Sex, Mutations and Marketing How the Cambrian Explosion Set the Stage for Runaway Consumerism Geoffrey Miller

sciencescience & & societysociety Sex, mutations and marketing How the Cambrian explosion set the stage for runaway consumerism Geoffrey Miller

ex and marketing have been cou- stability of single-celled organisms for tril- with a mate’s genes, they could produce pled for a very long time. At the cul- lions of generations, and countless line- progeny with huge genetic variety—and Stural level, their relationship has been ages of asexual organisms have suffered crucially with a wider range of mutation appreciated since the 1960s ‘Mad Men’ era, extinction through mutational meltdown— loads [5]. The unlucky offspring who hap- when the sexual revolution coincided with the runaway accumulation of copying pened to inherit an above-average number the golden age of advertising, and marketers errors [3]. Only through wildly profligate of harmful mutations from both parents self-cloning could such organisms have would die young without reproducing, tak- any hope of leaving at ing many mutations into oblivion with least a them. The lucky offspring who happened to inherit a below-average number of mutations from both parents would live long, prosper and produce offspring of higher genetic quality. Sexual recombination also made it easier to spread and combine the rare mutations that happened to be useful, opening the way for much faster evolutionary advances [6]. Sex became the realized that ‘sex sells’. foundation of At the biological level, their interplay goes almost all complex much further back to the Cambrian explo- few offspring with no new harmful life because it was so sion around 530 million years ago. During mutations, so they could best survive good at both short-term damage limitation this period of rapid evolutionary expansion, and reproduce. (purging bad mutations) and long-term multicellular organisms began to evolve Around 1.5 billion years ago, bacteria innovation (spreading good mutations). elaborate sexual ornaments to advertise evolved the most basic form of sex to mini- their genetic quality to the most important mize mutation load: bacterial conjuga- et, single-celled organisms always consumers of all in the great mating market tion [4]. By swapping bits of DNA across the had a problem with sex: they were of life: the opposite sex. pilus (a tiny intercellular bridge) a bacterium Ynot very good at choosing sexual Maintaining the genetic quality of one’s can replace DNA sequences compromised partners with the best genes, that is, the offspring had already been a problem for by copying errors with intact sequences from lowest mutation loads. Given bacterial billions of years. Ever since life originated its peers. Bacteria finally had some defence capabilities for chemical communication around 3.7 billion years ago, RNA and against mutational meltdown, and they such as quorum-sensing [7], perhaps some DNA have been under selection to copy thrived and diversified. prokaryotes and eukaryotes paid attention themselves as accurately as possible [1]. Then, with the evolution of genuine sex- to short-range chemical cues of genetic Yet perfect self-replication is biochemically ual reproduction through meiosis, perhaps quality before swapping genes. However, impossible, and almost all replication errors around 1.2 billion years ago, eukaryotes mating was mainly random before the are harmful rather than helpful [2]. Thus, made a great advance in their ability to evolution of longer-range senses and mutations have been eroding the genomic purge mutations. By combining their genes nervous systems.

Sex became the foundation of Mate choice for fitness indicators is not Thus, mate choice for genetic qual- almost all complex life because it restricted to females choosing males, but ity is analogous in many ways to con- often occurs in both sexes [13], especially sumer choice for brand quality [17]. was so good at both short-term in socially monogamous species with Mate choice and consumer choice are damage limitation […] and mutual mate choice such as humans [14]. both semi-conscious—partly instinctive, long-term innovation… partly learned through trial and error and hus, for 500 million years, animals partly influenced by observing the choices All of this changed profoundly with the have had to straddle two worlds in made by others. Both are partly focused on Cambrian explosion, which saw organ- Tperpetual tension: natural selec- the objective qualities and useful features isms undergoing a genetic revolution tion and sexual selection. Each type of of the available options, and partly focused that increased the complexity of gene selection works through different evo- on their arbitrary, aesthetic and fashion- regulatory networks, and a morphologi- lutionary principles and dynamics, and able aspects. Both create the demand that cal revolution that increased the diver- each yields different types of adaptation suppliers try to understand and fulfil, with sity of multicellular body plans. It was and biodiversity. Neither fully dominates each sex striving to learn the mating prefer- also a neurological and psychological the other, because sexual attractiveness ences of the other, and marketers striving to revolution. As organisms became increas- without survival is a short-lived vanity, understand consumer preferences through ingly mobile, they evolved senses such whereas ecological competence with- surveys, focus groups and social media as vision [8] and more complex nerv- out reproduction is a long-lived steril- data mining. ous systems [9] to find food and evade ity. Natural selection shapes species to predators. However, these new senses fit their geographical habitats and eco- also empowered a sexual revolution, as logical niches, and favours efficiency …single-celled organisms they gave animals new tools for choosing in growth, foraging, parasite resistance, always had a problem with sexual partners. Rather than hooking up predator evasion and social competition. sex: they were not very good at randomly with the nearest mate, animals Sexual selection shapes each sex to fit the choosing the sexual partners could now select mates based on visible needs, desires and whims of the other sex, with the best genes… cues of genetic quality such as body size, and favours conspicuous extravagance energy level, bright coloration and behav- in all sorts of fitness indicators. Animal ioural competence. By choosing the high- life walks a fine line between efficiency Mate choice and consumer choice can est quality mates, they could produce and opulence. More than 130,000 plant both yield absurdly wasteful outcomes: a higher quality offspring with lower muta- species also play the sexual ornamen- huge diversity of useless, superficial variation loads [10]. Such mate choice imposed tation game, having evolved flowers to tions in the biodiversity of species and the selection on all of those quality cues to attract pollinators [15]. economic diversity of brands, products and become larger, brighter and more con- The sexual selection world challenges packaging. Most biodiversity seems to be spicuous, amplifying them into true sexual the popular misconception that evolution is driven by sexual selection favouring whim- ornaments: biological luxury goods such blind and dumb. In fact, as Darwin empha- sical differences across populations in the as the guppy’s tail and the peacock’s train sized, sexual selection is often perceptive arbitrary details of fitness indicators, not that function mainly to impress and attract and clever, because animal senses and just by naturally selected adapta- females [11]. These sexual ornaments brains mediate mate choice. This makes tion to different ecologi- evolved to have a complex genetic archi- sexual selection closer in spirit to artificial cal niches [18]. tecture, to capture a larger share of the selection, which is governed by the senses The result is genetic variation across individuals and to and brains of human breeders. In so far as reveal mutation load more accurately [12]. sexual selection shaped human bodies, Ever since the Cambrian, the mating minds and morals, we were also shaped by market for sexually reproducing animal intelligent designers—who just happened species has been transformed to some to be romantic hominids rather than degree into a consumerist fantasy world fictional gods [16]. of conspicuous quality, status, fashion, beauty and romance. Individuals advertise their genetic quality and pheno typic condition through reliable, hard-to-fake signals or ‘fitness indicators’ such as pheromones, songs, ornaments and foreplay. Mates are cho- sen on the basis of who displays the largest, costliest, most precise, most popular and most salient fitness indicators.

that within each genus, a species can be The parallel tradition of signalling theory titles, emotions, career ambitions and most easily identified by its distinct mat- in the social sciences and philosophy goes consumer luxuries in Choosing the Right ing calls, sexual ornaments, courtship back to Aristotle, who argued that ethi- Pond (1985), Passions within Reason behaviours and genital morphologies [19], cal and rational acts are reliable signals of (1988), The Winner-Take-All-Society (1995) not by different foraging tactics or anti- underlying moral and cognitive virtues and Luxury Fever (2000). predator defences. Similarly, much of the (ca 350–322 BC). Friedrich Nietzsche ana- Evolutionary psychology and evolution- diversity in consumer products—such as lysed beauty, creativity, morality and even ary anthropology have been integrating shirts, cars, colleges or mutual funds— cognition as expressions of biological vigour these two traditions to better understand is at the level of arbitrary design details, by using signalling logic (1872–1888). many puzzles in human evolution that branding, packaging and advertising, not Thorstein Veblen proposed that conspicu- defy explanation in terms of natural at the level of objective product features ous luxuries, quality workmanship and selection for survival. For exam- and functionality. ple, signalling theory has illu- minated the origins and hese analogies between sex and functions of facial beauty, marketing run deep, because both female breasts and but- Tdepend on reliable signals of quality. tocks, body ornamenta- Until recently, two traditions of signalling tion, clothing, big game theory developed independently in the hunting, hand-axes, biological and social sciences. The first art, music, humour, landmark in biological signalling the- poetry, story-telling, ory was Charles Darwin’s analysis of mate choice for sexual ornaments as cues of good fitness and fertility in his book, The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex (1871). Ronald Fisher analysed the evolution of mate preferences for fitness indicators in 1915 [20]. Amotz Zahavi proposed the ‘handicap principle’, argu- ing that only costly signals could be reliable, hard-to-fake indicators of genetic quality or phenotypic condition in 1975 [21]. Richard Dawkins and John Krebs applied game theory to ana- educational courtship gifts, charity, moral virtues, lyse the reliability of animal signals, and the credentials act as leadership, status-seeking, risk-taking, co-evolution of signallers and receivers in reliable signals of wealth, effort and taste sports, religion, political ideologies, per- 1978 [22]. In 1990, Alan Grafen eventually in The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899), sonality traits, adaptive self-deception and proposed a formal model of the ‘handicap The Instinct of Workmanship (1914) and consumer behaviour [16,17,25–29]. principle’ [23], and Richard Michod and The Higher Learning in America (1922). Oren Hasson analysed ‘reliable indicators Vance Packard used signalling logic to uilding on signalling theory and of fitness’ [24]. Since then, biological signal- analyse social class, runaway consumer- sexual selection theory, the new ling theory has flourished and has informed ism and corporate careerism in The Status Bscience of evolutionary consumer research on sexual selection, animal Seekers (1959), The Waste Makers (1960) psychology [30] has been making big communication and social behaviour. and The Pyramid Climbers (1962), and Ernst advances in understanding consumer Gombrich analysed beauty in art as a reli- goods as reliable signals—not just sig- …new senses also empowered able signal of the artist’s skill and effort in nals of monetary wealth and elite taste, a sexual revolution […] Rather Art and Illusion (1977) and A Sense of Order but signals of deeper traits such as intelli- (1979). Michael Spence developed formal gence, moral virtues, mating strategies and than hooking up randomly with models of educational credentials as relia- the ‘Big Five’ personality traits: openness, the nearest mate, animals could ble signals of capability and conscientious- conscientiousness, agreeableness, extra- now select mates based on visible ness in Market Signalling (1974). Robert version and emotional stability [17]. These cues of genetic quality… Frank used signalling logic to analyse job individual traits are deeper than wealth and

taste in several ways: they are found in the …biodiversity seems driven Future work in evolutionary consumer other great apes, are heritable across gen- by sexual selection favouring psychology should give further insights erations, are stable across life, are impor- into the links between sex, mutations, tant in all cultures and are naturally salient whimsical differences […] evolution and marketing. These links when interacting with mates, friends and Similarly […] diversity in have been important for at least 500 mil- kin [17,27,31]. For example, consumers consumer products […] is at the lion years and probably sparked the evo- seek elite university degrees as signals of level of arbitrary design... lution of human intelligence, language, intelligence; they buy organic fair-trade creativity, beauty, morality and ideology. foods as signals of agreeableness; and Findings such as these challenge tra- A better understanding of these links they value foreign travel and avant-garde ditional assumptions in economics. could help us nudge global consumer- culture as signals of openness [17]. New For example, ever since the Marginal ist capitalism into a more sustainable molecular genetics research suggests that Revolution—the development of economic form that imposes lower costs on the mutation load accounts for much of the her- theory during the 1870s—mainstream biosphere and yields higher benefits for itable variation in human intelligence [32] economics has made the ‘Rational Man’ future generations. and personality [33], so consumerist assumption that consumers maximize their CONFLICT OF INTEREST signals of these traits might be reveal- expected utility from their product choices, The author declares that he has no conflict ing genetic quality indirectly. If so, con- without reference to what other consumers of interest. spicuous consumption can be seen as just are doing or desiring. This assumption was another ‘good-genes indicator’ favoured by convenient both analytically—as it allowed REFERENCES mate choice. easier mathematical modelling of markets 1. 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