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Timothy Shotbolt Thesis Unwanted lighting effects at night in Australia. Timothy Shotbolt: Bachelor of Building (Hons Class II, Div 1), 1979, School of Building, University of New South Wales; Master of Building Science, 1989, Department of Architectural Science, University of Sydney. Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctorate of Philosophy Faculty of Science and Engineering Queensland University of Technology 2016 Unwanted lighting effects at night in Australia Key words Natural nocturnal lighting, moonlight, starlight, seeing, response thresholds, behavioural variation, eukaryote, prokaryote, conservation practice, human activity and lighting, artificial light at night, obtrusive light, light pollution, sky-glow, environmental impact statement, EIS, EPBC Act, threatened flora, threatened fauna, migratory species, lobby groups against lighting, business influence on Australian Standards, AS4282. Abstract A traditional Doctoral thesis involves exploring known boundaries on a subject within a discipline; a vertical slice expanding knowledge in that area. This thesis takes a horizontal slice across science disciplines expanding knowledge in environmental engineering with light with the aim of improving current criteria by recommending changes to produce minimum detrimental effect. This thesis also indicates how society, business, legislation and conservation practice influence science based outcomes in Standards and Codes of practice. Recent history reveals that artificial light outdoors at night produced little effect in Australia until technological developments during the last hundred years and particularly the latter decades, and that when combined with population growth and increasing life style expectations, has produced a proliferation of luminaire installations. This is the reason unwanted artificial light at night has become, and is, an increasingly important issue. Hypotheses based on common questions and misconceptions relating to existing use of Legislation, Standards and business and professional practice are presented and discussed using case studies, interviews and literature surveys. The hypotheses include: Change in ambient outdoor lighting conditions at night caused by artificial lighting results in loss of species; Reduced / degraded amenity is a significant trigger for applying obtrusive light restrictions; Industry often takes a pessimistic view of restrictions to existing practice and predicts the end of civilisation, capitalisation, and of night-time recreational, social and tourist activity etc.; ii Unwanted lighting effects at night in Australia The effects of artificial lighting are primarily localised; The presence of a rare or endangered species will prevent a proposed development proceeding; Assessment of an existing environment prior to any proposed development proceeding is based on a snapshot in time rather than establishing the constantly changing characteristics of that existing environment over a period of time. Further hypotheses are proposed and anecdotal evidence provided to indicate that business can influence Standards and Codes and, that unless there is sufficient financial incentive in one form or another, the lighting industry is unlikely to self- regulate on environment and unwanted light issues. Empirical research methods are used to challenge natural nocturnal benchmark criteria noted in literature and mentioned in environmental impact assessments. The results indicate that an illuminance of 0.27 lux on the horizontal is the most appropriate for mean full moon at zenith; however, it is assessed that a value of 0.025 lux is more appropriate as a benchmark. Most natural lighting criteria constantly changes from sunset through to sunrise and therefore more limits are proposed to define those aspects, including spectral composition, to address new emerging technologies such as LED, and that these criteria should be incorporated into AS4282 and referred to in planning instruments thereby improving the practice of environmental engineering with light. iii Unwanted lighting effects at night in Australia Table of Contents KEY WORDS ................................................................................................... II ABSTRACT ..................................................................................................... II TABLE OF FIGURES ..................................................................................... XVII TABLE OF TABLES ..................................................................................... XXIII ABBREVIATIONS ........................................................................................ XXIV STATEMENT OF ORIGINAL AUTHORSHIP ..................................................... XXVIII PUBLICATIONS AND PRESENTATIONS ........................................................ XXVIII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................... XXIX INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................. 30 1 LIGHT AND LIFE: LIFE ON EARTH AND NATURAL RADIATION ......................................................................................... 34 1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................... 34 1.2 THE DIURNAL LIGHT CYCLE .............................................................. 34 1.3 CHANGE IN THE SPECTRAL CHARACTERISTICS OF NATURAL AMBIENT LIGHT ACCORDING TO ENVIRONMENT .................................. 35 1.4 BIOTA OF THE NATURAL WORLD ....................................................... 38 Behaviour classification according to peak activity period and available radiant energy ............................ 41 Seeing .................................................................................... 41 1.4.2.1 Principles of the visual process .......................................... 41 1.4.2.2 Electroretinography (ERG) ................................................. 42 1.4.2.3 Sensitivity to UVB/UVA spectral range ............................... 43 1.4.2.4 Vision in the near infrared spectral range ........................... 43 1.4.2.5 Perception and polarization ............................................... 44 1.4.2.6 Light dependent magnetic compass................................... 46 1.4.2.7 Biological functions and response to light .......................... 46 1.5 LIGHT AND AQUATIC BIOTA ............................................................... 48 iv Unwanted lighting effects at night in Australia Fauna ..................................................................................... 49 1.5.1.1 Zooplankton ....................................................................... 50 1.5.1.2 Fish .................................................................................... 50 1.5.1.3 Amphibians ........................................................................ 54 1.5.1.4 Frogs .................................................................................. 54 1.5.1.5 Reptiles .............................................................................. 54 1.5.1.6 Mammals ............................................................................ 57 Flora ....................................................................................... 57 1.5.2.1 Photosynthesis ................................................................... 57 1.5.2.2 Phytoplankton ..................................................................... 58 Algae ...................................................................................... 60 Bacteria................................................................................... 61 Archaea .................................................................................. 61 1.6 LIGHT AND TERRESTRIAL BIOTA ........................................................ 62 Fauna ..................................................................................... 62 1.6.1.1 Frogs .................................................................................. 63 1.6.1.2 Reptiles .............................................................................. 63 1.6.1.3 Birds ................................................................................... 63 1.6.1.4 Mammals ............................................................................ 66 1.6.1.5 Other animals ..................................................................... 68 Flora ....................................................................................... 69 1.6.2.1 Photosynthesis ................................................................... 70 1.6.2.2 Photo-toxicity ...................................................................... 70 Fungi ....................................................................................... 70 Bacteria................................................................................... 71 1.6.4.1 Terrestrial based photoautotrophs ...................................... 71 1.6.4.2 Diatoms, cyanobacteria, dinoflagellates .............................. 71 Archaea .................................................................................. 71 1.7 CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 72 2 NATURAL NOCTURNAL LIGHTING .................................................. 73 2.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................ 73 Hypothesis 1 ..........................................................................................
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