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Sports Spectacle, Media and Doping: the Representations of Olympic Drug Cases in Athens 2004 and Beijing 2008

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Sports Spectacle, Media and Doping: the Representations of Olympic Drug Cases in Athens 2004 and Beijing 2008 Sports Spectacle, Media and Doping: The representations of Olympic drug cases in Athens 2004 and Beijing 2008 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy By Evdokia Pappa School of Sport and Education Brunel University 15 April 2013 1 Abstract This thesis explores the depiction of doping in the press. My interest in the topic stemmed from an early personal experience in competitive athletics where I was exposed to an in-sports reality that tolerated the use of performance-enhancing substances. However, references to doping in the media appeared to depict it in a different way. In order to investigate the divergence, the thesis analysed the reporting of two Olympic Games, namely Athens 2004 and Beijing 2008. It focused on empirical data and thus all articles that referenced doping were collected one month prior, during and one month after the two Olympic Games. In total 1274 articles were collected and analysed. Adopting a post-structuralist approach, the discourse analysis of the data leads to the identification of journalistic techniques that constructed discursive statements of doping. It was observed that first of all, in the case of highly publicised drug cases, these statements could be understood as constructing a moral panic episode. Secondly, the same discursive statements were circulated in the press even in the absence of positive doping samples. The thesis draws on the theories of moral regulation and governmentality to make sense of the constant presence of doping discursive statements in the press. It argues that inducting doping into sport spectacle makes its depiction seem apolitical and disconnected from society. However, in-depth theorisation of the phenomenon shows that its mediated construction plays an active role in influencing public policy. 2 Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................. 1 Table of Figures ...................................................................................................... 7 Acknowledgements .............................................................................................. 10 Chapter 1 Introduction .................................................................................... 11 1.1 My Personal Experience of Doping: A Non-Mediated Drug Case ............................ 11 1.2 The Marion Jones Story: A Very Mediated Drug Case ............................................. 13 1.3 WADA’s Official Stance: A Mediated Punitive Approach......................................... 15 1.4 Reflections on the Three Snapshots of Sport and Doping ....................................... 16 1.5 The Role of the Media ........................................................................................... 18 1.6 Widening the Horizons: What Understandings of Doping Are Existent? .................. 19 1.7 How Will the Thesis Search for Answers? Methodological Approach and Considerations ........................................................................................................... 21 1.8 What Kind of Findings Emerged? The Analysis of the Data ..................................... 22 1.9 How Can the Findings Be Theorised? Discussion .................................................... 23 1.10 Why Does All This Matter? Conclusions and Implications ..................................... 23 Chapter 2 Setting the Scene ............................................................................. 24 2.1 The Institution of Sport and Doping ....................................................................... 26 2.1.1 World Anti-Doping Agency .................................................................................... 26 2.1.2 Definition of Doping .............................................................................................. 29 2.1.3 Inspecting the Rationale: Anti-Doping Rationale as a Functionalist Tool ............... 30 2.1.4 Arguments and Counter-Arguments for the Protection of the Athlete’s Health ... 31 2.1.5 The Moral Argument and the Concept of Meritocracy .......................................... 33 2.1.6 The Endemic Nature of Doping in the Spirit of Sport ............................................. 36 2.2 Theorising Doping: the Implementation of Anti-Doping Policy Debated.................. 38 2.2.1 Anti-doping Policy: a Functionalistic Success? ....................................................... 39 2.2.2 Harmonised Anti-Doping Policy at a National/Local Level: a Paternalistic Theorisation ................................................................................................................... 40 2.2.3 Anti-Doping Policy and Surveillance of the Individual Athlete ............................... 42 2.2.4 The Failure of Anti-doping Testing ......................................................................... 44 2.3 Moving Away from the Rules: Theorising the Relationship Between Doping and the In-Sport Reality .......................................................................................................... 46 2.3.1 Characteristics of Performance-Enhancing Substance (PES) Use in Competitive Sports ............................................................................................................................. 46 2.3.2 Athletes’ Subcultures: Closed Communities That Normalise Doping ..................... 47 2.3.3 Competitive Sport: Pressure to Perform and Prevalence of Doping ...................... 49 2.3.4 Mixing Them Up: Surveying Competitive and Amateur/ Adolescent Athletes ...... 53 2.4 How Do the Media Work? Media Discourse ........................................................... 55 2.4.1 Media and Sport Spectacle .................................................................................... 57 2.4.2 Media Sport Celebrities and Deviance ................................................................... 59 2.4.3 Media Narratives of Doping and Sport .................................................................. 63 3 Chapter 3 Doping and Moral Theories ............................................................. 70 3.1 “Deviant for whom?” Shifting the Understanding of Deviance ............................... 71 3.2 Theorising Media and Moral Panics ....................................................................... 73 3.2.1 The Other Point of View: Risk, Anxiety and Moral Panic ....................................... 77 3.2.2 Re-Conceptualising Moral Panics ........................................................................... 79 3.4 Moral Regulation .................................................................................................. 83 3.4.1 Moral Panic and Moral Regulation ........................................................................ 85 3.5 Michel Foucault and Governmentality ................................................................... 86 3.5.1 The Concept of Discourse ...................................................................................... 86 3.5.2 The Concept of Governmentality: Definition ......................................................... 87 3.5.3 Characteristics of Governmentality: Two Poles of Governance ............................. 91 3.5.4 Characteristics of Governmentality: The Notion of Freedom ................................ 92 3.6 Governmentality and (vs) Moral Regulation .......................................................... 93 3.7 Doping and Governmentality ................................................................................ 96 3.8 Research Questions ............................................................................................ 102 Chapter 4 Methodology ..................................................................................103 4.1 Post-Structuralism as Research Paradigm ............................................................ 103 4.1.1 Language and Discourse ...................................................................................... 104 4.1.2 Power, Discourse and Language .......................................................................... 105 4.1.3 Foucauldian Media Discourse Analysis ................................................................ 106 4.1.4 Discursive Statements ......................................................................................... 107 4.2 Sampling ............................................................................................................ 108 4.2.2 The British Press .................................................................................................. 112 4.2.3 Translation Issues ............................................................................................ 114 4.3 Pilot Analysis of Selected Articles: ‘The Triumph Waived the Sadness’ in Elefterotypia, 14-08-04 ............................................................................................. 116 4.3.1 Front Page: Translation and Connotation Level .................................................. 117 4.3.3 “A sense of cover up for Kenteris-Thanou”: Translation/Denotation .................. 121 4.3.4 “A sense of cover up for Kenteris-Thanou”: Connotation Level .............................. 3 4.3.5 “To be disqualified...” : Translation and Connotation .......................................... 123 4.3.6 “To be disqualified...”: Connotation Level ........................................................... 126 4.3.7 “Medical Jokes”: Translation/Denotation Level ..................................................
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