, Star TV and domestic channels such as Zee TV and Sun TV started satellite broadcasts. Meanwhile, some more experiments were done. The National Programming staff of Doordarshan took over the programming for DD Metro. The Metro channel was moved from 4 to 18 cities and now DD3, DD4, DD5 and DD6 were rolled out. In march 1995, an satellite based channel started broadcasting abroad. But still, the condition of Doordarshan was not improved. Later KP Singh Deo, I & B Minister said that the invasion of the foreign media would be responded with an indigenous programming strategy. During this time also, the government never tried to get the act notified. The result was that “Prasar Bharti was “slaughtered in the market” as this author says, and Indian viewers were hijacked by the satellite channels , both foreign and domestics. Among the new experiments it was an “Air Time Committee of India” that was proposed to lay down the procedure for allotment of slots in DD and AIR in 1993. But it was shelved later. The summary is that “State control” was anyhow continued and this ensured that DD remains just a Government propaganda channel. K. P. Singh Deo ,though made repeated statements that Government was serious about implementing the Prasar Bharati Act, but practically was not serious about granting autonomy to Akashwani and Doordarshan. So this was a time for “tarikh par tarikh… tarikh par tarikh” extending the deadlines time and again. Finally Prasar Bharti came into being in 1997. Prasar Bharti works as an independent body but still needs some changes. There is an amendment bill pending at present.

PRASAR BHARATI ACT, 1990

The Ministry of Information & Broadcasting, Government of India has issued a notification indicating that the Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting Corporation of India) Act, 1990 shall come into force from 15th of September, 1997. The Prasar Bharati Act provides for establishment of a Broadcasting Corporation of India, to be known as Prasar Bharati to define its composition, functions and powers and related matters.

It provides for grant of autonomy to electronic media, namely, AIR and Doordarshan, presently under the Government control. The Act received the assent of President of India on September, 12, 1990 after being unanimously passed by Parliament. This had not come into force as the notification under sub-section (1) of Section 3 of the Act had not been issued. media should be under the control of the public as distinct from Government. It should be operated by a public statutory corporation or corporations, as the case may be, whose constitution and composition must be such as to ensure its/their impartiality in political, economic and social matters and on all other public issues.

A comprehensive review of the Act undertaken in 1991, had brought into focus certain operational difficulties that were likely to arise particularly in the area of personnel policy and manpower employment, issue of Government directions to the Corporation, the procedure for supersession for Prasar Bharati Board by the President etc. The Cabinet considered the issue for suitable amendments during the last few years. However, no final decision was taken. Meanwhile with the advent of satellite channels and their rapid proliferation, the broadcasting environment had undergone a sea- change. Also two significant judgement having direct relevance to Prasar Bharati Act were also made.

Supreme Court in its judgement dated 9.2.1995 in the Union of India vs. Cricket Association of Bengal has held that airwaves are public property and a monopoly over broadcasting whether by government or anybody else is inconsistent with the free speech right of the citizens and directed the Government to take immediate steps to establish an independent autonomous public authority representative of all sections and interest in the society to control and regulate the use of airwaves. The Calcutta High Court has in its judgement dated 19.7.75 in Union of India Vs People's Union for Civil Liberties observed that the Central Government should take appropriate steps to give shape to the objectives and ideals of the Prasar Bharati Act as early as possible. Government is at liberty to pass fresh legislation if it deems fit.

The Hon'ble court has further observed that broadcasting media should be under the control of the public as distinct from Government. It should be operated by a public statutory corporation or corporations, as the case may be, whose constitution and composition must be such as to ensure its/their impartiality in political, economic and social matters and on all other public issues.

The Calcutta High Court has in its judgement dated 19.7.75 in Union of India Vs People's Union for Civil Liberties observed that the Central Government should take appropriate steps to give shape to the objectives and ideals of the Prasar Bharati Act as early as possible. Government is at liberty to pass fresh legislation if it deems fit.

In March 1996, Sub-Committee of Consultative Committee of Ministry of I&B headed by Shri Ram Vilas Paswan submitted a Working Paper on National Media Policy. In view of the Supreme Court judgement the Committee noted that there should be a regulatory body to oversee both public and private telecasting/broadcasting. The Sub-Committee noted that the provisions of the Prasar Bharati Act, which was unanimously passed by Parliament in 1990 should be kept in mind while framing the regulatory mechanism which should be an independent autonomous authority.

Subsequently Sen Gupta Committee was set up by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting vide a notification dated 28th December, 1995 under the Chairmanship of Dr. N.K. Sengupta to review the provisions of Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting Corporation of India) Act, 1990 and to make recommendations regarding the restructuring of Prasar Bharati. Besides Dr. Sengupta, the other Members are Brig. M.R. Narayanan and Shri Ved Leekha.

In March 1996, Sub-Committee of Consultative Committee of Ministry of I&B headed by Shri Ram Vilas Paswan submitted a Working Paper on National Media Policy. In view of the Supreme Court judgement the Committee noted that there should be a regulatory body to oversee both public and private telecasting/broadcasting. The Sub-Committee noted that the provisions of the Prasar Bharati Act, which was unanimously passed by Parliament in 1990 should be kept in mind while framing the regulatory mechanism which should be an independent autonomous authority.

Subsequently Sen Gupta Committee was set up by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting vide a notification dated 28th December, 1995 under the Chairmanship of Dr. N.K. Sengupta to review the provisions of Prasar Bharati (Broadcasting Corporation of India) Act, 1990 and to make recommendations regarding the restructuring of Prasar Bharati. Besides Dr. Sengupta, the other Members are Brig. M.R. Narayanan and Shri Ved Leekha. Prasar Bharati

Prasar Bharati (Hindi: प्रसारभार); is India's largest public broadcasting agency. It is an autonomous body set up by an Act of Parliament and comprises Doordarshan Television Network and All India Radio which were earlier media units of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.

The Parliament of India passed an Act to grant this autonomy in 1990, but it was not enacted until 15 September 1997.[1]

Dr A Surya Prakash[2] is the current chairperson of Prasar Bharati and Jawhar Sircar is the CEO.

Prasar Bharati Act[edit]

The Prasar Bharati Act provides for establishment of a Broadcasting Corporation, to be known as Prasar Bharati, to define its composition, functions and powers.[4] The Act grants autonomy to All India Radio and Doordarshan, which were previously under government control.[4] The Act received assent of President of India on 12 September 1990[1] after being unanimously passed by Parliament. It was finally implemented in November 1997. By the Prasar Bharati Act, all the property, assets, debts, liabilities, payments of money due, all suits and legal proceedings involving Akashvani (All India Radio) and Doordarshan were transferred to Prasar Bharati.

Prasar Bharati Board[edit]

Prasar Bharati Act stipulates general superintendence, direction and management of affairs of the Corporation vests in Prasar Bharati Board which may exercise all such powers and do all such acts and things as may be exercised or done by the Corporation.[4]

Prasar Bharati Board consists of:

• Chairman • One Executive Member • One Member (Finance) • One Member (Personnel) • Six Part-time Members • Director-General (Akashvani), ex officio • Director-General (Doordarshan), ex officio • One representative of the Union Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India), to be nominated by that Ministry and • Two representatives of the employees of the Corporation, of whom one shall be elected by the engineering staff from amongst themselves and one shall be elected by the other employee from amongst themselves.

The President of India appoints Chairman and the other Members, except the ex officio members, nominated member and the elected members.

The Board meetings must be held at least once in three months, every year.

Actress Kajol is named as part-time member for 5 years till November 2021.[5]

Functions and Objectives[edit]

The primary duty of the Corporation is to organise and conduct public broadcasting services to inform, educate and entertain the public and to ensure a balanced development of broadcasting on radio and television.[4]

The Corporation shall, in the discharge of its functions, be guided by the following objectives, namely:

• Upholding the unity and integrity of the country and the values enshrined in the Constitution. • Safeguarding the citizen’s right to be informed freely, truthfully and objectively on all matters of public interest, national or international, and presenting a fair and balanced flow of information including contrasting views without advocating any opinion or ideology of its own. • Paying special attention to the fields of education and spread of literacy, agriculture, rural development, environment, health and family welfare and science and technology. • Providing adequate coverage to the diverse cultures and languages of the various regions of the country by broadcasting appropriate programmes. • Providing adequate coverage to sports and games so as to encourage healthy competition and the spirit of sportsmanship. • Providing appropriate programmes keeping in view the special needs of the youth. • Informing and stimulating the national consciousness in regard to the status and problems of women and paying special attention to the upliftment of women. • Promoting social justice and combating exploitation, inequality and such evils as untouchability and advancing the welfare of the weaker sections of the society. • Safeguarding the rights of the working classes and advancing their welfare. • Serving the rural and weaker sections of the people and those residing in border regions, backward or remote areas. • Providing suitable programmes keeping in view the special needs of the minorities and tribal communities. • Taking special steps to protect the interests of children, the blind, the aged, the handicapped and other vulnerable sections of the people. • Promoting national integration by broadcasting in a manner that facilitates communication in the languages in India; and facilitating the distribution of regional broadcasting services in every State in the languages of that State. • Providing comprehensive broadcast coverage through the choice of appropriate technology and the best utilisation of the broadcast frequencies available and ensuring high quality reception. • Promoting research and development activities in order to ensure that radio broadcast and television broadcast technology are constantly updated.

Expansion plans[edit]

Digitisation of AIR & DD is going on full phase, as some of DDK's (Doordarshan Kendra's) & AIR Stations are already getting digitised. All the new establishments are digital and there are plans to modify the existing ones. New transmitters are being ordered and plans for purchase of digital transmitters are being implemented in phases. Controversy over Candidate selection[edit]

In 2010, as many as 24 candidates out of the 30 selected for the posts of journalists in Doordarshan News were alleged to be selected on the basis of political considerations.[6] For example, one of the successful candidates was closely related to a former Congress minister of state for information and broadcasting and another successful candidate was the daughter of a sitting Congress Union minister. Another one was a close relative of Union Commerce Minister Anand Sharma.[7][8]

The number of applicants called for interview was increased from 25 to 35 to accommodate the daughter of a Congress politician, who held the 33rd rank, and would have otherwise been eliminated at the cut-off stage. Another successful candidate, Anika Kalra Kalha, was not even called for an audition and reporting skills test, and the remark in the relevant columns read “Did not qualify for this stage”. Similarly weightage given to interview was arbitrarily increased 2 days before interviews. Contribution of radio in the post independence era History of Indian Radio is the history of radio broadcast that started in India with the setting up of a private radio service in Chennai, in the year 1924. In that same year, British government gave license to the Indian Broadcasting Company, to launch Radio stations in Mumbai and Kolkata. Later as the company became bankrupt, the government took possession of the transmitters and began its operations as the Indian State Broadcasting Corporation. In the year 1936, it was renamed All India Radio (AIR) and the Department of Communications managed it entirely. After independence, All India Radio was converted into a separate Department. All India Radio has five regional headquarters in New Delhi, for the North Zone; in Kolkata, for the East Zone; in Guwahati, for the North-East Zone, in Mumbai, for the West Zone; and in Chennai, for the South Zone.

In the year 1957, All India Radio was renamed Akashvani, which is controlled by the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting. During the period of independence only a mere 6 radio stations existed through out the country. But during the late 1990s, the network of All India Radio extended to almost 146 AM stations. Moreover the Integrated North-East Service focused on reaching to the population in northeast India. All India Radio offers programmes in English, Hindi and numerous regional and local languages. In the year 1967, Commercial Radio services started in India. The initiative was taken by Vividh Bharati and Commercial Service, from the headquarters in Mumbai. Vividh Bharati accumulated revenues from widespread sponsorships and advertisements. During the mid-1990s, broadcasting was carried on from 31 AM and FM stations.

By 1994, there were around 85 FM stations and 73 short wave stations that linked the whole nation. The broadcasting technology in India is basically indigenous and reaches far and wide to various listeners like farmers who require various updated information on agriculture. Between 1970 and 1994, the amount of radio receivers increased manifold, almost five times. From the initial 14 million, the number increased to a staggering 65 million. The broadcast services from foreign countries are provided by the External Services Division of All India Radio. Almost 70 hours of news, entertainment programmes were broadcasted in 1994 in various languages with the help of 32 shortwave transmitters.

After Independence, Indian radio was regarded as a vital medium of networking and communication, mainly because of the lack of any other mediums. All the major national affairs and social events were transmitted through radio. Indian radio played a significant role in social integration of the entire nation. All India Radio mainly focused on development of a national consciousness as well as over all National integration. Programming was organised and created keeping in mind the solitary purpose of national political integration. This supported in prevailing over the imperative crisis of political instability, which was created after the Independence. Thus political enhancement and progressive nation building efforts were aided by the transmission of planned broadcasts.

All India Radio also provided assistance in enhancing the economic condition of the country. Indian radio was particularly designed and programmed to provide support to the procedure of social improvement, which was a vital pre-requisite of economic enhancement. The leading development beliefs of the time analysed the problems and hindrances in development as the primary ones in the developing nations. The function of broadcasting paved a way for the surge of modern concepts. Later, with the modernisation of the country, television was introduced and broadcasting achieved new status. But by then, radio had become a veteran medium in India. Diverse programmes including entertainment and melodious songs were also transmitted nationwide. Akashvani or All India Radio still stands as one of the biggest radio networks around the globe.

UNIT -2 Radio Program Genres

, Concept of content and form, Generation of program Ideas and process of production(Pdf) Radio program formats (PDF) Different Formats for Radio Programmes

Like television and print media, radios also broadcast programmes of different categories. If you think of the shows that you have listened to on radios, film songs, cricket commentaries, talk shows, discussions, news, etc. are some of the categories that you will remember at once. Isn’t it? These different types and categories of programmes that are broadcasted on radios are called formats.

There are lots of factors based on which the radio formats are selected before approaching the masses. Some of these determinants include:

. Number of people

. Number of men and women – gender ratio

. Number of educated and uneducated people

. Language spoken in that area

. Power supply

. Health conditions of the people and amenities available

. Main occupation, and many more factors

Making a specific study based on the above parameters makes it easier for the radio stations to broadcast programmes that could entertain people and also be useful for them. Whichever radio format you listen to, there are three ingredients that constitute it.

. Spoken word or Human voice: Announcements, Radio Talk, Radio Interviews, Radio Discussions, Radio documentaries and features, Radio Drama, Commentaries, News, Radio Magazines that may include chat shows, music, reviews, etc. . Music: Radio is all about music. Starting from signature tunes to radio plays, everything in a radio programme is its music. Classical music is widely used in radio stations of India. It includes Hindustani classical, Carnatic classical and Western classical. In addition, vocal and instrumental musical pieces are also used vastly. Instrumental music genres include string like sitar and sarod, wind like flutes and shehnai, and percussion like drum. . Sound effects: Sound can be considered as one of the most important radio formats as it is the only parameter that can take the audiences to whatever place the programmes want to take them to. In fact, this is the element that helps in evoking interest within the listeners. Only sound in a radio can enable the audiences to differentiate between the expressions being used in a programme or advertisement. With the advancement in technology, it has been found that radio formats have also been developed technically. The IT based radio formats include the following:

. Phone-in Programme: In recent times, the phone-in programmes are of great importance. With the help of this format, listener and presenter get a chance to talk and interact with each other. This conversation is heard by every listener who is tuned in to that particular station. . Radio Bridge: This radio format allows one radio station to connect with the other at any other location around the world. Any famous figure in Chennai could be connected to the station you are listening to and the common man or presenter proceeds with the conversation. . Radio Internet: Radio stations operate using internet modems. This is the type of format that has gained immense momentum in recent times because of the extensive usage of computer and internet for various purposes. Being an advertiser, you must know about the types of radio formats before airing your ad in any programme. What you want is ultimately profit, which you may not get until you are aware of the effectiveness of particular types of radio formats. TYPES OF RADIO SHOWS

Commercial radio is structured in way similar to TV channels. The morning hours are heavily dedicated to talk and news; the daytime and early evening are full of prime-time (i.e. musical) content; and the particularly off-beat or edgy shows play late at night, when ratings aren’t as critical and fewer people are tuning in.

For musicians who are trying to be heard on the airwaves, both the type of station and the time of day — and in turn, the types of radio shows being broadcast — can make a world of difference when it comes to audience and exposure. Non-Commercial Specialty Shows Commercial stations and non-commercial stations are seldom similar, so it’s hardly surprising that the non-commercial approach to specialty shows is a little different. While they are alike in that both commercial and non-commercial specialty shows make excellent gateways for new and unheard-of acts, non-commercial specialty shows tend to be more numerous and diverse than their commercial counterparts. For example, let’s examine 89.9 KTSW, the college station which broadcasts out of Texas State University. KTSW lists no less than 10 specialty shows on their homepage. One show is called Wanderlust, which “spotlights music from a different city or region in the world each week.” Another, called The Shack Party, “will bring you the best in all forms of American roots music—from Appalachian music to Zydeco.” Even the most offbeat commercial specialty show is unlikely to showcase Applachian and Zydeco music, which goes to show just how invaluable non- commercial specialty shows can be not just to new artists, but also to artists working with unusual genres. Commecial Radio Morning Shows Anyone who has ever driven to work knows that compared to the normal daytime format, morning radio is its own beast. That’s because radio stations know that the morning hours are peak time for listeners to tune in. During the morning hours, millions upon millions of Americans are commuting to work in their cars — and in an attempt to perk up for the workday stretching ahead, many of them listen to the radio as they travel.

Of course, there are aspects of morning shows that aren’t always relevant to musicians — for example, hosts taking calls to get public opinions on the latest political scandals — but other morning show features are perfect for and indeed intended for musicians. For instance, during their AM talk or news shows, many stations will host interviews with artists. Typically, these interviews cover topics like upcoming or recent shows, album releases, or projects they have in progress. However, because morning shows are so heavy with traffic, musician appearances on morning shows are typically reserved for well-established acts, or at least acts who have already achieved airplay on that station’s rotation. Commercial Late Night Radio Like morning radio, late night radio doesn’t follow the same format as the daytime programming. Why not? The amount of people tuning is much lower than normal, because late at night, most people are either sleeping, channel-surfing, or out on the town. The number of people on the road (and consequently listening to the radio) is comparatively small.

Because fewer people are listening in, and because most advertisers are consequently less interested in pushing their products, late night radio hosts typically have more freedom to break from station norms in terms of tone, style, genre, and how “clean” material is.

Most late night specialty shows are one or two hours in length, and are often dedicated to a certain genre, which is often outside “the norm” for that station. Genres like electronica, blues, and jazz are popular choices for late night programming. Because late night shows are often more flexible than the shows which air during peak hours, they can be a great place for emerging artists to get their foot in the door. Regular Shows It only makes sense that you can’t have “specialty” shows without “regular” shows by contrast. To help flesh out an understanding of what makes specialty shows — well, special — let’s spend some time talking about what commercial and non-commercial stations play during their regular hours.

At non-commercial stations, daytime programming is usually something of a free- for-all. Of course, the format varies from station to station — but in general, daytime hours at non-comms are filled by rotating DJs. These DJs can essentially choose the music they like, although even non-commercial stations will typically stick to at least a loose format. Usually, this consists of either AAA (Adult Album Alternative), or Alternative. Nonetheless, even within an Alternative block, non-commercial DJs will frequently pepper in cuts from other genres, such as jazz, world music, or blues. In fact, program diversity is one of the cherished hallmarks of the AAA radio format. Triple-A tracks occasionally cross over to the more mainstream, commercial world, like the Adult Top 40 chart.

At commercial stations, daytime programming is the station bread-and- butter. Commercial daytime programming may be introduced or commented on by a live DJ on on-air personality, but there are also many commercial stations which simply play automated, predetermined playlists. While browsing commercial radio stations, you have probably noticed a blend of “actual” DJs and pre-recorded voices talking about the tracks. While the daytime playlists at commercial stations may incorporate a mix of genres, shifting from pop to alt country to R&B ballads, all of the songs have one thing in common: they were made by established artists, with the intent of becoming radio hits.

There are a lot of variables to consider. Maybe your music is a little too edgy for morning shows, which have lots of young listeners riding in the car with their parents. Maybe you don’t have a lot of extra money to spend on aggressive promotional efforts toward getting a coveted morning show interview. Maybe you play within a genre that can’t find a home on commercial radio specialty shows. There are strengths and weaknesses to both commercial and noncommercial specialty shows, and one may be a better home for your music than the other. The key is finding which niche is best-suited for your act.

UNIT -3 Interactive Program Formats

Phone-in

In broadcasting, a phone-in or call-in is a programme format in which viewers or listeners are invited to air their live comments by telephone, usually in respect of a specific topic selected for discussion on the day of the broadcast. On radio (especially talk radio), it is common for an entire programme to be dedicated to a phone-in session. On television, phone ins are often part of a wider discussion programme: a current example in the UK is The Wright Stuff.

BBC Radio Nottingham is credited with having aired the first British phone-in on 4 February 1968, in a programme called What Are They Up To Now?

Speech based Talk Radio UK was launched in 1995, with much of its programming featuring phone-ins. It also introduced the notion of the shock jock to the UK, with presenters like Caesar the Geezer and Tommy Boyd constructing heated discussions.

Ian Hutchby has researched power relations in phone ins, looking at arguments and confrontations. Using conversation analysis, he describes how the host retains power through devices such as "The Second Position" — the concept of going second in a discussion, giving the host time to formulate a response.

Similarly, the last word is always the broadcast word. The public can choose to end the conversation, but they are doing so by withdrawing from the interactional arena (Hutchby, 1996: 94-5; Talbot et al.).

In 2007, the BBC suspended all phone-in competitions (but not voting) due to an internal inquiry into corruption in the production of these games in shows such as charitytelethons after a nationwide inquiry into the whole process leading to the cancellation of ITV Play.

In Ireland Liveline is a popular afternoon phone in show broadcast by RTE 1 that is hosted by Joe Duffy. The phone in program usually focuses on consumer issues, current affairs and complaints from members of the public regarding various issues. The program and its presenter are frequently lampooned by numerous Irish comedians, one beingDavid McSavage, who play on the popular perception that the program is merely an outlet for the angst of serial complainers and housewives while providing entertainment for those who revel in listening to despair and tales of misery delivered the callers. A quality of the show that is frequently satirized is Duffy's seemingly exasperated expressions of despair upon hearing of the plight of a caller.[1]

Technology[edit]

The caller is connected via a telephone hybrid, which connects the telephone line to the audio console through impedance matching, or more modernly through digital signal processing, which can improve the perceived audio quality of the call. Telephone calls are often organised through a system which also provides broadcast automation, with anadministrative assistant answering calls and entering caller information on a personal computer, which also displays on the radio presenter's screen. A profanity delay is often used to keep profanity and other inappropriate material off the air. For contests, the conversation can be recorded and edited "on the fly", before playback on the air just a few minutes later. How radio programmes can support agriculture and market development 4 September 2014

Ben Fiafor, Regional Field Manager, West Africa discusses Farm Radio International’s work with P4P in Ghana. In Ghana, P4P collaborates with Farm Radio International (FRI) to provide small-scale farmers with the information they need to improve their agricultural production. Through participatory radio programmes, FRI provides farmers with voice and education, which helps them market quality crops to WFP and other formal markets. In this blog, Ben Fiafor, FRI Regional Field Manager, West Africa, explains why radio communication efforts are essential to market development programmes like P4P.

While many rural farmers have limited access to communications technologies, radio reaches at least 70 percent of rural households. Because small-scale farmers are often located in widespread, hard- to-reach rural areas, we believe that radio is a key tool to reach them most cost-effectively. Farm Radio International (FRI) is a non-profit organization which champions the use of radio, combined with other information and communication technologies (ICT), to fight poverty and food insecurity. We work in partnership with approximately 500 radio broadcasters in 38 African countries to increase the reach of agricultural information, enhance farmers’ participation and give farming families a voice. FRI engages with a variety of national and international research and development partners, enabling them to use radio and other ICT in their communication and knowledge- sharing efforts.

An incentive for investment Purchase for Progress (P4P), a pilot project of the World Food Programme (WFP), works to link small-scale farmers to formal markets, including, but not limited to WFP. However, meeting the quantity and quality requirements of formal markets like WFP often proves challenging for smallholders, who may not have access to the necessary knowledge and skills to improve production. In Ghana, we work with P4P to ensure that relevant and timely information about best agricultural practices is delivered to rural populations in the Ejura-Sekyeredumase district. This includes 16 farmers’ organizations supported by P4P. The market opportunity presented by WFP provides a significant incentive for farmers to utilize this information to improve agronomic practices, while the information provided through our radio programmes assists them to produce greater yields and higher quality crops. With further support from P4P and other partners, these farmers are able to improve their production of crops such as maize and cowpea, both for home consumption and sale to formal markets.

In Ghana we collaborate with commercial radio stations Obouba and Akyeaa FM to improve the knowledge and skills of small-scale farmers in the sustainable production and post-harvest handling of high quality staple foods. We have also designed a comprehensive programme to produce and broadcast participatory Farm Radio programmes, in collaboration with partners such as the Adventist Development and Relief Agency (ADRA)and Ghana’s Ministry of Food and Agriculture. This programme reaches a total audience of one million farmers, including those directly supported by P4P. We also provide selected farmers’ organizations with a mobile phone and technical support to encourage the two-way flow of communication. This is crucial, as it allows us to foster interactivity between the radio station and rural, often isolated, farmers. With these phones, farmers’ organizations also receive weather forecasts and market information on a weekly basis. Reaching rural farmers Through our work, we have found that radio is the preferred source of agricultural information for the large majority of smallholder farmers. Not only is it affordable and accessible to those without formal education, it can also be utilized in local languages. Most importantly, radio, particularly when coupled with other ICT, such as mobile phones, can give voice to end users through participatory radio programmes. Thanks to this, radio is an effective tool helping farmers to make informed decisions and supporting the adoption of innovative agricultural practices.

Results As a result of our educational efforts, farmers now understand the importance and are willing to invest in the accurate application of fertilizers. They also know how to plant in rows with the right spacing, and the best ways to manage their farms. We can also see that post- harvest handling practices have also improved, with many farmers testifying that they no longer store grain on the floor, but on raised platforms.

In Ghana, I have seen the results of our collaboration with P4P first- hand. Thanks to the skills learned through FRI radio programmes, many farmers within the Ejura-Sekyeredumase area have been able to increase yields through intensification and good agronomical practices, enabling them to sell to formal markets. One such farmer, Iddrisu Ameen from the Nkosuo Farmers’ Association in Ejura, told me how much her production has improved since she began tuning in to FRI’s broadcasts. While she previously farmed 10 acres of maize without substantial yields, after reducing her farm size by half she got better results. Access to formal markets where farmers can be paid a fair price for their surplus quality crops is essential when a farmer like Iddrisu makes the decision to invest in her production. UNIT – 4 Production Techniques

Script Format for Radio Drama.

A lot of people agonise about formatting a radio script. It probably causes more problems for the new writer than any other issue.

If you write for television or movies expect to find that readers/producers will insist on proper formatting. In Hollywood most producers will only read scripts formatted to a pretty precise set of rules. It helps a lot to know what these rules are. In television the rules can be just as rigid with some TV series often having there own particular format. Even series produced by the same television companies might have varying formats. It helps the new writer to find out what these formats are before submitting a script.

In theatre the rules are less strict. Producers expect scripts to be formatted in such a way that the characters, dialogue and action are set out separately and clearly on the page. Producers generally won’t worry too much if minor variations from a set format occur.

Radio is less strict than either television or movies but producers will expect a format that they are used to and that is clear and precise. Therefore it would help the new writer to download scripts of produced radio plays and to follow the format that has succeeded in the past.

Radio Drama Radio drama is comprised primarily of single dramas, alongside some series

Radio drama slots almost always sit within a rigid wider schedule of programming and each slot has a different length/form, so you must decide which slot your script is intended for. You should send a full single play - or if it is for the 15 Minute Drama series slot on Radio 4, you should send the first two 15 minutes episodes and an outline of the further 3 episodes.

Radio Sitcoms Radio sitcoms can be recorded with or without an audience. Radio sitcoms tend to sit within a rigid wider schedule of programmes and you need to think about which slot your script is intended for.

Writing a radio script 1. 1. THE RADIO SCRIPT Writing radio packages Image by Media Helping Media available under Creative Commons 2. 2. Writing a radio script

• 1: The importance of the words

• The script is what makes sense of the information you have gathered

• It is the framework for your story

• It brings together the most important elements, and helps your audience understand the significance of the points the people you have interviewed have made.

3. 3. Writing a radio script

• 2: Keep it short and simple

• The script should be written in simple, short sentences

• Try to use everyday language and terms your audience will understand

• It should not contain any complicated concepts that could confuse and distract.

4. 4. Writing a radio script

• 3: Introduce the audio

• The script should offer the audience introductions to the audio you are including

• It should tell the listener what’s coming up without repeating the words they are about to hear

• Don’t summaries too much; you should not take away the power of the clips in your piece.

5. 5. Writing a radio script

• 4: Grab the attention of the audience

• You are crafting a tease into material that is designed to make people stop and listen

• The language should be in the active tense

• The most important information must feature in the first few sentences

• However, the quality should be consistent throughout; the script must not tail off at the end.

6. 6. Writing a radio script

• 5: Your opinions don’t matter

• Your script should be factual and without comment or descriptive words

• Don’t try to attract listeners by including your own emotions; that’s not your job

• Those who listen to your radio package will make their own decisions about the power of the information you are broadcasting.

7. 7. Writing a radio script

• 6: Deliver a complete and fair report

• Your script should weave together all the elements you have gathered for your story without suggesting that any one is more important than the other; that’s for the audience to decide, not you

• You have a responsibility to set out the information in a way that doesn’t lead or mislead.

8. 8. Writing a radio script

• 7: Scripting before interviewing

• Some journalists choose to draft a script before they have conducted the interview

• That’s fine as long as the journalist retains an open mind

• You must not orchestrate or stage manage the interviews to fit into the structure you may have already planned.

9. 9. Writing a radio script

• 8: Scripting after interviewing

• Some journalists prefer to listen to the material again back to the material before they start their script

• This approach can lead to a fresher sounding piece

• However it can also lead to confusion if you have too much material and no idea how it is going to be edited and scripted together.

10. 10. Writing a radio script

• 9: Fact checking

• Fact check every piece of information that you are including in the script

• Also fact check what has been said by those you have interviewed

• Decide whether the fact checking has raised any issues that need to be covered in the script.

11. 11. Writing a radio script

• 10: Editorial ethics

• Check the script against the editorial ethics of objectivity, impartiality and fairness

• Do not give extra weight to one point of view

• Most of the people you interview will have strong points of view – you wouldn’t be interviewing them if that were not the case

• However your script needs to be fair to all.

12. 12. Writing a radio script

• 11: The beginning

• Start the script by addressing the main point made in your introduction

• Later in the script you can add context and analysis that may help the audience understand the issues raised by those you are interviewing

• But start with a crisp and sharp introduction that highlights the main points.

13. 13. Writing a radio script

• 12: The ending

• Always end your script with a fact and not a vague line such as ‘we will have to wait to see’

• Your audience wants information not overused clichés

• Consider asking your interviewees what’s likely to happen next and summarise their expectations in your last paragraph.

14. 14. Writing a radio script

• 13: Does it make sense?

• Read the script back to yourself

• Have you left any gaps? Do you need to do any further research?

• Check it with a colleague; a second pair of eyes works for radio scripts as well as print

• Check your choice of audio, too, you may have missed a more important clip.

Radio producer

A radio producer oversees the making of a radio show. There are two main types of producer: audio or creative producer and content producer. Audio producers create sounds and audio specifically. Content producers oversee and orchestrate a radio show or feature. The content producer might organize music choices, guests, callers for talk radio or competitions, timings, and overall show content. They also may produce recorded content, from shows to radio commercials and commercial bumpers.

The role of a radio producer may also include that of a board operator or technical operator who may operate the technical controls (sound volume levels, recording software,switchboard, etc.) for another person, the on-air talent. The producer often used to be in a separate control room, usually separated from the radio studio by a window, which allowed visual contact while blocking noise. Nowadays this has changed in some ways.

Some producers involved in the field of radio are also sometimes known as "production directors", "creative producers", "imaging specialists", or even "imaging producers". This type of radio producer primarily creates and produces audio content for a radio station or radio network. Some examples of their work are promos (promotional, commercial-like audio clips), jingles and various other audio clips, better known in the radio business as "imaging".

Many radio stations and station clusters ( regional groups of stations ) have their own production director who may oversee any of the above listed responsibilities daily. Most large radio groups have their own in-house creative production team, who produce audio for more than one station across the group, or even across a country. Radio Production Processes Ideas

Grading:

It is time to create your final production and the work that you have created for your other units will make up part of this live show.

Your brief is to produce a one hour radio programme, that will be broadcast on PGFM, during the daytime schedule and be in the genre of ......

• The breakfast Show (People getting up and travelling to work or school) • School's Out (Aimed at primary school students and their families) • The lunchtime chart hour (Aimed at students 11-16 who will be listening on their lunch hour) • Drive-time (Aimed at people travelling home from work or school) Have a listen to some examples to help you generate some ideas.. http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio/

The show must be appropriate for younger listeners but you can choose the style of the programme.

You must evidence the production process that you go through and the remainder of this blog will help you set this out....

1. Comment on your current situation by answering the following questions...

• How much time have you got to produce the programme? • How much money do you have to spend? • Who will be in your broadcat team and what will they be doing? • What are the restrictions of your brief? • What resources are available to you, for the live show and for the production of pre-recorded content? Budget......

You have £500 to spend on your show and the pre-production process.

(All prices are to hire per-hour)

Edirol Roland D-90 voice recorder = £15

Mp3 voice recorders = £10

Imac editing suite = £20

Macbook editing suite = £20

Recording Studio = £25 per hour.

2. Mindmap your ideas...

Have a look at the following video and try and utilise bubbl.us, an excellent mindmapping website, free and easy.

Analyse each idea and then select which idea you will be producing, explaining why.

3. Produce a treatment, to give to your client.....

You must present this to the directors of the PGFM and they must give you approval to broadcast

Include:

• Fellow presenters and production team and justification for each role.(Skills, personality, reliability etc) • Content outline + list of pre-recorded material to be included • Target Audience + breakdown of who will be listening and why? What is the demographic of the audience? Why will your programme appeal to specific genders,age groups, intelligences? • Resources needed • Budget • Project Schedule = Date of show, practice shows, pre-recorded content ie; interviews, phone calls. • What the competitors are doing successfuly and unsuccessfuly. • Explanation of why people will be listening • Contingency plan ie; if you run out of time, member of team drops out, guest cancels etc. Posted by Mr C. Jackson at 10:29 No comments:

Planning and Research You must be professional in the way you research and record information for your content.

You must document the following......

1. Any primary sources that you have used to help construct the content ie;

• Questionnaires to provide statistics and results if you are discussing a particular issue or event • Interviews with specialists, celebrities etc • Your own observations 2. Any secondary sources you have used ie;newspapers, magazines, books, audio, visual, electronic etc

Posted by Mr C. Jackson at 10:29 No comments: Production You must create a schedule/diary of events to doucument your preperation for production.

In you diary keep a note of....regular team meetings, job allocation, task definitions and deadlines, proposed schedule, agendas and minutes

Example template: available on simply click, in AS/A2 --- Unit 3

You must also create a schedule for your one hour show, explaining what is going to be broadcast when. You may want to use the remplate below, available on simplyclick, in live

radio.

Posted by Mr C. Jackson at 10:20 No comments: Evaluation LIVE RADIO Production : Evaluation : PartcofPD

Purpose What was your aim? Did you actually achieve your purpose.?Your own personal opinion. Now …..you must gather audience feedback by playing your programme to members of your target audience..... or arranging for some of them to actually listen live during the broadcast. You should then write under the following headings :

Audience What did they say about the show? Did they take your preferred reading? Or did they have an oppositional reading? Why? What did they say about the following things….

Representation issues. Did you give a positive image of the bands? ... what might you have included to change this image? Did you play songs by only male artists or was there a mixture? Were different ethnic groups catered for? Were the requests only from girls... or boys..or both? Did you make fun of the ‘older generation’ by commenting badly about ‘older’ music if you played any? Can you see why this could be a problem? Were you biased in anything you said? Did your show sound realistic for the genre?

Technical issues What were the levels like?.... did you keep between 4/5 on the PPM? Was the balance of voice/music o.k? Did you cut off anyone’s voice by fading the voices in too slowly? Did you remember to always follow a commercial break with a jingle and then a piece of music? Were there any embarrassing gaps? Did you ever leave the mike faders up by mistake? Did you remember to wear your headphones during speech segments? Why is this important? Did you reach the news accurately and on time? Did you vary the way you linked the music tracks together? Sometimes voice… sometimes jingles/ID’s.

Conventions/Narrative What do you think was typical of this genre? Make a list. What would be the same in a programme on a professional station? Do they have any advantages over you? Features of good narrative include.... the ‘tease’ at the start of the show.... the ‘enigma’.... ‘the resolution’.... did you use any of them?

Own performance... self evaluation Did you learn any new skills? How do you think you did? ..... strengths.... weaknesses. Were you a good team member? Why? Did you argue?

Future targets What would you improve on next time? Produce a brainstorm of some ideas on: 1. PROMOTING your show next time, to attract more listeners. Advertising?….Web site? 2. How else might you DISTRIBUTE it, apart from a live broadcast like the one you have just done on Radio Grangefield/PGFM? CD?.... Web site?...

Radio News Reporting and Production

PRODUCTION AND PLANNING:Principals of

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Planning a Program

Radio News, Reporting and Production MCM515

VU

LESSON 31

PRODUCTION AND PLANNING

To produce

To produce is to create something especially when skill is needed.

Production

Production is the process of creating something (film, drama, documentary, musical) with skill and knowledge.

Producer

Producer is the person who is in-charge of the production.

What is a Program?

"A plan of things that will be done or included in the development of something; something that people watch on TV or listen to on radio is called a program.

Format

Format is the general arrangement, plan or design of a program. The Basic Structure of a Programme is called format. For instance,

·

News

·

Talk

·

Feature

· Drama

·

Magazine programme

·

Stage show

·

Musicals

Role of a Producer

Producer's role in the process of production is to conceive, plan, and produce a programme.

To conceive means to think of an idea

The idea is actually a concept.

To plan is to make detailed arrangements for the idea you wish to materialize in future.

Where Ideas Come From?

The important areas where ideas can be obtained from are as under:

Society

Social conflicts

Government policies

Art (literature)

Science

Principals of Planning a Program

1. Motive of the program (why this program?)

The first and foremost thing that a producer has to keep forth before producing a program is to face the most important question, that is; why this program? Which means what is the purpose of this program that he wishes to produce. The following are the possible purposes or motives which make a producer conceive a program:

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To create awareness amongst the listeners about social problems, traffic laws, hazards of narcotics, need of education, the law, rights and responsibilities, diseases, etc.

·

To give information about government policies, new inventions, advancements in medicine, new techniques in agriculture, sports, etc.

·

To educate the modern methods of sowing, ploughing, harvesting, civic virtues, Qur'aan &

Sunnah

·

To entertain music, comedy, drama, showbiz, fashion etc.

2. Research of Target Audience

It means, who the program is to be produced for i.e. the target audience. The research of the target audience is very important step in the pre-production process. Unless a producer does not know exactly the nature, desires and needs of the target audience, the effective message can not be written.

While conducting research of the target audience following areas are to be focused upon:

·

The Age group of the target audience ------Kids; Youth; Adults

·

The Gender ------Men; Women; Both

· Socio-cultural Background ------Rural, Urban, Middle Class, Elite Class

3. Content of the program

The very next question is; what is to be given in the programme. It signifies the content or the matter of the program.

4. Selection of Format

A producer has to select a format which he thinks will be suitable to convey the message of the program.

The following are some important formats:

Talk, Feature, Drama, Documentary, Magazine Program, Interview etc.

5. Duration of the Program

The duration plays vital in the effectiveness of the program. While making a program a producer must note that the final duration of the program must be 30 to 40 seconds less than the actual duration so that after the end of a program the announcer may have sufficient time to make the announcement of the upcoming program.

5- Minute Program = 4 minutes and 20-30 sec

15- Minute Program = 14 minutes and 20-30 sec

30- Minute Programme = 29 minutes and 20-30 sec

6. Time of Broadcast

Another important question is; what time the program should go on air. It depends on the following points:

The Nature of the Programme

The Availability of the Target Audience 7. Frequency of the Program

Frequency of a program means how often a program should go on air; whether once a week or twice a week, or on alternate days or daily basis.

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8. Feedback

Planning to know the feed back of the listeners is very important. A producer has to arrange for a way the audience may express their views and comments about the program they have listened to. The following are different modes and routes audience may reach to the producer.

Letters; Telephone; E-mail; Personal Contacts e UNIT – 5 Studio Facilities, Equipment and Modern Technology (PDF)

R a Radio Studio Equipment (On Air) d i Radio Studio make use of high quality broadcasting equipment and install top of the range components and brands. o We design and construct the studio room/s and fit it with the furnisher and equipment that will result in an attractive radio studio. P r

o d u c t i more info o n

Radio Production Equipment (Editing) S t We craft the production room with attention to insolation, aquistics and the latest technology. This indudes the u installation of the room, edit/record desk, mixer console and PC based audition suite. Both PC and MAC systems are d considered based on the users' desired functionality and level of experience with the operating systems. i o

E q u i

more info p m e FM Transmission System n t Our line of transmission equipement allow the customer various analogue and digital broadcsting and linking options. With our assistance you will be able to self provide your signal by means of an ECNS license. This will ( enable you to self-distribute your FM and STL brodcasting services. E d i t i n g

more info )

E v Outside Broadcast Equipment e

r In order for your station to have outside broadcsting capabilities we offer equipment that will link you from any y remote location to the studio. These broadcast links are offered in various types: #1. ISDN Audio Codecs; #2. IP

Audio Codecs; #3. RF Outside Broadcast Links. r a Radio Studio can also install complete outside broadcasting studios in your panel, thus building a mobile studio with d full broadcasting and production capabilities. These vans are normally also used for marketing the radio station by i means of full or partial wrapping (branding) of the vehicle. o

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Thursday, 23 May 2013 s t BASIC RADIO PRODUCTION: LECTURE NOTE 2 u d i o

t RADIO STUDIO o

r e c Radio studio is a special room where radio signals are originated. It affords various o production activities including recording, transmission, and other performances of the radio r d personals. a The studio is therefore specially built with certain features to make it a quiet place, and to d v prevent unwanted sound from without: heavy door with air tight-luck; well-treated walls e with acoustic treatment; shaped ceiling; double glass window with corridor between them; r noiseless air-conditioner and suitable lightings. t i s Radio studio is up two parts: studio floor or performance area and studio control room e which houses technical equipment. m e n Radio stations have two types of studios: t s On-Air Studio: this type is normally meant for live programmes like news, discussion, talks, , continuity announcement and other programmes that have a call-in segment. j i Production Studio: this type is for the purpose of producing pre-recorded programmes like n drama, documentary, magazines, commercials, etc. it is also used for a rehearsal and voice g l testing. e s Some stations may have a broader categorization based on microphone placement and type, , size and activities performed thereof: drama studio; music studio; announcing studio, e auditorium studio; and general purpose studio. d i Studio Equipment: t

a • The studio equipment are many but the most common type includes the console n boards, microphones, recording devices, and loud speakers, d

• The Console Board: radio programmes are channeled to pass through the console p board which serves as the converging point of all signals sourced in the studio. It is design to r e perform the following functions: - • it can select from different audio sources on which one to go on air. p Selection: a • Mixing: It mixes and balances two or more sound signals or inputs c k • Amplifying: it amplifies to desired level, all the signals coming in its weaker form a g • Traducing: it converts sound energy into electrical impulse and moves it to boaster. e

• Shaping: it shapes sound to produce echo or thin pitch sound. p r • Measuring: measures the intensity of sound to detect over or under modulation. o • Channeling: various sound inputs are attached to produce a needed programme. g r Microphone: has two basic components: the diaphragm, which is a flexible device and very a sensitive to air pressure variation of a sound wave; and the generating element attached to m m the diaphragm and it converts the diaphragm’s vibration into electrical energy. The more e you talk the more the diaphragm vibrates. s . Types of Microphones T Microphones can be broadly categorized into three: h e

According to their internal construction and under this categories we have: p r ynamic Microphones: This type of Microphone is capable of producing excellent sound fidelity; it o d is rugged in construction which makes it relatively insensitive to harsh handling. u c t  Ribbon/Velocity Microphones: This Microphone is similar to a dynamic i o n microphone but tend to be more fragile. It produces a very warm, rich and s mellow sound which is often desirable for announcers, singers and musical t u d instruments. i o Condenser Microphones: This type of Microphone offers excellent audio response characteristics but it requires a power supply to both charge the capacitor and to amplify the tiny out-put current. n e e d s According to how they are used t avalieres: tiny microphones attached to the shirt or blouse during production. o oom Microphones: these are larger ones and desirable for drama production. b e and-Held microphones: handled close to the mouse and mostly unidirectional. It is used by a musicians and outside interviews. b l e

t According to their pick up patterns: o

b e Omni-Directional Microphones: pick sound from all directions, mostly used in round-table a discussion. s i-Directional Microphones: Pick sound from two angles and are desirable for two- person t interview. a n d nidirectional Microphones: pick sound from one direction and are used for announcement and b y news casting. f o Recording Devices: these are the audio sources used to record and play recorded audio or r sound in the studio: t h Tape recorder: records and plays music and other documented audio with tape. e

Compact disc (CD) Player: functions like tape recorder but using CD plate. o n Reel-to-Real Machine: used for recording and playback music. a i Turn Table: an outcast device used for backup on which the record turns. r oud Speaker: broadcast what is on the air. It houses a magnet, coil and woofer. The magnet s t creates reaction. The reaction passes through the coil to the woofer which vibrates and produces u sound. d i o .

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Wednesday, 22 May 2013 BASIC RADIO PRODUCTION: LECTURE NOTE 1

INTRODUCTION: RADIO HISTORY

Radio involves the process by which messages are sent through electrical waves. In other words, sound would be sent and received through the waves (Sambe, 2008:75). The history of Radio dates back to the 19th Century when Samuel Morse invented the electric telegraph. According to Bittner (1989:93), Gugielmo Marconi built on this invention to produce electromagnetic impulses which would be sent through the air without the use of wires. The voice was carried over long distances.

Thus in 1866, signals were transmitted from England to America without wires. Sambe (2008:75) states that, in 1888, Heinrick Hertz, working on the electromagnetic theory D propounded earlier by a British scientist James Clark Maxwell, produced the first radio i waves. g i ADVENT OF RADIO IN NIGERIA t a In Nigeria, radio started with the introduction of the Radio Distribution System in the year l 1933 in Lagos by the British colonial government under the Department of Post and Telegraphs (P&T), according to Idebi (2008,P.3). The Radio Distribution System (RDS) was a A reception base for the British Broadcasting Corporation and a relay station, through wire u systems, with loudspeakers at the listening end. In 1935, the Radio Distribution System was d i changed to Radio Diffusion system. The aim was to spread the efforts of Britain and her allies o during the Second World War through the BBC. The Ibadan station was commissioned in 1939, followed by the Kano station in 1944. Later, a re-appraisal of radio broadcast E objectives gave birth to the establishment in 1950 of the Nigerian Broadcasting Service d i (NBS). The NBS began broadcast in Lagos, Ibadan, Kaduna, Kano and Enugu on short wave t and medium wave transmitters. Through a Bill by the House of Representatives, the Nigerian i Broadcasting Corporation (NBC) was established in 1956. The NBC took up the n responsibilities of radio broadcast in Nigeria. The Federal Radio Corporation of Nigeria g (FRCN) was established in 1978. The Voice of Nigeria (VON) which served as the external S service was established in 1990. With the creation of more states and each state wanting to o propagate its people and culture, the pace for radio broadcast began in Nigeria and has f spread fast across the length and breadth of the nation. Each state owns and operates at last t one radio station. w a CHARACTERISTICS OF RADIO r e

Radio makes pictures: When you listen to a commentary on radio of football match. As you heard the commentary, you could visualize or ‘see’ in your mind what was being A described. You could actively ‘see’ pictures in your mind of the footballers even as you t listened to the sounds of fans singing or the sounds of the referee’s whistle. You use your l power of imagination as you follow the running commentary. e a s t

Fast medium: Radio is the fastest medium. It is instant. As things happen in a studio or a outside, messages can be sent or broadcast. These messages can be picked up by anyone who b has a radio set or receiver which is tuned into a radio station. If you have a television set and a cable or satellite connection you may be using a remote to get your favourite channel. s i c

e Simple medium: Compared to all other media, radio is simple to use. As mentioned in the d previous sections, radio needs very simple technology and equipment. i t i n g Inexpensive medium: Radio is inexpensive: As it is simple, it is also a cheaper medium. The cost of production is low and a small radio can be bought for as low a price as say three s u hundred naira i t e

i Portable medium: Don’t you move your radio set at home from the living room to the s kitchen or as you go out somewhere? You can’t do that very easily with television. This r facility of moving an object which is called ‘portability’ gives radio an advantage. These days e if you have a car and a radio in it, you can listen to it as you drive or travel. Can you think of q watching television, when you drive? u i r e d One does not have to be literate to listen to radio: Unless you are literate, you can’t read a newspaper or read captions or text on television. But for listening to radio, you need not be a t literate at all. You can listen to programmes or news in any language on the radio.

e v e OBJECTIVES OF RADIO r y

r a o inform d i o o educate inter related

s o entertain t a t i o LIMITATIONS OF RADIO n .

I t One chance medium: When you read a newspaper, you can keep it with you and read it

again. You have the printed word there and unless the paper is destroyed it will remain with i you. Suppose when you read a news item, you do not understand the meaning of certain s words. You can refer to a dictionary or ask someone who knows to find out the meaning. c o m m Radio has no visual images: Let us consider a news item on radio and the same item on o television. For example, the news about the devastating 9/11 attack that hits World Trade n Centre. Radio news talked about the intensity of the attack, the number of deaths, details l y about property destroyed etc. However in the case of television, it showed the actual planes hitting the twin towers, visuals of properties destroyed, rescue operations and many more u s details which could be seen. e d

f o : The problem of not having visuals leads to another Messages on radio are easily forgotten r limitation of radio. What is seen is often remembered and may remain with us. For example if you have seen the fine visuals of the Taj Mahal in Agra, it will remain in your memory. But p r what you hear is normally forgotten fast. Probably you may remember what you have heard o in a class room if you found it interesting. But can you recall all the headlines of a news d u bulletin you heard on radio? Normally, you don’t. So this is another limitation of radio. c t i o n Poor performance on the part of announcers: Presenters or participants in a radio

programme can be boring or uninteresting that it can result in listeners switching off their p radio sets. So listeners’ interest depends up on how information or messages are presented. u r p o Radio broadcasts are of no use to people who have no sense of hearing especially those with s hearing disabilities. e s

RADIO FREQUENCIES l i Radio frequency (RF) is a rate of oscillation in the range of about 3 kHz to 300 GHz, which k e corresponds to the frequency of radio waves, and the alternating currents which carry radio signals. RF usually refers to electrical rather than mechanical oscillations; however, a u mechanical RF systems do exist. d i Frequ Wavel Design Abbrev o

ency ength ation iation r e Extrem c 3 – 30 104 – ely low o 5 ELF Hz 10 km frequen r d cy i n Super g 30 – 3 10 – low s 300 4 SLF 10 km frequen , Hz cy e d Ultra i 300 – 100 – low t 3000 3 ULF 10 km frequen i Hz n cy g , Very 10 – 3 – 30 low m 100 VLF kHz frequen i km x cy i n 30 – Low g 1 – 10 300 frequen LF km e kHz cy t c 300 . Medium kHz – 100 m frequen MF 3 – 1 km cy MHz

High 3 – 30 10 – frequen HF MHz 100 m cy

Very 30 – 1 – 10 high 300 VHF m frequen MHz cy

300 10 cm Ultra UHF MHz – 1 m high – 3 frequen GHz cy

Super 3 – 30 1 – 10 high SHF GHz cm frequen

cy

Extrem 30 – 1 mm ely high 300 EHF – 1 cm frequen GHz cy

Tremen 300 0.1 dously GHz - mm - 1 high THF 3000 mm frequen GHz cy

RADIO PRODUCTION TEAM

Radio production team or crew are the group of skilled and unskilled personnel that make production possible; some of the radio production team include:

Station Manager: Station Managers are responsible for the day-to-day running of Radio stations - leading the management team to ensure they meet the key objectives of the station in terms of output, audience, or revenue. In Commercial radio the job title Station Director may also be used in reference to the manager of a local or national station. In some organisations a Regional Director may have responsibility for more than one station. Most stations also have a Programme Controller (link) or Programme Director.

Programme Director: the responsibility of a programme Director in any radio station is to direct and coordinate daily radio station operations. She/he also develops, schedules and supervises production, recording, and airing of all programs. Additional information available includes essential job functions, additional responsibilities, and education and experience requirements.

Programme Manager: In radio, a program manager/director or director of programming is the person who develops or selects some or all of the content that will be broadcast. A program director's selections’ are based upon expertise in the media as well as knowledge of the target demographic. Typically, a program director decides what radio program will be broadcast and when.

Studio Manager: In a broadcasting context, a studio manager, or SM, fulfills an operational role in radio broadcasting to enable and ensure programmes are produced to a high technical standard. The following are some of the responsibilities of a studio manager:

• Workload dispatch • Compiling studio schedules for senior management meetings • Compiling Road map for projects • Constant update of Studio schedules • Designer’s annual leaves coordination • Prompt timesheet collection • Understanding of how deadlines work

Executive Producer: An executive producer is the head producer who oversees the creation of a radio broadcast, music album or theater performance. An executive producer usually works for a production company, but may work independently. Executive producers work on the business side of production. They ensure that a production meets goals, such as helping the station to remain competitive, projecting the intended brand image of a company and introducing new concepts or ideas.

Producer: Radio Producers work in both speech-based and music Radio. Although they play a key role in creating what is heard by listeners, they are not usually heard on air themselves. They are responsible for creating and co-ordinating the content of Radio programmes, and may also have responsibility for the content of related websites or other mobile platforms. As well as managing the creative process they are often closely involved with the business and technical aspects of programmes.

Microphone Operator: Set up, operates, and maintains the electronic equipment used to transmit radio programs. Control audio equipment to regulate volume level and quality of sound during radio and television broadcasts. Some of the responsibilities of microphone operators include: eport equipment problems, ensure that repairs are made, and make emergency repairs to equipment when necessary and possible. bserve monitors and converse with station personnel to determine audio levels and to ascertain that programs are airing.

Monitor strength, clarity, and reliability of incoming and outgoing signals, and adjust equipment as necessary to maintain quality broadcasts. ontrol audio equipment to regulate the volume and sound quality during radio broadcasts.

Monitor and log transmitter readings.

Artists/Characters: Performers entertain audiences. They may inform or educate them, move them to laughter, or to tears. They contribute their various skills and talents to a variety of genres, including Television, Film, Theatre, Radio and other media. Professional Performers are trained, paid for their work, and must fulfil their contractual obligations, as opposed to amateur performers who take part for fun, and without payment. Personality is central to Performers' roles; they need to be able to relate to their audiences, and involve them in their performances.

Continuity Announcer: a person on radio who makes linking announcements between programmes to give continuity to a radio broadcast channel. continuity announcers are people who are employed to introduce programmes on radio network, to promote forthcoming programmes on the station, to cross-promote programmes on the broadcaster's other stations where applicable and, sometimes, to provide information relating to the programme just broadcast.

Newscaster: A news presenter (also known as newsreader, newscaster, anchorman or anchorwoman, news anchor or simply anchor) is a person who presentsnews during a news program on the radio. A newscaster (short for "news broadcaster") is a presenter of news bulletins. This person may be working in the field of broadcast journalism as a journalist and electronic news gathering (ENG).

Editor: A person who edits is called an editor. By editing, we mean preparing a news report for publication, telecast or broadcast. Editing is a process by which a report is read, corrected, modified, value-added, polished, improved and made better for publication. Condensation is also part of editing. Digital audio broadcasting

Digital audio broadcasting (DAB) is a digital radio technology for broadcasting radio stations, used in several countries across Europe and Asia Pacific.

The DAB standard was initiated as a European research project in the 1980s.[1] The Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation(NRK) launched the very first DAB channel in the world on 1 June 1995 (NRK Klassisk),[2] and the BBC and SR launched their first DAB digital radio broadcasts in September 1995. DAB receivers have been available in many countries since the end of the 1990s.

DAB may offer more radio programmes over a specific spectrum than analogue FM radio. DAB is more robust with regard tonoise and multipath fading for mobile listening,[3] since DAB reception quality first degrades rapidly when the signal strength falls below a critical threshold, whereas FM reception quality degrades slowly with the decreasing signal.

Audio quality varies depending on the bitrate used and audio material. Most stations use a bit rate of 128 kbit/s or less with the MP2 audio codec, which requires 160 kbit/s to achieve perceived FM quality. 128 kbit/s gives better dynamic range or signal-to-noise ratio than FM radio, but a more smeared stereo image, and an upper cut-off frequency of 14 kHz, corresponding to 15 kHz of FM radio.[4] However, "CD sound quality" with MP2 is possible "with 256…192 kbps".[5]

An upgraded version of the system was released in February 2007, which is called DAB+. DAB is not forward compatible with DAB+, which means that DAB-only receivers are not able to receive DAB+ broadcasts.[6] However, broadcasters can mix DAB and DAB+ programs inside the same transmission and so make a progressive transition to DAB+. DAB+ is approximately twice as efficient as DAB due to the adoption of the AAC+ audio codec, and DAB+ can provide high quality audio with bit rates as low as 64 kbit/s.[7] Reception quality is also more robust on DAB+ than on DAB due to the addition of Reed-Solomon error correction coding.

In spectrum management, the bands that are allocated for public DAB services, are abbreviated with T-DAB, where the "T" stands for terrestrial.

More than 20 countries provide DAB transmissions, and several countries, such as Norway, Australia, Italy, Malta, Switzerland, The Netherlands and Germany,[8] are transmitting DAB+ stations. See Countries using DAB/DMB.

History[edit]

DAB has been under development since 1981 at the Institut für Rundfunktechnik (IRT). In 1985 the first DAB demonstrations were held at the WARC-ORB in Geneva and in 1988 the first DAB transmissions were made in Germany. Later DAB was developed as a research project for the European Union (EUREKA), which started in 1987 on initiative by a consortium formed in 1986. The MPEG-1 Audio Layer II ("MP2") codec was created as part of the EU147 project. DAB was the first standard based on orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM) modulation technique, which since then has become one of the most popular transmission schemes for modern wideband digital communication systems.

A choice of audio codec, modulation and error-correction coding schemes and first trial broadcasts were made in 1990. Public demonstrations were made in 1993 in the United Kingdom. The protocol specification was finalized in 1993 and adopted by the ITU- R standardization body in 1994, the European community in 1995 and by ETSI in 1997. Pilot broadcasts were launched in several countries in 1995.

The UK was the first country to receive a wide range of radio stations via DAB. Commercial DAB receivers began to be sold in 1999 and over 50 commercial and BBC services were available in London by 2001.

By 2006, 500 million people worldwide were in the coverage area of DAB broadcasts, although by this time sales had only taken off in the United Kingdom and Denmark. In 2006 there were approximately 1,000 DAB stations in operation world wide.[9]

The standard was coordinated by the European DAB forum, formed in 1995 and reconstituted to the World DAB Forum in 1997, which represents more than 30 countries. In 2006 the World DAB Forum became the World DMB Forum which now presides over both the DAB and DMB standard.

In October 2005, the World DMB Forum instructed its Technical Committee to carry out the work needed to adopt the AAC+ audio codec and stronger error correction coding. This work led to the launch of the new DAB+ system.

Technology[edit] Bands and modes[edit]

DAB uses a wide-bandwidth broadcast technology and typically spectra have been allocated for it in Band III (174–240 MHz) and L band (1,452–1,492 MHz), although the scheme allows for operation almost anywhere above 30 MHz. The US military has reserved L-Band in the USA only, blocking its use for other purposes in America, and the United States has reached an agreement with Canada to restrict L-Band DAB to terrestrial broadcast to avoid interference.[citation needed]

DAB has a number of country specific transmission modes (I, II, III and IV). For worldwide operation a receiver must support all 4 modes:

• Mode I for Band III, Earth • Mode II for L-Band, Earth and satellite • Mode III for frequencies below 3 GHz, Earth and satellite • Mode IV for L-Band, Earth and satellite Protocol stack[edit]

From an OSI model protocol stack viewpoint, the technologies used on DAB inhabit the following layers: the audio codec inhabits the presentation layer. Below that is the data link layer, in charge of statistical time division multiplexing and frame synchronization. Finally, the physical layer contains the error-correction coding, OFDM modulation, and dealing with the over-the-air transmission and reception of data. Some aspects of these are described below.

Audio codec[edit]

The older version of DAB that is being used in Denmark*, Ireland*, Norway*, Switzerland* and the UK, uses the MPEG-1 Audio Layer 2 audio codec, which is also known as MP2due to computer files using those characters for their file extension. Denmark, Ireland, Norway, and Switzerland also use DAB+.

The new DAB+ standard has adopted the HE-AAC version 2 audio codec, commonly known as 'AAC+' or 'aacPlus'. AAC+ is approximately three-times more efficient than MP2,[10]which means that broadcasters using DAB+ will be able to provide far higher audio quality or far more stations than they can on DAB, or, as is most likely, a combination of both higher audio quality and more stations will be provided. One of the most important decisions regarding the design of a digital radio system is the choice of which audio codec to use, because the efficiency of the audio codec determines how many radio stations can be carried on a multiplex at a given level of audio quality. The capacity of a DAB multiplex is fixed, so the more efficient the audio codec is, the more stations can be carried, and vice versa. Similarly, for a fixed bit-rate level, the more efficient the audio codec is the higher the audio quality will be.

Error-correction coding[edit]

Error-correction coding (ECC) is an important technology for a digital communication system because it determines how robust the reception will be for a given signal strength – stronger ECC will provide more robust reception than a weaker form.

The old version of DAB uses punctured convolutional coding for its ECC. The coding scheme uses unequal error protection (UEP), which means that parts of the audio bit-stream that are more susceptible to errors causing audible disturbances are provided with more protection (i.e. a lower code rate) and vice versa. However, the UEP scheme used on DAB results in there being a grey area in between the user experiencing good reception quality and no reception at all, as opposed to the situation with most other wireless digital communication systems that have a sharp "digital cliff", where the signal rapidly becomes unusable if the signal strength drops below a certain threshold. When DAB listeners receive a signal in this intermediate strength area they experience a "burbling" sound which interrupts the playback of the audio.

The new DAB+ standard has incorporated Reed-Solomon ECC as an "inner layer" of coding that is placed around the byte interleaved audio frame but inside the "outer layer" of convolutional coding used by the older DAB system, although on DAB+ the convolutional coding uses equal error protection (EEP) rather than UEP since each bit is equally important in DAB+. This combination of Reed-Solomon coding as the inner layer of coding, followed by an outer layer of convolutional coding – so-called "concatenated coding" – became a popular ECC scheme in the 1990s, and NASA adopted it for its deep-space missions. One slight difference between the concatenated coding used by the DAB+ system and that used on most other systems is that it uses a rectangular byte interleaver rather than Forney interleaving in order to provide a greater interleaver depth, which increases the distance over which error bursts will be spread out in the bit-stream, which in turn will allow the Reed- Solomon error decoder to correct a higher proportion of errors.

The ECC used on DAB+ is far stronger than is used on DAB, which, with all else being equal (i.e. if the transmission powers remained the same), would translate into people who currently experience reception difficulties on DAB receiving a much more robust signal with DAB+ transmissions. It also has a far steeper "digital cliff", and listening tests have shown that people prefer this when the signal strength is low compared to the shallower digital cliff on DAB.[10]

Modulation[edit] Immunity to fading and inter-symbol interference (caused by multipath propagation) is achieved without equalization by means of the OFDM and DQPSK modulation techniques. For details, see the OFDM system comparison table.

Using values for the most commonly used transmission mode on DAB, Transmission Mode I (TM I), the OFDM modulation consists of 1,536 subcarriers that are transmitted in parallel. The useful part of the OFDM symbol period is 1 millisecond, which results in the OFDM subcarriers each having a bandwidth of 1 kHz due to the inverse relationship between these two parameters, and the overall OFDM channel bandwidth is 1,537 kHz. The OFDM guard interval for TM I is 246 microseconds, which means that the overall OFDM symbol duration is 1.246 milliseconds. The guard interval duration also determines the maximum separation between transmitters that are part of the same single-frequency network (SFN), which is approximately 74 km for TM I.

Single-frequency networks[edit]

OFDM allows the use of single-frequency networks (SFN), which means that a network of transmitters can provide coverage to a large area – up to the size of a country – where all transmitters use the same transmission frequency. Transmitters that are part of an SFN need to be very accurately synchronised with other transmitters in the network, which requires the transmitters to use very accurate clocks.

When a receiver receives a signal that has been transmitted from the different transmitters that are part of an SFN, the signals from the different transmitters will typically have different delays, but to OFDM they will appear to simply be different multipaths of the same signal. Reception difficulties can arise, however, when the relative delay of multipaths exceeds the OFDM guard interval duration, and there are frequent reports of reception difficulties due to this issue when there is a lift, such as when there's high pressure, due to signals travelling farther than usual, and thus the signals are likely to arrive with a relative delay that is greater than the OFDM guard interval.

Low power gap-filler transmitters can be added to an SFN as and when desired in order to improve reception quality, although the way SFNs have been implemented in the UK up to now they have tended to consist of higher power transmitters being installed at main transmitter sites in order to keep costs down.

Bit rates[edit]

An ensemble has a maximum bit rate that can be carried, but this depends on which error protection level is used. However, all DAB multiplexes can carry a total of 864 "capacity units". The number of capacity units, or CU, that a certain bit-rate level requires depends on the amount of error correction added to the transmission, as described above. In theUK, most services transmit using 'protection level three', which provides an average ECC code rate of approximately ½, equating to a maximum bit rate per multiplex of 1,184 kbit/s. Services and ensembles[edit] Various different services are embedded into one ensemble (which is also typically called a multiplex). These services can include:

• Primary services, like main radio stations • Secondary services, like additional sports commentaries • Data services • Electronic Programme Guide (EPG) • Collections of HTML pages and digital images (Known as 'Broadcast Web Sites') • Slideshows, which may be synchronised with audio broadcasts. For example, a police appeal could be broadcast with the e-fit of a suspect or CCTV footage. • Video • Java Platform Applications • IP tunnelling • Other raw data

DAB+[edit]

The term DAB most commonly refers both to a specific DAB standard using the MP2 audio codec, but can sometimes refer to a whole family of DAB related standards, such as DAB+, DMB and DAB-IP. DAB+[edit]

WorldDAB, the organisation in charge of the DAB standards, announced DAB+, a major upgrade to the DAB standard in 2006, when the HE-AAC v2 audio codec[11] (also known as eAAC+) was adopted. The new standard, which is called DAB+, has also adopted the MPEG Surround audio format and stronger error correction coding in the form of Reed- Solomon coding. DAB+ has been standardised as European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) TS 102 563.

As DAB is not forward compatible with DAB+, older DAB receivers can not receive DAB+ broadcasts. However, DAB receivers that will be able to receive the new DAB+ standard via a firmware upgrade went on sale in July 2007. If a receiver is DAB+ compatible, there will be a sign on the product packaging.

DAB+ broadcasts have launched in several countries like Australia, Czech Republic, Denmark, Germany, Hong Kong, Italy, Malta, Norway, Poland, Switzerland,[12] and The Netherlands. Malta was the first country to launch DAB+ in Europe. Several other countries are also expected to launch DAB+ broadcasts over the next few years, such as Austria, Hungary and Asian countries, such as Thailand, Vietnam and Indonesia. South Africa began a DAB+ technical pilot in November 2014 on channel 13F in Band 3. If DAB+ stations launch in established DAB countries, they can transmit alongside existing DAB stations that use the older MPEG-1 Audio Layer II audio format, and most existing DAB stations are expected to continue broadcasting until the vast majority of receivers support DAB+.[13]

Ofcom in the UK has published a consultation with the intention to set up a new multiplex containing a mix of DAB and DAB+ services, with the intention of moving services to this format in the long term.[14] In February 2016 3 DAB+ stations launched in the UK as part of a new national network.[15] DMB[edit] Main article: Digital multimedia broadcasting

Digital multimedia broadcasting (DMB) and DAB-IP are suitable for mobile radio and TV both because they support MPEG 4 AVC and WMV9 respectively as video codecs. However, a DMB video subchannel can easily be added to any DAB transmission, as it was designed to be carried on a DAB subchannel. DMB broadcasts in Korea carry conventional MPEG 1 Layer II DAB audio services alongside their DMB video services.

Norway, South Korea and France are countries currently[when?] broadcasting DMB.

Countries using DAB[edit] Main article: Countries using DAB/DMB

More than 30 countries provide DAB, DAB+ and/or DMB broadcasts, either as a permanent technology or as test transmissions.

DAB and AM/FM compared[edit]

Traditionally radio programmes were broadcast on different frequencies via AM and FM, and the radio had to be tuned into each frequency, as needed. This used up a comparatively large amount of spectrum for a relatively small number of stations, limiting listening choice. DAB is a digital radio broadcasting system that through the application of multiplexing and compression combines multiple audio streams onto a relatively narrow band centred on a single broadcast frequency called a DAB ensemble.

Within an overall target bit rate for the DAB ensemble, individual stations can be allocated different bit rates. The number of channels within a DAB ensemble can be increased by lowering average bit rates, but at the expense of the quality of streams. Error correction under the DAB standard makes the signal more robust but reduces the total bit rate available for streams. FM HD Radio versus DAB[edit]

Some countries have implemented Eureka-147 digital audio broadcasting (DAB). DAB broadcasts a single station that is approximately 1,500 kilohertz wide (~1,000 kilobits per second). That station is then subdivided into multiple digital streams of between 9 and 12 programs. In contrast FM HD radio shares its digital broadcast with the traditional 200 kilohertz-wide channels, with capability of 300 kbit/s per station (pure digital mode). The first generation DAB uses the MPEG-1 Audio Layer II (MP2) audio codec which has less efficient compression than newer codecs. The typical bitrate for DAB programs is only 128 kbit/s and as a result most radio stations on DAB have a lower sound quality than FM, prompting a number of complaints among the audiophile community.[16] As with DAB+ or T- DMB in Europe, FM HD Radio uses a codec based upon the MPEG-4 HE-AAC standard.

HD Radio is a proprietary system from the company Ibiquity. DAB is an open standard deposited at ETSI. Use of frequency spectrum and transmitter sites[edit]

DAB gives substantially higher spectral efficiency, measured in programmes per MHz and per transmitter site, than analogue communication. This has led to an increase in the number of stations available to listeners, especially outside of the major urban areas.

Numerical example: Analog FM requires 0.2 MHz per programme. The frequency reuse factor in most countries is approximately 15, meaning that only one out of 15 transmitter sites can use the same channel frequency without problems with co-channel interference, i.e. cross-talk. Assuming a total availability of 102 FM channels at a bandwidth of 0.2MHz over the Band II spectrum of 87.5 to 108.0 MHz, an average of 102/15 = 6.8 radio channels are possible on each transmitter site (plus lower-power local transmitters causing less interference). This results in a system spectral efficiency of 1 / 15 / (0.2 MHz) = 0.30 programmes/transmitter/MHz. DAB with 192 kbit/s codec requires 1.536 MHz * 192 kbit/s / 1,136 kbit/s = 0.26 MHz per audio programme. The frequency reuse factor for local programmes and multi-frequency broadcasting networks (MFN) is typically 4 or 5, resulting in 1 / 4 / (0.26 MHz) = 0.96 programmes/transmitter/MHz. This is 3.2 times as efficient as analog FM for local stations. For single frequency network (SFN) transmission, for example of national programmes, the channel re-use factor is 1, resulting in 1/1/0.25 MHz = 3.85 programmes/transmitter/MHz, which is 12.7 times as efficient as FM for national and regional networks.

Note the above capacity improvement may not always be achieved at the L-band frequencies, since these are more sensitive to obstacles than the FM band frequencies, and may cause shadow fading for hilly terrain and for indoor communication. The number of transmitter sites or the transmission power required for full coverage of a country may be rather high at these frequencies, to avoid the system becoming noise limited rather than limited by co- channel interference.

Sound quality[edit] See also: MP2 quality

The original objectives of converting to digital transmission were to enable higher fidelity, more stations and more resistance to noise, co-channel interference and multipath than in analogue FM radio. However, the leading countries in implementing DAB on stereo radio stations use compression to such a degree that it produces lower sound quality than that received from non-mobile FM broadcasts. This is because of the bit rate levels being too low for the MPEG Layer 2 audio codec to provide high fidelity audio quality.[17]

The BBC Research & Development department states that at least 192 kbit/s is necessary for a high fidelity stereo broadcast :

A value of 256 kbit/s has been judged to provide a high quality stereo broadcast signal. However, a small reduction, to 224 kbit/s is often adequate, and in some cases it may be possible to accept a further reduction to 192 kbit/s, especially if redundancy in the stereo signal is exploited by a process of 'joint stereo' encoding (i.e. some sounds appearing at the centre of the stereo image need not be sent twice). At 192 kbit/s, it is relatively easy to hear imperfections in critical audio material.

— BBC R&D White Paper WHP 061 June 2003[18]

When BBC in July 2006 reduced the bit-rate of transmission of Radio 3 from 192 kbit/s to 160 kbit/s, the resulting degradation of audio quality prompted a number of complaints to the Corporation.[19] BBC later announced that following this testing of new equipment, it would resume the previous practice of transmitting Radio 3 at 192 kbit/s whenever there were no other demands on bandwidth.

Despite the above a survey of DAB listeners (including mobile) has shown most find DAB to have equal or better sound quality than FM.[20]

Notwithstanding the above, BBC Radio 4 has extended the periods it broadcasts programmes with a lower bit rate (80 kbit/s) and in mono in 2012, such as the Todayprogramme, rather than 128 kbit/s and in stereo. Programmes which had traditionally been broadcast on BBC Radio 4 DAB in stereo (from 1999 to 2011), can now only be heard in the evenings in mono, even though the same programmes still go out in stereo on Radio 4 FM, Digital TV and On- Line. The BBC have issued a statement stating that stereo is still their default for BBC Radio 4 DAB, however after the Olympics, this does not appear to be the case in the evenings, making FM broadcasts (in good reception areas) superior. As very few car radios are currently fitted with DAB if the BBC switch FM off as indicated later in the decade, some listeners may be forced to receive mono broadcasts in the future, a somewhat backward step.

An Audio Quality comparison of PCM, DAB, DAB+, FM and AM is available here

Benefits of DAB[edit]

Current AM and FM terrestrial broadcast technology is well established, compatible, and cheap to manufacture. Benefits of DAB over analogue systems are explained below. Improved features for users[edit]

DAB radios automatically tune to all the available stations, offering a list for the user to select from. DAB can carry "radiotext" (in DAB terminology, Dynamic Label Segment, or DLS) from the station giving real-time information such as song titles, music type and news or traffic updates. Advance programme guides can also be transmitted. A similar feature also exists on FM in the form of the RDS. (However, not all FM receivers allow radio stations to be stored by name.)

DAB receivers can display time of day as encoded into transmissions, so is automatically corrected when travelling between time zones and when changing to or from Daylight Saving. This is not implemented on all receivers, and some display time only when in "Standby" mode. (Similar Features on RDS: 4A Groups)

Some radios offer a pause facility on live broadcasts, caching the broadcast stream on local flash memory, although this function is limited. More stations[edit]

DAB is not more bandwidth efficient than analogue measured in programmes per MHz of a specific transmitter (the so-called link spectral efficiency). It is less susceptible to co-channel interference (cross talk), which makes it possible to reduce the reuse distance, i.e. use the same radio frequency channel more densely. The system spectral efficiency(the average number of radio programmes per MHz and transmitter) is a factor three more efficient than analogue FM for local radio stations, as can be seen in the above numerical example. For national and regional radio networks, the efficiency is improved by more than an order of magnitude due to the use of SFNs. In that case, adjacent transmitters use the same frequency.

In certain areas – particularly rural areas – the introduction of DAB gives radio listeners a greater choice of radio stations. For instance, in South Norway, radio listeners experienced an increase in available stations from 6 to 21 when DAB was introduced in November 2006. Reception quality[edit]

The DAB standard integrates features to reduce the negative consequences of multipath fading and signal noise, which afflict existing analogue systems.

Also, as DAB transmits digital audio, there is no hiss with a weak signal, which can happen on FM. However, radios in the fringe of a DAB signal, can experience a "bubbling mud" sound interrupting the audio and/or the audio cutting out altogether.

Due to sensitivity to doppler shift in combination with multipath propagation, DAB reception range (but not audio quality) is reduced when travelling speeds of more than 120 to 200 km/h, depending on carrier frequency.[3] Less unlicensed ("pirate") station interference[edit]

The specialised nature and cost of DAB broadcasting equipment provide barriers to unlicensed ("pirate") stations broadcasting on DAB. In cities such as London with large numbers of undocumented radio stations broadcasting on FM, this means that some stations can be reliably received via DAB in areas where they are regularly difficult or impossible to receive on FM due to undocumented radio interference. Variable bandwidth[edit]

Mono talk radio, news and weather channels and other non-music programs need significantly less bandwidth than a typical music radio station, which allows DAB to carry these programmes at lower bit rates, leaving more bandwidth to be used for other programs.

However, this had led to the situation where some stations are being broadcast in mono, see music radio stations broadcasting in mono for more details. Transmission costs[edit]

It is common belief that DAB is more expensive to transmit than FM. It is true that DAB uses higher frequencies than FM and therefore there is a need to compensate with more transmitters, higher radiated powers, or a combination, to achieve the same coverage. However, the last couple of years has seen significant improvement in power efficiency for DAB-transmitters.

This efficiency originates from the ability a DAB network has in broadcasting more channels per network. One network can broadcast 6–10 channels (with MPEG audio codec) or 10–16 channels (with HE AAC codec). Hence, it is thought that the replacement of FM-radios and FM-transmitters with new DAB-radios and DAB-transmitters will not cost any more as opposed to newer FM facilities.[21]

Lower transmission costs are supported by independent network studies from Teracom (Sweden) and SSR/SRG (Switzerland).[citation needed] Among other things they show that DAB is as low as one-sixth of the cost of FM transmission.

Disadvantages of DAB[edit] Reception quality[edit]

The reception quality on DAB can be poor even for people who live well within the coverage area.[citation needed] The reason for this is that the old version of DAB uses weak error correction coding, so that when there are a lot of errors with the received data not enough of the errors can be corrected and a "bubbling mud" sound occurs. In some cases a complete loss of signal can happen. This situation will be improved upon in the new DAB standard (DAB+, discussed below) that uses stronger error correction coding and as additional transmitters are built. Audio Quality[edit]

Broadcasters have been criticized for ‘squeezing in’ more stations per ensemble than recommended,[citation needed] by:

• Minimizing the bit-rate, to the lowest level of sound-quality that listeners are willing to tolerate, such as 112 kbit/s for stereo and even 48 kbit/s for mono speech radio such as LBC 1152 and the Voice of Russia. • Having few digital channels broadcasting in stereo. Signal delay[edit]

The nature of a Single-frequency network (SFN) is such that the transmitters in a network must broadcast the same signal at the same time. To achieve synchronization, the broadcaster must counter any differences in propagation time incurred by the different methods and distances involved in carrying the signal from the multiplexer to the different transmitters. This is done by applying a delay to the incoming signal at the transmitter based on a timestamp generated at the multiplexer, created taking into account the maximum likely propagation time, with a generous added margin for safety. Delays in the receiver due to digital processing (e.g. deinterleaving) add to the overall delay perceived by the listener.[3] The signal is delayed by 2–4 seconds depending on the decoding circuitry used. This has disadvantages:

• DAB radios are out of step with live events, so the experience of listening to live commentaries on events being watched is impaired; • Listeners using a combination of analogue (AM or FM) and DAB radios (e.g. in different rooms of a house) will hear a confusing mixture when both receivers are within earshot.

Time signals, on the contrary, are not a problem in a well-defined network with a fixed delay. The DAB multiplexer adds the proper offset to the distributed time information. The time information is also independent from the (possibly varying) audio decoding delay in receivers since the time is not embedded inside the audio frames. This means that built in clocks in receivers will be spot on. Coverage[edit]

[clarification needed]

As DAB is at a relatively early stage of deployment, DAB coverage is poor in nearly all countries in comparison to the high population coverage provided by FM.

Exceptions include Norway, which will have 99.5% coverage by the end of 2014, and the United Kingdom, where 95% population coverage has been achieved for certain stations.[22] Compatibility[edit]

In 2006 tests began using the much improved HE-AAC codec for DAB+. Virtually none of the receivers made before 2008 support the new codec, however, thus making them partially obsolete once DAB+ broadcasts begin and completely obsolete once the old MPEG-1 Layer 2 stations are switched off. New receivers are both DAB and DAB+ compatible; however, the issue is exacerbated by some manufacturers disabling the DAB+ features on otherwise compatible radios to save on licensing fees when sold in countries without current DAB+ broadcasts. Power requirements[edit]

As DAB requires digital signal processing techniques to convert from the received digitally encoded signal to the analogue audio content, the complexity of the electronic circuitry required to do this is higher. This translates into needing more power to effect this conversion than compared to an analogue FM to audio conversion, meaning that portable receiving equipment will tend to have a shorter battery life, or require higher power (and hence more bulk). This means that they use more energy than analogue Band II VHF receivers. However, thanks to increased integration (radio-on-chip), DAB receiver is getting closer to FM one. For example, NXP semiconductor is producing both FM only and FM+DAB radio-on-chip, with similar power consumption.

As an indicator of this increased power consumption in the early days of DAB, some radio manufacturers quoted the length of time their receivers can play on a single charge. For a commonly used FM/DAB-receiver from manufacturer PURE, this is stated as: DAB 10 hours, FM 22 hours.[citation needed]. Currently, PURE manufacturer doesn't indicate any more power consumption difference between FM and DAB modes.

FM radio switch-off[edit]

Norway is the only country that has announced a complete switch-off of national FM radio stations. Switch off will start on 11 January 2017.[23] The switch-off will not affect local and in some way regional radio stations.

At the "WorldDMB seminar" held in Riva del Garda, Italy, on 14 April 2013, it was announced that in Norway there will be 99.5% DAB coverage by 2014, and that the country is planning to switch-off its national and regional FM radio services in 2017.[24] No subsequent date has been announced for such a move.

Other Nordic countries like Denmark and Sweden are evaluating a switch-off by 2022.[25]

UK is considering a progressive switch-off in the period 2017–2022. Web radio

Web radio o radio on line è il termine che designa emittenti radiofoniche che trasmettono in forma digitale il proprio palinsesto attraverso Internet, sulla rete telematica, risultando accessibili con qualsiasi strumento in grado di accedere in rete.

In alcuni casi si tratta di radio tradizionali, ricevibili via etere in FM, che ampliano il proprio raggio di ascolto ripetendo le trasmissioni in linea; in altri casi si tratta di emittenti, amatoriali o meno, che mettono a disposizione i propri programmi esclusivamente per una fruizione su Internet.

L'audio delle trasmissioni viene inviato sotto forma di flusso dati audio compresso che viene definito stream e che deve essere decodificato sul computer ricevente da un'appositaapplicazione, solitamente un lettore multimediale. Storia[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Web radio, in senso più ristretto del termine, sono definite per convenzione tutte le radio che trasmettono unicamente per il web un programma in streaming (il metodo di trasmissione di file audiovisivi in tempo reale su Internet). Gli utenti possono direttamente fruire online dei file senza previo scaricamento su PC. Si simula, pertanto, in tal modo la trasmissione di programmi radiofonici e televisivi.

Il primo formato audio che ha reso possibile ciò è stato RealAudio, realizzato da Rob Glaser nell'aprile del 1995, subito seguito dalla piattaforma Microsoft Media Services.

Su internet i siti possono essere aperti e chiusi con estrema facilità e non è perciò possibile tenere una statistica: il M.I.T., nel 2002, calcolò 27.000 web radio stabilmente funzionanti sul web, ma ora si stima che si siano moltiplicate.

Dall'epoca dell'introduzione delle Web radio '95 all'epoca attuale il quadro legale è molto mutato. Da un lato c'è stata la focalizzazione delle tematiche dei diritti d'autore, specialmente in campo musicale, vedi Napster ma correlativamente anche il copyleft, dall'altro l'introduzione degli Mp3 e l'enorme sviluppo di Internet.

Solitamente il carattere di massima economicità nella realizzazione di una web radio può permettere, a chi la pensa e la realizza, di fornire una programmazione altamente specializzata per un pubblico di estrema nicchia. L'esempio Italiano è Musicazione, radio on- line interamente dedicata alla musica alternativa ed al Rock Identitario, nata nel 1998su ispirazione di una web radio scandinava dedicata al Viking Rock, la quale trasmetteva esclusivamente canzoni in Svedese e che contava già nel 1997 ben oltre 50.000 visite. Per spiegare un fenomeno del genere occorre accettare il fenomeno che caratterizza la rete internet: la Glocalizzazione (Glocalization, crasi di globalization e di local).

Trasmissione e diffusione[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

La trasmissione radiofonica via Internet è il modo più semplice per diffondere un proprio programma: bastano pochi click per ascoltare una radio sul web, ma soprattutto ne bastano pochissimi per crearne una propria. La radio via Web ha notevoli vantaggi: arriva in ogni angolo del mondo con una spesa irrisoria, è semplice da realizzare e gestire.Secondo un recente studio americano dal 2000 ad oggi il numero degli ascoltatori via Internet è cresciuto di oltre il 240%, ma la crescita è destinata ad aumentare in maniera esponenziale.[senza fonte] Web radio e il mercato globale[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Per glocalizzazione si intende l'unione di globale e locale: è un termine figlio della net- economy usato nell'e-business per descrivere la capacità delle aziende che competono su internet di restare fortemente radicate nella realtà locale, pur essendo capaci di affrontare con successo il mercato globale. Una delle caratteristiche delle comunità virtuali delweb è quello di essere globali, ovvero essere lontane geograficamente ma vicine come luogo di interessi, il tutto rapportato ad una web radio si traduce in una globalizzazione del luogo di fruibilità della radio (ovvero un computer connesso al web in una qualunque parte dell'Italia o del mondo) e una forte localizzazione dell'ascoltatore. Tecnicamente, la musica viene trasmessa da un server (paragonabile in questo caso ad un ripetitore terrestre), con possibilità di trasmissioni dal vivo o in differita.

La web radio americana, Live365 (per esempio), ha rappresentato l'estremizzazione di tale concetto fornendo a chiunque la possibilità di trasmettere, con una propria stazione individuale. Anche se per paradosso, il titolare della radio ne è anche l'unico utente. RIAA e la crociata contro la pirateria[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Molto probabilmente per questo motivo, nel 2001, i discografici americani, rappresentati dal RIAA (l'equivalente americana dell'italiana S.C.F.), che da tempo perseguivano il file sharing o meglio, il sistema di scambio-file come ad esempio Napster, imposero a tutte le web-radio il pagamento di royalties per la musica da loro trasmessa. Il RIAA, nella sua nuova crociata, poteva contare sull'appoggio dell'Ufficio americano del copyright che emise un parere formale secondo cui le emittenti web non sono esenti dal pagamento dei diritti d'autore quando trasmettono musica via Internet.

Altri preziosi alleati per la RIAA, in questa battaglia, furono le net-companies che aspettavano di poter far decollare i propri business su Internet non appena fosse cessata la distribuzione o lo scambio di musica on-line, che ancora oggi avviene in modo per lo più illegale o incontrollato. Ovvio che per le Web Radio americane dell'epoca si trattò di un duro colpo, ma la storia certamente non si fermò in quel quasi lontano 2001, anzi, quasi come le nostre emittenti libere degli anni settanta, anche negli Stati Uniti si assistette ad un dimezzamento delle emittenti. In ogni caso, nel 2003, a Londra, venne stipulato un nuovo accordo che prevedeva una licenza unica per poter trasmettere musica in streaming. L'accordo, si pensava, ponesse fine ad anni di incertezze riguardo allo status giuridico delle radio internet e avrebbe dovuto rendere più trasparenti i rapporti tra queste ultime e i detentori dei diritti di proprietà intellettuale.

Fino al 2005, le web radio pagavano all'associazione una somma per ogni canzone trasmessa oppure un forfait in base ai brani trasmessi finora moltiplicato per il numero di utenti. Le radio prive di pubblicità e che trasmettevano senza scopo di lucro, pagavano tra i 500 e i 2500 dollari all'anno.

Con la riforma del 2007, tutti gli operatori dovranno pagare per ogni canzone in base al numero di utenti che la scaricano in streaming, da un minimo di 0,0008 dollari nel 2007 ad un massimo di 0,0019 dollari nel 2010 per ogni download di canzone/utente.

La decisione alza molto i costi del copyright e penalizza in primo luogo le emittenti prive di pubblicità, che fornivano un servizio migliore e senza interruzioni, paragonandole alle radio commerciali. Il nuovo mercato legale[modifica | modifica wikitesto] I discografici, che vollero l'accordo con RIAA, hanno sottolineato come le attività di web casting rappresentino un settore economico emergente che contribuisca allo sviluppo del business sul nuovo medium. "Questa - dichiarava a proposito della licenza unica Jay Berman, presidente e amministratore delegato dell'associazione internazionale del settoreIFPI - è un'altra pietra miliare nello sviluppo dei servizi di musica su internet. Nel passato, ottenere licenze per la trasmissione multiterritoriale su Internet, per esempio in Europa, era difficile e richiedeva molto tempo. Era inoltre importante, per le società di collecting nazionali, strutturare un sistema che rimuovesse questi ostacoli".

Tutto questo, naturalmente, entusiasmava i discografici da lungo tempo a caccia di nuovi modelli di business che potessero rivelarsi vincenti nell'era digitale, un'era che ha fin qui visto crescere in modo straordinario la condivisione, senza controllo, di musica e altri contenuti tra milioni di utenti internet e, solo negli ultimi tempi, un mercato legale deldownload e dello streaming. Da questo si può iniziare a intuire e perché no, anche sospettare, che la licenza unica sia stata voluta anche per trovare rimedio al download illegale da parte di utenti sconosciuti nei confronti dei discografici e di conseguenza la web radio è stata presa di mira come buon mezzo per rimediare a danni causati da terzi, e non certo dagli editori del web la cui unica colpa è stata quella di avere una passione infinita per il mezzo di comunicazione “radio” e le nuove tecnologie.

I vantaggi[modifica | modifica wikitesto] Economicità e copertura[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Per creare una web radio basta avere a disposizione un buon PC, una normale scheda audio, qualche centinaio di file MP3, scaricare e installare il poco software necessario gratuitamente reperibile, dotarsi di un microfono e una cuffietta. Il tutto in pochissimo tempo e praticamente senza nessuna spesa. Per le radio già affermate, ovviamente, l'on-line rappresenta un buon canale per la diffusione dei programmi da affiancare all'etere.

Uno dei sistemi di diffusione dello streaming più diffusi ed economici è SHOUTcast.

A prima vista i due mezzi si presentano con delle caratteristiche per certi versi antitetiche. La differenza fondamentale riguarda in primo luogo il grado di copertura dell'utenza, cioè il numero di utilizzatori e fruitori, indubbiamente (almeno in questa fase) molto maggiore per la radio tradizionale. Ma questo, fortunatamente, vale solo su scala geograficamente limitata. Estendendo il discorso su scala planetaria, la presenza in rete assicura un allargamento della possibile fascia d'utenza che, teoricamente, si estende a tutto il mondo connesso. Così, un programma radiofonico in lingua italiana, grazie ad Internet, può facilmente riuscire a superare i limiti geografici ed essere ascoltato (con i soliti limiti della comprensione della lingua) da utenti sparsi praticamente in tutto il mondo. Media e Internet[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Mentre i media generalisti, come radio e televisione, non possono individualizzare i contenuti, le nuove tecnologie della comunicazione, come Internet, consentono la costruzione di palinsesti a misura di utente e soprattutto campagne pubblicitarie selezionate e ben definite per lanci di prodotti mirati a target ben specifici.

Le Web Radio in Italia[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

Le web radio appaiono in Italia nel 1998. La richiesta di un riconoscimento legale è stata respinta a lungo. In virtù dell'Accordo di Londra del 2003 (vedi sopra) anche le web radio italiane possono trasmettere musica coperta da diritto d'autore, con la tecnologia streaming. Il ministero delle Comunicazioni non riconosce ufficialmente l'esistenza delle web radio, preferendo attendere una normativa europea che disciplini la materia.[1] Da rilevamenti effettuati nel 2013 risulta che in Italia vi siano oltre 200 emittenti attive, con un pubblico variante tra gli 8000 e i 150.000 ascoltatori (ad esclusione delle web radio delle emittenti più conosciute in FM).[2]

La Società Italiana degli Autori ed Editori (SIAE) regolamenta le web radio che intendano utilizzare opere da essa tutelate, tramite la stipula di un contratto chiamato in gergo «modulo AWR». Tale modulo suddivide le web radio in amatoriali, istituzionali e commerciali, imponendo alle prime e alle seconde di non avere pubblicità di nessun tipo, dove per nessun tipo si intende né remunerativa, né gratuita, né nel flusso audio, né sul sito che ospita la web radio. I vincoli imposti dalla SIAE, a prescindere dalla filosofia che muove i broadcaster, sono considerati pesanti da quasi la totalità di questi ultimi.

La Società Consortile Fonografici, che riunisce le case discografiche, regolamenta le web radio in modo sostanzialmente simile alla SIAE. È recente la modifica al contratto per le web radio amatoriali, che annulla il vincolo di massima banda passante.

L'associazionismo tra Web radio[modifica | modifica wikitesto]

In questo quadro confuso dal punto di vista legislativo e nello stesso tempo di rapida evoluzione tecnica le Web radio hanno trovato un momento unificante in forme associazionistiche. Oltre alla specifica e già menzionata W.R.A, che conta tra le proprie iscritte circa 100 emittenti, l'Associazione Aeranti Corallo evidenzia che tra i propri iscritti vi sono 10 realtà di radiotelevisione via internet. Inoltre l'Associazione RadUni, (associazione radiofonici universitari italiani), che raggruppa soci fra più di 20 web radio italiane[3]. A livello internazionale, su spinta soprattutto dei Paesi francofoni si è dato vita alla European Thematic Channels Association (ETCA). UNIT – 6 Broadcast Business and Funding Mechanism

1.2 For radio, marketing is different

For many industries, it's obvious who the buyers and sellers are. The exchange model (explained above) fits well. The buyers and sellers are clearly identified, and they trade with each other. And for most products and services, the buyers and sellers seldom communicate, except when they are about to make a transaction.

Radio is different, in several ways. Listeners to a radio station often tune in for hours each day, so the relationship is a continuing one. That's not so unusual: a lot of products have continuing buyers. What's more unusual for radio is that, since it's a communication medium, if all communication about an activity is marketing, does it follow that all radio programs are marketing? (Are you thinking that surely not even the author of a book on marketing would make such a wild claim?)

In my view, some types of broadcast are always marketing: station promos and broadcast call signs, for example. But any program content might be understood as marketing by listeners, even if it's not intended as marketing by the broadcaster. If, by listening to the program, the listener forms an impression of the station, I'd regard this as marketing. For example, if the sound quality seems poorer than usual, and the listener blames the station, it becomes a marketing problem for the station. But if in the listener's opinion the problem is the radio itself, that's a marketing problem for that brand of radio.

At this point you may be objecting: "but the station has no control over that, so it can't be marketing." My response: you should take a broader view. Such problems affect audience size, and eventually station revenue. Just because you can't control it, that doesn't mean it's not marketing.

Another difference between radio marketing and other marketing is that with radio (as in fact with many government services), there's a problem of working out who are the buyers, who are the sellers, and where the listeners fit into the diagram.

One way of answering this question is that the seller is the one who provides Stuff and gets money. So for radio, the seller is the station, and the Stuff is its programs.

Who is the buyer? That depends on what type of radio station it is.

For a commercial station (which gets all its income from advertising) the buyers are the advertisers. Where, you might wonder, do the listeners come into the diagram?

Answer: they are the Stuff being sold. They are merely a commodity. The only reason why a commercial station needs an audience is to have something to sell to advertisers: the attention of their listeners. (The listeners, of course, may have a different view.)

For a government radio station, without advertising, there's only one "buyer" and that's the government. To survive, the station's management has to keep the government happy. Whether anybody listens to the program is irrelevant. In fact, it's better if there are no listeners, because then there will be few complaints.

A community station is funded by the community, whether in small amounts from individual listeners, or large amounts from organizations, or some mixture of these. If it can gain most of its income from its own listeners, there will be less of the distorting pressures that apply to commercial or government-funded stations. This makes it possible (in theory) for community stations to provide a better service to listeners than any other type of radio station can.

But who's the buyer, and who's the seller, for a community station? you might ask.

Now this is where it begins to get interesting. The complicating factor is that many people are involved, in various roles. These roles are often known as stakeholders: all the types of people who have an interest in an organization, because it affects them in some way.

1.3 Stakeholders in radio

The stakeholders normally fall into four main groups: suppliers, customers, internal, and external. For a radio station the stakeholder groups can include these...

. Suppliers: providers (of goods, services, equipment, etc.), stringers, news agencies, government (in its news-making role), NGOs (in program supply role), suppliers of press releases. . Customers: listeners, subscribers, advertisers, advertising agencies, government (in its funding role), funding bodies, and foundations. . Internal: paid staff, volunteers . External: competitors (other local media), government (in its regulatory role), local organizations, schools and universities that teach about local media . Others: anybody else who thinks they're a stakeholder - even if the station thinks they're not.

In other words, almost everybody in the community holds some sort of stake, whether they deal directly with the station or not. So maybe we should extend that two-party diagram into a multi-party one. But if you drew that diagram, it would look like a mess, with lines connecting every stakeholder group to every other. All these groups have expectations about each other, and make demands on each other.

Though the above diagram makes the marketing process clear, it's oversimplified, because it takes no account of roles. As the list of stakeholders showed, one stakeholder group can have multiple roles.

When you consider all the stakeholders involved, you soon realize that a radio station - specially a community station - is part of a complex web of social and financial obligations and the exchanges that go with them. The entire cobweb-like network becomes what's sometimes called an "imaginary organization:" a far broader cross- section of people than simply the staff and the listeners. All communication between stakeholders about the station comprises the station's marketing.

Organizations with marketing departments often assume that all their marketing is done by that department. In reality, most marketing is done by others - particularly by consumers, because there are so many of them.

Don't think, therefore, that you can control all your marketing: but if the station is well managed, communication about the station between stakeholders is more likely to be favourable.

Of course, it's not only radio stations that have stakeholders. All organizations have them. In the last few years, the success of a business is coming to be measured not only by the value of its shares, but by broader concepts such as the Triple Bottom Line and the Balanced Scorecard. The advocates of these concepts say that a business does not exist solely to make a profit, but has social obligations to all its stakeholders. Recent research has been finding that businesses which take this very broad view of their objectives tend to be more successful, in the long term, than those that try only to make a profit. There's a lesson for radio here.

Audience Research and listeners surveys With the changing mass communication scenario, Audience Research has occupied the centre stage. World over, almost all the big media organizations have been doing in-house audience research in one form or the other. Without ‘Market Research’ (in marketing) no media organization can afford to put their precious resource at stake without knowing the potential audience (consumers) and market for their media content. Besides, they are also subscribing to syndicated research done by the various media and market research organizations. The secret behind the success of private TV and Radio channels lies in their capability to feel the pulse of audience through continuous audience research and to design and modify the programme content including presentation accordingly.

All India Radio has been a pioneer in this field. Presently, it has a network of 38 Audience Research Units across the country which started with a humble beginning in 1946 as 'Listeners' Research Wing'. During all those years, it worked as eyes and ears for the organization.

Role and Functions:

• Providing instant feedback to programme planners/ producers through Quick feedback studies, Listeners' Letter Analysis, Content Analysis, Focus Group Discussions and Panel Studies etc.

• Carrying out periodical large scale Radio Audience Surveys on various AIR channels to provide listenership data to programmers, sponsors, advertisers, and marketers.

• Undertaking sponsored Audience Research studies from other government departments/autonomous bodies • Conducting on demand special Audience Research studies and Feed-forward Studies before start of a new station.

• Functioning as data bank, research and reference section for the organization.

• Helping to develop marketing strategies in terms of providing listenership data across socio economic categories.

Major Achievements in recent years:

 Radio Audience Surveys: (conducted across the country) • Radio Audience Survey on Primary Channels- 2007-08 at 64 stations • Radio Audience Survey on Vividh Bharati Channels-2007-08 at 14 stations • Radio Audience Survey on FM Channels-2007-08 at 18 stations • Radio Audience Survey on FM Rainbow and Gold Channels-2008-09 at 18 stations. • Radio Audience Survey on Vividh Bharati Channel-2010-11 at 11 stations. • Radio Audience Survey on Primary Channel-2010-11 at 33 stations • Radio Audience Survey on Primary Channels-2011-12 at 36 stations • Radio Audience Survey on FM Channels-2011-12 at 24 stations  Feedback/Impact Studies: • Study on the Impact of Flagship Programmes. • Quick Feedback Studies on demand  Sponsored Studies: • 'Koshish Sunehare Kal Ki’ and 'Fantastic Four' sponsored by Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India at 11 places during 2008-09 • Survey on AIDS Control programme 'Ini Onu Vidhi Seivom' sponsored radio programme on HIV/AIDS by Tamil Nadu State Aids Control Society (TANSACS) at 18 places during 2008-09 • Survey on Education Broadcast on ‘Keli-Kali, Chukki-Chinna Chiannara Chukka’ radio programmes sponsored by DSERT, State Government of Karnataka at 80 government school across the state during 2008-09 • Weekly ‘Feedback survey on Kisanvani Programme’ sponsored by Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India at 96 Stations spread over 24 states and three UTs across the country covered about 20,000 villages and two lakh farmers up to 30th September,2008. It might be the biggest feedback survey ever conducted by any media research organization. • Radio Audience Survey on FM channels for the fixation of rates of advertising through DAVP, sponsored by DAVP, M/O Information and Broadcasting, Government of India at 84 places all over the country during 2009-10 Exit this survey

Radio Station Questionnaire 1. Radio Survey Hey, thanks for your time.

I am conducting a survey of radio listening habits in the Berkshire area. I would be grateful if you could spare 2 minutes of your time to complete this questionnaire. It's 100% anonymous, and there's only 10 questions to answer.

Thank you! *1. How old are you?

15 - 17

18 - 21

21 - 24

24 - 30

31 - 35

35 - 40

40+

*2. On average how often do you listen to the radio?

Daily

Few time a week

Once a week

Less often

*3. What time are you most likely to listen to the radio?

Morning (Breakfast)

Mid-Morning/Afternoon (Daytime)

Early Evening (Drivetime)

Late Evening

*4. Where are you most likely to listen to radio? At Home

In the car

At work

At college

*5. How do you usually listen to the radio?

FM Radio

Online

Digital Radio

Mobile (iPhone/Blackberry)

TV

*6. What station(s) do you regularly listen to?

Capital

Heart

Kiss 100

Radio 1

1Xtra

*7. Why do you listen to your preferred station?

Plays the music I like

Good presenters

The shows are relevant to me

Competitions

*8. What types of music do you often listen to?

R&B/Hip-Hop

Dance Dubstep/DnB

Garage/Funky

Dancehall/Bashment

Reggae/Soul

Metal/Rock

*9. What is your ethnicity?

*10. We would like some information about your area, please provide us with the first portion of your postcode (EG. RG1).

ZIP/Postal Code:

Email Address:

Done Prasar Bharati

Prasar Bharati (Hindi: प्रस भारती ); is India's largest public broadcasting agency. It is an autonomous body set up by an Act of Parliament and comprises Doordarshan Television Network and All India Radio which were earlier media units of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.

The Parliament of India passed an Act to grant this autonomy in 1990, but it was not enacted until 15 September 1997.[1]

Dr A Surya Prakash[2] is the current chairperson of Prasar Bharati and Jawhar Sircar is the CEO

Prasar Bharati Act[edit]

The Prasar Bharati Act provides for establishment of a Broadcasting Corporation, to be known as Prasar Bharati, to define its composition, functions and powers.[4] The Act grants autonomy to All India Radio and Doordarshan, which were previously under government control.[4] The Act received assent of President of India on 12 September 1990[1]after being unanimously passed by Parliament. It was finally implemented in November 1997. By the Prasar Bharati Act, all the property, assets, debts, liabilities, payments of money due, all suits and legal proceedings involving Akashvani (All India Radio) and Doordarshan were transferred to Prasar Bharati. Prasar Bharati Board[edit]

Prasar Bharati Act stipulates general superintendence, direction and management of affairs of the Corporation vests in Prasar Bharati Board which may exercise all such powers and do all such acts and things as may be exercised or done by the Corporation.[4]

Prasar Bharati Board consists of:

• Chairman • One Executive Member • One Member (Finance) • One Member (Personnel) • Six Part-time Members • Director-General (Akashvani), ex officio • Director-General (Doordarshan), ex officio • One representative of the Union Ministry of Information and Broadcasting (India), to be nominated by that Ministry and • Two representatives of the employees of the Corporation, of whom one shall be elected by the engineering staff from amongst themselves and one shall be elected by the other employee from amongst themselves.

The President of India appoints Chairman and the other Members, except the ex officio members, nominated member and the elected members.

The Board meetings must be held at least once in three months, every year.

Actress Kajol is named as part-time member for 5 years till November 2021.[5]

Functions and Objectives[edit]

The primary duty of the Corporation is to organise and conduct public broadcasting services to inform, educate and entertain the public and to ensure a balanced development of broadcasting on radio and television.[4]

The Corporation shall, in the discharge of its functions, be guided by the following objectives, namely:

• Upholding the unity and integrity of the country and the values enshrined in the Constitution. • Safeguarding the citizen’s right to be informed freely, truthfully and objectively on all matters of public interest, national or international, and presenting a fair and balanced flow of information including contrasting views without advocating any opinion or ideology of its own. • Paying special attention to the fields of education and spread of literacy, agriculture, rural development, environment, health and family welfare and science and technology. • Providing adequate coverage to the diverse cultures and languages of the various regions of the country by broadcasting appropriate programmes. • Providing adequate coverage to sports and games so as to encourage healthy competition and the spirit of sportsmanship. • Providing appropriate programmes keeping in view the special needs of the youth. • Informing and stimulating the national consciousness in regard to the status and problems of women and paying special attention to the upliftment of women. • Promoting social justice and combating exploitation, inequality and such evils as untouchability and advancing the welfare of the weaker sections of the society. • Safeguarding the rights of the working classes and advancing their welfare. • Serving the rural and weaker sections of the people and those residing in border regions, backward or remote areas. • Providing suitable programmes keeping in view the special needs of the minorities and tribal communities. • Taking special steps to protect the interests of children, the blind, the aged, the handicapped and other vulnerable sections of the people. • Promoting national integration by broadcasting in a manner that facilitates communication in the languages in India; and facilitating the distribution of regional broadcasting services in every State in the languages of that State. • Providing comprehensive broadcast coverage through the choice of appropriate technology and the best utilisation of the broadcast frequencies available and ensuring high quality reception. • Promoting research and development activities in order to ensure that radio broadcast and television broadcast technology are constantly updated.

Expansion plans[edit]

Digitisation of AIR & DD is going on full phase, as some of DDK's (Doordarshan Kendra's) & AIR Stations are already getting digitised. All the new establishments are digital and there are plans to modify the existing ones. New transmitters are being ordered and plans for purchase of digital transmitters are being implemented in phases. Controversy over Candidate selection[edit]

In 2010, as many as 24 candidates out of the 30 selected for the posts of journalists in Doordarshan News were alleged to be selected on the basis of political considerations.[6]For example, one of the successful candidates was closely related to a former Congress minister of state for information and broadcasting and another successful candidate was the daughter of a sitting Congress Union minister. Another one was a close relative of Union Commerce Minister Anand Sharma.[7][8]

The number of applicants called for interview was increased from 25 to 35 to accommodate the daughter of a Congress politician, who held the 33rd rank, and would have otherwise been eliminated at the cut-off stage. Another successful candidate, Anika Kalra Kalha, was not even called for an audition and reporting skills test, and the remark in the relevant columns read “Did not qualify for this stage”. Similarly weightage given to interview was arbitrarily increased 2 days before interviews.[7] FM broadcasting in India

FM broadcasting began on 23 July 1977 in Chennai, then Madras, and was expanded during the 1990s, nearly 50 years after it mushroomed in the US.[1] In the mid-nineties, when India first experimented with private FM broadcasts, the small tourist destination of Goa was the fifth place in this country of one billion where private players got FM slots. The other four centres were the big metro cities: Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai and Chennai. These were followed by stations in Bangalore, Hyderabad, Jaipur and Lucknow.

Times FM (now Radio Mirchi) began operations in 1993 in Ahmedabad. Until 1993, All India Radio or AIR, a government undertaking, was the only radio broadcaster in India. The government then took the initiative to privatize the radio broadcasting sector.[citation needed] It sold airtime blocks on its FM channels in Indore, Hyderabad, Mumbai, Delhi, Kolkata, Vizag and Goa to private operators, who developed their own program content. The Times Group operated its brand, Times FM, till June 1998. After that, the government decided not to renew contracts given to private operators. In 2000, the government announced the auction of 108 FM frequencies across India.

Radio City Bangalore, started on July 3, 2001, is India's first private FM radio station. It launched with presenters such as Rohit Barker, Darius Sunawala, Jonzie Kurian and Suresh Venkat.[2]

FM LRS (Local Radio Station) was inaugurated on 1 July 2001 at 14.28 in Kodaikanal in the frequency 100.5 MHz. The two radio persons Dr.Musiri.T.A.Veerasamy and B.Rajaram (Savitraa) made 100.5 popular and the LRS was upgraded to a "METRO FM" channel in just two months. The channel covered a radius of about 200 km due to its location at 2200 meters above MSL in Kodaikanal. Later, the stalwarts like Supra (K.Natarajan) in 2002 and Maha Somaskandamoorthy in 2003 joined KODAI FM, as it is popularly known. The biggest individual FM channel in India in both area coverage and listenership.

Indian policy currently states that these broadcasters are assessed a One-Time Entry Fee (OTEF), for the entire license period of 10 years. Under the Indian accounting system, this amount is amortised over the 10-year period at 10% per annum. Annual license fee for private players is either 4% of revenue share or 10% of Reserve Price, whichever is higher.

India's earlier attempts to privatise its FM channels ran into rough weather when private players bid heavily and most could not meet their commitments to pay the government the amounts they owed. Content[edit]

News is not permitted on private FM. Nationally, many of the current FM players, including the Times of India, Hindustan Times, Mid-Day, and BBC are essentially newspaper chains or media, and they are making a strong pitch for news on FM. Private FM stations are allowed to rebroadcast news from All India Radio, as long as they do so without any changes or additions.[3] The Supreme Court of India on 17 October 2013 issued a public interest litigation to the Centre requesting that the rules should be changed to allow FM stations to broadcast news reports.[4]

FM stations in Ahmedabad[edit]

• Radio Mirchi - 98.3 FM (Times Group) • My FM - 94.3 FM (DNA Bhaskar Group) • Red FM - 93.5 FM (Sun Group) • Radio City - 91.1 FM (Music Broadcast Private Limited) • Radio One - 95.0 FM (Only Bollywood Retro Station of Ahmedabad) • Vividh Bharati - 96.7 FM (AIR)

FM stations in Hyderabad[edit]

• Radio City - 91.1 • Big 92.7 FM - 92.7 • South Asia firms (S FM) - 93.5 • Radio Mirchi - 98.3 • All India Radio (AIR / AIR / Twin Cities firms Rainbow)- 101.9 • All India Radio (AIR / AIR / Miscellaneous Bharti) - 102.8 • Gyan Vani - 105.6 • Vividh Bharati

FM stations in New Delhi NCR[edit]

• City FM 92 (Live Broadcasting Radio) • Radia Ditect FM 107.1 (107.1 MHz) • AIR FM Rainbow / FM-1 (102.6 MHz) • AIR FM Gold /FM-2 (106.4 MHz) • AIR Rajdhani/Gyanvani Channel (105.6 MHz) • Oye FM (104.8 MHz) • Fever 104 (104 MHz) • Radio Mirchi FM (98.3 MHz) • Hit FM (95 MHz) • Radio One FM (94.3 MHz)(Only English Radio station of Delhi) • Red FM (93.5 MHz) • Big FM (92.7 MHz) • Radio City (91.1 MHz) • Radio Nasha (107.2 MHz) • Radio Jamia 90.4 FM • Delhi University Educational Radio (Available only in University area) (DU Radio FM) (90.4 MHz) • Apna Radio IIMC 96.9 FM • Vividh Barti (100.1 MHz) • Noida FM (107.4 MHz)

Radio SD 90.8 FM NCR VIKASNAGAR UTTAR PRADESH

FM stations in Kolkata[edit]

• Radio SRFTI (90.4 MHz, Available in and around the film institute area) • Radio JU (90.8 MHz, Available within a 5 km radius of the University, from 11:00 AM to 7:30 PM) • Y FM NSHM (91.2 MHz, Available within a 10 km radius of the institute, from 9:00 AM to 7:00 PM) • Friends FM (91.9 MHz) • Big FM (92.7 MHz) • Red FM (93.5 MHz) • Radio One (94.3 MHz) • Radio Mirchi (98.3 MHz) • AIR FM Gold (100.2 MHz) • AIR FM Vividh Bharati (101.8 MHz) • Fever 104 FM (104 MHz) • Oye (104.8 MHz) • Gyan Vani (105.6 MHz) • Aamar FM (106.2 MHz) • AIR FM Rainbow (107 MHz) • Power FM (107.8 MHz) - Last air date: April 21, 2016.

FM stations in Mumbai[edit]

• bansal24hr.fm 95.5 • Vividh Bharati • Jago Mumbai 90.8 • Radio City 91.1FM • Big FM 92.7 • Red FM 93.5 • Radio One 94.3 (Only English Radio station of Mumbai) • Radio Mirchi 98.3 FM 98.3 • Radio Dhamaal 106.4 • AIR FM Gold 100.7 • RAIN BOW FM 102.2 • Fever 104 FM 104.0 • Oye 104.8 104.8 • AIR FM Rainbow 107.1 • Mumbai One • Gyan Vani • Radio MUST

FM stations in Bengaluru[edit] Main article: List of FM radio stations in Bengaluru

• Radio City 91.1 FM - Kannada • Indigo 91.9 FM FM - English • Big 92.7 FM - Kannada • Red FM 93.5 FM - Hindi • Radio ONE FM 94.3 - Hindi • Radio 95 95 FM - Hindi • Radio Mirchi 98.3 FM Kannada • Amruthavarshini 100.1 FM (devotional) • FM Rainbow 101.3 FM (Kannada, Hindi, English) • Vividhabharathi 102.9 FM (Kannada, Hindi) • Fever FM 104 FM (Hindi) • Gnyanavani 106.4 FM (Kannada, English, Hindi)

FM stations in Chennai[edit]

• AIR FM - RAINBOW • AIR FM - GOLD 102.3 • Chennai Live 104.8 FM • Hello FM (106.4), • Suryan FM 93.5, • Fever FM 91.9, • BIG FM 92.7, • Radio City FM 91.1, • Radio Mirchi FM 98.3, • Radio one 94.3, • Anna FM

FM stations in Kerala[edit]

• Real FM 103.6 • Best FM 95.00, • Radio Mango 91.9, in Kochi, Thrissur, Kozhikode & Kannur • Red FM 93.5, • Club FM 94.3 in Thiruvananthapuram, Kochi & Kannur ; ClubFM 104.8 in Thrissur • Radio Mirchi 98.3 Thiruvananthapuram, • Big FM Thiruvananthapuram • FM Rainbow, • Ananthapuri FM, • AIR Thiruvananthapuram • AIR Kochi FM 102.3 • AIR Kannur • AIR Devikulam • AIR Manjeri • AIR Gyan Vani-Kochi • Radio MacFast Thiruvalla FM 90.4 • Radio Media Village Changanacherry FM 90.8 • Global Radio Alappuzha FM 91.2

Market view[edit]

Traditionally, radio accounts for 7% to 8% of advertiser expenditures around the world. In India, it is less than 2% at present.[citation needed]

List of FM radio Stations in India[edit] See also: List of FM radio stations in India

The ministry of broadcasting in India has no further plan to spread FM Radio to all parts of India.

List of FM Stations in Jaipur: 1. 94.3 MYFM (Listnership; 18 lacs plus) 2. 98.3 Radio Mirchi (Listnership; 12 lacs plus) 3. 93.5 Red FM (Listnership; 11 lacs plus) 4. 91.1 Radio City (Listnership; 10 lacs plus) 5. 95 Tadka (Listnership; 8 lacs plus)

Current allocation process[edit]

In FM Phase II — the latest round of the long-delayed opening up of private FM in India — some 338 frequencies were offered of which about 237 were sold.[citation needed] The government may go for rebidding of unsold frequencies quite soon. In Phase III of FM licensing, smaller towns and cities will be opened up for FM radio.

Reliance and South Asia FM (Sun group) bid for most of the 91 cities, although they were allowed only 15% of the total allocated frequencies. Between them, they have had to surrender over 40 licenses. Vividh Bharati

The Vividh Bharati (Hindi: िविवध भारती ) Service of All India Radio was conceptualized to combat Radio Ceylon in 1957.[2] Within no time it proved to be a popular channel of every household. Vividh Bharati radio channel was launched on October 2, 1957. The service provides entertainment for nearly 15 to 17 hours a day. It presents a mix of film music, skits, short plays and interactive programmes, Some of the old popular programmes of Vividh Bharati are 'Sangeet Sarita', 'Bhule Bisre Geet', Hawa Mahal, 'Jaimala', 'Inse Miliye', 'Chhaya Geet' etc., are still distinctly recognized by the listeners. From time to time new programmes were introduced like 'Biscope Ke Batein', 'Sargam Ke Sitare', 'Celluloid Ke Sitare', 'Sehatnama', ' Hello Farmaish', ' Sakhi Saheli' & ' Aaj Ke Phankaar'.

All these programmes are produced centrally at Vividh Bharati Service, Borivali, Mumbai and up-linked to the satellite. 40 Vividh Bharati stations across the country down-link these programmes through captive earth stations provided at each of these AIR stations. Some local programme windows are also provided at these stations to give regional flavour to the listeners. These 40 Vividh Bharati stations are known as Commercial Broadcasting Service Stations and are located at all major and commercially vibrant cities covering 97% of the Indian population.

Over the years a number prominent people from Hindi cinema have lent their voice to the channel, including, Lata Mangeshkar and actors Raaj Kumar and Amitabh Bachchan, who worked as a radio broadcaster in his early career, many celebrities take part in the popular show Vishesh Jaimala to encourage Indian Army and BSF soldiers. Today its archives which started the record of film, Yehudi Ki Beti in 1933, has 22,000 ghazals, geets and Hindi film songs.[3] The station celebrated its golden anniversary on October 2, 2007

History[edit]

Commercials were introduced initially in the Vividh Bharati Service in 1967 on an experimental basis. Realising the role of advertising in accelerating the social and material progress of the country, commercials were extended to Primary channels including FM & Local Radio Stations MW 1KW in a phased manner. Advertising on Radio is not only cost effective to the advertisers but also has the potential to reach far flung areas where no other mass media has succeeded in making any tangible dent.

In 1999 Vividh Bharati Service proved its success connecting Indian Soldiers posted on remote border areas to their family members through a special programme entitled "Hello Kargil" (during Kargil War), through which not only the family members of the soldiers, but even a layman including young and old conveyed their best wishes to the soldiers to keep up their morale. Eminent actors, play back singers, renowned writers, lyricists, directors and music directors have found way to express their experience and opinion through the Vividh Bharati Platform . A special programme entitled "Ujaale Unki Yaadon Ke" takes the listeners into the world of nostalgia dipping into the memories of the artists of the yester years. With the advent of new technology the transmission of programmes gradually migrated from earlier medium wave transmission to high quality digital stereo FM.

This service now enjoys global listenership through Direct to Home Service (DTH) besides other 11 channels of All India Radio.

AIR had been receiving advertisements through its registered agencies only. With the changing demand of the environment, direct clients are also entertained by all AIR stations. In remote and far flung areas, canvassers are appointed for bringing in local business. There are 15 main CBS Stations, located in each state capital responsible for booking for their entire state. Besides there is a Central Sales Unit called as CSU at Mumbai meant for booking for more than one state. A single window booking facility is available in CSU to facilitate bulk booking with a single contract. Further details of CSU are available at their website" www.csuair.org.in".

Programmes[edit] Hindi language[edit]

• Hawa Mahal • Sangam 6 to 7 • Sangeet Sarita 7 to 8 • Bhule Bisre Geet 8 to 9 • Binaca Geetmala 9 45 to 10 • Jaimala and Vishesh Jaimala 11 to 12 • Inse Miliye 12 20 to 01 • Chhaya Geet • Biscope Ke Batein • Sargam Ke Sitare • Celluloid Ke Sitare • Sehatnama • Hello Farmaish • Sakhi Saheli • Pitara • Hello Saheli • Jigyasa • Youth Express • Ek hi film se • Gyan Vigyan • Aaj ke Fankar (Presented by Yunus khan) • Aapki Pasand Telugu language[edit]

• Eka Chitra Geetalu - Telugu songs (4-5) from one film • Harivillu - Programme on a specific topic using Telugu film songs • Hello F.M. - Live Phone-in programme on Telugu film songs • Janaranjani - Telugu film songs on popular demand • Sanskrita Patam nerchukundam - Telugu programme for learning Sanskrit

Vividh Bharti Service[edit]

• Medium Wave Service • Short Wave Service • FM Service