Human Rights: Progress, Opportunities, and Challenges Nicole Bibbins Sedaca, Kerry Kennedy

Georgetown Journal of International Affairs, Volume 20, Fall 2019, pp. 16-26 (Article)

Published by Johns Hopkins University Press DOI: https://doi.org/10.1353/gia.2019.0025

For additional information about this article https://muse.jhu.edu/article/741054

[ This content has been declared free to read by the pubisher during the COVID-19 pandemic. ] the global order. Yet significant challenges Human Rights remain. Mass atrocities continue world- wide, in places like South Sudan, Syria, and Progress, Opportunities, Myanmar. Women face abuse of the most and Challenges fundamental rights on a daily basis. People are bought and sold into slavery in every Nicole Bibbins Sedaca and corner of the world. And the debate about Kerry Kennedy how— or even whether— to address abuses of human rights remains. A reflection on how and where progress century ago, as the world sought was made sheds some light on new oppor- to recover from the destruction of tunities to consolidate and build on these the First World War, leaders began gains. toA deliberate how the global community In 1918 the world stood aghast at the would address myriad complex issues, in- bloodshed and loss of life following what cluding human rights. There was a recogni- was then called “the Great War.” The sign- tion of the scourge of human rights abuses ing of the Treaty of Versailles in June 1919 but only a nascent understanding of what would not only officially end the war, but be- protection might mean. Rightfully, many gin the codification of global norms around asked what human rights are, who defines key human rights. With the creation of the them, and who protects them. League of Nations one year later, global lead- ers sought support for a body that would build global order and peace, promote “fair Women face abuse of the most and humane conditions of (labor) for men, fundamental rights on a daily basis. women and children,” and empower the League and subsequent organizations to take action in a number of areas, including Now, in 2019, the definition has long labor rights and human trafficking.1 been codified—albeit still regularly debated. Despite these efforts, these organizations The last century has seen tremendous prog- failed to prevent the massive and unfathom- ress in four areas: establishing norms, cre- able human rights violations and atrocities ating mechanisms, increasing the type and committed before and during the Second quantity of actors in this arena, and shaping World War. This war forced further reckon-

nicole Bibbins sedaca is a professor of the practice of international relations and serves as the concentration chair for global politics and security in the master of science in foreign service Program in the school of foreign service. she specializes in human rights, religious freedom, and international affairs. During her 10 years of work for the us govern- ment, Bibbins sedaca held several positions at the us state Department and at the Pentagon. Kerry Kennedy is an american human rights activist, writer, and president of robert f. Kennedy Human rights. robert f. Kennedy Human rights supports defenders in the field with advocacy, litigation, and training; brings human rights to students in the classroom with its innovative speak truth to Power curriculum; and engages the financial community about sustainable investing and the intersection between business and human rights. she is the author of new york times best-seller Being Catholic Now (random House, 2005), Speak Truth to Power (random House, 2000) and Robert F. Kennedy: Ripples of Hope (Hachette, 2018). Deep thanks and appreciation to amy calfas, msfs ’19, for her significant contribution to the research of this article.

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ing with fundamental human rights and re- ments and provided a comprehensive blue- straint of the state. President Roosevelt and print for which rights should be recognized Prime Minister Churchill’s 1941 Atlantic and protected. Equally important, it linked Charter articulated not only the two coun- inherent dignity and inalienable rights of all tries’ shared war aims, but also, importantly, people to “the foundation of freedom, jus- the countries’ clear support for the inherent tice and peace in the world” and pledged rights that were being deprived to people that the General Assembly shall “strive by globally.2 It was an articulation of British teaching and education to promote respect and American commitment not only to the for these rights and freedoms and by pro- values at home, but also to a desire for these gressive measures, national and interna- rights to be extended globally. tional, to secure their universal and effective As the war concluded and the world be- recognition and observance, both among gan to comprehend the immensity of the the peoples of Member States themselves mass atrocities and genocide that had un- and among the peoples of territories under folded, global leaders gathered in New York their jurisdiction.” Human rights were not to begin a conversation that was deeply in- only an academic concept, but rather, by de- fused with the recognition of the importance fining them and requiring states to protect of human rights. The founding Charter3 of them, there was a creation of a moral imper- the newly created United Nations opened ative that required international action and with a clarion call for global human rights.4 protection. From 1966 to the present, there With the UN Charter and—subse- has been a proliferation of binding docu- quently and notably—the 1948 Universal ments5 that have expanded the global com- Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR), a mitments, extended and deepened the focus global standard for how to define human on specific human rights abuses, and further rights was set. It was not crafted by all na- bound countries to international standards.6 tions, or captured in a binding document, Make no mistake, the existence of these but nonetheless the monumental step to- documents has not created a perfect, aligned ward crafting a global standard was taken. global community. The Universal Declara- And at the same time, the tension between tion of Human Rights is not a binding human rights protection as a global man- document, but rather a declaration of a date and the respect of national sovereignty comprehensive set of aspirational principles. as a nation-based right was also deepened. At home, the United States, which played The creation of the Universal Declaration a leading role in crafting this declaration, paved the way for several significant devel- thanks to the leadership of First Lady Elea- opments that would characterize the next nor Roosevelt, spent the next two decades seven decades of human rights efforts. wrestling with the deprivation of basic civil and political rights for African Americans in the United States. When these documents Norm-Setting and the were drafted, many countries remained un- International Human Rights der oppressive colonial occupation and wide- Infrastructure spread abuses. Throughout the world, there The Universal Declaration was just the be- are some countries that have not signed on ginning of what would be a proliferation of to the subsequent international covenants, human rights–related international docu- like the 1966 International Covenant on

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Civil and Political Rights or the 1966 In- tional radar, despite their lack of resolutions; ternational Covenant on Economic, Social and countries remain stigmatized for their and Cultural Rights. There are others that failure to adhere to the most basic standards. have signed on with little or no intention of adhering to these standards. There are governments—some parties to global trea- Regional Mechanisms to ties and others not—that violate the rights Promote Human Rights: of their citizens and others on a daily basis. While the Universal Declaration was an im- And there remain significant differences of portant source of setting global standards, views of what constitutes a human right and it has also come under criticism—particu- which actor in the global community can le- larly from countries in the global South— gitimately protect and promote it. for being drafted by a geographically limited With all of these very real factors con- group of countries7 at a time when two- sidered, it is important to reflect on today’s thirds of the world’s population remained state of affairs in comparison to what the under colonial rule.8 Despite the limited world would likely look like without these number of actors providing input into the standards, as opposed to singularly focus on original document, the Universal Declara- where the standards continue to fall short. tion codifies values—inherent dignity of all Where we fall short is essential—and we people; right to life, liberty, and security, will examine that later—but it is important freedom from slavery and torture; right to to recognize this tremendous norm-setting recognition under law; and much more— progress. Because these standards exist, the that are unquestionably universal and time- issue of human rights is a part of the global less. Nonetheless, the need for regional conversation about international affairs, and ownership and development are essential human rights activists and human rights– to the deepening of the important concepts respecting governments have been able to captured in the UDHR. push for change. Significant progress has been made at the regional level not only in codifying regional standards—based on the UDHR—but also Because these standards exist, the issue in creating mechanisms to enforce them. of human rights is a part of the global While the regional bodies have a long way conversation about international to go to eradicate abuses, they have served as affairs, and human rights activists and a crucial means of promoting regional own- human rights–respecting governments ership and action. Africa, Europe, and the have been able to push for change. Americas have robust regional documents outlining regional human rights standards and regional bodies to defend, enforce, or promote human rights standards.9 Although Throughout the world, activists are rais- human rights violations continue in each re- ing their voices—in the streets, in govern- gion, the institutionalization of these issues ment halls, and in multilateral forums—to in a regional context has ensured that each pressure governments that abuse human region continues on a trajectory of improved rights. Even some of the worst cases of hu- human rights. Asia and the Middle East re- man rights abuses—such as Myanmar or main the regions without a comprehensive North Korea—do not fall off the interna- regional statement of principles on human

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rights and with the least “infrastructure” to and spanned over two decades. Pressure on promote democracy.10 global corporations to divest in the South This regional ownership—and differing African apartheid regime shined a spotlight standards across regions—raises the ques- on the consequences of corporate complic- tion about differing standards by region, ity while simultaneously highlighting the which is a challenge for the human rights potential of the private sector to pressure community. Human rights efforts must re- abusive governments. From the 2000 Kim- flect regional or local cultures, faiths, tradi- berley Process, which sought to end human tions, and understandings of these concepts, rights abuses in the diamond extraction in- without watering down the basic standards. dustry, to the ongoing work of the Fair La- bor Association, garment manufacturing corporations, and NGOs in addressing sig- Growth of Human Rights– nificant abuses in the garment industries, Related Actors there are countless examples that show that The 1970s and 1980s saw an exponential the days of full impunity or intentional ig- expansion of nongovernmental organiza- norance are over. Tension remains about tions (NGOs), including those promoting the right role of corporations in holding and advocating for human rights. It is esti- governments accountable for human rights mated that today there are some 10 million standards, but the question is no longer NGOs operating globally. While activism in “whether” corporations have a role but rather the face of political persecution and human “what” the right role should be. That is a sea rights abuses is not a new phenomenon, the change. breadth, level of organization, and connec- tivity of activism have all grown significantly in the last five decades. In countries in which Human Rights in the authoritarian governments have limited World Order civil space and participation in government, While the legal infrastructure, actor engage- local grassroots engagement has been an es- ment, and response mechanisms relating sential vehicle to raise awareness about hu- to human rights have proliferated, human man rights abuses occurring on the ground. rights has also grown in importance within In democratic states, NGOs became an in- the global order. While the place of human valuable voice of providing external support rights within this order remains debated and training to grassroots activists abroad, among realists, idealists, and those in be- to essential pressure on democratic govern- tween, the issue has unquestionably become ments to respond to human rights abuses. a central component of the world order. As governmental engagement on human While the increased awareness of and activ- rights grew and the NGO sector expanded, ism around human rights are not a guaran- the private sector was often either silent on tee that all governments will refrain from or complicit in human rights abuses. Tex- abusing the rights of their citizens, they do aco—later bought by Chevron—caused bil- mean that governments are aware that they lions of dollars in pollution damage when are being watched by NGOs, international it began exploring oil deposits in Ecuador and (in some cases) regional organizations, in the 1960s. A case supporting Texaco’s al- and other activist governments. They know leged victims, including the indigenous Sec- that there are accountability mechanisms, oya communities, was launched in 1993 like the Universal Periodic Review (UPR),

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and that governments will be held to ac- and policy trajectory will not be easily re- count for their abuses, at least in terms of versed. When faced with human rights vi- international political capital. Even those olations—even mass atrocities—the global states that do not respect human rights care community does not weaken its standards, enough about the international norms and reverse or nullify the commitments made. UN structures to seek membership in the And yet significant human rights viola- UN Human Rights Council (UNHRC), of- tions continue. Genocide, mass atrocities, ten to block the negative reporting they will and ethnic cleansing continue in Myan- likely face. mar, South Sudan, Syria, and Yemen. Non- The establishment of Responsibility to state actors, such as Boko Haram, ISIS, and Protect (R2P) is another indicator of the transnational criminal networks that traffic rising importance of human rights in the in- in humans and inflict violence on weakly ternational world order. Following the governed communities, are the source of im- atrocities in Bosnia and Rwanda a few mense abuses. Unchecked authoritarian re- years before the turn of the century, the gimes, like North Korea, Saudi Arabia, and UN supported the Canadian-led Interna- China, continue to abuse their citizens with tional Commission on Intervention and impunity. There are an estimated 200,000 State Sovereignty to develop guidelines for people in gulags in North Korea. Crown humanitarian intervention. In 2005 the Prince Mohammed bin Salman is under Responsibility to Protect—to prevent and pressure because of his role in the murder of address the worst human rights abuses—was Saudi journalist Jamal Khashoggi, just one agreed upon unanimously by all members of of many journalists and activists who have the United Nations. The application of the faced imprisonment, torture, or death at the subsequent framework has been uneven at hands of the Saudi regime. And China con- best, with significant criticism following its tinues to imprison 1 million Uighurs in a use in Libya in 2011 and more positive as- re-education camp in Xinjiang. sessments of its use in 2013 to prevent elec- What has been built over 100 years is sig- tion-related violence in Kenya. For both its nificant. Despite its significance, it is not shortcomings and advancements, R2P is a sufficient. This insufficiency rests in several further sign of the embedding of these prin- broad trends that have developed alongside ciples in the global system. In many ways, the progress we have witnessed. it is also the best indicator of the challenges First, globally, there is a waning of faith in that remain in the system, including the de- institutions. According to the 2019 Edelman bate between sovereignty and human rights Trust Index, global trust in global institu- protection. tions such as the United Nations has dimin- ished.11 Domestically, Pew argues that trust in institutions in the United States, includ- Human Rights Today ing banks, government, charities, and the Because significant progress has been made media, has also hit an all-time low. Despite in mainstreaming human rights into the in- its progress in some areas, the UN Human ternational system, and more actors—in- Rights Council is among the many orga- cluding nongovernmental, governmental, nizations that have sustained criticism for corporate, and multilateral organizations— its ineffectiveness. The fact that numerous are engaged in the fight, the infrastructure members of the council are also significant

20 georgetown journal of international affairs Human rigHts human rights abusers themselves—such as Finally, the persistent tension that exists Burundi, Egypt, Cuba, Venezuela, China, between national sovereignty and global pro- and Saudi Arabia—throws the efficacy and tection of universal human rights standards objectivity of the council into question. continues unabated. The UN Charter em- Second, over the last twelve years, the bedded this tension by enshrining its com- global community has seen a steady demo- mitment to global human rights values and cratic recession and a rise in authoritarian the protection of individual human rights, powers. This shift has emboldened some while also pledging non-interference in the authoritarian governments to continue domestic affairs of its member countries. their abusive behavior in a climate of wan- The R2P doctrine has named and sought to ing criticism. China’s rising global influ- address this tension, but has also unearthed ence and strategic investment in Africa and the related question of whether the interna- Latin America have pushed non-democratic tional community is able—or will ever be systems to the forefront and given govern- able—to make decisions and respond to hu- ments the opportunity to partner with a man rights situations without support from significant donor that is willing to invest key global powers, especially where an in- without placing direct limitations related tervention might run afoul of one of those to human rights protection or adherence powers’ political or economic interests. to democratic values. As the relative power The progress is significant. The current of countries that are unwilling to adhere to challenges are real. The need for progress is global norms or to the concept of norms compelling. rises, this could put critical strain on the hu- The four key areas of progress in the first man rights regime. These two factors could 100 years—infrastructure, mechanisms, diver- cause additional backsliding in presently re- sity and quantity of actors, and global order— form-minded countries that may become provide ample opportunity for strengthening unwilling to continue democratic reforms the human rights regime. in light of rising authoritarian powers and weakening major democratic powers. Infrastructure Third, a number of governments that With the celebration of the 70th anniversa- have traditionally led in condemning hu- ry of the Universal Declaration for Human man rights violations globally have stepped Rights in December 2018, it is time to revi- back from this role owing to domestic con- talize the global human rights infrastructure. siderations or shifts in policy. The United While reopening any documents or agree- States and key European leaders—includ- ments is inadvisable and would likely put ing Germany and the United Kingdom— the foundations of the human rights regime have shifted focus to significant domestic in jeopardy, there is space and need for the political divisions and differences of views creation of stronger and more effective im- within the population and between political plementation frameworks. The United Na- leaders on foreign policies. Along with the tions—in conjunction with regional human rising role of China and other authoritarian rights organizations, NGOs, and corporate regimes, this may have a significant impact partners—should convene a World Confer- on whether countries currently amenable to ence or similar global forum to take stock human rights reforms will choose to stay the of global human rights conditions and seek course. states’ commitments to action plans that

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will improve the situation on the ground. such as Germany, Chile, South Africa, or Partnership with regional organizations Australia, should seek to limit the member- and corporate partners would be essential ship of the council to human rights–respect- to maintain both regional pressure—in the ing nations and elevate the standing of the form of positive regional competition—and Universal Periodic Review process to include external, private-sector engagement. The some incentives or assistance for countries initial response of the corporate community willing to work on human rights. Limiting to the killing of Jamal Khashoggi—although membership to human rights–respecting limited and somewhat self-serving—serves governments would not be an easy under- as an important focal point for dialogue taking given the active effort on the part of among business leaders and government. human rights–abusing governments to gain With the rise and increasing impact of and hold a seat on the council. However, it new technologies, social media, artificial would be an important step to increase the intelligence, and related issues, the interna- credibility and efficacy of the body. Mem- tional community must continue to grapple bership in the UN Human Rights Council with how existing norms can be applied to should be limited to those countries whose these issues that were clearly not considered UPR shows a general commitment to ad- when the founding documents were crafted. hering to global standards and could be de- This should not be interpreted as a new set termined based on the UPR or through of norms or rules, but rather an applica- consultations with leading human rights tion of the existing foundation to emerging organizations from each region. Likewise, issues. While conversations are happen- UNHRC action should include stronger ing, particularly among businesses that penalties—including coordination of sanc- have confronted the issue of human rights, tions or expulsion—for those that prove un- nongovernmental organizations, and gov- willing to adhere to standards. ernments, there must be a more coordinated, effective, and globally inclusive approach, Mechanisms that provides governments with best prac- In Europe, the Americas, and Africa, where tices for monitoring and engaging corpora- there are existing mechanisms to promote tions, gives those corporations support in human rights, member states and regional navigating the application of these princi- organizations must focus on strengthening ples to these new technologies, and equips the functioning of these organizations. Re- NGOs to partner with corporations and gional leadership will be needed in each case governments effectively to ensure that hu- to fortify how these organizations are able man rights norms are respected while tech- to implement their mandate. As this arti- nologies advance. With the 2015 launch of cle is being drafted, pivotal discussions are the Sustainable Development Goals, the in- unfolding in the Organization of American ternational community has signaled the im- States on the case of Venezuela and in the portance of partnering with businesses to European Union in response to democratic implement and fund the realization of these backsliding in Hungary and Poland. These goals. are crucial opportunities for regional orga- Given the regular critique of the UN nizations—and key member states—to up- Human Rights Council,12 a group of like- hold human rights standards regionally. minded countries with regional influence, In Asia and the Middle East, there is an

22 georgetown journal of international affairs Human rigHts immediate need for the creation of protec- to their work will be impactful—for better tion and enforcement mechanisms at the or worse—on the next century of human regional level for citizens and civil society rights work. There will be a need for new groups. In Asia, where there are numerous thought leadership and engagement of these strong democratic nations, it is unlikely that actors in the work of human rights, ensuring one or more of them will choose to make that these firms are not exploited for human this their cornerstone issue, particularly rights violations (wittingly or unwittingly) given the potential conflict with China. The and that they become an effective part of the Middle East has seen significant retrench- public policy process. ment, particularly since the Arab Spring, on The role of the United States will also be the issue of human rights. While there is no crucial. Historically, many countries have obvious national government likely to take a looked to the United States for leadership leadership role, there are influential thought and have acted only when the United States leaders from this region who have credibil- has led. Long the leader in this arena, the ity both in the region and on this issue, such United States has stepped back from its role as former UN High Commissioner for Hu- of promoting global human rights under the man Rights Zeid Ra’ad Al Hussein or Queen Trump administration. Candidates for the Rania Al Abdullah of Jordan. 2020 or 2024 presidential elections must prioritize the re-assertion of American lead- Actors ership on this issue. If this is not prioritized, The global human rights community is ro- global leadership on human rights will likely bust and active. Going forward, the key fac- be filled either by a malevolent actor that tor will not be growth but rather how well seeks to roll back gains or a loose coalition connected human rights actors are and how of countries that are unwilling or unable to well they coordinate their efforts. With the exert bold leadership. Either would be a sig- growth of movements and online advocacy nificant blow to the international system. campaigns, many more individuals and groups are entering into the human rights global Order space. Connecting these people to oth- The policy and academic spheres are awash ers working on similar issues globally, their with articles and speculation about whether ideas to the foundational ideas of democ- the current global order is crumbling and racy promotion, and their tactics to effective will be replaced by a new order of unknown movements will all be essential to maximiz- quality and scope. There are myriad chal- ing impact. Advanced technologies and lenges to the system—from rising populism means of communication and a new genera- to demographic pressures to rising authori- tion that is more connected and movement- tarianism—and it is likely that the next cen- oriented will allow for more coordinated tury will see a new order, whether that is a efforts to mount global pressure on human radical replacement or simply a morphing rights abusers. of the current order. In this context, it is im- The engagement of corporations will portant to remember that the current order also be essential, particularly technology and the values and institutions that under- firms. How Facebook, Google, Microsoft pin it were shaped following great delibera- and other major multinational firms choose tion and consensus-building. The insertion to navigate human rights concerns related of human rights was not an accidental or

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incidental addition to the process, and this There can be no peace without develop- continues to be the case. These issues, which ment, no development without peace, and remain central to the stability of the world no lasting peace or sustainable development order and the well-being of those that in- without respect for human rights and the habit the world, must be diligently and rule of law. thoughtfully protected and advanced, not His words are an important challenge to led to a global momentum. the global community and those commit- A word about education: As authors of ted to peace, development, or human rights this piece, we are not only committed hu- that now is the time to courageously, boldly, man rights advocates, but also strong be- and aggressively advocate for continued lievers in the importance of human rights progress on protecting human rights. We education. Human rights education can be have moved beyond the questions of 1919 infused in primary education, high educa- of what human rights are and who defines tion, civic education, and global education. them. Now the challenge is how do we make We cannot take for granted that the norms these well-established norms a reality for and ideas that have been built over the last more people in the next 100 years. The next century will endure without a consistent century will require resolve, leadership, a di- and dedicated effort to educate the next versification of actors and modalities, and generation about human rights through hu- an unwavering maintenance of the values to man rights and for human rights. bring that reality to all people. The next generation experiences human rights very differently than those of us for whom the fall of the Berlin Wall and the Notes genocides in Rwanda and Yugoslavia are 1. The newly founded International Labor Or- poignant memories and who know per- ganization, launched at the 1919 Paris Peace sonally many who lived through the hor- Conference, institutionalized the League’s code of labor standards, thus solidifying the notion rors of the Second World War. The next of a global standard for the fair and equitable generation is also more connected, move- treatment of people in workplaces. And with ment-oriented, and passionate about mak- that, the notion that the international com- ing change on a global level. And they are munity can and should regulate the treatment a generation inheriting a world with a frus- of humans was codified. In 1922 the Interna- tratingly visible gap between the promises tional Federation of Human Rights Leagues, of international norms and institutions and composed of fourteen national human rights the realities on the ground. This will be a organizations, was established, further embed- moral obligation of the United Nations and ding norms and practices globally. The 1926 its agencies—such as UNESCO, UNICEF Geneva Conference passed the Convention to and UNDP—regional organizations, our Suppress the Slave Trade and Slavery, a further governments, civil organizations, and edu- codification of basic human rights standards. 2. “Third, they respect the right of all peoples to cational institutions. choose the form of government under which Former UN deputy secretary general Jan they will live; and they wish to see sovereign Eliasson challenged the world in 2016 with rights and self government restored to those words that made human rights not only a who have been forcibly deprived of them.” moral and human imperative, but some- 3. “UN Charter (Full Text),” United Nations, thing intrinsically linked with peace and www.un.org/en/sections/un-charter/un-char development: ter-full-text/.

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4. “WE THE PEOPLES OF THE UNITED NA- -declaration/drafters-universal-declaration TIONS DETERMINED, to save succeeding -human-rights/index.html; “European In- generations from the scourge of war, which strument for Democracy & Human Rights twice in our lifetime has brought untold sor- (EIDHR),” International Cooperation and De- row to mankind, and to reaffirm faith in fun- velopment—European Commission, July 28, damental human rights, in the dignity and 2017, ec.europa.eu/europeaid/how/finance worth of the human person, in the equal rights /eidhr_en.htm_en. of men and women and of nations large and 9. In Africa, the African Union has adopted the small, and to establish conditions under which African Charter on Human and People’s Rights justice and respect for the obligations arising and established the African Court on Human from treaties and other sources of international and People’s Rights along with a separate body law can be maintained, and to promote social —the African Commission on Human and progress and better standards of life in larger People’s Rights—to focus on the promotion and freedom.” protection of human rights on the continent. 5. In 1966 the International Covenant on Civil In the Western Hemisphere, the Organization and Political Rights (ICCPR) and Interna- of American States created the Inter-Amer- tional Covenant on Economic, Social and ican Commission on Human Rights which Cultural Rights (ICESCR) converted the provides an independent platform to report norms into binding treaties, further codifying on national adherence to human rights stan- the concepts and the commitment to action. dards and a platform for individual petitions, Today, 172 countries have become parties to as well as the Inter-American Court on Hu- the ICCPR, and 169 countries are parties to man Rights, an autonomous judicial body that the ICESCR. Myriad other conventions were rules on whether a state has violated individual added on issue-specific areas, thus deepening human rights. Europe has the most extensive and broadening the scope and commitments infrastructure to deal with human rights issues that nation-states and the international com- with the European Court of Human Rights, the munity made to upholding these standards. EU Charter of Fundamental Rights, and the Eu- Among these are the 1979 Convention on the ropean instrument for democracy and human Discrimination against Women, the 1984 Con- rights (EIDHR), which has a significant bud- vention against Torture, the 1989 Conven- get of €1.3 million for the period 2014–2020. tion on the Rights of the Child, and the 1989 10. ASEAN adopted the ASEAN Human Rights Indigenous and Tribal Peoples Convention. Declaration in November 2012 but still does There are now seven conventions in addition not have a human rights convention or court. to the ICCPR and ICESCR. There are no Asia-wide organizations or con- 6. “OHCHR Dashboard,” United Nations Hu- ventions to promote or protect human rights, man Rights Office of the High Commissioner, and the organization’s continued silence on the indicators.ohchr.org/. Rohingya crisis in Myanmar is an indication 7. There were only 56 member countries in the of the distance the region still has on human United Nations at this time, and the com- rights. Likewise, the Middle East has no com- mittee that contributed to the drafting of the prehensive document, infrastructure, or norms UDHR consisted of individuals from the fol- on these issues. Human rights abuses are wide- lowing countries: United States, Lebanon, spread, and victims and activists have very few Soviet Union, France, United Kingdom, Aus- consistent domestic or regional vehicles to ad- tralia, Chile, and Canada. judicate concerns. 8. “The United Nations and Decolonization,” 11 “19th Annual Edelman Trust Barometer,” Edel- United Nations, www.un.org/en/decoloniza man Trust Barometer, www.edelman.com tion/history.shtml; “The Drafters of the Uni- /sites/g/files/aatuss191/files/2019-02/2019_ versal Declaration of Human Rights,” United Edelman_Trust_Barometer_Global_Report.pdf. Nations, www.un.org/en/sections/universal 12. The members of the UN Human Rights

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Council in 2019 are Argentina, Austria, the Nigeria, Pakistan, Peru, Qatar, Rwanda, Saudi Bahamas, Bahrain, Bangladesh, Bulgaria, Arabia, Senegal, Slovakia, South Africa, Spain, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Czechia, Denmark, Tunisia, Ukraine, and the United Kingdom. Eritrea, Fiji, India, Italy, Somalia, Uruguay, the Significant concern has been raised about Philippines, Togo, Afghanistan, Angola, Aus- members such as China, Saudi Arabia, Qatar, tralia, Brazil, Chile, China, Croatia, Cuba, the and the Philippines, whose human rights re- Democratic Republic of the Congo, Egypt, cords are highly problematic. Hungary, Iceland, Iraq, Japan, Mexico, Nepal,

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